078 motivational theories

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MOTIVATIONAL MOTIVATIONAL THEORIESTHEORIES

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BASIC MODEL OF MOTIVATION (NEEDS AND EXPECTATION)

• Mullins (1996) defined motivation as an internal driving force within the individual in which they ultimately are attempting to achieve their goad or some expectation and fulfil some needs.

• From this concept the basic motivational model is illustrated.

BASIC MODEL OF MOTIVATION BASIC MODEL OF MOTIVATION (NEEDS AND EXPECTATION)(NEEDS AND EXPECTATION)

Need orExpectation

Driving Force(Behaviour or

Action)

DesiredGoal

Fulfillment

Result Achieve

Which provides

Adopted from Mullins(1996)

Need orExpectation

Driving Force(Behaviour or

Action)

DesiredGoal

Fulfillment

Result Achieve

Which provides

Adopted from Mullins(1996)

BASIC MODEL OF MOTIVATION BASIC MODEL OF MOTIVATION (NEEDS AND EXPECTATION)(NEEDS AND EXPECTATION)

• Mullins asks what are people’s needs and expectations.

• What are the driving forces and how do they influence someone’s performance or behaviour.

• Motivation is complex and can be a very personal business.

• People have different needs and expectations and they try to satisfy in a number of different ways.

BASIC MODEL OF MOTIVATION (NEEDS BASIC MODEL OF MOTIVATION (NEEDS AND EXPECTATION)AND EXPECTATION)

• Therefore, at a basic level, the concept of motivation is closely linked to physiological need.

• However, since human behaviour is more complex than just striving to meet physiological need, such a model of motivation is oversimplified.

BASIC MODEL OF MOTIVATION (NEEDS BASIC MODEL OF MOTIVATION (NEEDS AND EXPECTATION)AND EXPECTATION)

Need orDis-equilibrium Drive Action or

BehaviourGoal state

Satisfactionof

Needor

return toequilibrium

Adopted from Cowling et al (1993)

MOTIVATIONAL THEORIESMOTIVATIONAL THEORIES

• Needs or expectation are fundamental requirements for one survival and wellbeing.

• Needs are either physical or physiological. • Needs influence values and values are a concept

that a person thinks is good to have. • Value has influence on jobs and goals, leads to

action or specific plans which one has disbelief that his goals will lead to the fulfilment of his needs (The Open University - The Business School, 1995).


Figure below shows the relationship between Needs, Value, Goals and Action.

Needs

e.g food

Values Goals

Action

e.g moneycan buy

e.g get paidregularly

e.g go towork


ECONOMIC NEEDS, MOTIVATION AND THE CONCEPT OF ECONOMIC MAN

• Frederick Taylor, an American engineer, was one of the first researchers in industrial psychology to apply scientific method to study the workforce.

• In 1880 he introduced scientific management technique to ensure workforce activity during the working hours and consequently tried to improve efficiency.

MOTIVATIONAL THEORIESMOTIVATIONAL THEORIES• Until then, no one tried to measure the

efficiency of workers and there was no scale by which to measure such efficiency.

• During this period, the traditional approach to motivation was based on a fundamental philosophy that, the best way to motivate workers was by giving them financial rewards to improve performance or by penalties.

• These rewards or incentives were in the form of promotion, shorter working hours, or higher salaries.


• The view of rational economic man has its roots on the economic theory of Adam Smith from the 1770's.

• The theory suggests that people are primarily motivated by self interest and by gaining more and more financial rewards (Cole, 1993:page 95).


• Taylor lay down techniques for design and management of work and how the workers should be paid.

• Taylor believed the outcome of scientific management would be an increase in efficiency and a firm would profit from this.

• This underlying benefit and assumption would allow the firm to pay more then average wages to the workforce.


• Taylor describes scientific management as a science with many rules, laws and formulas.

• This, therefore, replaces the judgement of individual workers.

• The work of any worker is planned in advance, and is accompanied with complete work instruction.

• The task is well described. • It enables the workers to carry out work in a

given pace.


• F W Taylor believed in economic need motivation.

• Workers are motivated if they are paid higher wages, by working efficiently and in the best productive way.

• Taylor looked at factors that motivated workers and believed motivation was a comparatively simple issue.

• In his view, what workers wanted more than anything was high wages (Mullins, 1996:page 485).


SOCIAL CONCEPT OF MOTIVATION-FROMECONOMICAL MAN TO SOCIAL MAN• In any organisation, managers and their

subordinates pursue organisational goals, such as efficiency, only because as a result of this their personal intrinsic gain will improve.

• There are other benefits such as financial compensation and other benefits

• There have been many articles, concepts of Taylor’s theory about scientific management.


• Taylor’s theory looks at a single factor taking no account of other influences and behaviour, or of variants between people and situations.

• His views towards workers are simplistic and generalised.

• He did not consider that the average man may also get satisfaction from his job, from working with his team workers (Gower & Rushbrook, 1983:page 27).


• Other human relations writers demonstrated that people go to work to satisfy a variety of needs, that they do not work only for economical means.

• They emphasised the importance of social needs rather than economical needs.

• Hawthorne demonstrated in his experiment that people do not only work for money (Mullins, 1996: p485).

• The human relation approach and management brought about the concept of economic man to social man.

EARLY MOTIVATIONAL THEORIESEARLY MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES

• All managers have a duty to motivate the workforce.

• Motivated people work better and take more pride in their jobs.

• Motivating people at work is a complex business. • There is not a single factor that can be isolated to

show what motivates people at work. • Different theories have been developed to help

management to understand that there are many motives that influence worker’s behaviour and performance.


• These theories provide a framework for management to pay attention to the problems associated with encouraging workers to work willingly and effectively.

• However, one must say that these theories are not conclusive, they have their critics.

• New ideas bring new theories that may contradict the original ideas.

• It is not difficult to bring a case that may contradict any generalised observation on how people are motivated at work.


• Scientific Management and work of F.W Taylor

• The Hawthorn experiment & Human Relation Experiment

• Development of many competing theories on the Nature of work motivation

• Content theory • Process theory

MOTIVATIONAL THEORIESMOTIVATIONAL THEORIESCONTENT THEORIES OF MOTIVATION Motivational theories are divided into twomain groups:• Content theories• Process theories• Some of the most well known content

theories that have been put forward over the last forty years are by Maslow, Alderfer, Herzberg, and McGregors.


MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS THEORY• Maslow’s concept of hierarchy of need is shown in

figure below

e.gHungerSleep

e.gProtection

fromdanger

e.gBelonging

AcceptanceSocial lifeFriendship

Love

e.gSelf-respectAchievement

StatusRecognition

e.gAccomplishment

Personal developmentPhysiological

Safety

Social

Esteem

Self actualization

e.gHungerSleep

e.gProtection

fromdanger

e.gBelonging

AcceptanceSocial lifeFriendship

Love

e.gSelf-respectAchievement

StatusRecognition

e.gAccomplishment

Personal developmentPhysiological

Safety

Social

Esteem

Self actualization


• Physiological needs – these are man’s physical needs for food, shelter, warmth, sexual needs and other functions related to the human body.

• Safety needs – the need to feel safe from physical danger and the need to maintain personal safety, whether it is physical, emotional or physiological.

• Social or affiliation needs – the need for love, the need to feel part of a group or organisation, sense of belonging, the need to give and receive love.


• Esteem needs (Ego needs) – this is either self esteem such as self acceptance, the need to respect ourselves, to feel confidence, to feel independent, free, and have a sense of achievement.

• Self-actualisation – this is the need for self-development, which is to develop the gifts or potentials one has to the full.


• The psychologist Frederick Herzberg first proposed the motivation-hygiene theory in 1959.

• Herzberg's motivation-hygiene or duel factor theory or two-factor theory came about because in his view the individuals relation to his or her workplace is a basic one.

• Whatever his or her attitude is in relation to the workplace will strongly determine whether an individual becomes successful or fails in his job.

• As a result Herzberg carried out a survey to prove his theory


• By removing the dis-satisfiers from the work environment does not necessarily make a job satisfying.

• His survey indicated the existence of a dual continuum.

• Herzberg called characteristics such as company policy, administration, supervision, working conditions and security, hygiene factors.

• If a company lacks hygiene factors the workforce will not be dissatisfied or satisfied.

• To increase motivation in a work environment Herzberg suggested emphasis should be placed on factors such as recognition, achievement or growth.


• Those answers which were determinants of job satisfaction were as follows,

• advancement, • recognition, • responsibility, • work itself The dis-satisfiers were:• company policy and administration, • supervision, • salary, interpersonal relations, • working conditions, (Cowling et al 1993).


• Herzberg concluded that the opposite to ‘satisfaction’ is ‘no satisfaction’, and the opposite of ‘dissatisfaction’ is ‘no dissatisfaction’, therefore suggesting that factors leading to job satisfaction are distinct from factors leading to job dissatisfaction.


• By removing the dis-satisfiers from the work environment does not necessarily make a job satisfying.

• His survey indicated the existence of a dual continuum.

• Herzberg called characteristics such as company policy, administration, supervision, working conditions and security, hygiene factors.


• If a company lacks hygiene factors the workforce will not be dissatisfied or satisfied.

• To increase motivation in a work environment Herzberg suggested emphasis should be placed on factors such as recognition, achievement or growth.


ERG THEORY• Professor Clayton Alderfer of Yale University carried

out empirical tests on need hierarchy. • His need theory was similar to Maslows but from his

test results he identified three groups of need rather than five groups of need which Maslow suggested earlier.

The three categories of need are:• Existence need – which are concerned with human

existence and survival. These survival needs include reproduction, physiological and safety needs of a material nature.


• Relatedness needs – concerned with our social needs and the need to be loved and respected. It also covers affiliation and meaningful interpersonal relationships of a safety or esteem nature.

• Growth needs – concerned with needs for personal growth. They cover self-esteem and


Alderfer makes three important points:• The less someone’s needs are satisfied in the

workplace, the more it becomes important to that person.

• The more a lower level need is satisfied the more important the next higher level need becomes.

• The less a higher level need is satisfied the more important the lower level need becomes.

Figure below shows Satisfaction-progression, frustration-Figure below shows Satisfaction-progression, frustration-regression components of ERG theoryregression components of ERG theory

Frustrationof existence

need

Importance ofexistence

need

Satisfaction ofexistence

need

Frustration ofrelatedness

need

Importance of

relatednessneed

Satisfaction ofrelatedness

need

Frustration ofgrowth need

Importance ofgrowth need

Satisfaction ofgrowth need

Table below shows comparison of Maslow and ERG Table below shows comparison of Maslow and ERG concepts.concepts.

MaslowCategories

ERGCategories

Physiological

Safety-material

Belonging (Social)

Esteem -interpersonal

Esteem -self-confirmed

Self-actualization

Existence

Relatedness

Grow th


PROCESS THEORY OF MOTIVATION • Process theory of motivation or theories of

behaviour choice are equity theory, expectancy theory, conditioning and goal setting theories.

• Process theories try to identify the relationship between variables, which together make up the motivation process amongst people working in an organisation.


• It is not easy to link a particular process theory to a single researcher but the main writers and their major works are:

• Equity theory – Adams.• Expectancy theory – base models – Vroom,

Porter and Lawler.• Goal setting theory – Locke.• Attribution theory – Heider, Kelley.


EQUITY THEORY OF MOTIVATION• Equity theory or social comparison

theory, suggests that workers compare themselves with others doing the same job in the same circumstances and judge the situation to see if they have been treated fairly (Cole, 1993:p95).


EXPECTANCY THEORY• The origin of Expectancy theory goes

back to Talman and Lewin in the 1930’s. • Vroom (1964) is possibly one of the most

prominent and influential of all researchers to formulate the expectancy/valance theory.

• He described human motivation as being determined by two variables


• The concept of balance relates to the order of performance one may have between a high salary and a prestigious job. Therefore, the attractiveness of outcome plays a major role.

• The concept of expectancy relates to an individual’s feeling and the likelihood of one’s action will lead to a certain outcome or goal.

• According to Vroom motivation is the result of the combination of expectancy and valance.


• In order to experience motivation the value of expectancy and valance must be greater than zero.

• Vroom also argued that the combination of expectancy and valance might change if a worker may predict a number of outcomes from his actions.

performanceOutcome B(Extrinsic)

Outcome C(Extrinsic)

Outcome A(Extrinsic)

Outcome E(Extrinsic)

Outcome D(Extrinsic)

Effort

EInstrumentality

Perceived probability of a first level out comeleading to second level of outcomeP Expectancy

Perceived probability of successfulperformance, given effort.

P TO O

Perceived probability of receivingan outcome, given successful performance

Major terms in Expectancy theory

Results related motivating factors and hygiene factors Determinants (Variable)

Chi-square test

(x2)

Corrltn Coefficient (r)

Significance Level of Association (p)

Ranks

Motivating Factors D41-Achievement D42-Recognition D43-Work itself D44-Responsibility D45-Advancement D46-Growth Hygiene Factors D47-Company policy D48-Supervision D49-Relationship with above D50- Relationship with equal D51- Relationship with below D52-Status D53-Job security D54-Salary D55-Personal Factors

15.39 8.13 0.82 16.00 15.18 4.38 0.18 20.74 6.16 6.14 6.35 0.53 8.53 17.89 0

0.77 0.48 0.13 0.94 0.56 0.44 0.21 0.94 0.30 0.43 0.38 -0.17 0.55 0.82 -0.19

P<0.001 P<0.001 P<0.1 (no significance) P<0.001 P<0.001 P<0.02 (no significance) P<0.5 (no significance) P<0.001 P<0.01 P<0.01 P<0.01 P<0.5 (no significance) P<0.001 P<0.001

4th

8th

12th

3rd

5th

11th

14th

1st

9th

10th

7th

13th

6th

2nd

151h

078 motivational theories

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