copyright © allyn & bacon 2009 public speaking: an audience-centered approach – 7 th edition...

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009

Public Speaking:An Audience-Centered Approach – 7th edition

Chapter 17Using

PersuasiveStrategies

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Steven A. Beebe & Susan J. Beebe

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“Speechis power:

Speechis to

persuade,to convert,

to compel.”

- Ralph Waldo Emerson


Persuasion

“…is the process of adjusting ideas to people and people to ideas.”

- Donald C. Bryant,

rhetoric scholar


Establishing Credibility

• Also known as ethos.

• Audience’s perceptions of the speaker.

• Various dimensions:

Competence- knowledge & skill.

Trustworthiness- believability & honesty.

Dynamism- energy level.

Charisma- charm, talent & magnetism.


Enhancing Your Credibility

• Credibility established in three places: Initial credibility: perceptions before

speech. Derived credibility: impressions

formed during speech. Terminal credibility: final impressions,

after speech.• Ways to boost credibility:

Well-stressed values and concerns shared with audience.

Well-documented evidence. Well-organized ideas. Well-managed delivery.


Using Logicand Evidence to Persuade

• Logos: formal system of rules to reach a conclusion.

• Aristotle: “always prove what you state.”

• Reasoning:

drawing a conclusion

from the evidence.


Understanding Typesof Reasoning

• Inductive Reasoning.

• Deductive Reasoning.

• Causal Reasoning.



Inductive Reasoning• Using specific examples

or instances to reach a

general or probable conclusion.

• Used when one can claim that an outcome

is probably true because of specific

evidence.



Testing the Validity of

Inductive Reasoning

• Are there enough specific

instances to support the

conclusion?

• Are the specific instances typical?

• Are the instances recent?



Inductive Reasoning: an example

I. Students are sneezing in dorms & classrooms. (specific example

1)

II. Professors are cancelling classes. (specific example

2)

III. Campus Clinic has long waiting lines.

(specific example 3)

IV. There must be a flu on our campus. (general conclusion)



Reasoning by Analogy

(a special type of inductive reasoning)• Makes a comparison between two

things, entities, processes, etc.

• If you conclude what is

true for one can be true

for the other, then the

analog is strong.




Reasoning by Analogy

• Are similarities

between both,

greater than

differences?

• Is the conclusion being drawn actually true?



Deductive Reasoning• Opposite of induction.

• Conclusion (generalization) is

more certain than probable.

• The more valid or truthful the

outcome, the more certain the conclusion.

• Start with widely accepted general claim,

and then move towards specific

conclusion illustrating general claim.



Structure of Deductive Reasoning• Syllogism – three-part argument:

Major Premise: widelyaccepted general statement.

Minor Premise: specificstatement that appliesto the major premise.

Conclusion: logical outcome, minor

premise exemplifies major premise.

• The more valid the major premise, the more

valid the deduction.




Deductive Reasoning

• Is major premise

(general statement)

true?

• Is minor premise

(specific instance) true?



Deductive Reasoning: an exampleI. All tough drug laws introduced in medium-

sized communities result in diminished drug-related crimes.

(generally accepted statement)

II. San Marcos, Texas is a medium-sized community. (specific case supporting

general statement)

III. San Marcos should institute tough drug laws. (specific conclusion)



Causal Reasoning• Relating events to

show connection.

• To conclude that one

or more events caused another event.

• Can move from cause to effect.

• Can move from effect to cause.



Causal Reasoning: an exampleCause to effect Effect to cause

I. Interest rates have increased this week.

II. The Dow Jones will decrease.

(from a known fact to

a predicted result)

I. A major earthquake has occurred.

II. The cause was a shift in a fault line.

(from a known result

to a predicted cause)


Persuading the Diverse Audience

• Effectiveness depends on listeners’ background and cultural expectations.

• Some cultures prefer deduction; other cultures prefer induction.

• Use evidence that audience willsee as valid and reliable.

• Use appropriate appeals to action,based on cultural norms.

• Use messages appropriate for audience.

• Use delivery that listeners find appropriate.


Supporting Your Reasoningwith Evidence

• Use facts.

• Use valid true examples.

• Use opinions that enhance credibility.

• Use sound & reliable statistics.

• Use reluctant testimony: shows that

someone has been convinced.

• Use new & specific evidence.

• Use evidence to tell a story.


Avoid Faulty Reasoning

• Be ethical & appropriate with

evidence & reasoning.

• Fallacy: false reasoning

when someone attempts

to persuade without

adequate evidence, or

with arguments that

are irrelevant or

inappropriate.


Avoid Faulty ReasoningReasoning FallaciesCausal “Hurricanes are caused by war”

(a connection not related)

Bandwagon “Everyone knows cell phones

are safe” (popularity appeals)

Either-Or “Either you’re with us or you’re

against us” (only 2 choices)

Hasty

Generalization

“Since my niece is failing, city

schools are bad” (quick

Conclusion)


Avoid Faulty ReasoningReasoning FallaciesAd

Hominem

“What does a divorced man know

about parenting?” (personal attack)

Red

Herring

“Let’s not focus on the lawsuit

against me; let’s talk about…”

(changing the topic to distract)

Misplaced

Authority

“Jessica Simpson says McMillan

trucks are best” (not a true expert)

Non

Sequitur

“Support me for Congress – I have 3

children” (ideas do not follow)


Using Emotion to Persuade

• Can make people feel pleasure or displeasure.

• Can make people feel more aroused.

• Can make people feel dominance.


Tips for Using Emotion to Persuade

• Use details that help listeners visualize.

• Use emotion-arousing words

(“freedom,” “9-11,” “mommy.”)

• Delivery should

reflect emotions.

• Use pictures

or images.


Tips for Using Emotion to Persuade

• Use appropriate metaphors & similes.

• Use right amount of fear appeals.

• Appeal to several emotions.

• Appeal to audience members’ myths.

Myth: not necessarily false, but a belief of how people view their

world.

(e.g., Old West pioneers: strong & adventurous)

• Avoid unethical emotional appeals & appeals to listeners’ prejudices (demagoguery).


Adapting Ideas to Peopleand People to Ideas

Persuading the receptive audience.

• Identify with them.

• Clearly state your objectivity.

• Tell them exactly what you want them to do.

• Ask them for an immediate show of support.

• Use emotional appeals

effectively.

• Make it easy for them to

take action.



Persuading the neutral audience.

• Capture their attention early.

• Stress commonly shared

beliefs.

• Relate topic to them, their

friends, families and loved

ones.

• Be realistic with the

response you want.



Persuading the unreceptive audience.

• Wait before telling them your purpose.

• Start with noting areas

of agreement.

• Set realistic goals.

• Acknowledge how they

might oppose you.

• Clearly tell them any

experiences you have.



Persuading the unreceptive audience.• Consider understanding (not advocacy) as

your goal. Summarize common misconceptions

people have. State why misconceptions may seem reasonable. Dismiss misconceptions, and provide

evidence to support your point. State accurate information you want

them to remember.


Strategies for Organizing Persuasive Messages

• State your strongest arguments first.

• Do not bury key arguments in the middle.

• Save action calls for the end.

• Consider presenting

both sides of an issue.

• State and refute

counterarguments.


Strategies for Organizing Persuasive Messages

Organizational Patterns• Problem – Solution.

• Refutation.

• Cause and Effect.

• Motivated Sequence. Attention.

Need.

Satisfaction.

Visualization.

Action.

copyright © allyn & bacon 2009 public speaking: an audience-centered approach – 7 th edition...

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validity of reasoning

deductive reasoning

causal reasoning

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general conclusion slide