Organization Behavior- THEORIESHR-session 2

Culture

Differences in communication- High context (not so explicit, depends on env n persons involved) and Low context(explicit communication)

Major Theories of Motivation

• Drive Theory-Hull

• Alderfer’s ERG Model• Alderfer’s ERG theory- need satisfaction as

motivation factor, no hierarchy– ERG stands for Existence, Relatedness and Growth thus

needs were classified into three categories– In contrast to Maslow’s hierarchy, there was no order in

which the needs were satisfied

Herzberg 2 factor theory

Motivation FactorsFactors that deal with jobcontent and lead to jobsatisfaction..

Hygiene FactorsFactors that deal with jobcontext and lead to jobdissatisfaction.

David McClelland’s Learned Needs

nPow-Power motive Need for autonomy and control over others

N-Aff- Affiliation motive Establish, maintain, and restore close personal relationships with

others

 nAch-Achievement motive Compete against a standard of excellence or provide a unique

contribution, sense of mastery over one’s skills, preferences for

challenges, feeling personally responsible for success

Comparison

Process theoriesAdams Equity theory and vrooms expectancy model

When presented with behavioral options in a situation, individuals select the option with the greatest

motivational forces(MF)

MF= Expectancy * Instrumentality*Valence

Expectancy-if we put in effort, there is possibility of success

Instrumentality- Probability that meeting performance expectations will be instrumental in getting rewards

Valence- value of the reward as perceived by individual

Expectancy Model in Action

Self-confidence

Self-esteem

Personal happiness

Effort Attend class Study Take notes Prepare for exams

Performance:Grade in Class

A B C D F

Expectancy

First-level Outcomes

Overall GPA

Second-level Outcomes

InstrumentalityRespect of others

Approval of others

Model of Goal Setting

ChallengeGoal difficultyGoal claritySelf-efficacy

MediatorsDirectionEffortPersistenceTask strategy

Performance Rewards Satisfaction

Conse-quences

ModeratorsAbilityGoal commitmentFeedbackTask complexity

• All behavior is motivated• Motivation is a goal directed process• A person who knows his goal will find the knowledge and skills to

fulfill the goal

Group theory

Group Phenomenon

Groupthink – a deterioration of mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgment resulting from in-group pressures

Group Polarization/Shift – the tendency for group discussion to produce shifts toward more extreme attitudes among members

Group dysfunctions..• Free riding- Obtaining benefits from membership not

proportional to share of responsibility to generate benefit.• Sucker effect –A member withholding effort to activate the

free rider• Violates equity standards.• Violates a fair share of social responsibility• Violates a standard of reciprocity and exchange

SWOT of Teams/groups

StrengthsTeam cohesivenessHomogeneity & creativityTask interdependenceSocial facilitation(Perform

better in a group)Social compensation

WeaknessesResource InadequacyAn uninvolved leaderProcess lossesSocial loafing(not working

as hard as you would work as individual)

OpportunitiesTeam buildingTrust buildingTeam communicationEducating team normsAllocating team roles

ThreatsGroup thinkGroup polarization

Path- Goal Theory- Leaders main concern is to help employees stay on right path- towards challenging goals and values rewards to attain satisfaction

Operant conditioning-learning theoryBehavior is a function of its consequences.

Reinforcement is the consequence that determines the probability of future occurrence of the behavior.

Perception- A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment

Factors That Influence Perception

Factors can reside in the perceiver; in the object or target being

perceived; or in the context of the situation in

which the perception

Perception“

Attribution Theory

Observation Interpretation Attribution of Cause

Fundamental Attribution Error…The tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors when making judgments about the behaviour of othersInternal factors = Ability and effortExternal factors = Task difficulty and luck

• Actor-Observer Bias• Fundamental attribution error does not consider the

interpretations of one’s own behaviour. This discrepancy is known as actor-observer bias.

• Self Serving Bias• The tendency of individuals to attribute their own successes to

internal factors and failures to external factors

Judging Others

Selective Perception

Halo Effect

Stereotyping

Contrast Effect

Projection

JUDGING OTHERS

1.Selective Perception

Selective perception is the personal filtering of what we see and hear so as to suit our own needs.

People selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their interests, background, experience, and attitudes.

How does selective perception work?

JUDGING OTHERS

2.Halo Eff ect• Drawing a general

impression about an individual on the basis of a single characteristi c

• It is the subjecti ve bias about a person's one parti cular trait extending to infl uence the total judgment of that person

JUDGING OTHERS

3.Stereotyping• Judging someone on

the basis of one’s perception of the group to which that person belongs.

4. PROJECTION

Attributing one’s own characteristics to other people

People engaged in projections, can distort

perceptions made about others.

Pygmalion EffectEmployment Interview

Perceptual biases of raters affect the accuracy of interviewers’ judgments of applicants.

Performance Expectations

Self-fulfilling prophecy (pygmalion effect): The lower or higher performance of employees reflects preconceived leader expectations about employee capabilities.

Ethnic Profiling• A form of stereotyping

in which a group of individuals is singled out—typically on the basis of race or ethnicity—for intensive inquiry, scrutinizing, or investigation.

Conflict

• Task conflict – relates to the content and goals of work (low levels are functional)

• Relationship conflict – relates to interpersonal relationships (Always dysfunctional)

• Process conflict – relates to how the work gets done (low levels are functional)

Sources of Psycho social Conflict at Various Levels

• Intra-individual Conflict

• Interpersonal conflict

• Structural Conflict

Conflict management styles-Thomas Kilman theory

Models of Decision Making

Effective Decision

a timely decision that meets a desired objective and is acceptable to those individuals affected by it

Garbage Can Model

Bounded Rationality Model

Rational Model

1. The outcome will be completely rational2. The decision maker uses a consistent system of

preferences to choose the best alternative3. The decision maker is aware of all alternatives4. The decision maker can calculate the probability of

success for each alternative

Rationality – a logical, step-by-step approach to decision making, with a thorough analysis of alternatives and theirconsequences

Rational Model

1. Managers suggest the first satisfactory alternative

Bounded Rationality – a theory that suggests that there are limits upon how rational a decision maker can actually be

Satisfice – to select the first alternative that is “goodenough,” because the costs in time and effort are too great to optimize

Bounded Rationality Model

Managers conception of the world is simple.They may not go in to determine all alternatives. They use heuristics – short cuts to save mental activity.

Garbage Can Model – a theory that contends that decisions in organizations are random and unsystematic

Problems

Participants

Garbage Can Model Solutions

Choiceopportunities

Bases of Power• Legitimate Power

• Power granted by virtue of one’s position and mutual agreement . Managers have legitimate power over their subordinates simply because of the formal positions they hold.

• Reward Power• The extent that a person controls rewards another person needs. Examples of

organizational rewards are pay, promotions, and work assignments.

• Coercive Power• The opposite of reward power. The extent to which a person can punish or physically

or psychologically harm someone else. Its use carries a considerable cost in terms of employee resentment and hostility.

• Referent Power• This is based on identification with a person and attraction to one who has desirable

resources of personal traits. The basis is admiration and a desire to be like someone else or imitates someone else. Similar to charisma. it often involves trust, similarity, acceptance, affection, willingness to follow, and emotional involvement.

• Expert Power• The extent to which a person can influence because of a special skill, knowledge or

expertise. Expert power can reside in many organizational niches; it transcends positions and jobs.

Personality…• The sum total of ways in which an individual reacts to and

interacts with others.

• Enduring characteristics that explain an individual’s behaviour.

The Big five personality factors• Extraversion• Agreeableness• Conscientiousness• Emotional stability• Openness to experience

Extraversion• Sociable• Energy• Assertive• Expressive• Talkative• Preference for other’s company

Openness to experience• Imaginative• Artistic• Non-conforming• Curious• Original• Broad-minded• Autonomous• Proactive• tolerant

• Willingness to explore the unfamiliar

• Enjoys variety• Attentive to inner feelings• Intellectual curiosity

Agreeableness• Altruistic• Friendly• Modest• Courtesous• Soft-hearted• Flexible• Nurturing• cooperative

• Compliant• Tolerant• Tactful• Trusting• Tender• Need for affiliation

Conscientiousness• Achievement• Organisation• Task focus• Dependability• Competence• Order• Dutifulness

• Decisive• Autonomous• Persevering• Continuous improvement

Positive and Negative Affectivity• Tendency to feel consistently positively/negatively

towards objects. Positive Affectivity (PA) and Negative Affectivity (NA) considered basic dimensions of personality.

• High PA: high energy, optimism, enthusiasm, pleasurable engagement, like interpersonal relationships, overall wellbeing, job satisfaction, achievement-oriented activities.

• High NA: distress, unpleasurable engagement, nervousness, agitation, and pessimism, higher levels of anxiety, dissatisfaction, focus on the unpleasant aspects of themselves, the world, the future, and other people.

Locus of control• The belief that one can control events affecting oneself.

• Internals believe they determine what happens to them.• Externals believe fate determines what happens to them.

Self empowerment• Meaning – The fit between the work role and the employee’s

values and beliefs.• Competence- The belief that one has the ability to do the job

well ( self- efficacy).• Self- determination – Having the control over the way one

does work.• Impact – Belief that one’s job makes a difference within the

organisation.

Other traits…• Self monitoring – a personality trait that measures an

individual’s ability to adjust his or her behaviour to external situational factors.

• Risk taking

• Type A behaviours

Type A personality• Chronic sense of urgency• Competitiveness• Inability to relax• Impatience with barriers to accomplishment

Emotional Intelligence

• Emotional Intelligence: major components – Self awareness: knowing one's emotions– Self-control and resilience managing emotions – Self-recognizing motivation and creativity– Empathy: emotion in others

Helping others manage their emotions: handling relationships through social and organisational skills, handling diversity, resolving conflicts, transformational leadership

Johari model

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Providing Organizational Context to Create Positive Work attitudes

•Encouraging Citizenship Behavior– Dimensions of OCB: Sportsmanship, Organizational Loyalty,

Individual Initiative, Civic virtue and Self Development