organisational behaviour -motivational theories

8/14/2019 Organisational Behaviour -Motivational Theories

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Theories

Fredrick Herzberg's theory

Adams equity theory

Victor vrooms expectancy theory


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FREDRICK HERZBERGS

THEORY
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FREDRICK HERZBERGSTHEORY

INTRODUCTION Frederick Herzberg (1923-2000), clinical

psychologist and pioneer of 'job enrichment', is

regarded as one of the great original thinker inmanagement and motivational theory. Herzbergsmotivation theory is one of the content theories ofmotivation.

Fredrick Herzberg's theory of motivation is based on

the information collected by him and his associate byinterviewing two hundreds engineers and accountantsin nine different companies at Pittsburgh, USA. Theinformation collected relates to the attitude ofpeople towards work.


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Fredrick Herzberg's and his associates (1959)were the first to identify that there are two setsof factor in the work setting that affect

employees job attitude. This attitude depends upon two set of factors

namely hygiene or maintenance factor andmotivating factor and is often referred to as a

two need system. These two separate needs are the need to avoidunpleasantness and discomfort and, at the otherend of the motivational scale, the need forpersonal development. A shortage of the factorsthat positively encourage employees (themotivating factors) will cause employees to focuson other, non-job related hygiene factors.


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MOTIVATION FACTOR

There are very few employees who feel thatthey do not deserve what they get, butthere are no of employees who feel thatthey are not getting what they deserve. Thisbrings out the importance of motivators.

Achievement

Recognition

Growth/advancement Interest in the job


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The most important part of this theory of motivationis that the main motivating factors are not in theenvironment but in the intrinsic value and satisfaction

gained from the job itself. It follows therefore thatto motivate an individual, a job itself must bechallenging, have scope for enrichment and be ofinterest to the jobholder. Motivators (sometimescalled satisfiers) are those factors directly

concerned with the satisfaction gained from a job,such as: The sense of achievement and the intrinsic value

obtained from the job itself The level of recognition by both colleagues and

management The level of responsibility Opportunities for advancement and The status provided.


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Motivators lead to satisfaction because of theneed for growth and a sense of self-achievement.Motivating factors act as a forces of job

satisfaction. motivation factors make people happywith their jobs because they serve mans basicneeds for psychological growth. A lack ofmotivators leads to over-concentration on hygiene

factors


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HYGIENE FACTORHerzbergs second components in his approach to motivationtheory involves what are known as hygiene factors and includes

the work and organizational environment.This Hygiene factor includes organization Its policies and its administration

The kind of supervision Working conditions Interpersonal relation Salary Status

Job security


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According to Herzberg, hygiene factors are onlypreventive in nature. they simply preventdissatisfaction. That means, taking care of themwill prevent dissatisfaction among the employees

but will not motivate the employees. hygienefactors bring motivation to theoretical zero leveland provide the necessary floor or launching padfor motivators to take off. only the motivatorsmotivate human being on the job.

According to Herzberg, the hygiene factors dolittle contribution to provide job satisfaction. hecalled them dissatisfiers as their absence causedissatisfaction but their presence is not motivatingbut only prevent dissatisfaction. The hygienefactors meet mans needs to avoid unpleasantnessbut do not motivate them to take more interest inthe work. This factors are related to theconditions of work than with the work it self.


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Criticism

The findings of this model can not universallyapplicable as study was on upper levelwhite caller employees.

The second criticism is that when the criticalincident method was not used, theresearchers got different kinds of responses.

There is criticism about the clear distinction

between satisfiers and dissatisfiers. Therewould be certain factors relating to the jobwhich are satiesfiers and dissatisfiers at thesame time.


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ConclusionDespite these drawbacks, herzbergs

two-factor theory is a greatcontribution to the field of

organizational motivators that till then

had been either neglected orcompletely overlooked.


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EQUITY THEORY


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ADAMS EQUITY THEORYJohn Stacey Adams, a workplace and behavioral psychologist,

put forward his equity theory on job motivation in1963.Much like many of the more prevalent theories ofmotivation, the Adams Theory features more awareness,cognizance of wider situation and crucial comparison.

In our common life, when people feel fairly or advantageouslytreated they are more likely to be motivated, when theyfeel unfairly treated they are highly prone to feeling ofdissatisfaction and demotivation. The way that peoplemeasure this sense of fairness is at the heart of EquityTheory.
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OVERVIEW OF EQUITY

THEORYIt is important to also consider theAdams Equity Theory factors when striving

to improve an employee's job satisfaction,motivation level, etc., and what can be doneto promote higher levels of each. Adam'scalled personal Efforts and Rewards andother similar Give and Take issues at workas INPUTS AND OUTPUTS respectively.


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INPUTS

Inputs are logically what we give or put into our work such as:

Efforts

Loyalty

Hard work

Commitment

Skill

Tolerance

Determination

Personal sacrifice, etc.


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OUTPUTSOutputs are everything we take out in return such as:

Salary ,benefits, perks, etc.

Intangibles that include,

Recognition

Reputation

ResponsibilityPraise

Sense of achievement

Growth, etc.


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Many of these points cant be quantifiedand perfectly compared, the theory

argues that managers should seek to finda fair balance between the inputs that anemployee gives and the outputs received.And according to the theory, employeesshould be content where they perceivethese to be in balance.


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IS THERE REALLY A RELATIONSHIPBETWEEN HOW HARD AN EMPLOYEE WORKS

AND HOW FAIRLY HE IS BEEN TREATED? Some noted economists believe that there exists such

relationship!

In any organization, the employees in addition to their

time contribute their experience, their qualifications,and their capability in addition to their personalstrengths. MONEY of course is the prime motivatingoutcome for an employee, but it is not the only, and in

some cases not even the most important factor.POWER and STATUS are also prime motivators.


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According to the Equity Theory, the most highlymotivated employee is the one who perceives his rewardsare equal to his contributions. If he feels that he is

working and being rewarded at about the same rate as hispeers, then he will judge that he is being treated fairly.This doesnt mean that every manager should treat everyemployee identically because every worker does notmeasure his contributions in the same way.

EXAMPLE:Flexible working hours might motivate a working mother

even more than a pay raise.


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Conversely, though an across the boardwage increase may delight more employees,the highest producers may become less

motivated if they perceive that they arenot being rewarded for their ambition. Thebasic idea behind the Equity Theory is thatworkers in an attempt to balance what theyput into their jobs and what they get fromthem, will unconsciously assign values toeach of his various contributions. HenceEquity Theory of Employee Motivationbasically describes the relationshipbetween how fairly an employee perceiveshe is treated and how hard he is motivatedto work.


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According to the equity theory employeescompare their outcome/input ratio with the

outcome/input ratio of others to determinewhether they are being treated fairly or unfairlyby the organization. These comparisons aredivided into 3 categories:-

1. Over rewarded inequity/ Positive inequity:-

A person feels over rewarded when hisoutcome/input ratio is greater than otherpersons outcome/input ratio with whom theperson compares himself.P outcome > O outcomeP input O input

Equity theory states that an overpaidworker feels guilty.


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2. Under rewarded inequity/ Negative inequity2. Under rewarded inequity/ Negative inequity A person feels under rewarded when hisA person feels under rewarded when his

outcome/input ratio is less than other persons outcome/inputoutcome/input ratio is less than other persons outcome/inputratio with the person compares himself.ratio with the person compares himself.

P outcome < O outcomeP outcome < O outcome

P input O inputP input O input

Equity theory states that underpaid workers feels angry.Equity theory states that underpaid workers feels angry.

3.Equity3.Equity:-:- A person feels equitably treated when hisA person feels equitably treated when his

outcome/input ratio is equal to others persons output/inputoutcome/input ratio is equal to others persons output/input

ratio with the person compares himself.ratio with the person compares himself.P outcome = O outcomeP outcome = O outcome

P input O inputP input O input

Equitably paid workers are said to feel satisfied.Equitably paid workers are said to feel satisfied.


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6.Under conditions of inequity peopleexperience tension, which in turn

creates the motivation to reduceinequity. Thus people are motivated toescape these negative emotional statesanger and guilt. Employees experiencinginequity will try to reduce it through acombination of 2 responses:-

Physical or Psychological

Internal or External


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Internal- Physical

Employee works harder at

his job.

Internal-PsychologicalEmployee might discountthe value of rewards

received.

External-PhysicalAn employee tries toconvince other workers to

ask for more rewards.

External-

Psychological

Employee might choosesomeone else for

comparison purposes.

Similarly the employees who feel under


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Similarly the employees who feel underrewarded may try to reduce inequity and

restore balance through these 4

responses:-

Internal-Physical

Employee may deliberately

lower the quantity or quality

of work.

Internal-Psychological

Employee might inflate thevalue of the rewards

received.

External-Physical

Employee might bargain for

more rewards.

External-Psychological

Employee might choose

someone to compare himself

more favorably.


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The equity model threw light on the areasof motivation by recognizing the influence

of social comparisons. Individuals areconcerned not only with the efforts but alsowith the absolute amount of rewards theyreceive for their efforts with therelationship of this amount to what otherreceives.

Research on the equity model has yieldedfavorable results as these results have beenmore supportive to under rewarded inequitythan over rewarded inequity.


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The equity is not free of limitations. Some of thedifficulties that managers encounter in using thismodel are:-

Difficulty in predicting inequity:-Predicting inequity is often difficult because

employees select a number of reference groups bothinside and outside the organization. Also employees

compare themselves to standards that are mostfavorable to them. For e.g. educated employeeemphasize on qualifications, while employees withlonger service emphasize seniority as the dominantcriterion.

Equity sensitivity:-Different individuals have different

preferences for inequity. Some people prefer to beover rewarded other prefer to be under rewarded.Identifying while category an employee belongs to isnot and easy task for managers.


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CONLUSION The idea behind Adamss equity theory is to strike a healthy

balance here, with outputs on side of the scale, inputs on theother-both weighing in a way that seem reasonably equal. If thebalance lies too far in favour of the employer, some employeesmay work to bring balance between inputs and outputs on theirown, by asking for more compensation or recognition. While

others will be demotivated and still others will seek alternativeemployment.


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Expectancy theoryIntroduction

Expectancy theory was introduced by victor vroom. He madeimportant contribution to the understanding of motivation and theprocesses used to determine how much efforts employees willexpand on their jobs. In short this theory expands on the work ofMaslow's and Herzberg. He introduced three important concepts areas follows:-

Expectancy Instrumentality

Valence

Force

E
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ExpectancyExpectancy denotes the anticipated probability

that a given level of work effort leads to aspecific level of performance. Vroom opines thatbefore an individual decides to put effort into theperformance of the task, he or she looks at the

various options available. Expectancy is defined asthe probability ranging from 0 to1 that certainefforts will lead to a certain outcome. If theemployee feels that he has no chance of meeting

target than his expectancy is 0.

The mere factthat he decides to put


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Expectancy

0

Low probability thatEfforts will lead

to performance

1

High probabilitythat efforts will lead

To performance


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Instrumentality

Instrumentality refers to the outcomes for each level ofjob performance of the individual. For instance, ifindeed through a high level of effort, highperformance is achieved, what will be the resultantoutcomes or instrumentalities? There are bothnegative and positive consequences in terms of effort

and reward outcomes. The value of instrumentalityranges from 0 to 1. if the employee strongly believesthat performance leads to promotion theninstrumentality is high. On the other handIf the employee is not clear as to what determines apromotion then instrumentality is low.


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Expectancy

0

Low probability thatEfforts will lead

to performance

+1

High probability

that efforts will lead

To performance


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Valence Valence is the extent of attraction (as opposed to repulsion)

of an outcome to the recipient of the reward. That is itdenotes the value or attraction of various possible outcomesfrom putting in effort. Valence can be positive or negative.The numerical value of valence may range from +1 to -1. Nomotivation is possible unless the valence is positive. Valence ispositive when the person prefers attaining the outcome ascompared with not attaining it. Valence is zero when the

person is indifferent to the outcome. Valence is negative whenthe person prefers not attaining the outcome as comparedwith attaining it.


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valence

-1

No attraction or

Preference for

The reward

0Indifferent to the

reward

+1Strong attraction

Or preference

For the reward


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ForceForce is the actual effort expanded by the individual on the

job (indicating the motivational level) and is, as we haveobserved, a function of the multiplicative effects of thesum of the effort to performance probabilities, the sum ofperformance to outcome probabilities, and valence. Force iscalculated thus:

force = [(E->P) x (P->O) x V]

Certainly, individuals in organization do not cognitively gothrough all the calculations described in the model attachingvalues for probabilities and valence. However, employees dointuitively and often cognitively go through processessomewhat on the lines described in the model while deciding

on how much effort you put in for studying for differentexaminations or writing various term papers


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organisational behaviour -motivational theories

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