copyright © allyn & bacon 2007 memory cognition the process of thought
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Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Memory
Cognition The Process of
Thought
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Human memory is an information processing
system that works constructively to encode,
store, and retrieve information
Key Question: What is Memory?
Any system – human, animal, or machine – that encodes, stores, and retrieves information
What is Memory?
•Cognitive psychologists see human memory more as an interpretive system, such as an artist, rather than a system that takes an accurate recording, such as a video recorder
Metaphors for Memory
•Information on which attention is focused•Information in which we are interested•Information that arouses us emotionally•Information that fits with our previous experiences•Information that we rehearse
Human Memory is Good at:
•Images that serve well enough in everyday life but are sparse in details •Example: The image of a nickel
…we automatically fill in the gaps and missing details without realizing how much of the memory we are actually creating
Vague Memory
Encoding Storage Retrieval
Memory’s Three Basic Tasks
Encoding Storage Retrieval
The Process of Remembering1. Select a certain stimulus out of many2. Identify the distinctive features3. Mentally label it to make it meaningful
Elaboration
Deliberate encoding in which you connect a new concept with existing information in your memory
Memory’s Three Basic Tasks
Encoding Storage Retrieval
•The retention of encoded material over time
Memory’s Three Basic Tasks
Encoding Storage Retrieval
•Involves the location and recovery of information from memory
Memory’s Three Basic Tasks
Testing Your Memory • Try to recall as many of the following words as
possible without writing any of the down
comforter tirednight blanketmoon pajamasblanket monkeypillow darksnoring bedspreaddreams blanketavocado quiet clock peaceful
comforter tirednight blanketmoon pajamasblanket monkeypillow darksnoring bedspreaddreams blanketavocado quiet clock peaceful
Each of the three memory stages encodes and stores memories in a different way,
but they work together to transform sensory experience into a lasting record that has a
pattern of meaning
How Do WeForm Memories?
The Three Stages of Memory
Sensory Memory
Working Memory
Long-term Memory
The Three Stages of Memory
Sensory Memory
Working Memory
Long-term Memory
Preserves brief sensory impressions of stimuli
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
The First Stage: Sensory Memory
•On the next slide, you will see a series of letters for one second •Try to remember as many letters as you can
•DO NOT WRITE THEM DOWN
D J BX H GC L Y
The First Stage: Sensory Memory
• How many can you recall?
D J BX H GC L Y
The First Stage: Sensory Memory
• A. Capacity/Duration• Holds the barrage of incoming
sensations just long enough for brain to scan it and decide which information needs attention….1/4 of a sec
• Lasts just long enough to dissolve into another and give us a sense of flow and continuity in our experience
The First Stage: Sensory Memory
• Actual storage capacity can be 12 or more items, but all but 3 or 4 disappear before they enter our consciousness
The First Stage: Sensory Memory• B. Structure/Function• There is as separate sensory register for each
sense…each holds a different kind of sensory information
Visual Stimulation = Iconic MemoryAuditory Stimulation = Echoic MemoryTactile (touch) Stimulation = Tactile Sensory MemoryOlfactory Stimulation = Olfactory Sensory MemoryGustatory Stimuli = Gustatory Sensory Memory
The First Stage: Sensory Memory
• The job of sensory memory is to store these images briefly If they were held too long, they would interfere with new
information• Psychologists believe that, in this stage, memory images take the form
of nerve impulses
The Three Stages of Memory
Sensory Memory
Working Memory
Long-term Memory
Preserves recently perceived events or experiences for less than a minute without rehearsal, also called short-term memory or STM
The Second Stage: Working Memory
• Working memory consists of…
• A central executive• A phonological loop• The sketchpad
Three Parts of Working Memory
• Central Executive: Directs attention to material retrieved from LTM or to important input from the
sensory memory
• Phonological Loop: Temporarily stores sounds….like someone’s name
• Sketchpad: Stores and manipulates mental images…like when you can imagine yourself
driving a car to school from home
Working Memory• Like the central processing chip
of a computer
• The center of mental action AND the go-between for the other parts of memory
• It is where the brain sorts out and encodes information before adding it to long term memory
• We are conscious of everything in the working memory
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Working Memory
• Also the area where ‘thinking’ occurs… which is the brain mulling over images and ideas taken from the LTM
• AKA = Short Term Memory Example: A phone number you just
looked up
Capacity/Duration• Has limited capacity and a short
duration • Typically hold information for
about 20 seconds
• “Magic Number Seven” …seven items of any sort..(letters, numbers, words, shapes, sounds) will fill the working memory of most people
• Has the smallest capacity of the three stages
“Put on your thinking cap”
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Biological Basis: Working memory probably holds information in actively firing nerve circuits…most likely in the frontal cortex
Encoding and Storage in Working Memory• I. Chunking
• II. Rehearsal• Maintenance Rehearsal• Elaborate Rehearsal
• III. Acoustic Encoding: The Phonological Loop
• IV. Visual and Spatial Encoding.. the sketchpad
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Working Memory Aides To Overcome Limited Capacity and Short Duration
Chunking Organizing pieces of information into a smaller number of meaningful units
• Example: A social security number
F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M
FBI TWA CIA IBM
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Acronyms
HOMES Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie,
Superior
PEMDAS Parentheses, Exponent,
Multiply, Divide, Add, Subtract
ROY G. BIV Red, Orange, Yellow, Green,
Blue, Indigo, Violet
NATO North Atlantic Treaty
Organization
SNAFU Situation Normal, All F***ed
Up
WTF Williamstown Theater Festival
Acronyms are another way of chunking information to remember it.
Rehearsal Process in which information is repeated or reviewed to keep it from fading while in working memory
Spacing EffectWe retain information
better when we rehearse over time
Rehearsal
Maintenance Rehearsal Repeating information to
remember it
Ex: Cramming for a test, a shopping list in your head • Not an efficient method of
transferring information into the LTM
Elaborate Rehearsal Repeating information AND connecting it to knowledge
already stored in LTM • A more efficient method of
transferring information into the LTM
• Ex: 1-800-EYE-EXAM
Acoustic Encoding Encoded memory of a stimulus on the basis of any sound associated with it
Whrr -- pop -- splash -- cuckoo: You can hear in your mind the sounds they describe
Examples:
Hearing words and phrases
Repeating notes to yourself while studying.
Working Memory Aides To Overcome Limited Capacity and
Short Duration
• Visual and Spatial Encoding... The Sketchpad
• Encodes visual images and mental representations of objects in space• • Example: Holds those images you think of when trying to remember
where you left your lost coat
Working Memory Aides To Overcome Limited Capacity and
Short Duration
Explanation for the fact that the more connections you make with new information while it is in the working memory to prior knowledge in the LTM, the more likely you are to remember it.
Also known as… Elaboration or Elaborative Rehearsal
Levels-of-Processing Theory
The Three Stages of Memory
Sensory Memory
Working Memory
Long-term Memory
Stores material organized according to meaning, also called LTM
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Capacity and Duration: • Largest capacity and duration
• Capacity is unlimited • Lasts a lifetime unless damaged/dementia
• Unknown why it has unlimited capacity • Stores information according to meaning
The Third Stage:Long-Term Memory
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Parts of the Brain Associated with Long Term Memory
Amygdala and Hypothalamus Strengthens memories that have strong emotional
associations…. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Visual Cortex Generating visual images
Hippocampus• Deterioration of the hippocampus the cause of Alzheimer’s
Disease• Long term memories make a stop here before going into long term
storage
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
The Third Stage:Long-Term Memory
Procedural Memory Division of LTM that stores memories for how things are done
Example: How to tie a shoe
Declarative Memory Division of LTM that stores explicit information (also known as fact memory)
Requires some conscious
mental effort
Example: The capital of Alberta
Yes…this was intentional
Subdivisions of Declarative Memory
Episodic Memory
Memory that stores personal events, or
“episodes”
Semantic Memory
Memory that stores general knowledge,
including meanings of words and concepts
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Please read the following story, and be prepared to have your memory tested for one of its sentences.
This is an interesting story about the telescope. In Holland, a man named Lippershey was an eyeglass maker. One day his children were playing with some lenses. They discovered that things seemed very close if two lenses were held about a foot apart. Lippershey began experimenting, and his “spyglass” attracted much attention. He sent a letter about it to Galileo, the great Italian scientist. Galileo at once realized the importance of the discovery and set about to build an instrument of his own. He used an old organ pipe with one lens curved out and the other in. On the first clear night he pointed the glass toward the sky. He was amazed to find the empty dark spaces filled with brightly gleaming stars! Night after night Galileo climbed to a high tower sweeping the sky with his telescope. One night he saw Jupiter, and to his great surprise discovered near it three bright stars, two to the east and one to the west.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Now decide which one of the following sentences was in the story
A. He sent Galileo, the great Italian scientist, a letter about it.
B. A letter about it was sent to Galileo, the great Italian scientist.
C. Galileo, the great Italian scientist, sent him a letter about it.
D. He sent a letter about it to Galileo, the great Italian scientist.
Semantic memory
Includes memory for:language, factsgeneral knowledge
Episodic memory
Includes memory for:events, personal experiences
Includes memory for:motor skills, operant and classicalconditioning
Long-term memory
Declarative memory Procedural memory
Eidetic Memory• The so-called “photographic” memory• An "unfounded myth?????" • Evidence of it is found more often in children than adults
Eidetic memory as observed in children is typified by the ability of an individual to study an image for approximately 30 seconds, and maintain a nearly perfect photographic memory of that image for a short time once it has been removed
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A4ugfCjqlZ4
The Biological Basisof Long-Term Memory
• Engram or Memory TracePhysical change in the brain associated with memory
Where are memories held????…Probably anywhere
• Long-term Potentiation (po-TEN-she-a-shun)
The long-lasting improvement in communication between two neurons that results from stimulating them simultaneously
Consolidation The process by which short-term memories are changed to long-term memories
The Biological Basisof Long-Term Memory
AmnesiaAnterograde Amnesia Inability to form memories for new information
Retrograde Amnesia –Inability to remember information previously stored in memory
• Watch 50 First Dates trailer• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ErjP5xMTc
8I
Flashbulb Memories
Clear, vivid long term memory of an especially meaningful and emotional event
Usually accurate for at least the first year after the event
Information can be lost, but not destroyed or deleted
• Watch 9/11 Flashbulb Memories on Youtube• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=evj6q0eCdd8
Long-term memory
Working orShort-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Sensory Memory
AttentionEncoding
Retrieval
Maintenance Rehearsal
¼ of a second 20 seconds Forever?
Forgetting
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