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Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 20051

Chapter 11Chapter 11

Prejudice, Stereotyping and Discrimination

Prejudice, Stereotyping and Discrimination

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Rate your feelings about Irishmen:Rate your feelings about Irishmen:

DislikeDislike 11 22 33 44 55 66 77 LikeLike

List three things you think about Irishmen.

Would you discourage your sister from marrying an Irishman?

DislikeDislike 11 22 33 44 55 66 77 LikeLike

List three things you think about Irishmen.

Would you discourage your sister from marrying an Irishman?


Chapter OutlineChapter Outline

Planet Prejudice

Goals of Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination

Supporting and Protecting One’s Group

Gaining Social Approval

Managing Self-Image

Seeking Mental Efficiency

Reducing Prejudice, Stereotyping, & Discrimination

Planet Prejudice

Goals of Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination



Managing Self-Image


Reducing Prejudice, Stereotyping, & Discrimination


Planet PrejudicePlanet Prejudice

Have you ever been the object of negative feelings based simply on your membership in a group?

How about positive feelings?

Prejudice – a generalized attitude toward members of a social group

Have you ever been the object of negative feelings based simply on your membership in a group?

How about positive feelings?

Prejudice – a generalized attitude toward members of a social group



What are the characteristics of:

A typical New Yorker?

A typical Californian?

A typical white male?

A typical sorority woman?

Stereotype - a generalized belief about members of a group attached to individuals

What are the characteristics of:

A typical New Yorker?

A typical Californian?

A typical white male?

A typical sorority woman?

Stereotype - a generalized belief about members of a group attached to individuals



If you were asked your opinions about Irishmen, Californians, or fraternity men, that would tap:

Explicit prejudice –positive or negative feelings of which you are aware

But not implicit prejudice –feelings of which you are not aware

If you were asked your opinions about Irishmen, Californians, or fraternity men, that would tap:

Explicit prejudice –positive or negative feelings of which you are aware

But not implicit prejudice –feelings of which you are not aware


The Subtle Expressionof Bigoted Views

The Subtle Expressionof Bigoted Views

Participants in one study were asked to judge White and Black applicants for university admission.

Participants did not discriminate when the applicant’s test scores, grades, etc. were consistently strong or weak.

The following slide shows how discrimination emerged when the applicant’s credentials were ambiguous.

Participants in one study were asked to judge White and Black applicants for university admission.

Participants did not discriminate when the applicant’s test scores, grades, etc. were consistently strong or weak.

The following slide shows how discrimination emerged when the applicant’s credentials were ambiguous.

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44

33

22

11Highly Prejudiced

Participant’s RatingHighly Prejudiced

Participant’s Rating

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Strength of Strength of recommendation recommendation

for admissionfor admission

Non-prejudiced Participant’s Rating

Non-prejudiced Participant’s Rating

Participants who had scored highly on scales of prejudice gave the black applicants much weaker recommendations than they gave the white applicants.

Participants who had scored highly on scales of prejudice gave the black applicants much weaker recommendations than they gave the white applicants.

White ApplicantWhite Applicant

Black ApplicantBlack Applicant

G. Hodson, J.F. Dovidio, S.L. Gaertner (2002)

Highly recommend

Highly recommend

Barely recommend

Barely recommend



Do you know anyone who has, because of their membership in a group, been:

Denied a job or promotion?

Insulted or harassed?

Ignored or poorly served in a restaurant or other business?

Denied an apartment or house?

Do you know anyone who has, because of their membership in a group, been:

Denied a job or promotion?

Insulted or harassed?

Ignored or poorly served in a restaurant or other business?

Denied an apartment or house?



Discrimination – behaviors directed toward others because of their group membership

Discrimination – behaviors directed toward others because of their group membership


Sexual Harassment as Gender Discrimination


As many as 80% of high school students report having been sexually harassed (Hostile Hallways, 2001).

The U.S. Army spent $250 million in one year to deal with problems related to sexual harassment (Faley et al., 1999).

As many as 80% of high school students report having been sexually harassed (Hostile Hallways, 2001).

The U.S. Army spent $250 million in one year to deal with problems related to sexual harassment (Faley et al., 1999).




Behavior is seen as

More harassing when performed by someone in power (Pryor & Day, 1988)

Less harassing when performed by an attractive single individual (Sheets & Braver, 1993)

More harassing when directed at women than at men (e.g., U.S. M.S.P.B. 1988).

Behavior is seen as

More harassing when performed by someone in power (Pryor & Day, 1988)

Less harassing when performed by an attractive single individual (Sheets & Braver, 1993)

More harassing when directed at women than at men (e.g., U.S. M.S.P.B. 1988).




Men are more likely to harass than are women.

But whether men harass or not depends on the person, and, on the situation.

In one study, male students were asked to train a young woman on a complex word-processing task.

Men are more likely to harass than are women.

But whether men harass or not depends on the person, and, on the situation.

In one study, male students were asked to train a young woman on a complex word-processing task.

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The men were introduced to the female trainee by a male graduate student who acted either:

Sexist – put his arm around trainee, visually checked out her body

Professional – respectful of trainee.

The men were introduced to the female trainee by a male graduate student who acted either:

Sexist – put his arm around trainee, visually checked out her body

Professional – respectful of trainee.

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The dependent variable in the research was the amount of sexuality expressed by the male student while instructing the female trainee.

Results depended on the participant’s chronic disposition to harass.

The dependent variable in the research was the amount of sexuality expressed by the male student while instructing the female trainee.

Results depended on the participant’s chronic disposition to harass.

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11

Professional Professional

Pryor, LaVite, & Stoller (1993)Pryor, LaVite, & Stoller (1993)

Sexuality of Physical Contact

Sexuality of Physical Contact

33

Role Model’s Treatment of WomanRole Model’s Treatment of Woman

Low Low

Sexist Sexist

Disposition To Harass

Disposition To Harass

High High

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Institutionalized Discrimination Institutionalized Discrimination

Institutionalized discrimination is built into the legal, political, social and economic institutions of a culture.

It may be direct

Example: military rules requiring expulsion of openly homosexual soldiers.

Or more indirect and subtle

Example: hiring those with better educations excludes some minorities, favors others.

Institutionalized discrimination is built into the legal, political, social and economic institutions of a culture.

It may be direct

Example: military rules requiring expulsion of openly homosexual soldiers.

Or more indirect and subtle

Example: hiring those with better educations excludes some minorities, favors others.


Material Costs of Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination


Physicians were only 60% as likely to suggest a top-rated diagnostic test for black “heart patients” as for whites.

Even when blacks presented same symptoms, and gave identical information about themselves (Schulman et al., 1999).

Physicians were only 60% as likely to suggest a top-rated diagnostic test for black “heart patients” as for whites.

Even when blacks presented same symptoms, and gave identical information about themselves (Schulman et al., 1999).




One study found white men were offered better deals on cars:

$109 less than White women

$318 less than Black women

$935 less than Black men(Ayres & Siegelman, 1995 page 377).

One study found white men were offered better deals on cars:

$109 less than White women

$318 less than Black women

$935 less than Black men(Ayres & Siegelman, 1995 page 377).


Psychological Costs of Prejudice, Stereotyping, and DiscriminationPsychological Costs of Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination

A token minority in a group tends to:

become self-conscious

perform less well on tasks that require concentration (Lord & Saenz, 1985; Saenz, 1994 page 377).

A token minority in a group tends to:

become self-conscious

perform less well on tasks that require concentration (Lord & Saenz, 1985; Saenz, 1994 page 377).


esearchesearch Stereotype Threat Stereotype Threat

In one study, black and white students were asked to take a difficult exam taken from the verbal portion of the GRE (Graduate Record Exam).

For some students, race was made salient by asking them to report it at the beginning of the test.

In one study, black and white students were asked to take a difficult exam taken from the verbal portion of the GRE (Graduate Record Exam).

For some students, race was made salient by asking them to report it at the beginning of the test.


88

66

22

00

Not Salient Not Salient

Steele & Aronson (1995)Steele & Aronson (1995)

Number of Items Answered Correctly (adjusted by SAT score)

Number of Items Answered Correctly (adjusted by SAT score)

44

Salience of RaceSalience of Race Black Black

Salient SalientStudent’s RaceStudent’s Race

WhiteWhite

1010

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Stereotype Threat Stereotype Threat

Stereotype threat –the fear that one might confirm the negative stereotypes held by others about one’s group

Stereotype threat –the fear that one might confirm the negative stereotypes held by others about one’s group



White men did worse on athletic tasks they thought tapped “natural ability.”

But black men did worse if they thought it tapped “athletic intelligence”(Stone et al, 1999).

White men did worse in math when they thought they were being compared to an Asian (Aronson et al, 1999).

White men did worse on athletic tasks they thought tapped “natural ability.”

But black men did worse if they thought it tapped “athletic intelligence”(Stone et al, 1999).

White men did worse in math when they thought they were being compared to an Asian (Aronson et al, 1999).



Stereotype threat sometimes leads people to disidentify with those arenas where society expects them to fail.

Disidentify –to decide that the arena is no longer relevant to their self esteem, and effort is withdrawn

Stereotype threat sometimes leads people to disidentify with those arenas where society expects them to fail.

Disidentify –to decide that the arena is no longer relevant to their self esteem, and effort is withdrawn


Goals of Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Prejudice

Goals of Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Prejudice



Managing Self-Image




Managing Self-Image



Supporting and Protecting One’s

Group

Supporting and Protecting One’s

Group


Creating and Maintaining Ingroup Advantage


Minimal intergroup paradigm –an experimental procedure in which short-term, arbitrary, artificial groups are created to explore foundations of prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination

Minimal intergroup paradigm –an experimental procedure in which short-term, arbitrary, artificial groups are created to explore foundations of prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination


Minimal Intergroup ParadigmMinimal Intergroup Paradigm

Example: students give preferential treatment to others who they believe share otherwise irrelevant traits:

A tendency to “overestimate” dots

A preference for the artist Kandinsky

A random assignment to a group with the same color t-shirt

Example: students give preferential treatment to others who they believe share otherwise irrelevant traits:

A tendency to “overestimate” dots

A preference for the artist Kandinsky

A random assignment to a group with the same color t-shirt




Ingroup bias – tendency to benefit members of one’s own groups over members of other groups

Ingroup bias – tendency to benefit members of one’s own groups over members of other groups




Realistic group conflict theory – proposal that intergroup conflict, and negative prejudices and stereotypes, emerge out of actual competition between groups for desired resources

Example: Members of different ethnic groups may compete for the same jobs, or the same farmland.

Realistic group conflict theory – proposal that intergroup conflict, and negative prejudices and stereotypes, emerge out of actual competition between groups for desired resources

Example: Members of different ethnic groups may compete for the same jobs, or the same farmland.




Social Dominance Orientation

Intergroup Competition

The self-fulfilling spiral of intergroup competition


Social Dominance OrientationSocial Dominance Orientation

Social dominance orientation –the extent to which a person wants his or her own group to dominate and be superior to other groups

Social dominance orientation –the extent to which a person wants his or her own group to dominate and be superior to other groups


Circle the number corresponding to how you feel about each

statement

Circle the number corresponding to how you feel about each

statement1 = very negative 9 = very positive

1. Winning is more important than how the game is played.

2. It is alright to use any means necessary to get ahead.

3. Sometimes war is necessary to put other countries in their place.

1 = very negative 9 = very positive

1. Winning is more important than how the game is played.

2. It is alright to use any means necessary to get ahead.

3. Sometimes war is necessary to put other countries in their place.


1 = very negative 9 = very positive1 = very negative 9 = very positive

4. Inferior groups should stay in their place.

5. Some people are just better cut out than others for important positions in society.

6. Some people are better at running things and should be allowed to do so.

4. Inferior groups should stay in their place.

5. Some people are just better cut out than others for important positions in society.

6. Some people are better at running things and should be allowed to do so.


People scoring high in social dominance orientation are

prejudiced against weaker groups:

People scoring high in social dominance orientation are

prejudiced against weaker groups:

Blacks and homosexuals (in the U.S.)

Natives and Asian immigrants (in Canada)

Native Taiwanese (in Taiwan)Sephardic Jews and Palestinians (in

Israel) page 382

Blacks and homosexuals (in the U.S.)

Natives and Asian immigrants (in Canada)

Native Taiwanese (in Taiwan)Sephardic Jews and Palestinians (in

Israel) page 382


Intergroup CompetitionIntergroup Competition

When economic times were tough in the Southern U.S. during the 20th century, lynchings of Blacks increased (Hovland & Sears, 1940; Hepworth & West, 1988).

Economic downturns in Northern U.S. increased violence against Blacks and immigrants (Olzak, 1992).

When economic times were tough in the Southern U.S. during the 20th century, lynchings of Blacks increased (Hovland & Sears, 1940; Hepworth & West, 1988).

Economic downturns in Northern U.S. increased violence against Blacks and immigrants (Olzak, 1992).


Intergroup CompetitionIntergroup Competition

Middle class boys placed into competing areas in a summer camp:

Raided one another’s cabins

Stole and burned one another’s flags

Came to view one another as “stinkers” “smart-alecks” and “sneaks” (Sherif et al., 1988).

Middle class boys placed into competing areas in a summer camp:

Raided one another’s cabins

Stole and burned one another’s flags

Came to view one another as “stinkers” “smart-alecks” and “sneaks” (Sherif et al., 1988).


Self-fulfilling Spiral of Intergroup CompetitionSelf-fulfilling Spiral of Intergroup Competition

Competition and hostility breed more competition and hostility.

When other groups are viewed as competitors, this becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy.

Competition and hostility breed more competition and hostility.

When other groups are viewed as competitors, this becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy.


Group A sees Group B as a

threat

Group A sees Group B as a

threat

Limited Economic, Social, or Political Resources

Group B sees Group A as a

threat

Group B acts in a competitive and hostile manner

Group A sees Group A sees Group B as a Group B as a

threatthreat

Group B sees Group B sees Group A as a Group A as a

threatthreat

Group A acts in a Group A acts in a competitive and competitive and hostile mannerhostile manner

Group B acts in a Group B acts in a competitive and competitive and hostile mannerhostile manner


Gaining Social ApprovalGaining Social Approval

Think of the last time someone made a prejudiced remark you found offensive.

Did you express your disapproval publicly?

Did you let it pass?

Did you force a smile?

Think of the last time someone made a prejudiced remark you found offensive.

Did you express your disapproval publicly?

Did you let it pass?

Did you force a smile?



To win approval from members of our group, we may conform to their negative views of other groups.

A prejudiced social environment may also provide permission for people to express bigoted opinions they already hold.

To win approval from members of our group, we may conform to their negative views of other groups.

A prejudiced social environment may also provide permission for people to express bigoted opinions they already hold.



Conformity Seeking

Self-Monitoring

Perceived Social StandingThe Times

Intrinsic Religiosity & Prejudice


Conformity SeekingConformity Seeking

Racist students in S. Africa agree with statements such as:“A good group member should agree

with the other members.”

“To become a success these days, a person has to act in the way that others expect him to act”(Pettigrew, 1958).

Racist students in S. Africa agree with statements such as:“A good group member should agree

with the other members.”

“To become a success these days, a person has to act in the way that others expect him to act”(Pettigrew, 1958).


Self-monitoringSelf-monitoring

High self-monitors –people who use the beliefs about what others expect to guide their own actionsHigh self-monitors are more likely to

express stereotypical views if they think it socially appropriate(Fiske & VonHendy,1992; Sheets & Bushardt, 1994)

High self-monitors –people who use the beliefs about what others expect to guide their own actionsHigh self-monitors are more likely to

express stereotypical views if they think it socially appropriate(Fiske & VonHendy,1992; Sheets & Bushardt, 1994)


Perceived Social StandingPerceived Social Standing

Newcomers, who are uncertain of being accepted in the ingroup, are especially likely to express hostility towards outgroups.

Newcomers, who are uncertain of being accepted in the ingroup, are especially likely to express hostility towards outgroups.


Perceived Social StandingPerceived Social Standing

In one study, fraternity and sorority pledges (new members) and full-fledged members expressed their opinions about other frats and sororities (Noel, Wann, & Branscombe, 1995).

They either expressed their opinions:

Privately

Publicly (full-fledged members would hear them).

In one study, fraternity and sorority pledges (new members) and full-fledged members expressed their opinions about other frats and sororities (Noel, Wann, & Branscombe, 1995).

They either expressed their opinions:

Privately

Publicly (full-fledged members would hear them).

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11

00

Members Members

Noel et al. (1995)Noel et al. (1995)

Amount of Bias Against Outgroup

Amount of Bias Against Outgroup

Status in Fraternity or SororityStatus in Fraternity or SororityPubliclyPublicly

Pledges PledgesOpinions ExpressedOpinions Expressed

PrivatelyPrivately

33Those who were uncertain of their acceptance showed more bias in public than in private

Those who were uncertain of their acceptance showed more bias in public than in private

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The TimesThe Times

Over the past forty years, white people report increasingly favorable views toward issues such as

Racial integration

Interracial marriage

Black presidential candidates.

Do findings like these reflect actual changes in people’s prejudices and stereotypes?

Over the past forty years, white people report increasingly favorable views toward issues such as

Racial integration

Interracial marriage

Black presidential candidates.

Do findings like these reflect actual changes in people’s prejudices and stereotypes?


The TimesThe Times

Local norms affect people’s expression of prejudice.

Example: White students in North Carolina express more positive views of Blacks if their parents and friends approve of interracial relationships (Cox, Smith, & Insko, 1996). Page 386

Local norms affect people’s expression of prejudice.

Example: White students in North Carolina express more positive views of Blacks if their parents and friends approve of interracial relationships (Cox, Smith, & Insko, 1996). Page 386


The TimesThe Times

One researcher compared racial attitudes among prison inmates who had been randomly assigned to:

A racially tolerant prison ward, or

A racially prejudiced ward.

One researcher compared racial attitudes among prison inmates who had been randomly assigned to:

A racially tolerant prison ward, or

A racially prejudiced ward.

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DecreaseDecrease IncreaseIncrease

00

8080

4040

No ChangeNo Change

Inmates assigned to the high prejudice ward were more likely to increase than to decrease their prejudice.

Prejudice Expressed One Month LaterPrejudice Expressed One Month Later

PE

RC

EN

TA

GE

OF

P

ER

CE

NT

AG

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F

INM

AT

ES

INM

AT

ES

Foley, 1976 esearchesearch


PE

RC

EN

TA

GE

OF

P

ER

CE

NT

AG

E O

F

INM

AT

ES

INM

AT

ES

Foley, 1976

00

8080

4040

DecreaseDecrease IncreaseIncrease No ChangeNo Change

Prejudice Expressed One Month LaterPrejudice Expressed One Month Later

But those assigned to the racially tolerant ward were more likely to decrease than to increase their prejudice.

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Intrinsic Religiosity and Prejudice


Extrinsic Religiosity –an orientation that sees religion as a means of gaining friendship, status, comfort, or other valuable ends

Extrinsically religious people express more prejudice than non-religious people.

Extrinsic Religiosity –an orientation that sees religion as a means of gaining friendship, status, comfort, or other valuable ends

Extrinsically religious people express more prejudice than non-religious people.




Intrinsic Religiosity –an orientation in which people attempt to internalize religious teachings, seeing religion as an end in itselfIntrinsically oriented people present

themselves as unprejudiced, but their behavior may be discriminating if they don’t think others are watching.

Intrinsic Religiosity –an orientation in which people attempt to internalize religious teachings, seeing religion as an end in itselfIntrinsically oriented people present

themselves as unprejudiced, but their behavior may be discriminating if they don’t think others are watching.




Quest religiosity –An orientation that sees religion as a journey taken to understand complex spiritual and moral issues (vs. quick, simple answers)

Those who adopt this orientation are less prejudiced in word and in deed.

Quest religiosity –An orientation that sees religion as a journey taken to understand complex spiritual and moral issues (vs. quick, simple answers)

Those who adopt this orientation are less prejudiced in word and in deed.


Managing Self-ImageManaging Self-Image


Personal and Social IdentitiesPersonal and Social Identities

Scapegoating –process of blaming members of other groups for one’s frustrations and failures

Scapegoating –process of blaming members of other groups for one’s frustrations and failures


Personal and Social IdentitiesPersonal and Social Identities

Social identity –beliefs and feelings we have toward the groups to which we see ourselves belonging

Social identity –beliefs and feelings we have toward the groups to which we see ourselves belonging


Social Identity TheorySocial Identity Theory

We desire to feel good about ourselves.

Part of our identity comes from the groups to which we belong.

Just as individual social comparison can boost self-esteem, comparing our ingroups with outgroups that are less well off can raise our self-esteem(Rubin & Hewstone, 1998).

We desire to feel good about ourselves.

Part of our identity comes from the groups to which we belong.

Just as individual social comparison can boost self-esteem, comparing our ingroups with outgroups that are less well off can raise our self-esteem(Rubin & Hewstone, 1998).


Managing Self-ImageManaging Self-Image

Ingroup Identification

Failure

Self-Esteem and Threat

Authoritarianism


Ingroup IdentificationIngroup Identification

People who are more strongly identified with their groups discriminate more against members of other groups.

Example: A student who is gung-ho for our school is more prejudiced against the traditional opponents.

People who are more strongly identified with their groups discriminate more against members of other groups.

Example: A student who is gung-ho for our school is more prejudiced against the traditional opponents.


Authoritarians:Authoritarians:

Readily submit to authorities

Mistreat those lower on the ladder

Are highly conventional

Believe in punishing the unconventional

View world in black-and-white terms

Are prejudiced towards socially rejected outgroups (such as homosexuals)

Readily submit to authorities

Mistreat those lower on the ladder

Are highly conventional

Believe in punishing the unconventional

View world in black-and-white terms

Are prejudiced towards socially rejected outgroups (such as homosexuals)


FailureFailure

People whose self-esteem is threatened by failure may attack members of outgroups.

Example: Students in one study derogated a Jewish student after they themselves failed (Fein & Spencer, 1997).

People whose self-esteem is threatened by failure may attack members of outgroups.

Example: Students in one study derogated a Jewish student after they themselves failed (Fein & Spencer, 1997).


Self-esteem and threatSelf-esteem and threat

Derogation of outgroups is generally more common among those with chronically low self-esteem (Crocker et al., 1987).

But when people with high self-esteem are threatened with failure, they may be even more prejudiced (Aberson, Healy, & Romero, 2000).

Derogation of outgroups is generally more common among those with chronically low self-esteem (Crocker et al., 1987).

But when people with high self-esteem are threatened with failure, they may be even more prejudiced (Aberson, Healy, & Romero, 2000).


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In a study of sorority women at Northwestern University, those with low self-regard derogated members of other sororities.

In a study of sorority women at Northwestern University, those with low self-regard derogated members of other sororities.

2.02.0

1.01.0

0 0 HighHighLowLow

Amount of Negative Bias against Members of Other Sororities


Low-Status SororityLow-Status SororityHigh-Status SororityHigh-Status Sorority

Subjects’ Self-EsteemSubjects’ Self-Esteem


The views of women who thought highly of themselves, however, depended on the prestige of their own affiliations.

The views of women who thought highly of themselves, however, depended on the prestige of their own affiliations.

HighHighLowLow

Low-Status SororityLow-Status SororityHigh-Status SororityHigh-Status Sorority

2.02.0

1.01.0

0 0



Subjects’ Self-EsteemSubjects’ Self-Esteem

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Seeking Mental EfficiencySeeking Mental Efficiency

Stereotyping –process of categorizing an individual as a member of a particular group and then inferring that he or she possesses the characteristics generally held by members of that group

Stereotyping –process of categorizing an individual as a member of a particular group and then inferring that he or she possesses the characteristics generally held by members of that group


The Characteristics of Efficient Stereotypes

The Characteristics of Efficient Stereotypes

People may use stereotypes because, although some are badly inaccurate, many contain a “kernel of truth.”

Students rarely get the direction of actual sex differences wrong, though they sometimes overestimate them (Swim, 1994).

People may use stereotypes because, although some are badly inaccurate, many contain a “kernel of truth.”

Students rarely get the direction of actual sex differences wrong, though they sometimes overestimate them (Swim, 1994).


The Reality The Stereotype

Less More Less More

Females Males Females Males

Aggressiveness Aggressiveness

To save us time and cognitive effort, we often sharpen the distinctions between

groups and soften the differences within groups.



Persistence of StereotypesPersistence of Stereotypes

• Prejudice is a belief, and beliefs have a strong emotional aspect which make them resistant to logic, or to new information. (re-fencing)

• Prejudice is tied to firmly established schemas for the target group.

• Prejudice is a belief, and beliefs have a strong emotional aspect which make them resistant to logic, or to new information. (re-fencing)

• Prejudice is tied to firmly established schemas for the target group.



Perceived outgroup homogeneity – phenomenon of overestimating the extent to which members within other groups are similar to each other.Examples:

“All men are sports fans.”

“They all look alike.”

Perceived outgroup homogeneity – phenomenon of overestimating the extent to which members within other groups are similar to each other.Examples:

“All men are sports fans.”

“They all look alike.”


Focus on Method: Exploring The Automatic Activation of Stereotypes

Focus on Method: Exploring The Automatic Activation of Stereotypes

Hearing the word “bread” primes people to think about the word “butter.”

Similarly, even non-prejudiced people have automatic associations linked to racial stereotypes.

These can be activated without conscious awareness.

Hearing the word “bread” primes people to think about the word “butter.”

Similarly, even non-prejudiced people have automatic associations linked to racial stereotypes.

These can be activated without conscious awareness.


Automatic Activation of Stereotypes


Students in one experiment made rapid decisions about words stereotypically associated with Blacks (e.g. “musical”).

They recognized these words more rapidly if subliminally primed with the word “BLACK.”

They recognized words such as “educated” more rapidly if subliminally primed with “WHITE.”

Students in one experiment made rapid decisions about words stereotypically associated with Blacks (e.g. “musical”).

They recognized these words more rapidly if subliminally primed with the word “BLACK.”

They recognized words such as “educated” more rapidly if subliminally primed with “WHITE.”




• Automatic and Controlled information processing

• Automatic – stereotypes are activated by categorizations, schemas, heuristics, emotions, self-interests, and our limited processing abilities, including memory.

• Controlled – we apply thoughtful analysis of our own ideas before and after we act.

• Automatic and Controlled information processing

• Automatic – stereotypes are activated by categorizations, schemas, heuristics, emotions, self-interests, and our limited processing abilities, including memory.

• Controlled – we apply thoughtful analysis of our own ideas before and after we act.



Need For Structure

Cognitively Taxing Circumstances

Overheard Ethnic Slurs

Moods and Emotions


Need For StructureNeed For Structure

Students who had taken the Need For Structure scale read the following account:Richard, a Junior at ASU, was taking

Math 110 (pre-calc and geometry) against the advice of his roommate.

After spring break, he started to get behind in his classes and it turned out to be an especially bad week for him.

Students who had taken the Need For Structure scale read the following account:Richard, a Junior at ASU, was taking

Math 110 (pre-calc and geometry) against the advice of his roommate.

After spring break, he started to get behind in his classes and it turned out to be an especially bad week for him.

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Need for StructureNeed for Structure

Richard had a test coming up that he had to do well on in order to pass.

After studying for the test for almost two hours, he still did not understand the material and was extremely frustrated.

Richard had a test coming up that he had to do well on in order to pass.

After studying for the test for almost two hours, he still did not understand the material and was extremely frustrated.

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Part of his difficulty may have been problems he was having that were unrelated to school.

Earlier that day, he had an argument with his girlfriend.

He had changed his mind about some plans they had for the coming weekend.

Trying to back out of the plans seemed to have caused the disagreement.

Part of his difficulty may have been problems he was having that were unrelated to school.

Earlier that day, he had an argument with his girlfriend.

He had changed his mind about some plans they had for the coming weekend.

Trying to back out of the plans seemed to have caused the disagreement.

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He usually went out every weekend.

But he was worried about how much work he had to do and thought he should try to stay home and study to get caught up.

He was beginning to think he should never have enrolled in so many classes or should have dropped his math course.

He usually went out every weekend.

But he was worried about how much work he had to do and thought he should try to stay home and study to get caught up.

He was beginning to think he should never have enrolled in so many classes or should have dropped his math course.

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Other students read a female version of the identical story:Michelle, a junior at ASU, was taking

math 110 (precalc and geometry) against the advice of her roommate.

After spring break, she started to get behind in her classes and it turned out to be an especially bad week for her.… etc.

Other students read a female version of the identical story:Michelle, a junior at ASU, was taking

math 110 (precalc and geometry) against the advice of her roommate.

After spring break, she started to get behind in her classes and it turned out to be an especially bad week for her.… etc.

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Students high in need for structure made judgments more in line with sex stereotypes –

Michelle was judged more emotional and irrational than Richard in the exact same situation (Neuberg, & Newsom, 1993 ).

Students high in need for structure made judgments more in line with sex stereotypes –

Michelle was judged more emotional and irrational than Richard in the exact same situation (Neuberg, & Newsom, 1993 ).

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Moods and EmotionsMoods and Emotions

Compared with neutral mood, stereotyping is enhanced by:

Positive mood

Anger or anxiety

Social Categories (status)

Compared with neutral mood, stereotyping is enhanced by:

Positive mood

Anger or anxiety

Social Categories (status)


Motivation: Anger reduces motivation to form unbiased impressions

Intense Anger

Stereotype Other in Negative

Way


Intense Anger


Way

Motivation

Capacity : Anger’s arousal makes it more

difficult to engage in the thoughtful processes needed to

see the other person in non-stereotypical ways


Way



Way


Way

Construal and Interpretation:

Negative tinge of anger increases likelihood of seeing

other as a member of unfavorable group, interpreting other’s behaviors unfavorably,

etc.

Intense Anger

Motivation

Capacity




1-704-8926 – Imagine trying to keep that number in mind while also forming an impression of “Hilda,” an elderly woman.

Students used more stereotypes in forming impressions if their minds were occupied with remembering an 8 digit number (Pendry & MacRae, 1994).

1-704-8926 – Imagine trying to keep that number in mind while also forming an impression of “Hilda,” an elderly woman.

Students used more stereotypes in forming impressions if their minds were occupied with remembering an 8 digit number (Pendry & MacRae, 1994).


Overheard Ethnic SlursOverheard Ethnic Slurs

The effects of overhearing an ethnic slur depends upon the person hearing it, as demonstrated in a study by Simon and Greenberg (1996).

The effects of overhearing an ethnic slur depends upon the person hearing it, as demonstrated in a study by Simon and Greenberg (1996).



Three groups of subjects, differing in their level of prejudice, participated in a study of group processes.

White participants and a black confederate first worked individually on a problem, then passed solutions around to other students working in different cubicles.

Three groups of subjects, differing in their level of prejudice, participated in a study of group processes.

White participants and a black confederate first worked individually on a problem, then passed solutions around to other students working in different cubicles.



Unknown to the participants, the researchers replaced these solutions with others, attaching to one either a comment stating:

“I can’t believe they stuck us with this black person!”

“I can’t believe they stuck us with this n_-_-_-_-_!”

Or no comment at all (control condition).

Unknown to the participants, the researchers replaced these solutions with others, attaching to one either a comment stating:

“I can’t believe they stuck us with this black person!”

“I can’t believe they stuck us with this n_-_-_-_-_!”

Or no comment at all (control condition).


The subjects were then asked to rate the performance of their fellow group members.

The subjects were then asked to rate the performance of their fellow group members.

44 44

4141

3838

3535

3232

No CommentNo Comment “Black Person”“Black Person”

More Favorable

More Favorable

Less Favorable

Less Favorable

“N_-_-_-_-_”“N_-_-_-_-_”

Simon & Greenberg, 1996Simon & Greenberg, 1996

Anti-Black SubjectsAnti-Black Subjects

Ambivalent SubjectsAmbivalent Subjects

Pro-Black SubjectsPro-Black Subjects

Favorability of Evaluations


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The ethnic slur had a negative effect on evaluations of the black team member, but only for participants who had strong negative prejudices to begin with.

The ethnic slur had a negative effect on evaluations of the black team member, but only for participants who had strong negative prejudices to begin with.

44 44

4141

3838

3535

3232




More Favorable

More Favorable

Less Favorable

Less Favorable

“N_-_-_-_-_”“N_-_-_-_-_”





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Participants who had strong pro-black attitudes were uninfluenced by the ethnic slur.

Participants who had strong pro-black attitudes were uninfluenced by the ethnic slur.

44 44

4141

3838

3535

3232


More Favorable

More Favorable

Less Favorable

Less Favorable

“N_-_-_-_-_”“N_-_-_-_-_”







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And participants with ambivalent feelings toward blacks evaluated the black team member more positively after hearing the ethnic slur.

And participants with ambivalent feelings toward blacks evaluated the black team member more positively after hearing the ethnic slur.

44 44

4141

3838

3535

3232


More Favorable

More Favorable

Less Favorable

Less Favorable

“N_-_-_-_-_”“N_-_-_-_-_”







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Reducing Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination


One hypothesis is negative stereotypes and prejudice are due to ignorance.

From this perspective, simply exposing people to different groups should reduce prejudice.

But merely putting different groups together does little to reduce hostility.

One hypothesis is negative stereotypes and prejudice are due to ignorance.

From this perspective, simply exposing people to different groups should reduce prejudice.

But merely putting different groups together does little to reduce hostility.




Another approach is based on the assumption that prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination serve important goals for people.

A goal-based approach tries to target interventions to the different goals.

Another approach is based on the assumption that prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination serve important goals for people.

A goal-based approach tries to target interventions to the different goals.


Goal-based approachGoal-based approach

One route: Change features of the person.

Example: Reduce people’s anxiety before they interact with members of other groups.

One route: Change features of the person.

Example: Reduce people’s anxiety before they interact with members of other groups.



Another route: Change features of the situation.

Example: Create and advertise norms that disapprove of discrimination.

Another route: Change features of the situation.

Example: Create and advertise norms that disapprove of discrimination.



Another route: Give people alternative ways to satisfy their goals.Example: Students who got to affirm

their self-worth by writing about things important to them later expressed less stereotypes about a Jewish job candidate (Fein & Spencer, 1997).

Another route: Give people alternative ways to satisfy their goals.Example: Students who got to affirm

their self-worth by writing about things important to them later expressed less stereotypes about a Jewish job candidate (Fein & Spencer, 1997).



Another route: Activate goals incompatible with prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination.Example: Students forced to confront

the inconsistency between their egalitarian beliefs and their prejudiced attitudes were later more likely to join NAACP (Rokeach, 1971).

Another route: Activate goals incompatible with prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination.Example: Students forced to confront

the inconsistency between their egalitarian beliefs and their prejudiced attitudes were later more likely to join NAACP (Rokeach, 1971).


Intervention:Change Situation

The PersonThe

Situation

Goal(e.g. to gain economic

resources for one’s ingroup)

Intervention:Change Goal

Intervention:Provide

Alternative ways to Satisfy Goal

Negative Prejudice, Stereotyping, or Discrimination

Intervention:Change Person


Contact Helps When:Contact Helps When:

Outgroup members have traits and abilities challenging negative stereotypes

Contact is supported by local authorities and norms

Groups are of equal status, at least in contact setting

Contact is at individual level

Contact is rewarding

Groups work toward common goals.

Outgroup members have traits and abilities challenging negative stereotypes

Contact is supported by local authorities and norms

Groups are of equal status, at least in contact setting

Contact is at individual level

Contact is rewarding

Groups work toward common goals.


Contact Helps When:Contact Helps When:

Importance of common goals was shown in the study of the Rattlers and Eagles (boys in summer camp in Oklahoma).

When their only contact involved competitive games, interactions became increasingly negative,

But then researchers forced the boys to cooperate towards common goals (such as starting a bus to take them all to a movie).

Importance of common goals was shown in the study of the Rattlers and Eagles (boys in summer camp in Oklahoma).

When their only contact involved competitive games, interactions became increasingly negative,

But then researchers forced the boys to cooperate towards common goals (such as starting a bus to take them all to a movie).


After competing, the Rattlers’ impressions of the Eagles were highly unfavorable, as were the Eagles’ impressions of the Rattlers.

After competing, the Rattlers’ impressions of the Eagles were highly unfavorable, as were the Eagles’ impressions of the Rattlers.

100 100

8080

6060

40402020

0 0 After CooperationAfter Cooperation

After CompetitionAfter Competition

Percentage of Rattler and Eagle Ratings That Were Unfavorable


Ratings of Own GroupRatings of Own Group

Ratings of Other GroupRatings of Other Group

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The hostility between the groups eventually turned into friendship and acceptance after they were induced to begin cooperating with each other (Sherif et al.).

The hostility between the groups eventually turned into friendship and acceptance after they were induced to begin cooperating with each other (Sherif et al.).

After CooperationAfter Cooperation

After CompetitionAfter Competition

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100 100

8080

6060

40402020

0 0



Ratings of Own GroupRatings of Own Group

Ratings of Other GroupRatings of Other Group


Piecing Together the PuzzlePiecing Together the Puzzle

Jigsaw Classroom – each student in a mixed race group is given a different, and essential, task to complete towards a class project

This intervention takes advantage of each of the six principles of effective group contact.

Jigsaw Classroom – each student in a mixed race group is given a different, and essential, task to complete towards a class project

This intervention takes advantage of each of the six principles of effective group contact.

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