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Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Chapter 11Chapter 11
Testing and Individual Differences
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• ISBN: 0-131-73180-7
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Measuring individual differences is an essential
component of psychology, but strict guidelines and ethical
standards must be followed to ensure results and conclusions
are valid and appropriate
How Do We MeasureHow Do We MeasureIndividual Differences?Individual Differences?
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Validity and ReliabilityValidity and Reliability
Validity –A property exhibited by a test that measures what it purports to measure• Face validity• Content validity• Item analysis• Criterion validity
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Validity and ReliabilityValidity and Reliability
Reliability – A property exhibited by a test that yields the same results over time• Test-retest reliability• Split-half reliability
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Standardization and NormsStandardization and Norms
Scientists use statistics to establish a normal curve
This curve can be used to describe most phenomena
Normal range – Scores falling near the middle of a normal distribution
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The Normal Distribution of IQ ScoresThe Normal Distribution of IQ Scores
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200100
Few
Many
Num
ber
of P
erso
ns
IQ
Nor
mal
Ran
ge
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Types of TestsTypes of Tests
Objective tests can be scored easily by machine
In subjective tests, individuals are given an ambiguous figure or an open-ended situation and asked to describe what they see or finish a story
Inter-rater reliability measures how similarly two different test scorers would score a test
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Ethics and Standards in TestingEthics and Standards in Testing
Ethical concerns related to testing involve:The confidentiality of the test results
How to report the results
How to use the test to compare individuals
The impact of tests on society as a whole
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How is IntelligenceHow is IntelligenceMeasured?Measured?
Intelligence testing has a history of controversy, but
most psychologists now view intelligence as a normally
distributed trait that can be measured by performance on
a variety of tasks
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How is IntelligenceHow is IntelligenceMeasured?Measured?
Binet-Simon Test calculated a child’s mental age and compared it to his or her chronological age
In America, testing became widespread for the assessment of Army recruits, immigrants, and schoolchildren
The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale is the most respected of the new American tests of intelligence
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How is IntelligenceHow is IntelligenceMeasured?Measured?
Intelligence quotient –A numerical score on an intelligence test, original computed by dividing a person’s mental age by chronological age and multiplying by 100
The original IQ calculation was abandoned in favor of standard scores based on the normal distribution
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The Exceptional ChildThe Exceptional Child
Mental retardation –Often conceived as representing the lower 2% of the IQ range
Giftedness –Often conceived as representingthe upper 2% of the IQ range
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What Are the ComponentsWhat Are the Componentsof Intelligence?of Intelligence?
Some psychologists believe that the essence of
intelligence is a single, general factor, while others believe intelligence is best described as a collection of
distinct abilities
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What Are the ComponentsWhat Are the Componentsof Intelligence?of Intelligence?
Savant syndrome –Found in individuals who have a remarkable talent even though they are mentally slow in other domains
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Psychometric Theories of IntelligencePsychometric Theories of Intelligence
g Factor –A general ability, proposed by Spearman as the main factor underlying all intelligent mental activity
Charles Spearman and his Charles Spearman and his G factorG factor
Used factor analysis and discovered that what we see as many different skills is actually one General Intelligence.
If you are good at one subject you are usually good at many others.
Jack Bauer is good at torturing, bomb defusing, shooting, figuring out evil plots and saving the country (and he is good looking). Is there anything he cannot do?
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Psychometric Theories of IntelligencePsychometric Theories of Intelligence
Crystallized intelligence –The knowledge a person has acquired, plus the ability to access that knowledge
Fluid intelligence –The ability to see complex relationships and solve problems
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Cognitive Theories of IntelligenceCognitive Theories of Intelligence
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
Robert Sternberg and his Triarchic Robert Sternberg and his Triarchic TheoryTheory
• Most commonly accepted theory today.
• Three types of intelligence
1.Analytical
2.Creative
3.Practical
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Sternberg’s Triarchic TheorySternberg’s Triarchic Theory
Ability to cope with the environment; “street smarts”
Practical Practical IntelligenceIntelligence
Analytical Intelligence
Creative Intelligence
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Sternberg’s Triarchic TheorySternberg’s Triarchic Theory
Ability to analyze problems and find correct answers; ability measured by most IQ tests
also called logical reasoning
Practical Intelligence
Analytical Analytical IntelligenceIntelligence
Creative Intelligence
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Sternberg’s Triarchic TheorySternberg’s Triarchic Theory
Form of intelligence that helps people see new relationships among concepts; involves insight and creativity
Practical Intelligence
Analytical Intelligence
Creative Creative IntelligenceIntelligence
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Gardner’s Multiple IntelligencesGardner’s Multiple Intelligences
LinguisticLinguistic
Logical-MathematicalLogical-Mathematical
SpatialSpatial
MusicalMusical
Bodily-KinestheticBodily-Kinesthetic
InterpersonalInterpersonal
IntrapersonalIntrapersonal
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Gardner’s Multiple IntelligencesGardner’s Multiple Intelligences
LinguisticLinguistic
Logical-Mathematical
Spatial
Musical
Bodily-Kinesthetic
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
Often measured on IQ tests with reading comprehension and vocabulary tests
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Gardner’s Multiple IntelligencesGardner’s Multiple Intelligences
Linguistic
Logical-MathematicalLogical-Mathematical
Spatial
Musical
Bodily-Kinesthetic
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
Often measured on IQ tests with analogies, math problems and logic problems
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Gardner’s Multiple IntelligencesGardner’s Multiple Intelligences
Linguistic
Logical-Mathematical
SpatialSpatial
Musical
Bodily-Kinesthetic
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
Ability to form mental images of objects and think about their relationships in space
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Gardner’s Multiple IntelligencesGardner’s Multiple Intelligences
Linguistic
Logical-Mathematical
Spatial
MusicalMusical
Bodily-Kinesthetic
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
Ability to perceive and create patterns of rhythms and pitches
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Gardner’s Multiple IntelligencesGardner’s Multiple Intelligences
Linguistic
Logical-Mathematical
Spatial
Musical
Bodily-KinestheticBodily-Kinesthetic
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
Ability for controlled movement and coordination
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Gardner’s Multiple IntelligencesGardner’s Multiple Intelligences
Linguistic
Logical-Mathematical
Spatial
Musical
Bodily-Kinesthetic
InterpersonalInterpersonal
Intrapersonal
Ability to understand other people’s emotions, motives and actions
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Gardner’s Multiple IntelligencesGardner’s Multiple Intelligences
Linguistic
Logical-Mathematical
Spatial
Musical
Bodily-Kinesthetic
Interpersonal
IntrapersonalIntrapersonal
Ability to know oneself and to develop a sense of identity
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Gardner’s Three New IntelligencesGardner’s Three New Intelligences
Naturalistic intelligence
Spiritual intelligence
Existential intelligence
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Cultural Definitions of IntelligenceCultural Definitions of Intelligence
Cross-cultural psychologists have shown that “intelligence” has different meanings in different cultures
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How Do Psychologists How Do Psychologists Explain IQ DifferencesExplain IQ Differences
Among Groups?Among Groups?
While most psychologists agree that both heredity and
environment affect intelligence, they disagree on the source of IQ differences
among racial and social groups
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How Do Psychologists Explain IQ How Do Psychologists Explain IQ Differences Among Groups?Differences Among Groups?
Hereditarian arguments maintain that intelligence is substantially influenced by genetics
Environmental approaches argue that intelligence can be dramatically shaped by influences such as• Health• Economics• Education
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Heritability and Group DifferencesHeritability and Group Differences
Heritability – Amount of trait variation within a group, raised under the same conditions, that can be attributed to genetic differences
Heritability says nothing about between-group differences
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Heritability and Group DifferencesHeritability and Group Differences
Research with twins and adopted children shows genetic influences on a wide range of attributes, including intelligence
Research has also shown that racial and class differences in IQ scores can be eliminated by environmental changes
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End of Chapter 11End of Chapter 11
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