management process & organization behavior notes 7

7/28/2019 Management Process & Organization Behavior Notes 7

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Emotions Unit 7

Sikkim Manipal University 83

Unit 7 Emotions

Structure

7.1 Introduction

Objectives

7.2 Theories of emotion

Self Assessment Questions 1

7.3 Certain issues


7.4: Emotional intelligenceSelf Assessment Questions 3

7.5 Summary

Terminal Questions

Answer to SAQ’s and TQ’s

7.1 Introduction

In general, the term ’emotion’ is used to designate "a state of consciousness having to do with the

arousal of feelings (Webster’s New World Dictionary)." It is "distinguished from other mental states,from cognition, volition, and awareness of physical sensation." Feeling refers to "any of the subjective

reactions, pleasant or unpleasant" that one may experience in a situation.

Learning objectives:

The learning objectives of this unit are as follows:

· Theories of emotion

· Emotional intelligence



Emotions Unit 7


7.2 Theories Of Emotion:

There are many theories of emotion:

I. James-Lange Theory (1890) [cited in Taylor, 1999]: Subjective emotional responses are the result

of physiological changes within human bodies. The brain perceives an event and, in turn, sends

messages down its neural circuitry to other areas of the brain. This action ultimately produces motor,

autonomic and endocrine responses. These responses elicit an emotional response, which in turn, is

perceived by the brain. Therefore, it is a cyclical process. This theory argues that physiological

behaviors precede the emotion.

II. Cannon-Bard theory (1927) [cited in Taylor, 1999]: Emotion-provoking events induce the

subjective emotional experiences and physiological arousal simultaneously. Through experiences,

individuals begin to acquire certain expectations for every given situation. These expectations

provide a filter and every situation is processed through this filter. During this process, brain

produces the emotion and corresponding physiological behaviors at the same time.

III. Schachter-Singer theory (1962): Both feedback from peripheral responses and a cognitive

appraisal of what caused those responses produce emotions. How one interprets the peripheral

response will determine the emotion he / she feels. Individuals label the emotional response

depending on what we think is causing the response. For example, when someone interprets a

stimulus as dangerous, it leads to physiological arousal. Then, this physiological arousal is

interpreted to a particular emotion. It can be fear, surprise, excitement, and astonishment depending

on how the arousal is labeled.

IV. Lazarus' appraisal theory (1980): An individual makes an initial and sometimes unconscious

cognitive appraisal of the situation to decide, if there is a threat; coping action is taken if necessary;

and the individual takes a closer look and identifies the emotions he or she is feeling.

V. Weiner's attribution theory (1986, 1992): Certain attributions produce specific emotions. Once

the initial evaluation has been made, the individual looks at what caused the event. These

attributions of causality can modify the emotion felt. It is the interaction of the perceived internal and



Emotions Unit 7


external causes, controllability and outcome that will determine the emotional responses. What are

the basic emotions? Ortony and Turner (1990) collated a wide range of research as to what basic

emotions are and the basis of including them as basic emotions and proposed a comprehensive

description of basic emotions and corresponding reasons for inclusion :

A comprehensive description of basic emotions and corresponding reasons for inclusion



Emotions Unit 7


Source: Ortony, A., & Turner, T. J. (1990). What's basic about basic emotions? Psychological

Review, 97, 3, July, 315-331

Basic Emotions Basis for Inclusion

Arnold Anger, aversion, courage, dejection, desire,

despair, fear, hate, hope, love, sadness

Relation to action

tendencies

Ekman, Friesen, and

Ellsworth Anger, disgust, fear, joy, sadness, surprise

Universal facial

expressions

FrijdaDesire, happiness, interest, surprise, wonder,

sorrowForms of action readiness

Gray Rage and terror, anxiety, joy Hardwired

Izard Anger, contempt, disgust, distress, fear, guilt,

interest, joy, shame, surpriseHardwired

James Fear, grief, love, rage Bodily involvement

McDougall Anger, disgust, elation, fear, subjection, tender-

emotion, wonder Relation to instincts

Mowrer Pain, pleasureUnlearned emotional

states

Oatley and Johnson-

Laird Anger, disgust, anxiety, happiness, sadness

Do not require

propositional content

Panksepp Expectancy, fear, rage, panic Hardwired

Plutchik Acceptance, anger, anticipation, disgust, joy,

fear, sadness, surprise

Relation to adaptive

biological processes

Tomkins Anger, interest, contempt, disgust, distress, fear,

joy, shame, surpriseDensity of neural firing

Watson Fear, love, rage Hardwired

Weiner and Graham Happiness, sadness Attribution independent

http://www.behavior.net/orgs/ssti/

http://www.personalityresearch.org/basicemotions/plutchik.html

http://www.personalityresearch.org/basicemotions/plutchik.html

http://macwww.psy.uva.nl/tango/personen/personen.qry?function=PersonalPage&ID=173&header=OO

http://mambo.ucsc.edu/psl/joehager/pekm.html



Emotions Unit 7


Parrot (2001) has categorized emotions as another classification (Figure no. 1.4):

Figure no. 1.4:

Parrot’s classification of emotions

Primary

emotion

Secondary

emotionTertiary emotions

Love

Affection Adoration, affection, love, fondness, liking, attraction,

caring, tenderness, compassion, sentimentality

Lust Arousal, desire, lust, passion, infatuation

Longing Longing

Joy

Cheerfulness

Amusement, bliss, cheerfulness, gaiety, glee,

jolliness, joviality, joy, delight, enjoyment, gladness,

happiness, jubilation, elation, satisfaction, ecstasy,

euphoria

Zest Enthusiasm, zeal, zest, excitement, thrill, exhilaration

Contentment Contentment, pleasure

Pride Pride, triumph

Optimism Eagerness, hope, optimism

Enthrallment Enthrallment, rapture

Relief Relief Surprise Surprise Amazement, surprise, astonishment

Anger

Irritation Aggravation, irritation, agitation, annoyance,

grouchiness, grumpiness

Exasperation Exasperation, frustration

Rage

Anger, rage, outrage, fury, wrath, hostility, ferocity,

bitterness, hate, loathing, scorn, spite, vengefulness,

dislike, resentment

Disgust Disgust, revulsion, contemptEnvy Envy, jealousy

Torment Torment

Sadness Suffering Agony, suffering, hurt, anguish



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Sadness

Depression, despair, hopelessness, gloom, glumness,

sadness, unhappiness, grief, sorrow, woe, misery,

melancholy

Disappointment Dismay, disappointment, displeasure

Shame Guilt, shame, regret, remorse

Neglect

Alienation, isolation, neglect, loneliness, rejection,

homesickness, defeat, dejection, insecurity,

embarrassment, humiliation, insult

Sympathy Pity, sympathy

Fear

Horror Alarm, shock, fear, fright, horror, terror, panic,

hysteria, mortification

Nervousness Anxiety, nervousness, tenseness, uneasiness,

apprehension, worry, distress, dread

Source: Parrott, W. (2001), Emotions in Social Psychology, Psychology Press, Philadelphia

Felt vs. Displayed Emotions (Hochschild, 1979, 1983)

Felt emotions are an individual’s actual emotions. Displayed emotions are those that are

organizationally required and considered appropriate in a given job. They are learned. Felt and

displayed emotions may be different. This is particularly true in organizations, where role demands

and situations often require people to exhibit emotional behaviors that mask their true feelings.


1. Subjective emotional responses are the result of __________ changes within human bodies.

2. Both feedback from peripheral responses and a ___________ appraisal of what caused those

responses produce emotions.

3. _____________ emotions are an individual’s actual emotions.



Emotions Unit 7


7.3 Certain Issues

Culture and emotion

There are two Views of Culture and Emotion:

Universality - Emotions are part of human nature and in all cultures universally the same set of

basic emotions. Based on his cross-cultural research, Ekman (1999) has found six emotions which

are universally recognized and applicable. They are:

1. Anger

2. Fear

3. Sadness

4. Happiness5. Disgust

6. Surprise.

Cultural specificity – Human beings are like a tabula rasa (clean tablet) on which society writes its

script. In other words, culture and traditions, normative patterns and value-orientations are

responsible for not only our personality development, but also appropriate social and emotional

development. This makes us functional entities in society. Each culture has a unique set of

emotions and emotional responses; the emotions shown in a particular culture reflects the norms,

values, practices, and language of that culture .

Alexithymia – emotional disorder

Some people have difficulty in expressing their emotions and understanding the emotions of others.

Psychologists call this alexithymia. People who suffer from alexithymia rarely cry and are often seen

by others as bland and cold. Their own feelings make them uncomfortable, and they are not able to

discriminate among their different emotions. People, suffering from alexithymia, may be effective

performers in jobs where little or no emotional labor. Alexithymic symptoms may be seen in peoplewho experience:

1. Post-traumatic stress disorder

2. Certain brain injuries



Emotions Unit 7


3. Eating disorders (i.e., bulimia, anorexia, or binge-eating disorder)

4. Substance use dependence

5.Depression

6. Other mental health conditions

Relationship of gender with emotion

A number of research findings supports the view that women are more emotional than men (e.g.,

Broverman, Vogel, Broverman, Clarkson, & Rosenkrantz, 1972; Widiger & Settle, 1987). Women are

assumed to experience more frequent and intense emotions, whereas men are assumed to be

emotionally inexpressive and to have less intense emotional experiences. However, researchers

have argued that the stereotype of men as unemotional is more accurate for adult targets than for child targets because males learn to control their emotions as they get older (Fabes and Martin,

1991). Likewise, women and men may experience happiness in a similar way, but women have been

taught that they can strongly express the emotion of happiness, whereas men have been taught to

control it. The impact of socialization practices accumulate over time, and, thus, these stereotypes

are likely to apply more strongly to adult populations (Geer and Shields, 1996).


1. Ekman (1999) has found _________ emotions which are universally recognized and applicable.

2. People who suffer from _________ rarely cry and are often seen by others as bland and cold

7.4 Emotional Intelligence

The importance of both emotion and intelligence in making decisions and achieving success in life

was well-accepted in ancient India. A concept of “Sthitha-prajna” (emotional stability), similar to the

concept of emotional intelligence, can be traced in the second chapter of ‘Srimad Bhagavad-Gita' .

Bhagavad Gita is a specific conversation between Lord Krishna and Arjuna (third Pandava prince) in

a specific situation of Kurukshetra battlefield. Pandavas were fighting against the Kauravas, thecousin brothers to restore their kingdom from Kauravas in Kurukshetra. Before the battle started,

Arjuna, with deep sorrow and pity, found his close relatives, friends and respected 'gurus' in enemy's

side. To win the battle he was supposed to kill those beloved ones. He got confused about his rightful

duty. Due to this hriday-durbalata (heart-non-strength), he refused to join the battle. In this context,



Emotions Unit 7


Lord Krishna who played the role as the driver of Arjuna's chariot, enlightened him about the eternal

truth of life. According to Lord Krishna, as mentioned in Bhagavad Gita, Arjuna suffered from

indecisiveness resulting from confusion and a false sense of insecurity. Lord Krishna advised Arjuna

to become 'Sthitha-prajna' (the steady minded person). He also told that an individual achieved

his/her goal only when the mind became steady, poised and balanced. Evidently, the concept of

“Sthitha-prajna” (the steady-minded person) talked about a unique interdependence between

emotion and intelligence for effective decision-making which was most essential in excelling in every

sphere of life. Gita, as a whole, advises all to balance between intelligence and emotion.

Similar views on the role of emotional intelligence as a learning process for achieving a balanced

personality in different stages of life on an inter-generational basis has been depicted in the Vedas.

In particular, Dr. Radhakrishnan, in his book , ‘The Hindu View of Life’ (1927) opined that the attitude

of the Vedas is one of trust tempered by criticism. ‘Trust, because, whatever the older generation

hold, may be true, and criticism because, however, plausible the testimonies of the old views may be,

it cannot deny the present of its right to enquire and sift the evidence’. This view aptly points out the

need for emotional intelligence in everyday life to become more emotionally balanced and functional

individuals in society.

‘Emotional intelligence is an aggregate of individuals’ cognition of own and others' emotions, feeling,

interpretation and action as per environmental demand to manipulate the consequence which in turn

result in superior performance and better human relationship’ (Bhattacharya, 2003). Emotional

intelligence is a measure of the degree to which a person makes use of his/ her reasoning in the

process of emotional responses (both positive and negative) in a given situation. So having high

emotional intelligence doesn't mean that the person never panics or loses his/ her temper. It does

mean that he / she brings own feelings under control and channels them into productive behaviors.

The ability to bring out-of-control emotions back into line results in what earlier generations called

emotional maturity.

The most popular and accepted mixed model of emotional intelligence is the one proposed by

Goleman (1995). He viewed emotional intelligence as a total of personal and social competences.

Personal competence determines how we manage ourselves, whereas social competence

determines how we handle our interpersonal relationships.

Personal competence: It comprises of three dimensions of emotional intelligence, such as, self-

awareness, self-regulation and motivation. Self-awareness is the ability of an individual to observe



Emotions Unit 7


him/herself and to recognize 'a feeling as it happens' (Goleman, 1995). The hallmarks of this ability

are self-confidence, self- assessment and openness to positive criticism. Self-regulation is the ability

to control emotions and to redirect those emotions that can have negative impact. Trustworthiness,

integrity, tolerance of ambiguity and attitude to accept change are some characteristics of this ability.

Motivation is the ability to channelize emotion to achieve a goal through self-control and by

moderating impulses as per the requirement of the situation. The people who have this ability are

optimistic and committed towards organizational as well as individual goals.

Social competence: It comprises of two dimensions namely, empathy and social skills. Empathy is

the ability to feel and get concerned for others, take their perspective and to treat people according to

their emotional reactions. People with this ability are experts in generating and motivating others.

Social skills are the ability to build rapport and to manage relationships with people. People having

this skill are very effective in persuasiveness and team management. ‘Social skill’ is the culmination

of all other components of emotional intelligence assuming that people can effectively manage social

and work relationships only when they can understand and control their own emotion and can

emphasize with the feelings of others.

Goleman’s emotional intelligence model (1995)

Emotional intelligence

Personal competence social competence

Self-awareness Empathy

Self-regulation Social skills

Motivation



Emotions Unit 7


Sadness, Happiness, Disgust, and Surprise. Women are assumed to experience more frequent and

intense emotions, whereas men are assumed to be emotionally inexpressive and to have less

intense emotional experiences. However, researchers have argued that the stereotype of men as

unemotional is more accurate for adult targets than for child targets because males learn to control

their emotions as they get older. Emotional intelligence is an aggregate of individuals’ cognition of

own and others' emotions, feeling, interpretation and action as per environmental demand to

manipulate the consequence, which in turn, result in superior performance and better human

relationship. The most popular and accepted mixed model of emotional intelligence is the one

proposed by Goleman. He viewed emotional intelligence as a total of personal and social

competences. Personal competence determines how we manage ourselves, whereas social

competence determines how we handle our interpersonal relationships.

Terminal Questions

1. Briefly explain Lazarus' appraisal theory and Weiner's attribution theory.

2. What are universally recognized emotions?

3. What is Alexithymia? What are the symptoms of this disease?

4. What is the relationship of gender with emotion?

5. Explain Goleman’s emotional intelligence model.

Answers to Self Assessment Questions


1. Physiological

2. Cognitive

3. Felt


1. Six

2. Alexithymia



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1. Goleman

2. Three

3. Two

Answers to Terminal Questions

1. Refer section 7.2





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