chapter 6: learning how nurture changes us copyright © allyn & bacon 2009

Chapter 6:Chapter 6:LearningLearning

How Nurture Changes UsHow Nurture Changes Us

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009


Lecture PreviewLecture Preview Discuss classical conditioning and how

complex behaviors can arise from it Distinguish classical from operant

conditioning, and the principles of reinforcement

Explore the basis of observational and insight learning

Discuss biological influences on learning Evaluate learning fads


True or False?True or False?

Once you reach adulthood, the brain is basically fixed and does not change.

False. Recent evidence suggests that new neurons grow even in the adult brain, especially areas of the brain involved in learning.


Basic TerminologyBasic Terminology Learning - change in an organism’s behavior

or thought as a result of experience Habituation - process by which we respond

less strongly over time to repeated stimuli Sensitization - process by which we respond

more strongly over time (especially for dangerous, irritating stimuli) Eric Kandel earned the Nobel prize for his studies

of habituation and sensitization in Aplysia (the sea slug)


Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov - studied digestion in dogs, noted associative conditioning between neutral stimuli and meat powder (Pavlovian conditioning)


Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning Pavlov described classical conditioning, involving:

UCS unconditioned stimulus - biologically significant stimulus that produces automatic response

UCR unconditioned response - automatic response to a UCS that occurs without learning

CS conditioned stimulus - initially neutral stimulus, becomes associated with the UCS through conditioning

CR conditioned response - learned response

By virtue of CS-UCS pairing, the CS comes to elicit the CR, a response closely related, but not identical, to the UR

Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning ModelPavlov’s Classical Conditioning Model



Where do we see classical conditioning used everyday?

Can you see how classical conditioning can explain how we learn prejudice?




Aversive conditioning - classical conditioning to an unpleasant UCS Avoidance response

Classical conditioning is adaptive in preparing the organism for the impending US Psychopathic personalities - indifferent to

signals of threat



Acquisition - learning phase during which a CR is established

Extinction - gradual decrease and elimination of the CR when the CS is presented repeatedly without the UCS


Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning Spontaneous recovery - sudden

reemergence of an extinguished CR after a delay

Renewal effect - tendency of an extinguished CR to return when revisiting the original conditioning environment

Phobias - intense and irrational fears Some acquired via classical conditioning Subject to spontaneous recovery and

renewal


Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning Stimulus generalization - elicitation of a

CR to stimuli that are highly similar to, but not identical to, the CS Generalization gradient - the more similar to

the original CS the new CS is, the stronger will be the CR

Stimulus discrimination - opposite of stimulus generalization; occurs when we exhibit a CR to certain CSs, but not others


Applications of Classical Applications of Classical Conditioning to Daily LifeConditioning to Daily Life

1) Advertising - pairing positive USs with product CSs

Latent inhibition - when we’ve experienced a CS alone many times, it’s difficult to classically condition it to another stimulus (e.g., highly known vs. novel brands)



2) Acquisition of fears: Little Albert Watson & Reyner (1920) sought to disprove the

Freudian view of phobia, reflecting deep-seated unconscious conflict

They recruited an infant, Albert, and paired a white rat (CS) with a loud clanging metal noise (UCS)

Five days later, Albert exhibited fear of the rat, and similar stimuli, including a rabbit, dog, furry coat, and Santa Claus mask (generalization of phobia)


Applications of Classical Conditioning Applications of Classical Conditioning to Daily Lifeto Daily Life: : Little AlbertLittle Albert

Led to the conditioning model of phobias Classical conditioning also offers a way to

get rid of phobia Mary Clover Jones (1924) successfully treated

three-year-old Peter, who had a phobia of rabbits, by slowly introducing a rabbit paired with candies

Similar exposure therapy is still the main behavioral treatment for irrational fears



3) Disgust reactions - in most cases, a product of classical conditioning because CSs associated with disgusting UCSs come to elicit disgust themselves Rozin (1986) subjects show a great reluctance to

eat a piece of fudge shaped like dog feces Subjects show a great reluctance to drink a

sucrose solution labeled poison, even when they put the meaningless label on there (“better safe than sorry” heuristic)


Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning

Or instrumental conditioning - acquiring behaviors as a result of the outcome or consequence of those behaviors The organism gets something out of the

response or “operates” on its environment(e.g., using biscuits as a treat, a trainer teaches a dog to sit)


Differences Between Operant and Differences Between Operant and Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning

Elicited by UCS or CS

Organism emits response in a seemingly

voluntary fashion

Independent of what the animal does

Organism must make response

Often involves autonomic nervous

system

Often involves the skeletal muscles

Classical Operant

Response

Reward

BodySystem


Law of EffectLaw of Effect E. L. Thorndike (1898) studied cats in puzzle boxes,

which led to the law of effect: If a response, in the presence of a stimulus, is followed

by a satisfying state of affairs, the bond between stimulus and response will be strengthened

According to Thorndike and others, learning involves an association between a stimulus and response (S-R), with the reward stamping in this connection• Lack of insight in cats

Thorndike’s Puzzle BoxThorndike’s Puzzle Box



B. F. Skinner and ReinforcementB. F. Skinner and Reinforcement

Skinner developed a highly efficient conditioning chamber (Skinner box) that allows for conditioning and automated behavior measurement Typically contains bar that delivers food

when pressed, food dispenser, and light that signals when reward is forthcoming

Rat in Skinner Box and Electronic Device Rat in Skinner Box and Electronic Device for Recording the Rat’s Behaviorfor Recording the Rat’s Behavior



Terminology in Operant Terminology in Operant ConditioningConditioning

Positive reinforcement - pleasant stimulus is given to increase the probability of a response (e.g., cell phone for good grades)

Negative reinforcement - unpleasant stimulus is removed to increase the probability of a response (e.g., Aidan’s mother’s nagging stops when he picks up his room)

Punishment - unpleasant stimulus is given, or pleasant stimulus is taken away, to decrease the probability of a response (e.g., cell phone taken away for breaking curfew)


Punishment tends to be ineffectivePunishment tends to be ineffective

It tells the organism what not to do, rather than what to do

Creates anxiety that can interfere with future learning

Encourages subversive behavior (sneakiness)

Provides a model for aggressive behavior Physical punishment is associated with

aggression in adulthood: but what about the role of genetics?


Principles of Principles of ReinforcementReinforcement

Partial reinforcement - behaviors that we reinforce only occasionally are slower to extinguish than those we reinforce continuously

Schedules of reinforcement - pattern of reinforcing a behavior Fixed Ratio - after regular number of responses Variable Ratio - after specific number of responses, on

average Fixed Interval - after specific amount of time Variable Interval - after an average time interval


Applications of Operant Applications of Operant ConditioningConditioning

Shaping by successive reinforcement - reinforcing behaviors that aren’t quite the target behavior but that are progressively closer versions of it

Chaining - linking a number of interrelated behaviors to form a longer series

Premack principle - a less frequently performed behavior can be increased by reinforcing it with a more frequent behavior Grandma’s rule - vegetables before dessert


Applications of Operant Applications of Operant ConditioningConditioning

Superstitious behavior - behavior linked to reinforcement by sheer coincidence (e.g., lucky charm effect)

Prejudice- how is it developed through operant conditioning?

Token economies - mental hospital staff can reinforce patients who behave in a desired fashion using tokens, chips, points, or other secondary reinforcers Secondary reinforcers - neutral objects that patients can later

trade in for… Primary reinforcers - items or outcomes that are naturally

pleasurable, such as a favorite food or drink


Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA)Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA)

ABA - a set of techniques, pioneered by Ivar Lovaas at UCLA, and based on operant conditioning principles, that relies on the careful measurement of behavior before and after implementing interventions Shaping techniques with primary reinforcers

Children with autism treated with ABA show significant progress in language and intellectual skills

Before Lovaas, many of these children would have been institutionalized


Two-Process Theory: Putting Classical Two-Process Theory: Putting Classical and Operant Conditioning Togetherand Operant Conditioning Together

Classical and operant conditioning are distinct in many ways, including underlying brain systems, but how they interact is called two-process theory People acquire phobias via classical conditioning,

then avoid their feared stimulus(e.g., avoiding dogs after dog bite)

This avoidance produces negative reinforcement, via anxiety reduction, maintaining the phobic response

So phobias may involve classically conditioned fear AND operant avoidance


Apply Your ThinkingApply Your Thinking Sarah is afraid of flying. She prides

herself on not taking any pills. What are some ways she may be able to enjoy flying more?

Exposure therapy and extinction Positive reinforcement


Other Forms of LearningOther Forms of Learning

Latent learning - learning that isn’t directly observable; we learn many things without showing them Emphasizes the difference between

competence (what we know) and performance (showing what we know)

Challenge to radical behaviorism, implies reinforcement isn’t necessary



Observational learning - learning by watching others (models), without instruction or reinforcement Brain basis? Perhaps mirror neurons Aggressive behavior: Bandura (1963) had

children watch an adult ignoring or punching a Bobo doll and shouting things like “Kick him”

Children who watched the aggressive adult model were aggressive to the Bobo doll later


Media Violence Leads to Media Violence Leads to Real-World Aggression?Real-World Aggression?

Scores of investigators have proposed that violent TV programs promote aggressiveness in children

Correlation or causation? Longitudinal designs Laboratory experiments Field studies (e.g., examining aggression in a town with no

TV)

From these studies - media violence contributes to aggression in some circumstances

Longitudinal Study of Individuals Who Longitudinal Study of Individuals Who Watched Violent TV as ChildrenWatched Violent TV as Children



Apply Your ThinkingApply Your Thinking A school teacher is having trouble with Audrey hitting

her classmates. He notifies the father, who spanks Audrey. The next day Audrey hits another classmate. When an adult angrily approaches her, she cowers in fear. What happened and what should the teacher do?

Audrey demonstrated observational learning/modeling.

Audrey shows classical conditioning of fear. The father should be taught that modeling good

behavior and using reinforcement-based strategies will be more effective than punishment.



Kohler (1925) studied apes solving problems, in one case, reaching bananas by putting together two sticks that were not long enough individually Seemed evidence for “Aha!” phenomenon

Insight learning - when subjects suddenly “get” the solution to a problem, and from there on get it right almost every time


Biological Influences Biological Influences on Learningon Learning

Preparedness regarding phobias suggests that we’re evolutionarily predisposed to fear certain stimuli more than others Monkeys are predisposed to become afraid of things such

as toy snakes and alligators, but not toy flowers or rabbits About half of dog phobics have never had direct negative

experience with a dog Classical conditioning does not account for all phobias

Tendency for animals to return to innate behaviors following repeated reinforcement: instinctive drift Breland’s “coin washing” raccoons


Learning Fads: Learning Fads: Do They Work?Do They Work?

Sleep-assisted learning - listening to audio tapes while you sleep Learn Morse code quicker? Better controlled studies suggested that the tapes awoke

the subjects, they were not really asleep Accelerated learning - SALTT Discovery learning - giving students experimental materials

and asking them to figure out scientific principles on their own Klahr (2004) - 3rd, 4th graders asked to figure out variables

affecting how quickly a ball rolls down a ramp• Only 23% learned the principles using discovery learning, but

77% did with direct instruction


Learning Styles: Learning Styles: Fact or Fictional Fad?Fact or Fictional Fad?

Do all individuals have their own distinctive learning styles? Analytical or spatial or verbal learners? Findings not reliable Studies show tailoring learning methods to a

particular style doesn’t result in enhanced learning

Most of us use a mixture of styles


Apply Your ThinkingApply Your Thinking One treatment for alcoholism is a drug (pill)

called Antabuse® – it makes you very sick when you drink alcohol. Should this treatment work? Based on the principles we’ve discussed, why or why not?

Yes, via conditioned taste aversion No, avoidance and noncompliance

chapter 6: learning how nurture changes us copyright © allyn & bacon 2009

Documents

classical conditioning

classical conditioning

associative conditioning

operant conditioning

ucs slide

renewal slide

ur slide

threat slide