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1.What is language planning?

2. What are the types of language planning?

3. What are language planning goals?

4. What are language planning processes?

5. What is linguistic interference?

6. What is language shift and death?

7. What are the reasons for Englishs vast borrowings?

8. What is standard language and what are its properties?

9. What is multilingualism?

10. What is bilingualism?

11. What are the causes for language death?

12. What is national language?

13. What is official language?

14. What are varieties and what are their types?

15. What is language contact?

16. What are the consequences of language contact?

17. What is variation and what are the types of variation?

18. What is written language and spoken language and what are

the differences between them?

21.What are forms of language endangerement?5.Language transfer(also known as L1 interference, linguistic interference, and crossmeaning)

refers to speakers or writers applying knowledge from their native language to a second language.

6.Language shiftis the replacement of one language by another as the primary means of

communication and socialization within a community. Language death(also language

extinction, linguistic extinctionor linguicide,[1]

and rarely also glottophagy[2]

)is a process that

affects speech communities where the level oflinguistic competencethat speakers possess of a

givenlanguage varietyis decreased, eventually resulting in no native or fluent speakers of the

variety.

7. Reasons of vast borrowings in English: In the Middle Ages the Arabic world was advanced in

many sciences and thus, a lot of words have been passed on during this time to other

languages and also to English (some of the best known examples are alchemy, alcohol, and

algebra); the question of identity; prestige; need for a new word; a new product of the naturalworld is encountered; Christian missionaries coming to Britain in the 6th century and 7th century

brought with them Latin religious terms which entered the English language:
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abbot, altar, apostle,candle, clerk, mass, minister, monk, nun,pope,priest, school, shrive;

approximately 600 words were borrowed from Latin during the Old English period.[4]

Often, the Latin

word was severely restricted in sense, and was not widespread in use among the general populace.

Latin words tended to be literary or scholarly terms and were not very common. The majority of

them did not survive into the Middle English Period.; From 1066 untilHenry IV of Englandascended

the throne in 1399, the royal court of England spoke aNormanlanguage that became

progressivelyGallicisedthrough contact withFrench.; By the timeMiddle Englisharose as the

dominant language in the late 14th century, the Normans had contributed roughly 10,000 words to

English of which 75% remain in use today. Continued use of Latin by the Church and centres of

learning brought a steady, though dramatically reduced, influx of new Latin lexical borrowings.

8. A standard language(also standard dialect or standardized dialect) is a language variety used by a

group of people in their public discourse. Standard languages commonly feature:

1. A recognized dictionary (standardized spelling and vocabulary)

2. A recognized grammar

3. A standard pronunciation (educated speech)

4. A linguistic institution defining usage norms, e.g. Acadmie franaise, or Real Academia

Espaola

5. Constitutional (legal) status (frequently as an official language)

6. Effective public use (court, legislature, schools)

7. A literary canon

8. Convenience speaking

9. Popularity and acceptance in the community and the last one is Population

9.Multilingualismis the act of usingpolyglotism,or using multiplelanguages,either by an individual

speaker or by a community of speakers.

10. Bilingualism Using two languages in some proportion in order to facilitate learning by students

who have a native proficiency in one language and are acquiring proficiency in the other.

11.Causes of language death: catastrophic natural causes (famine, drought, hurricane etc.),

desertification, cultural assimilation, urbanization, bilingualism, denudation of most of language

domains, language shift, negative attitude toward ones language.

12.A national languageis a language (or language variant, i.e. dialect) which has some connectionde

facto or de jurewith a people and perhaps by extension the territory they occupy. there are "four

quite distinctive meanings" for national language in a polity:

10. "Territorial language" (chthonolect, sometimes known as chtonolect) of a particular people

11. "Regional language" (choralect)

12. "Language-in-common or community language" (demolect) used throughout a country

13. "Central language" (politolect) used by government and perhaps having a symbolic value.
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13. An official languageis alanguagethat is given a special legal status in a particularcountry, state, or

other jurisdiction.Typically a country's official language refers to the language used within its

governmentits courts, parliament, administration, etc.to run its operations and conduct its business

14. In sociolinguistics a variety, also called alect, is a specific form of a language or language expression.

Two broad types of varieties. "(1) user-related varieties, associated with particular people and often

places, . . . [and] (2) use-related varieties, associated with function, such as legal English(the language of

courts, contracts, etc.) and literary English(the typical usage of literary texts, conversations, etc.)."

15. Language contactoccurs when two or morelanguagesorvarietiesinteract. Language contact occurs

in a variety of phenomena, includinglanguage convergence,borrowing,andrelexification.The most

common products arepidgins,creoles,code-switching,andmixed languages.

16. Consequences of language contactare in two levels: phonetic/phonological level and lexical level.

substratum influence

17.Variationany form of morphophonemic change, such as one involved in inflection, conjugation, or

vowel mutation. Types of variation are: region, social group, field of discourse, medium attitude.

18. A written languageis the representation of alanguageby means of awriting system.Spoken

language islanguageproduced in its spontaneous form. In spoken language, much of the meaning is

determined by the context.

Writing is usually permanent and written texts cannot usually be changed once they have been

printed/written out.

Speech is usually transient, unless recorded, and speakers can correct themselves and change their

utterances as they go along.

A written text can communicate across time and space for as long as the particular language and

writing system is still understood.

Speech is usually used for immediate interactions.

19.Youth migrate to Athens and assimilate as Greeks. Some cultural revival since the 1980s. Rapid

language shift so regular use is probably confined to a much smaller number of people (2007). Older

adults; few if any children learn the language.

20.Loanworda linguistic item taken from another language and completely or partially

naturalized(used in its original form), whereas a calque is a compound word or a phrase borrowed from

a foreign language by straightforward translation (calquing includessemantictranslation,it does not

consist ofphoneticmatching; is a related concept where themeaningoridiomis borrowed rather than

thelexical itemitself.)21.An endangered languageis alanguagethat is at risk of falling out of use as its speakers die out

orshiftto speaking another language.three main criteria are used as guidelines: the number and age ofcurrent speakers, whether the youngest generations are acquiring fluency in the language.

UNESCOdistinguishes four levels of endangerment in languages, based on intergenerational transfer:[2]

Vulnerable: Most children speak the language, but it may be restricted to certain domains
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(e.g., home).

Definitely endangered: Children no longer learn the language as mother tongue in the home.

Severely endangered: Language is spoken by grandparents and older generations; while the

parent generation may understand it, they do not speak it to children or among themselves.

Critically endangered: The youngest speakers are grandparents and older, and they speak the

language partially and infrequently.

There are those causesthat put the populations that speak the languages in physical danger,

such as:Natural disasters,famine,disease.An example of this is the languages spoken by the

people of the Andaman Islands, who were seriously affected by the2004 Indian Ocean

earthquake and tsunami; Warandgenocide.Examples of this are the language(s) of the

indigenous population ofTasmaniawho were wiped out by colonists, and many extinct and

endangered languages of the Americas whereindigenous peopleshave been subjected to

genocidal violence, or in the cases of theMiskito languageinNicaraguaand theMayanlanguagesofGuatemalahave been affected by civil war.

Causes which prevent or discourage speakersfrom using a language, such as:

Political repression.This has frequently happened when nation-states working to promote a

single national culture limit the opportunities for using minority languages in the public

sphere, schools, the media, and elsewhere, sometimes even prohibiting them altogether.

Sometimes ethnic groups are forcibly resettled, or children may be removed to be schooled

away from home, or otherwise have their chances of cultural and linguistic continuity

disrupted. This has happened in the case of manyNative AmericanandAustralian languages,

as well as European and Asian minority languages such

asBretonorAlsatianinFranceandKurdishinTurkey.

Cultural/political/economic marginalization/hegemony.This happens when political andeconomical power is closely tied to a particular language and culture so that there is a strong

incentive for individuals to abandon their language (on behalf of themselves and their

children) in favor of another more prestigious one. This frequently happens when indigenous

populations, in order to achieve a higher social status, adopt the cultural and linguistic traits

of a people who have come to dominate them through colonisation, conquest, or invasion;

examples of this kind of endangerment are theWelsh languageinGreat Britain,

andAinuinJapan.This is the most common cause of language endangerment.[1]

Language endangerment affects the community and the language.

There are three steps that can be taken in order to stabilize or rescue the language: Languagedocumentationis the documentation in writing and audio-visual recording ofgrammar,vocabulary, and oral traditions (e.g.

stories, songs, religious texts) of endangered languages. It entails producing descriptive grammars, collections of texts anddictionaries of the languages, and it requires the establishment of a secure archive where the material can be stored once it is

produced so that it can be accessed by future generations of speakers or scientists.[1]

Language revitalizationis the process by which a language community through political, community, and educational means

attempts to increase the number of active speakers of the endangered language.[1]This process is also sometimes referred to

aslanguage revival or reversing language shift.[1]Vocabulary and courses are available online for a number of endangered

languages.[31]

Language maintenance refers to the support given to languages that need for their survival to be protected from outsiders who
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red_language#cite_note-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangered_language#cite_note-Handbook-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_revitalizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangered_language#cite_note-Handbook-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_revitalizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangered_language#cite_note-Handbook-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_documentationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_documentationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangered_language#cite_note-Handbook-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ainu_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Britainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_hegemonyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_imperialismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkeyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurdish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alsatian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breton_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Australian_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_American_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_repressionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guatemalahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayan_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayan_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicaraguahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miskito_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_peopleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasmaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake_and_tsunamihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake_and_tsunamihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faminehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_disaster


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