copyright © allyn & bacon 2008 methods in cultural anthropology (miller chapter 2)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Methods in Cultural Anthropology(Miller Chapter 2)


Goals of Research in Cultural Anthropology

To study, analyze, and describe culture(s) in accordance with ethical principles


How Do Cultural Anthropologists Do Research?

Approaches have changed over time“Armchair anthropology” – 1870s

Sitting and reading about other cultures and formulating theories about them

Edward Tylor



“Verandah anthropology” – early 1900sLiving near, but not with the people to be studiedEarly Bronislaw Malinowski



“The Field” – 1920s - today“The Field” – any place where people and

cultures are (p. 28)

Later Bronislaw Malinowski


The Field and Participant Observation While in the field, the cornerstone method

anthropologists use is participant observation.

Participant observation is a research method for learning about culture that involves living in (and/or immersing oneself in) a culture for an extended period while gathering data (p. 28)

“Father” of participant observation is Bronislaw Malinowski


Key Elements of Participant Observation

Living with the people

Participating in their everyday life

May be conducted in one or more locations If fieldwork is conducted in more than one location it is termed

“multisited research” (p. 29)

Learning and speaking the local language

Often occurs over an extended period of time


Steps Involved in Cultural Anthropology Fieldwork Before going into the field…

Choose a place to do research Choose a research topic Prepare for the fieldwork

While in the field… Gain rapport Collect data

When come back from the field… Data analysis Present the data / write up results


Where to do research?

Cultural anthropologists today go to “the field”

► “The field” is anywhere people are


“The field” has changed since the early days of cultural anthropology in terms of where it is


From the faraway, exotic and small-scale…

For example, Samoa


To urban and globalizing sites such as Tangier, Morocco


To the field at home: for example, Tangier, Virginia


Even to Main Street, USA…


…and Corporate USA


What to Study?

Topics have changed since the early days of cultural anthropology


From “holistic” studies of small groups…

such as indigenous peoples of the Andaman Islands, India

…to focused topical studies such as gender, health, or conflict in larger societies


Gender: women’s lives in a South Indian urban neighborhood


Or how globalization affects informal markets in the Old City of Istanbul, Turkey


Or poverty and health in Johannesburg, South Africa


Or tourism’s environmental and social effects in the Andaman Islands


What should you think about when choosing a research project?


What do you do before you go into the field? How do you prepare?


Beginning Fieldwork Fieldwork is often a difficult process, especially in the

beginning Dealing with physical and psychological risks, and

sometimes even violence and warfare


Beginning Fieldwork


Beginning Fieldwork Dealing with culture shock

Culture shock is persistent feelings of uneasiness, loneliness, and anxiety that often occur when a person has shifted from one culture to a different one (p. 35)


Culture Shock discussion Think of an occasion in which you

experienced culture shock, even if as the result of a brief cross-cultural encounter. How did you feel? How did you cope? What did you learn from the experience?


Beginning Fieldwork Primary goal in the early stages of

fieldwork is to gain rapport Rapport is a trusting relationship

between the researcher and the study population (p. 33)


Fieldwork Approaches

The goal of fieldwork is to collect data, or information, about the research topic.

Research approaches can be deductive or inductive.


Deductive Research Deductive research starts from a

question or hypothesis and then involves collecting data related to that question Data collected is more likely to be…

quantitative (numerical) etic (fits into categories meaningful to the

cultural outsider/anthropologist)


Inductive Research

Inductive research involves gathering data without a hypothesis Data collected is more likely to be…

qualitative (non-numerical) emic (fits into categories meaningful to the

cultural insider/local population)


Two Research Approaches:Deductive and Inductive


Fieldwork Techniques Participant observation Talking with people

Interview Questionnaire/Survey

Life histories Time allocation studies Analyzing textual material Maps and charts Genealogy Triangulation


Participant Observation


Talking with people


Life Histories

A life history is a qualitative, in-depth description of an individual’s life as narrated to the researcher (p. 38)


Time Allocation Studies A time allocation study is a

quantitative method that collects data on how people spend their time each day on particular activities (p. 38)

Guatemala City caretakers

Benin


Analyzing Textual Material May include written or oral stories,

myths, songs, plays, sayings, speeches, jokes, and transcripts of people’s everyday conversations

Also includes written archival and historical material


Maps and Charts


Triangulation

Triangulation is a technique that involves seeking information on a particular topic from more than one angle or perspective (p. 39)


Recording Culture

Refers to how an anthropologist keeps track of all the information collected in the field and how it is recorded for future analysis


Recording Culture Anthropologists take many field notes!

Taking notes is still the trademark method of recording data for a cultural anthropologist

Tape recorders, photography, and videos are also helpful in capturing data


Recording Culture

Field notes

Tape recording, photography, and videos

Interviews

Questionnaires

Watching and askingLife history

Texts/historical sources

Team projects


Coming Back From the Field

Data Analysis Anthropologists come back from the field

with vast amounts of data! Must analyze the data to put it into a

meaningful form Systematically studying and processing data

Qualitative and Quantitative Data Analysis


Coming Back from the Field

Qualitative data analysis Search for themes or patterns in the data Can be done by hand or with the

assistance of qualitative analysis software programs


Coming Back from the Field Qualitative data analysis


Coming Back from the Field Quantitative data analysis

Often consists of a statistical analysis of the data Mean, median, mode, correlations

Can be done by hand (if a relatively small sample) or with the help of statistical software programs


Coming Back from the Field Quantitative data analysis


Quantitative Data on the Food Stamp Program in Jamaica


Coming Back from the Field

Write an ethnography Often focuses on a particular cultural aspect

or issue, but considers the culture as a whole for the sake of context

Present research at meetings


Ethics in Anthropology

Prompted by Project Camelot & The Vietnam War

In 1971, the AAA adopted a code of ethics

The anthropologist’s first responsibility is to ensure the safety of the people participating in the research

Does not condone “undercover” research


Ethics in Anthropology Informed consent – an aspect of

research ethics requiring that the researcher inform the research participants of the intent, scope, and possible effects of the study and seek their agreement to be in the study (p. 32)


Collaborative Research Collaborative research – an approach to

learning about culture that involves the anthropologist working with members of the study population as partners and teammates rather than researcher and “subject” (p. 43)

Research with the people, by the people, for the people

Team approach is better for everyone


Collaborative Research

Members of the study population work as partners with the anthropologist in…Data collectionData analysisPresentation of findingsSharing credit for results


History of Fieldwork

“Armchair” approach1870s

“Verandah” approachEarly 1900s

“The Field” approach1920s

“The Field” + participant observation and

collaborative researchToday


The Gods Must Be Crazy http://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=V2IxsfUpBck


Question #1 What is the best way to conduct

anthropological research in literate societies?

A) survey researchB) ethnography C) through a combination of survey and

ethnographic techniquesD) observation from a distance E) There is no good way to conduct

anthropological fieldwork in complex societies


Question #2 Which of the following is unique to

anthropology? A) holistic ethnographyB) ethicsC) random samplingD) interviews E) questionnaires


Question #3 Unlike questionnaires, in-depth

interviews __________.A) rely on very short responses.B) are better suited to urban, complex societies

where most people are literate.C) are usually administered to a random sample

of a larger population.D) allow informants to talk about what they see as

important, rather than have to modify their responses to fit into predetermined categories.

E) are traditionally associated with survey research.


Question #4 Unlike ethnography, survey research

_________.A) studies communities in their entirety.B) has been traditionally conducted in

nonindustrial, small-scale societies.C) is conducted with little or no personal

contact between study subjects and researchers.

D) makes little use of statistics.E) is based on establishing close personal

ties with the study community.


Question #5 Which of the following is not an

example of participant-observation? A) dancing in a festivalB) singing during a ritualC) taking part in a huntD) competing in the games popular in the

communityE) interviewing key informants


Question #6 The etic perspective is _________.

A) that of the ethnographer / anthropologist / interviewer.

B) that of the local members of the community being studied.

C) the one held by refugees regarding the authorities that forced them to leave their home country.

D) how locals perceive the world in which they live.

E) that of the person being interviewed.


Question #7 Rapport is one of the ways

anthropologists present their findings from their fieldwork.

A) TrueB) False


Question #8 Research starts from a question or

hypothesis and then involves collecting data related to that question is inductive research.

A) True

B) False


Question #9 The “armchair” approach to

anthropology is commonly practiced today.

A) True

B) False


Question #10 Qualitative data is non-numerical

data.A) True

B) False

copyright © allyn & bacon 2008 methods in cultural anthropology (miller chapter 2)

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