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(c) Allyn & Bacon 2004Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2004
Chapter Eight
Teaching Students with
Mental Retardation
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Basic Concepts About Mental Retardation
Mental retardation is a term used to describe a level of functioning significantly below what is considered “average.”
Mental retardation is a generic term that represents a very diverse group of individuals.
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How Many Students AreIdentified as Mentally Retarded?
The U.S. Department of Education (2001) indicates that 1.15% of the school-age population is identified as mentally retarded.
There is substantial variation in prevalence rates of students with mental retardation: Highest Prevalence Rate: Alabama– 2.63% Lowest Prevalence Rate: California -- 0.48%
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Terms Used to Describe Students with Mental Retardation
The term, “mental retardation,” is viewed as a negative label by many even though it replaced earlier, more negative labels.
Less negative terms used to describe this population are: Intellectually impaired Educationally disabled
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History of Mental Retardation
Many positive changes have occurred in the treatment of individuals with mental retardation in the late twentieth century. These changes include:
Movement away from restricted, sometimes abusive settings Positive shifts in public attitudes Improved services and supports
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Common Components in Definitions of Mental Retardation
Significantly Below Average Intelligence
Adaptive Behavior
Developmental Period
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“Mental retardation refers to significantly subaverage intellectual functioning resulting in or associated with concurrent impairments in adaptive behaviorand manifested before the developmental period” (p. 11)
1983 AAMR Definition
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Intellectual Functioning This part of the definition is intended as a broad
summation of cognitive abilities (e.g., capacity to learn, solve problems, think abstractly, etc.).
Operationally, it has been reduced to performance on an intelligence test.
“Significantly below average” in the AAMR definition is an upper level intelligence quotient of 70 to 75.
IQ alone is not sufficient for a diagnosis of mental retardation.
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Adaptive Behavior
Adaptive behavior represents the degree to which the individual meets:
“the standards of maturation, learning, personal independence, and/or social responsibility that are expected for his or her age level and cultural group” (Grossman, 1983, p. 11).
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Developmental Period
The developmental period typically is defined as the period of time between conception and 18 years of age.
Below-average intellectual functioning and impairments in adaptive behavior must appear during this period in order for an individual to be considered to have mental retardation.
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1992 AAMR Definition(Luckasson et al., 1992)
“Mental retardation refers to substantial limitations in present functioning. It is manifestedby significantly subaverage intellectual functioning,existing concurrently with related limitations in two or more of the following applicable adaptiveskill areas: communication, self-care, home-living,social skills, community use, self-direction, health and safety, functional academics, leisure,and work. Mental retardation begins before the age of 18.”
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2002 AAMR Definition(Luckasson et al., 2002)
“Mental retardation is a disability characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior as expressed in conceptual,social, and practical adaptive skills. This disability originates before age 18. The following five assumptions are essential to the application of the stated definition of mental retardation…
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Five Assumptions in the 2002 AAMR Definition Limitations in present functioning must be
considered within the context of community environments typical of the individual’s age peers and culture.
Valid assessment considers cultural and linguistic diversity as well as differences in communication, sensory, motor, and behavioral factors.
Within an individual, limitations often coexist with strengths.
An important purpose of describing limitations is to develop a profile of needed supports.
With appropriate personalized supports over a sustained period, the life functioning of the person with mental retardation generally will improve.
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Historical Classification(Grossman, 1983)
Mild Mental Retardation
Moderate Mental Retardation
Severe Mental Retardation
Profound Mental Retardation
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Archaic Terminology
“Educable” Mentally Retarded “Trainable” Mentally Retarded
These terms are inherently stereotypical
and prejudicial.
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Classification by Levels of Support (Luckasson et al., 2002)
Classification is not derived from levels of disability or deficit, but rather from needed levels of support. This classification focuses on needs rather than
deficits.
“Supports are resources and strategies that
aim to promote the development, education,
interests, and personal well-being of a person and
that enhance individual functioning” (Luckasson et al., 2002, p. 151).
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Levels of Support
Intermittent Support
Limited Support
Extensive Support
Pervasive Support
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Trends in Prevalence Estimates
Today, 1.15% of school-age children are identified as mentally retarded. This figure represents a significant change from
earlier periods when the national school prevalence for mental retardation was about 3%.
Of those identified as mentally retarded, approximately 60% might be viewed as mildly retarded.
The remainder have more severe disabilities.
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Students who are African American are 2.4 times more likely to be identified as having mild mental retardation than their non-African American peers.
This overrepresentation has been a controversial issue for many years in the field of mental retardation.
Overrepresentation
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Causes of Mental
Retardation
There are hundreds of known causes
of mental retardation. In many cases,
however, the causes are unknown.
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General Characteristics
Gender (more boys are identified as mentally
retarded) Socioeconomic and Family Patterns
(a disproportionate number come from single parent families and low income homes)
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Significant Learning Domains that are Problematic for Students with Mental Retardation
o Attentiono Use of
Mediational Strategies
o Memoryo Motivational
Considerations
o Language Development
o Academic Development
o Generalization Learning
o Cognitive Development
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Identification, Assessment, and Eligibility
The challenges of accurate identification,
assessment, and eligibility criterion procedures
have been problematic in the field of mental of
mental retardation for many years.
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Where are Students with Mental Retardation Educated?
Students with mental retardation are the individuals with disabilities least likely to have been included in general education classrooms.
During the 1998-1999 school year: 13.7% were served in regular classes for at least 79% of the
day 29.2% were served outside of regular classes between 21%
and 60% of the school day. 51% were placed in special education programs for at least
61% of the day. 5.9% were served in alternative settings.
The trend since 1992 has been toward an increase in general education and resource placements.
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Transition Considerations
U.S. Department of Education (2001) exit data: 41.7% graduated with a diploma 22.2% graduated with a certificate of completion 4.7% “aged” out of education 5.8% returned to regular education. 0.78% died 12.5% moved and were not known to continue their education 24.9% dropped out
This means that about half of all students with mental retardation completed school with either a diploma or certificate
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Post-School Outcomes
Of students with mental retardation who went through special education, less than half were working or involved in training programs
Only 21% were living independently 30 months after secondary school.
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Factors that Influence Post-School Success
Ability to demonstrate personal and social behaviors appropriate to the workplace
Quality of transition programming
The challenges if the workplace of the future
Increased leisure time
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Essential Features of Transition
Transition programs must start early and planning must be comprehensive.
Decisions must balance what is ideal with what is possible.
Active and meaningful student participation and family involvement is essential.
Supports are beneficial and used by everyone. Community-based instructional experiences have
a major impact on learning. The transition planning process should be
viewed as a capacity-building activity. Transition planning is needed by all students.
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Primary Goals for Individuals with Mental Retardation
Productive Employment
Independence and Self-Sufficiency
Life Skills Competence
Opportunity to Participate Successfully within the School and Community
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Teaching Employment Skills
Building students’ career awareness
Helping students to see how academic content relates to applied areas
Training in specific job skills
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Facilitating Independence and Economic Self-Sufficiency
Creation of a climate of empowerment
Empowerment includes: A Sense of Personal
Control Self-Esteem Sense of Belonging to a
Group Self-Determination
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Teaching Life Skills
Life skills include: Use of community resources Health and safety skills Home and family activities Social and interpersonal skills Participation in the community
as a citizen
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Teaching Social Skills
An effective model should address: Social Affect (appearance to others) Social Skills (specific behaviors that are
central to interactions) Social Cognition (understanding and being
able to respond appropriately to various social situations)
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Facilitating Successful Community Involvement
A starting point is the inclusion of students with mental retardation in general education classrooms.
This inclusion provides students with instruction and training for success in subsequent inclusive community activities.
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General Considerationsfor Inclusion
A key to including students with mental retardation in general education is providing necessary and appropriate supports.
Supported educated assumes that individuals should be maintained in inclusive settings to the maximum degree possible and supported in these settings to ensure successful learning.
Supports include: Natural supports Support Services Technical supports
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Providing Supports in General Education Classrooms
Supports should allow students with mental retardation in inclusive classrooms to access the general education curriculum.
To help students access the general education curriculum, decisions must be made about:
The use of assistive technology Development of curriculum adaptations Augmentation of the curriculum Availability of curricular alternatives
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Classroom Adaptations
Ensure attention to relevant task demands
Teach ways to learn content while teaching content itself
Offer opportunities for active involvement in the learning process
Focus on content that is meaningful
Provide training that crosses multiple learning and environmental contexts
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Cognitively-Oriented Instructional Methods
Learning Strategies Metacognitive Strategies Cognitive-Behavior Modification
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Curricular Adaptations
Focus should be on relevant and meaningful curricular content that students can master and apply to their lives
Focus should be on the subsequent environments for which students will prepare
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Assistive Technology
Can enhance classroom adaptations Should be used to enhance:
Acquisition of new skills Development of fluency and
proficiency Maintenance of skills over time Generalization to new situations
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Strategies for Promoting Inclusive Practices
Creation of a sense of community in the school and classroom
Supported education Helping students develop
a sense of belonging Facilitating friendships
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Final Thoughts
Students with mental retardation require a comprehensive, broad-based curriculum
Most effective programs will provide: Appropriate academic instruction Address social skills, life skills, and
transition skills Incorporate a “life” inclusion philosophy