Jeffersonian America

Two Party System -The ELECTION OF 1796 was the first election in American history where political CANDIDATES at the local, state, and national level began to run for OFFICE as members of organized political parties that held strongly opposed political principles. -The people now understood themselves as a fundamental force in legitimating government authority. In the modern American political system, voters mainly express themselves through allegiances within a competitive party system. -1796 was the first election where this defining element of modern political life began to appear.

-The two parties adopted names that reflected their most cherished values:

1. The Federalists of 1796 attached themselves to the successful campaign in favor of the Constitution and were solid supporters of the federal administration.

-The party had its strongest support among those who favored Hamilton's policies. Merchants, creditors and urban artisans who built the growing commercial economy of the northeast provided its most dedicated supporters and strongest regional support.

2. The opposition party adopted the name DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICANS, which suggested that they were more fully committed to extending the Revolution to ordinary people.

1800 Election: -The harsh public antagonism of the 1790s largely came to an end with the victory of the Democratic- Republicans in the 1800 election. -The election of 1800 is noteworthy for the peaceful transition of government leadership from one political party to its opposition, demonstrating that such a process could be accomplished without widespread confusion, villainy, or violence. -Jefferson's election inaugurated a "VIRGINIA DYNASTY" that held the presidency from 1801 to 1825. -After Jefferson's two terms as president, he was followed by two other two-term Democratic-Republicans from Virginia, James Madison and James Monroe.

-Thomas Jefferson’s inauguration marked a major transition of power in America. Jefferson called this peaceful transfer of power a “revolution,” and in a sense that was true. Throughout history, governments (kings, autocrats, emperors) had rarely been replaced, except by death and inherited succession, without bloodshed or war. -This peaceful transition at the dawn of republican ideas ushered in a new century in appropriate style.

“We are all Republicans, we are all Federalists. If there be any among us who would wish to dissolve this Union or to change its republican form, let them stand undisturbed as monuments of the safety with which error of opinion may be tolerated where reason is left free to combat it. I know, indeed, that some honest men fear that a republican government can not be strong, that this Government is not strong enough; but would the honest patriot, in the full tide of successful experiment, abandon a government which has so far kept us free and firm on the theoretic and visionary fear that this Government, the world’s best hope, may by possibility want energy to preserve itself? I trust not. I believe this, on the contrary, the strongest Government on earth.”

-As Jefferson’s presidency progressed, followed by James Madison’s two terms in office, the Federalist Party gradually lost most of its political power after 1800 and ceased to exist altogether about 1816. -They lost out because they were unwilling to adopt popular campaign techniques, and they opposed territorial expansion and the War of 1812. Although the Federalists disappeared, a summary of the Federalist Contribution to American history is worthwhile:

1. The Federalists created a Constitution and got the nation underway under its provisions, a considerable feat. (Compare the French Revolution.) 2. The Federalists put the nation’s financial house in order.

3. The Federalists resolved significant diplomatic issues with Spain, France and England and postponed armed conflict until the nation was stronger.

-Jefferson was a true liberal in his pursuit of freedom of speech and religion, the spreading of republican (democratic) values far and wide, and in his general approach to government. -He was willing to see blood shed in the cause of freedom, not only during the American Revolution, but as a general principle. On the other hand, he felt that all government was a necessary evil, and that that government which governed best governed least. - He was one of the first sponsors of government-supported education for all children, and among his proudest achievements was the founding of the University of Virginia.

-Jefferson's Political Theory: 1. Jefferson did not favor a strong federal government. He said, “I own I am not a friend to a very energetic government. It is always oppressive. It places the governors indeed more at their ease, at the expense of the people.” (Thomas Jefferson ltr. to James Madison, December 20, 1787.) 2. He held a strong belief in a free press, freedom of religion and speech.

3. Jefferson did not like pomposity, formality, or aristocratic pretensions. He supported the yeoman farmer, who he felt he was the salt of the earth, and did not want America to become a nation of “mechanics” (laborers.) He also did not trust judges, bankers, or merchants—and he disliked urban life.

4. Although at that time it was considered ungentlemanly to “run” openly for public office, Jefferson worked hard behind the scenes to get elected in 1800.

5. Jefferson was an early advocate of government supported education, as he showed in the land ordinances of the 1780s, parts of which he authored.

-The following excerpts from Jefferson’s first inaugural capture not only his thinking, but they represent a near perfect embodiment of the ideals of the Enlightenment, of which he was a product.

“If there be any among us who would wish to dissolve this Union or to change its republican form, let them stand undisturbed as monuments of the safety with which error of opinion may be tolerated where reason is left free to combat it.”

“Equal and exact justice to all men …; peace, commerce, and honest friendship, with all nations—entangling alliances with none; the support of the state governments in all their rights, …; the preservation of the general government in its whole constitutional vigor, as the sheet anchor of our peace at home and safety abroad; a jealous care of the right of election by the people; absolute acquiescence in the decisions of the majority …; a well-disciplined militia—our best reliance in peace and for the first moments of war, till regulars may relieve them; the supremacy of the civil over the military authority; economy in the public expense, … ; the honest payment of our debts and sacred preservation of the public faith; encouragement of agriculture, and of commerce as its handmaid; … freedom of religion; freedom of the press; freedom of person under the protection of the habeas corpus; and trial by juries impartially selected.”

The Louisiana Purchase -Jefferson's presidency, like those of Washington and Adams, was dominated by foreign affairs issues because of the wars resulting of the French Revolution. -By the time Jefferson became president, Napoleon had risen to power in France and had embarked upon the creation of a worldwide empire. Secretary of State James Madison had long believed that the strength of American commerce could be an influential factor in European affairs. -The Mississippi River, along with the Ohio and Tennessee, which fed into it, had been seen since the 1780s as perhaps the most important communication avenue in the young nation, at least for the states and territories west of the Appalachians. The key to the commercial use of the Mississippi was New Orleans.

-Jefferson did not formally learn of the transfer of power until 1803, although he had been getting secret intelligence concerning Napoleon’s intentions in North America from friends in France. -Napoleon, meanwhile, had been planning to colonize the Louisiana territory. - A slave revolt in Haiti led by Toussaint L'Overture, however, upset Napoleon’s plans, and he stunned the Americans by offering them the whole Louisiana Territory. - Livingston and Monroe had been authorized to purchase only New Orleans; fearing that Napoleon might rescind the offer, however, they agreed to purchase the entire region for $15 million. -Although the Louisiana Purchase was one of the greatest real estate bargains in history, a surprising amount of opposition arose to the treaty. New England-based Federalists feared that adding more territory in the West would reduce their political influence relative to the rest of the nation.

Jefferson and John Marshall -John Marshall is judged by lawyers and historians to be the greatest Chief Justice in the history of the Supreme Court. -After years of public service in various capacities, including military duty under George Washington during the Revolution, and a distinguished legal career, Marshall was appointed Chief Justice by President John Adams in one of his final acts before leaving office. -Marshall was a Federalist who brought his attitudes of political nationalism to the bench. Yet within a few years of his appointment, most of the Federalist judges on the court had been replaced by Republicans appointed by Jefferson or Madison.

Marbury v. Madison. - William Marbury, appointed by John Adams as Justice of the Peace for the District of Columbia, was one of the “midnight judges,” so called because they were appointed by Adams at the last minute under the Judiciary Act of 1801. - When Jefferson became president he discovered that Marbury had not received his warrant. - Under the 1789 Judiciary Act, judges could sue for writs of mandamus—in this case getting the court to order the warrant delivered. Marbury sued for his warrant, but Jefferson ordered Secretary of State Madison not to deliver it. The case eventually made its way to the Marshall Court. - Marshall said that Marbury was entitled to his warrant, but could not sue for it in the Supreme Court, as he had been granted the right to do in the Judiciary Act of 1789. - Marshall found that portion of the act in conflict with the Constitution, which said that the Supreme Court had only appellate jurisdiction in such cases. He asserted the right of the Court to declare that section of the law null and void—in other words, unconstitutional.

- Authority to review legislation is called “judicial review,” and while Marshall did not invent it, he claimed that power for the Supreme Court. Marbury is considered by many to be Marshall’s most famous and important decision. - Judicial review is the idea, fundamental to the US system of government, that the actions of the executive and legislative branches of government are subject to review and possible invalidation by the judicial branch. - Judicial review allows the Supreme Court to take an active role in ensuring that the other branches of government abide by the constitution.

America in the Age of Napoleon - “The history of the country between 1803 and 1812 is the story of attempts to keep both peace and dignity,” noted one historian, and it rings true. - During the administrations of both Jefferson and Madison, America continued to be dominated by events in Europe. Diplomatic historian Thomas A. Bailey coined the phrase, “Europe's distresses spelled America’s successes,” but it worked the other way as well. - The events of the French Revolution dominated world affairs and to a great extent American domestic politics from the outbreak of the Napoleonic wars in 1792 to the defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo in 1815. - The American Revolution stirred passions far beyond the Anglo-American realm and For a time the French Revolution was seen as a successor event of the American Revolution. - But the two revolutions were very different. The American Patriots never claimed that George III did not have the right to rule; they merely argued that he did not have the right to rule them.

- Napoleon Bonaparte was one of the most skillful and successful military commanders in the history of the world. His French armies overran most of Europe and penetrated deep into Russia before succumbing to the Russian army and the Russian winter in 1812. - During the first decade of the 1800s, central and southern Europe were dominated by Napoleon, who declared himself Emperor of the French in 1804. His French army rolled over everything in its path during the wars of the French Empire, just as they had during the French revolutionary wars of the 1790s. - While the French possessed a powerful navy, they were challenged at sea by the traditional naval might of the British Empire. The Royal Navy, led during that period by Lord Horatio Nelson, was well-nigh invincible on the seas.

War of 1812: - In April 1809, British Minister Erskine, who was friendly to the U.S., negotiated a favorable treaty with the U.S., and President Madison claimed that all issues between the U.S. and Great Britain were resolved. - In a new incident at sea in 1811, an American ship, the U.S.S. President got into a scrap with the British Little Belt (left), which was badly battered. - Meanwhile, the British had again begun arousing the Indians in the Northwest Territory. The Indian Chief Tecumseh and his brother, The Prophet, attempted to form an Indian coalition to unify resistance against the Americans. - By 1812 troubles between the United States and Great Britain (and France, to a lesser extent) had reached a point of no return. - The major goal of American foreign policy during this era was to try to give the President enough flexibility so that he could punish nations that treated us badly and reward those who were more cooperative. Unfortunately Great Britain and France were locked in mortal combat, and neither was inclined to be cooperative with anybody, least of all the fledgling new republic across the ocean.