copyright © allyn & bacon 2008 anthropology and the study of culture (miller chapter 1)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Anthropology and the Studyof Culture(Miller Chapter 1)


The BIG Questions What is anthropology?

What are the goals of anthropology? What are the fields of anthropology? What are some key aspects of

anthropology? How is anthropology relevant to a

career in the “real world”? How can anthropology be applied?


What is Anthropology?

What do you know about anthropology? What do you think of when someone

mentions anthropology? How did you acquire these impressions?

What do you think anthropology is?


What is Anthropology?

Anthropology is… The study of humanity, including our

prehistoric origins and contemporary human diversity (p. 4)

The study of humankind in all times and all places


Goals of Anthropology

What do you think are the main goals of anthropology?

Why is anthropology important?


Goals of Anthropology Discover what makes people different from

one another Study diversity and preserve diversity

Discover what all people have in common Study commonalities in all humanity Understand more about “human nature”

Look at our own culture more objectively, like an outsider Make “the strange familiar and the familiar

strange” Produce new knowledge and new theories

about humankind and human behavior Apply this knowledge in an attempt to alleviate

human challenges


The Fields of Anthropology

What are the fields of anthropology? (hint: there are four of them!)



Archaeology (or prehistory)

Biological(or physical) anthropology

Linguistic anthropology

Cultural anthropology (or social anthropology)



Four fields (p. 4)

– Biological anthropology• Also known as physical anthropology

– Archaeology– Linguistic Anthropology– Cultural anthropology

• Also known as social anthropology or sociocultural anthropology


Biological Anthropology The study of humans as biological

organisms, including their evolution and contemporary variation (p. 4 – 5)

Some subfields of biological anthropology include… Paleoanthropology (Human evolution)

Leakey family Primatology (Nonhuman primates)

Jane Goodall, Dian Fossey Examine what we share with our primate relatives as

well as what makes humans unique Contemporary human variation and adaptation Molecular/genetic anthropology Forensic anthropology (application to legal

issues) Bones, Dr. Temperance Brennan – inspired by real-life

forensic anthropologist Kathy Reichs


Archaeology Study of past human cultures through their material remains (p. 4

– 6)

Study of past human cultures through the recovery and analysis of artifacts

Some subfields of archaeology include…– Old World archaeology

• Africa, Europe, and Asia

– New World archaeology• North, Central, and South America

– Underwater archaeology• Settlements now submerged by water

– Prehistorical archaeology• Before written records

– Historical archaeology• Have written documents• “Garbage project” – Tucson and New York - consumption and

environmental effects– More beers– Paper more of a problem than initially thought


Linguistic Anthropology Study of communication, mainly (but not

exclusively) among humans Includes the study of communication’s

origins, history, and contemporary variation (p. 4 & 6)

Some subfields of linguistic anthropology include… Historical linguistics

The study of language change over time and how languages are related

Structural (descriptive) linguistics The study of the formal structure of languages and their

similarities and differences Sociolinguistics

The study of communication in social life (analysis of discourse) and the variations of communication in different cultural contexts


Cultural Anthropology Study of living people and their cultures, including

variation and change (p. 4 & 6 – 7)

Some subfields of cultural anthropology include… Economic anthropology

How people in different cultures make a living Political anthropology

Study of social groups, politics, power Psychological anthropology

Study of interaction between culture and the human mind Medical anthropology

Study of interaction between culture and health Development anthropology

Making development projects more socially sensitive and culturally appropriate

Cultural anthropologists also study art, religion, migration, marriage, family…and MORE


Research Approaches in the Four Fields Anthropology has been called “the most

humane of the sciences and the most scientific of the humanities”

Wide range of approaches that span: Science (hypothesis, observation, and testing) Humanities (more subjective, based on feeling)

Anthropology as a social science is empirical – based on observations rather than on intuition or faith

Fieldwork (being on location and fully immersed in another way of life) is a core methodological aspect of anthropology


Some Key Aspects of Anthropology Holistic perspective

Holism – the view that cultures are complex systems and one must study all their interconnected aspects in order to understand the whole culture (p. 10)

Must study social, political, economic, and religious practices and institutions in order to understand the whole culture

Cross-cultural, comparative perspective Ethnology – the study of a particular topic (such

as marriage forms, religious beliefs, etc.) in more than one culture (p. 19)


Some Key Aspects of Anthropology (continued)

Takes a long-term perspective Relies on extensive fieldwork

Participant observation or ethnographic research

May result in an ethnography – an in-depth description of a culture based on firsthand (primary) research (p. 19)

Traditionally focuses on the poor, powerless, everyday Joe versus elite people

Traditionally has studied small, remote communities, often in rural areas


Ethnography and Ethnology Summary ETHNOGRAPHY

– means “culture writing”

– provides a first-hand, detailed description of a living culture

– based on first-hand fieldwork and research of one culture

ETHNOLOGY– the study of one

topic in more than one culture

• marriage forms, economic practices, religion, etc.

– comparative and cross-cultural

– uses ethnographic material collected by a number of researchers


Some Key Aspects of Anthropology Focus on cultural relativism rather

than ethnocentrism Ethnocentrism is judging other cultures by

the standards of one’s own culture rather than the standards of other cultures The belief that one’s own culture is the way of

life and that other ways of life are strange and inferior


Some Key Aspects of Anthropology Focus on cultural relativism rather

than ethnocentrism Cultural relativism is the belief that each

culture must be understood in terms of its own values and beliefs and not by the standards of another culture Is the opposite of ethnocentrism The belief that no culture is better than any

other culture Is gained by exposure to “other” ways with a

sympathetic eye and ear to appreciating differences


Some Key Aspects of Anthropology Absolute cultural relativism versus

critical cultural relativism Absolute cultural relativism says that

whatever goes on in a particular culture must not be questioned or change because it would be ethnocentric to question any behavior or idea anywhere. Any Star Trek fans?

What is the “Prime Directive”? No one shall interfere with the culture/cultural

evolution of another planet under any conditions What are some challenges of absolute cultural

relativism?


Some Key Aspects of Anthropology Critical cultural relativism is an

alternative to absolute cultural relativism Critical cultural relativism says that some

of what goes on in a particular culture can be questioned or changed because of an idea of a set of universal human rights. Star Trek fans, was the “Prime Directive” ever

broken/bent? Under what conditions?

What are some challenges of critical cultural relativism?


Absolute vs. Critical Cultural Relativism Star Trek Prime Directive Prime Directive Debate - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4mH-

L6UCCAE


Absolute vs. Critical Cultural Relativism

What role does any concept of “fate” play in our decisions?

What role do emotions and should emotions play in determining action within a different culture?

When is it acceptable for a person to interfere or not interfere in the affairs of another culture? Genocide? Enslavement? Disease/epidemic? Natural disasters? Long-term war? What if someone asks/cries out for assistance?

Is cultural relativism a matter of degrees or an absolute?


Applied Anthropology

Anthropology put to use Involves the use or application of

anthropological knowledge to help solve social problems or to shape and achieve policy goals. (p. 4 & 7)

Is applied anthropology a separate field? No… Just like theory, application should be a valued

part of every field of anthropology Applied aspects integrated within each field


Applied Biological Anthropology Forensic anthropology

Utilizing anthropological theories and techniques to legal problems, often helping solve crimes and identifying victims of mass fatalities and/or human rights abuses

Primatology Helping with nonhuman primate conservation Developing ecotourism projects to help generate

funds for local human communities while conserving nonhuman primate populations

Ergonomics and design Building databases on body size and shape of

soldiers to help design jet fighter cockpits


Applied Archaeology Cultural Resource Management (CRM)

Assessing the presence of possible archaeological remains (cultural resources) before government-funded construction projects such as roads and buildings can proceed

Applied archaeologists may also work in… Museums – creating exhibits and preserving

artifacts Historic preservation Environmental management – applying ancient

techniques of environmental management to contemporary environmental problems


Applied Linguistic Anthropology Applied linguistic anthropologists are involved

in… Preserving and documenting indigenous

languages worldwide that are rapidly becoming extinct

Looking at the role of information technology (such as internet and cell phones) in communication among various cultures

Developing bilingual education programs Forensic linguistics

A linguistic anthropologist testified at a trial that six Shoshone women accused of defrauding the Social Security administration were not sufficiently fluent in English to understand government agents when the rules were explained. The case against the women was then dismissed and further contacts with the Shoshone women regarding Social Security were made with interpreters.


Applied Cultural Anthropology Applied cultural anthropologists work

in… Education Health care Business Conflict prevention and resolution Advocacy and activism Poverty reduction Community development International development


So can someone with a degree/minor/coursework in anthropology really get a good job? Yes!! About ½ of all anthropologists work in

academia ½ of all anthropologists work outside of

colleges/universities


Those who study anthropology learn relevant skills that employers value Knowledge of qualitative and quantitative

research methods Detailed observation / participant observation

Communication and writing skills Interviewing Systematic documentation Holistic approach – understand complexity

and look at the larger context Multicultural perspective / Respect for

cultural differences / “cultural brokers” Social ease in strange situations Experience working with people of diverse

backgrounds


Anthropology and Business (Corporate Anthropology) A 1999 edition of USA Today called an

anthropology degree a “hot asset in corporate America”

Citicorp Created a vice presidency for an anthropologist who

discovered early warning signs to identify people who don’t pay their credit card bills

Hallmark Hires anthropologists to go into the homes of immigrants,

attending holidays and birthday parties in order to better design cards they’ll want

Because no survey can tell engineers what women really want in a razor, marketing companies even send anthropologists into bathrooms to watch women shave their legs in order to design better razors! (product design/marketing)


Anthropology and Business (Corporate Anthropology)

General Motors Hired an anthropologist to study the “corporate culture” and

“subcultures” at GM (her Ph.D. fieldwork was studying Mexican-American farmworkers and Catholic nuns!)

AT&T Labs in California Has an anthropologist who examines consumers’ behavior in their

homes and offices (for her postdoc research she lived with villagers in Western Samoa trying to understand the cultural reasons that people there have an average of eight children)

Intel Has an “engineering and design ethnographer” who studies how to

better integrate technology into people’s lives Motorola

Has an anthropologist who is the manager of “culture and technology initiatives” that helps develop technology that fits into the way people live their day-to-day lives

General Mills Susan Squires, an anthropologist, helped to develop drinkable yogurt

(Go-Gurt) after observing American households’ breakfast routines (product design) (p. 1)

Cross-cultural training


Liberal Arts/Sciences and Business Careers CEO of Tempur-pedic majored in

biology and linguistics in college! Encourages individuals who want to work

for his company to study liberal arts and sciences Leads to the development of great critical

thinking and communications skills Have a greater breadth of knowledge rather

than just purely focusing on a business major


The BIG Questions What is culture? What are the characteristics of culture? What are subcultures/microcultures? What are some of the major

theories/debates in anthropology?


Culture and Anthropology

Culture is the core concept in cultural anthropology, but… Anthropologists do not agree on how to

define it Anthropologists have proposed hundreds

of definitions of culture Culture is one of the most complicated

and difficult to define words in the English language


In Popular Culture…

Culture is often associated with… “High culture” – elite activities

The arts/fine museums Classical music Dinning at expensive restaurants with fine wine

Often seen as something either an individual has or doesn’t have City dwellers may be seen as “cultured”

whereas rural folk may be seen as “uncultured”


Important to Remember…

All humans have culture! Anthropologically speaking, all humans

throughout the world are all “cultured”


Earliest Definition of Culture Edward Tylor – 1871

Culture “is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.”


More Recent Definition of Culture United Nations Educational, Scientific

and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) – 2002 Culture is the "set of distinctive spiritual,

material, intellectual and emotional features of society or a social group and that it encompasses, in addition to art and literature, lifestyles, ways of living together, value systems, traditions and beliefs."


A Couple Simple Definitions of Culture Culture is learned and shared ways of

behaving & thinking (p. 6)

Culture is the way of life for a society


Material and Nonmaterial Aspects of Culture Culture consists of what humans have

constructed, both material and nonmaterial Material culture – tangible/physical

aspects of culture (includes buildings, monuments, art, artifacts, technology, etc.)

Nonmaterial culture – intangible/non-physical aspects of culture (includes philosophy, ideas, beliefs, values, religion, music, rituals, etc.)


Characteristics of Culture

Culture is learned Therefore, culture is not the same as

nature Culture is symbolic / based on symbols Culture is integrated Culture is shared Cultures are dynamic and change


Culture is learned…

All culture is learned rather than biologically inherited The process through which culture is

transmitted from one generation to the next is called enculturation Both conscious (learned through direct

teaching) and unconscious (learned through observation)


…therefore, culture is not the same as nature

All humans have basic biological needs (eating, sleeping, shelter, companionship, sex, etc.), but the ways in which these needs are satisfied varies from culture to culture Culture shapes what people eat, how they eat,

when they eat, and the meanings of food and eating Hunters and gatherers would probably find frozen

dinners appalling!

Culture shapes when to sleep, who sleeps with whom, how much sleep a person should have Japan and emphasis on productivity – sleep deprivation Where infants and children should sleep


Culture is Based on Symbols

A symbol is an object, word, or action with a culturally defined meaning (p. 14 & 15)

A symbol is often arbitrary – it stands for something else with which it has no necessary or natural relationship. Often impossible to predict how a particular

culture will symbolize something

Language is an important symbolic aspect of culture.


What is this?


What is this?

A dog


What is this?

Are you sure?


What is this?

Is it a perro? It is in the Spanish language!


What is this?

Is it a hund? It is in the German language!


What is this?What does this symbolize?


If you are hungry…

Are rats jumping in your stomach? In Hindi (a language of India)

Or are you so hungry you can eat a horse? In English


Culture is Based on Symbols Which are Mainly Arbitrary

In India, widows wear white clothing to mark their status

What do widows usually wear in the U.S.?


Culture is Integrated

Culture is holistic Holism – the view that cultures are

complex systems and one must study all their interconnected aspects in order to understand the whole culture (p. 10)

Must study social, political, economic, and religious practices and institutions in order to understand the whole culture


Culture is Shared

Culture is shared among a group of people Cannot have a culture of 1! Can be a group of large people making up

a culture, but it can also be a small group of people making up a culture/subculture Even a family can have customs, traditions,

stories, and beliefs that bind them and give meaning to their life together


Culture is Shared

Although multiple individuals share a common culture, each individual person may see that culture from a slightly different perspective Individuals rarely experience the

enculturation process in precisely the same way, nor do they perceive their reality in precisely identical fashion


Cultures are Dynamic and Change Cultures are dynamic systems that

respond to a variety of internal and external forces

Cultures have always changed over time, although the speed at which they have changed varies Today, globalization (the process of

intensified global interconnectedness and movement of goods, information, and people) is a major force of contemporary cultural change


Cultures are Dynamic and Change Cultural adaptation is just as important

to human survival as biological adaptation is. Adaptation is the process by which

organisms adjust to the conditions of the locality in which they live

Making coats, building fires, constructing shelters, developing technology (cultural adaptations) have allowed humans to survive and expand into a variety of different environments


Cultures are Dynamic and Change While cultures must be flexible in order

to meet new challenges and survive, not all culture change is been positive Some culture change can be maladaptive

and create new problems Can you think of any examples?

What is adaptive in one context may be seriously maladaptive in another context

Behavior that is adaptive in the short run may be maladaptive in the long run


Cultural Universals A cultural universal is an element,

pattern, trait, or institution that is common to all human cultures on the planet Some examples of some cultural universals

include… communicating with a verbal language consisting

of a limited set of sounds and grammatical rules for constructing sentences

using age and gender to classify people (e.g., teenager, senior citizen, woman, man)

classifying people based on marriage and descent relationships and having kinship terms to refer to them (e.g., wife, mother, uncle, cousin)

raising children in some sort of family setting


Cultural Universals having a sexual division of labor (e.g., men's work

versus women's work) having a concept of privacy having rules to regulate sexual behavior distinguishing between good and bad behavior having some sort of body ornamentation making jokes and playing games having art having a calendar/notion of time some degree of ethnocentrism

While these cultural universals are present in all human societies, the particular ways in which these aspects are implemented are unique


Ideal Culture versus Real Culture Ideal culture is what a society claims as their

culture Real culture is the actual culture the society

has

Can you think of any examples in your culture of ideal culture versus real culture?


Culture versus Society Culture and society are not the same thing

Culture is learned and shared ways of behaving & thinking

Society is a group of interacting organisms People are not the only animals that have societies Hives of bees, a group of ants, schools of fish, flocks of

birds, and lion prides are all societies These animals may have complex social behaviors

and interactions, but they do not have culture

In human societies, culture and society are inextricably connected Without a society we could not have culture Many members of a society often share the same

culture


Subcultures/Microcultures A subculture/microculture is culture within a

larger culture A subculture/microculture shares cultural aspects

with the larger culture of which it is a part

Subcultures/microcultures may have different cultural aspects… without a hierarchical relationship

For example, German Americans versus Italian Americans

or with a hierarchical relationship For example, Caucasian Americans versus Native

Americans


MicroculturesA individual may be a member of several microcultures

Class “Race” and Ethnicity

Gender

Age

Institutions(hospitals, universities,

prisons)

Indigeneity


Microculture: Poverty and Social Class Worldwide, rates

of poverty have not declined in recent times

Disparities between the wealthy and the poor have increased – they share very different subcultures


What are some of the functions of culture?


What are some of the functions of culture? Culture provides the knowledge and skills to be able

to effectively provide for the basic needs of a society Food, shelter, etc.

Culture facilitates social interactions Provides a social structure for reproduction and support Enables us to communicate with each other through

language Gives us standards for distinguishing between what is right

and wrong (norms) and what is beautiful and ugly (values) It makes it possible to anticipate how others in our society

are likely to respond to our actions Offers ways to pass on knowledge and enculturate new

members of the society


What are some of the functions of culture? Culture provides for the psychological

and emotional needs of its members Through art, music, myth, religion, etc.

culture gives the members of the society a means for self-expression and understand one’s place in the world

Ideally, culture functions to satisfy the physical, social, and psychological needs and expectations of the people in that society


Three Major Theoretical Debates in Cultural Anthropology

Is human behavior the result of biology or culture?

Is human behavior the result of people’s thoughts or the material aspects of their lives?

Is human behavior the result of free will or larger forces beyond our control?


Is human behavior the result of biology or culture? Biological Determinists

Human behavior is biologically based Seek to explain why people do and think what they

do by considering biological factors such as people’s genes and hormones (p. 20)

Freeman on Samoan youth (p. 22)

Cultural Constructionists Human behavior is culturally based Human behavior and ideas are best explained as

products of culturally shaped learning (p. 21)

Mead on Samoan youth (p. 22)

Many cultural anthropologists today tend to lean more toward the cultural constructionist camp.


Is human behavior the result of people’s thoughts or the material aspects of their lives? Interpretive Anthropologists (Interpretivists)

Human behavior/culture can be understood by studying what is in people’s minds and thoughts – what people think about, their explanations of their lives, and the symbols that are important to them (p. 21)

Hindus do not eat cows because cows are sacred and it is a sin to kill and eat them (p. 21)

Cultural Materialists Human behavior/culture can be understood by studying

people’s material aspects of life – the natural environment and how people make a living within particular environments

Hindus do not eat cows and they are sacred because living cows are economically important – they plow fields, their excrement is used for fertilizer, etc. (p. 21)

Some cultural anthropologists today are strong interpretivists, whereas others are strong cultural materialists. Others take a middle-of-the-road view.


Cultural materialist view of the world…


Is human behavior the result of free will or larger forces beyond our control? Individual Agency

Emphasize that human behavior and thoughts are largely based on individuals’ free will, or agency (p. 21)

Poverty studies – show how even in extreme instances of poverty individuals act to change their situation as best they can (p. 21)

Structurism Argue that individual free will is an illusion and that human

behavior and thoughts are conditioned, or structured, by larger forces such as the economy, social and political organization, and ideological systems (p. 21)

Poverty studies – show that the poor are trapped by large and powerful forces that provide them little room for agency (p. 21)

An increasing number of cultural anthropologists seek to blend a structural perspective with attention to agency Think of the movie “The Matrix”!


Nacerima What are your impressions of this article? If the book and I had not told you this article

was about American culture, do you think you would have recognized this as American culture? Why or why not?

How does it feel to you to look at American culture more “objectively,” as an outside observer?

Do you think this article is an accurate reflection of American culture? Why or why not?


Ju/’hoansi Summarize some of the main points of this section. Discuss some ways the Ju/’hoansi have adapted to their

environment and social living. What special skills or cultural behaviors have they developed over thousands of years to help them adapt?

In what ways is Ju/’hoansi culture different from your own culture?

In what ways is Ju/’hoansi culture similar to your own culture?

What surprises you most about the Ju/’hoansi culture? What do you think life would be like as a

hunter/gatherer? Do you think the Ju/’hoansi will be able to integrate their

belief that no one should be denied the basic necessities of life with the demands of their modern situation? Why or why not?


Example of indigeneity: the Ju/’hoansi of Namibia and Botswana


The Original Affluent Society In 1966 Marshall Sahlins challenged the

popular view of hunter-gatherers living lives "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short," as Thomas Hobbes had put it in 1651.

According to Sahlins, ethnographic data indicated that hunter-gatherers worked far fewer hours and enjoyed more leisure than typical members of industrial society, and they still ate well. Their "affluence" came from the idea that they are satisfied with very little in the material sense.

copyright © allyn & bacon 2008 anthropology and the study of culture (miller chapter 1)

Documents

anthropology relevant

anthropology important

social anthropology

main goals of anthropology

key aspects of anthropology

copyright allyn bacon

subfields of archaeology

study diversity