copyright 2008 allyn & bacon conception, pregnancy, and childbirth chapter 11 this multimedia...

Copyright 2008 Allyn & Bacon

Conception, Pregnancy, and Childbirth

Chapter 11

This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law:• any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network;• preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images; • any rental, lease, or lending of the program.


Conception, Pregnancy, and Childbirth Conception: Against All Odds Infertility and Assisted Reproductive

Technology Pregnancy Prenatal Development Childbirth The Postpartum Period


Conception: Against All Odds Conception

Union of a sperm cell and an ovum Zygote: A fertilized ovum Each ejaculate contains an average of 200 to 400

million sperm. Ovum secretes a chemical that attracts sperm. Fertilization normally occurs in a fallopian tube. Ovum is surrounded by zona pellucida which must

be penetrated by sperm to fertilize it. Sperm secrete the enzyme hyaluronidase, which briefly

thins zona pellucida, enabling penetration.


Conception: Against All Odds Ova carry X sex chromosomes Sperm carry either X or Y sex chromosomes Girls are produced from union of 2 X Boys are produced from union of an X and a Y Y sperm appear to be faster swimmers Male fetuses more likely lost in spontaneous

abortion, which helps balance the sexes Spontaneous abortion: loss of pregnancy, often in the

first month, and sometimes before the woman knows she’s pregnant


Conception: Against All Odds Optimizing the Changes of Conception

Ovum can be fertilized for 4-20 hours after ovulation Sperm are most active within 48 hours after ejaculation Ways to predict ovulation

Basal body temperature (BBT) chart Analyzing urine or saliva for luteinizing hormone Tracking vaginal mucus

Additional considerations Coitus in the male-superior position


Conception: Against All Odds Selecting the Sex of Your Child(?)

Reasons to select: Personal preference Family balancing Avoidance of sex-linked diseases

Folklore provides many techniques Selective abortion Infanticide


Conception: Against All Odds Selecting the Sex of Your Child(?)

Sperm-separation procedures Preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD)

Is currently the most reliable sex-selection method


Infertility and Alternative Ways of Becoming Parents Infertility

Inability to conceive a child Term usually not applied until the failure has

persisted for more than a year Women over the age of 35 are advised to seek

help after 6 months of trying

About 15% of American couples experience infertility.


Infertility and Alternative Ways of Becoming Parents

Male Fertility Problems Causes include:

Low sperm count Irregularly shaped sperm Low sperm motility (self-propulsion) Chronic diseases (diabetes, infectious diseases) Injury to the testes Autoimmune response (antibodies deactivate sperm Pituitary imbalance and/or thyroid disease


Infertility and Alternative Ways of Becoming Parents

Male infertility solutions include: Microsurgery Artificial insemination

Introduction of sperm into the reproductive tract through means other than sexual intercourse


Infertility and Alternative Ways of Becoming Parents Female Fertility Problems

Causes include: Irregular ovulation, including failure to ovulate Obstructions or malfunctions of the reproductive

tract, such as blocked fallopian tubes Endometriosis

Endometrial tissue is sloughed off into the abdominal cavity rather than out of the body during menstruation

Declining hormone levels


Infertility and Alternative Ways of Becoming Parents Female infertility solutions include:

Fertility drugs Laparoscopy (for detection & treatment) In vitro fertilization (IVF)

Mature ova are surgically removed from an ovary and placed in a laboratory dish along with sperm

Gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT) Sperm and ova are inserted into a fallopian tube to encourage

conception Zygote intrafallopian transfer (ZIFT)

Ovum is fertilized in a laboratory dish and then placed in a fallopian tube



Donor IVF Ovum is taken from one woman, fertilized, and then injected

into the uterus or fallopian tube of another woman Embryonic transfer

Woman volunteer is artificially inseminated by the male partner of the intended mother

Embryo is removed and inserted within the uterus of the intended mother

Intracytoplasmic sperm injection Single sperm is injected directly into an ovum



Surrogate motherhood Woman is impregnated through artificial

insemination, with the sperm of a prospective father

Carries the embryo and fetus to term Gives the child to the prospective parents

Adoption


Pregnancy Early Signs of Pregnancy

Missing a period It is not a reliable indicator.

Basal body temperature remains high for about three weeks after ovulation


Pregnancy Pregnancy Tests

Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) Hormone produced by women shortly after

conception Detected in urine as early as third week of

pregnancy Detected in a blood test as early as the eighth day of

pregnancy


Pregnancy Early Effects of Pregnancy

Tenderness of the breasts Morning sickness

Symptoms of pregnancy including nausea, aversions to specific foods, and vomiting

May occur throughout the day Usually subsides by about the twelfth week of pregnancy

May experience more fatigue and frequent urination


Pregnancy Miscarriage

Spontaneous abortion; causes include chromosomal defects in the embryo or fetus

More common in older pregnant women Sex During Pregnancy

Given a normal pregnancy, coitus is safe throughout pregnancy until the start of labor.

A pregnant woman’s interest in sex may vary. Tends to be higher during the second trimester compared to

the first and third


Pregnancy

Psychological Changes During Pregnancy Reflect desire to be pregnant, her physical

changes, and her attitudes toward these changes May also depend on the trimester of pregnancy

Sympathetic pregnancy Experiencing of a number of signs of pregnancy

by the father


Prenatal Development Delivery date may be calculated using

Nagele’s rule First day of the last menstrual period Add 7 days Subtract 3 months Add 1 year


Prenatal Development

Stages of Prenatal Development Germinal stage

First two weeks of pregnancy Period before implantation in the uterus Also called the period of the ovum Blastocyst

Embryo is a sphere of cells surrounding a cavity of fluid Embryonic disk: Platelike inner part of the blastocyst, which

differentiates into the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm of the embryo

Trophoblast: Outer part of the blastocyst, from which the amniotic sac, placenta, and umbilical cord develop



Early Days of theGerminalStage


Prenatal Development IF THERE IS A PICTURE OF A

ZYGOTE IN THE GERMINAL STATE, PLEASE INSERT IT HERE.


Prenatal Development Embryonic stage

Lasts from implantation through the eighth week Differentiation of the major organ systems occurs Development of the embryo follows two trends

Cephalocaudal: from the head downward Proximodistal: from the central axis of the body

outward


Prenatal Development Ectoderm

Outermost cell layer of the embryo, from which skin and nervous system develop

Neural tube: A hollow area in the blastocyst from which the nervous system will develop

Endoderm Inner layer of the embryo, from which the lungs and

digestive system will develop

Mesoderm Central layer of the embryo, from which the bones and

muscles develop


Prenatal Development Amniotic sac

The sac containing the embryo and, later, the fetus Amniotic fluid

Suspends and protects the fetus

Placenta Organ connected to fetus by umbilical cord and serves

as relay station between mother and embryo (or fetus), allowing the exchange of nutrients and wastes

Secretes hormones that preserve pregnancy, stimulate uterine contractions that induce childbirth, and help prepare breasts for breastfeeding


Prenatal Development IF THERE IS A PICTURE OF AN

EMBRYO, PLEASE INCLUDE IT HERE. THE FIRST 2 PICTURES OF THE FIGURE ON PAGE 330 WOULD WORK


Prenatal Development Fetal stage

Begins by the ninth week and continues until birth Fetal movements can be felt Age of viability: The age at which a fetus can sustain

independent life During the seventh month, fetus typically turns

upside down in the uterus Cephalic presentation

Emergence of the baby head first from the womb If not, the fetus, if born prematurely, may be in a breech

presentation Emergence of the baby feet first from the womb


Prenatal Development IF THERE IS A PICTURE OF A FETUS,

PLEASE INSERT IT HERE. THE THIRD PICTURE ON PAGE 330 WOULD WORK.


Prenatal Development Environmental Influences on Prenatal

Development Mother’s diet

Malnutrition Obesity

Maternal diseases and disorders Teratogens

Environmental influences or agents that can damage an embryo or fetus

Critical periods of vulnerability When embryo or fetus is vulnerable to the effects of a

teratogen


Prenatal DevelopmentCritical Periods


Prenatal Development Rubella (German measles)

Viral infection that can cause mental retardation and heart disease in an embryo

Syphilis Sexually transmitted disease caused by a bacterial

infection May cause miscarriage or stillbirth or be passed

along to the child in the form of congenital syphilis


Prenatal Development HIV/Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome

(AIDS) Destroys white blood cells in the immune system Majority of babies born to infected mothers do not

become infected themselves Toxemia

Life-threatening condition characterized by high blood pressure

Ectopic pregnancy Fertilized ovum becomes implanted someplace other

than the uterus


Prenatal Development Rh incompatibility

Antibodies produced by a pregnant woman are transmitted to the fetus and may cause brain damage or death

Drugs taken by the mother (and the father) OTC Prescription

Hormones Diethylstilbestrol (DES)

An estrogen that was once given to women at risk for miscarriage to help maintain pregnancy

Suspected of causing cervical and testicular cancer in some children whose mothers used it when pregnant



Vitamins (high doses) Narcotics Tranquilizers and sedatives Marijuana Alcohol

Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) Cigarette smoking

Increases risk of low birthweight, early infant mortality, and intellectual impairments

Other agents, for example X-rays


Prenatal Development Chromosomal and Genetic Abnormalities

Down syndrome Usually caused by an extra chromosome on the 21st pair Obvious physical characteristics Risk increases with maternal age

Sickle-cell anemia More common among certain racial and ethnic groups Causes sickle-shaped red blood cells that can form clumps

Tay-Sachs disease Fatal neurological disease

Sex-linked genetic abnormalities Recessive trait: expressed if paired with other recessive genes More likely to affect sons of female carriers


Prenatal Development Averting chromosomal and genetic

abnormalities Genetic counseling Amniocentesis, usually performed at four months and

chorionic villus sampling, usually performed at 10 weeks

Tests detect Down syndrome, sickle-cell anemia, Tay-Sachs disease, spina bifida, muscular dystrophy, Rh incompatibility, and other conditions, as well as identify the sex of the fetus.

Ultrasound Parental blood tests Test of fetal DNA


Childbirth Childbirth

Lightening Baby’s head drops into the pelvis, usually early in 9th month

Braxton-Hicks contractions So-called false labor contractions that are relatively painless

Prostaglandins Uterine hormones that stimulate uterine contractions

Oxytocin Pituitary hormone that stimulates uterine contractions


Childbirth Stages of Childbirth

First stage Uterine contractions efface and dilate the cervix Transition

Process during which the cervix becomes nearly fully dilated and the head of the fetus begins to move into the birth canal

May last from a couple of hours to more than a day during a first pregnancy and is usually shorter in subsequent births


Second stage Shorter than first stage Begins when cervix is fully dilated and baby begins to

move into the vagina Episiotomy may be performed

Surgical incision in the perineum that widens the birth canal, preventing random tearing during childbirth

Third stage Placenta is expelled

In the new world Once baby is breathing adequately umbilical cord is cut

Childbirth


Childbirth INSERT FIGURE 11.6 HERE


Childbirth

Methods of Childbirth Anesthetized childbirth

General anesthesia The use of drugs to put people to sleep and eliminate

pain May prolong labor They cross placental barrier and lower newborn’s

responsiveness Local anesthesia

Eliminates pain in a specific area of the body Decreases newborn’s responsiveness Little evidence that medicated childbirth has serious,

long-term consequences


Childbirth Prepared childbirth: Lamaze method

Women are taught to reduce pain by thinking of pleasant images or engaging in breathing and relaxation exercises.

Women attend classes and have a “coach” to help them through the birthing process.

Anesthetics can be used, if needed. Gives women a sense of control over delivery

process


Childbirth Cesarean section

Fetus is delivered through a surgical incision in the abdomen

May cause urinary tract infections, inflammation of the uterine wall, blood clots, or hemorrhaging

Increases rate of pregnancy-related death Advised when normal delivery is difficult or is

threatening the health or life of mother or child Baby is in breech (feet downward) or transverse position

(crosswise birth position), large, mother is infected with HIV or herpes, mother is tired

Today, about 24% of births is by C-section. Some view this number as too high


Childbirth Birth Problems

Anoxia: Oxygen deprivation Can result in brain damage and mental retardation If prolonged, can result in cerebral palsy and death Occurs due to constriction of the umbilical cord

Preterm and low-birthweight children Born before 37 weeks of gestation A weight of less than 5 pounds Respiratory distress syndrome: Cluster of breathing

problems, responsible for many neonatal deaths Usually require monitoring and extra care


Childbirth Stillbirth

Baby is born dead Connected to fetal abnormalities, infection,

maternal medical conditions, and pregnancy complications

Most cases have no clear cause


The Postpartum Period Postpartum: Following Birth

Maternal Depression Baby blues

Last for about ten days and do not impair functioning Postpartum depression

Persistent and severe mood changes during the postpartum period, involving feelings of despair and apathy and characterized by changes in appetite and sleep, low self-esteem, and difficulty concentrating

Affects 1 in 5 to 10 women May last for weeks or months


The Postpartum Period Breastfeeding Versus Bottle-Feeding

About three in five women in the U.S. breastfeed It is recommended that women breastfeed for a year or

more It reduces the general risk of infections and allergies.

Prolactin A pituitary hormone that stimulates milk production

Lactation Production of milk by the mammary glands


The Postpartum Period Resumption of Ovulation and Menstruation

Lochia Reddish vaginal discharge that may persist for a month after

delivery

A nonnursing mother does not resume menstruation until 2 to 3 months postpartum.

Ovulation typically precedes menstruation.

Resumption of Sexual Activity Obstetricians usually advise a 6-week waiting period.

copyright 2008 allyn & bacon conception, pregnancy, and childbirth chapter 11 this multimedia...

Documents

allyn bacon conception

allyn bacon infertility

ovulation sperm

sperm cell

childbirth conception

copyright law

y y sperm

odds conception union