I. INTRODUCTIONA. What is Research?

As defined by the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, Research means: (1) to search or investigate exhaustively (2) studious inquiry or examination; especially, investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of such new or revised theories or laws (3) the collecting of information about a particular subject

While according to Leedy (2010), research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information to increase our understanding of the phenomenon under study. It is the function of the researcher to contribute to the understanding of the phenomenon and to communicate that understanding to others. 

Reference(s):

Merriam-Webster as cited in http://www.usg.edu/galileo/skills/unit01/infoage01_03.phtml

Chet Leedy (2010), Research in Education, Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Prentice Hall

B. Kinds and Classifications of Research

As stated in Analytictech (2013), there are 6 conflicting kinds of research. First conflicting pair is, Applied vs Basic research. Applied research is research designed to solve a particular problem in a particular circumstance, such as determining the cause of low morale in a given department of an organization. Basic research is designed to understand the underlying principles behind human behavior. For example, you might try to understand what motivates people to work hard at their jobs. This distinction is discussed in more detail in another handout.

Another pair is the Exploratory vs Confirmatory research. Exploratory research is research into the unknown. It is used when you are investigating something but really don't understand it all, or are not completely sure what you are looking for. It's sort of like a journalist whose curiousity is peaked by something and just starts looking into something without really knowing what they're looking for. Confirmatory research is where you have a pretty good idea what's going on. That is, you have a theory (or several theories), and the objective of the research is to find out if the theory is supported by the facts.

And lastly, Quantitative vs Qualitative research is cited. Quantitative studies measure variables with some precision using numeric scales. For example, you might

measure a person's height and weight. Or you might construct a survey in which you measure how much respondents like President Clinton, using a 1 to 10 scale. Qualitative studies are based on direct observation of behavior or on transcripts of unstructured interviews with informants. For example, you might talk to ten female executives about the decision-making process behind their choice to have children or not, and if so, when. You might interview them for several hours, tape-recording the whole thing, and then transcribe the recordings to written text, and then analyze the text.

According to Henrichsenl (2010), research has three (3) kinds of methods namely: BASIC (or theoretical), APPLIED, and PRACTICAL research. BASIC RESEARCH is concerned with knowledge for the sake of theory. Its design is not controlled by the practical usefulness of the findings. APPLIED RESEARCH is concerned with showing how the findings can be applied or summarized into some type of teaching methodology. PRACTICAL RESEARCH goes one step further and applies the findings of research to a specific "practical" teaching situation. (Henrichsenl, 2010)

On the other hand, Gonda (2014), explained that research can be classified to their distinct features. Some of the classifications are as follows: according to Purpose, according to Goal, according to the Levels of Investigation, according to the type of Analysis, according to Scope, according to the Choice of Answers to Problems, according to Statistical Content, according to Time Element.

1. According to Purposea. Predictive or Prognostic – it has the purpose to determine the future operation

of the variables under investigation with the aim of controlling or redirecting such for the better.

b. Directive – it determines what should be done based on the findings.c. Illuminative – it is concerned with the interaction of the components of the

variable being investigated.

2. According to Goala. Basic or Pure – it is done for the development of theories and principles. It is

conducted for intellectual pleasure of learning. b. Applied – the application of pure research. This is testing the efficiency of

theories and principles.

3. According to the Level of Investigationa. Exploratory – the researcher studies the variables pertinent to a specific

situation. b. Descriptive – the researcher studies the relationships of the variables.c. Experimental – the researcher studies the effects of the variables on each other.

4. According to the Types of Analysisa. Analytic Approach – the researcher attempts to identify and isolate the

components of the research situation. b. Holistic Approach – this begins with the total situation, focusing attention on the

system first and on its internal relationships.

5. According to ScopeAction Research a. This involves the application of the steps of the scientific method in the

classroom problems. b. This type of research is done on a very limited scope to solve a particular

problem which is not so big.

6. According to Choice of Answers to Problemsa. Evaluation research – All possible courses of action are specified and identified

and the researcher. b. Developmental research – the focus is on finding or developing a more suitable

instrument or process than has been available.

7. According to Statistical Contenta. Quantitative or Statistical Research – is one in which inferential statistics are

utilized to determine the results of the study. b. Non-quantitative Research – this is research in which the use of the quantity or

statistics is practically not utilized.

8. According to Time Elementa. Historical research – describes what was. b. Descriptive research – describes what is.c. Experimental research – describes what will be.

Reference(s):

Henrichsenl, (2010).http://linguistics.byu.edu/

http://www.analytictech.com/mb313/kinds_of_research.htm

http://www.slideshare.net/gj27/kinds-classification-of-research

C. Qualities of a Good Research

According to ResearchCraze.com (2014), these are the qualities or characteristics make a research a successful research, every step of the research study is important. Negligence in any step can affect the complete study and not just that part. There are certain characteristics that are necessary in every research; these

characteristics make the research a valid and generalizable study. Having just information and data is not enough for good research paper; you must know qualities of good research paper to present it in proper way.

Rigorous

Research is a laborious and hard work in reality and it requires great patience and control. Research paper requires rigorousness to maintain its quality. There can be several factors that can effect the quality and the outcome of the research, the researcher should have a control over these factors. Some factors will effect the research positively while other factors can negatively effect the research. Negative factors can decrease the validity of the research, so these factors should be kept in control by the researcher.

Example

For example in a study conducted on the effect of humidity on the tensile strength of viscose fabrics the researcher has to test the performance of the fabric under great humidity, less humidity and under standard humidity. The humidity will be kept in control by the researcher to get valid and generalizable results. In another study the researcher has to study the effect of socioeconomic class on the performance of children in school, the researcher will see that no other factors are influencing the performance of the children. There can be many other factors like parenting style, peer group influence or siblings rivalry that is effecting the performance of the child but the researcher should have a strict control over these extraneous factors.

Controlled

Another very important and basic characteristic of a research paper is that it should have to be controlled or measured. Everything that you add in a research paper is preplanned and cannot happen just by chance. The first step in conducting a research is choosing a research topic, from that step till the end, writing the research paper the researcher should keep control over the research study. He should measure the consequences of each step that he has planned to take prior to taking it.

Example

A researcher is conducting a research on the effect of permanent press finishes on hte durability characteristics of fabrics. In this research the researcher should accurately measure the effectof permanent press finishes and there should not be any other finishes on the fabric.

Accurate

Accuracy is important because without accuracy the research paper cannot be valid and generalizable. In every step of the research the researcher has to check the accuracy. When the researcher is reviewing literature he should write down the references along with the literature review so that when writing those reviews he can accurately write the reference of each review. While testing the hypothesis the researcher should write down the results of the tests accurately so that there is no error. In research the researcher should leave no chances of error by himself. He should ensure the accuracy of his research to 100 percent.

Example

Suppose a researcher is conducting a research on the impact of physical disabilities in children on the peer group acceptance. The researcher is using interview as a tool of data collection the researcher should record the responses of the interviewees accurately and he should not invest bias in any way.

Clear

A research paper should have to be free of ambiguities and it should have great clarity. Clarity is one of the main essences of research and without clarity the research paper is useless.

Example

A researcher should be cautious about the clarity of the research. The researcher should first develop a clear research question or research problem and once the research problem is clear and understandable the researcher can conduct the research without hurdles. Suppose the researcher makes the research problem that how media influences child development, in this research question the researcher needs to clarify which development, social, mental, physical or motor. The researcher cannot undertake the study unless he brings clarity to the research problem.

Concise

As a researcher you do not need to add a lot to the research paper to make it unique or interesting rather you should add only relevant and original content. The readers will be able to understand a concise research more easily, there should not be unnecessary details in the research.

Example

The researcher can write details and lots of explanations but these details and explanations should be of value to the research the researcher should not add

unnecessary details in the research. The research paper is more concise in nature than dissertations and thesis.

Valid

Validity is the most important concern in writing and conducting a research. The actual strength of the research paper is its validity. A valid research is applicable to various situations in general or it can be applied to any specific situation, people or society.

Example

The constructs you are using, to measure attitudes, behavior or other phenomenon, whether they really measure what you want to measure or they measure something else.

Verifiable

The data the researcher adds in the research paper should have to be verifiable and provable. The researcher should be able to demonstrate the research paper and there should not be any loopholes in the information.

Example

The researcher should know from where the data has been taken and how it has been analyzed. Suppose another researcher is trying to repeat similar study to make it more valid he should be able to get information from the previous research, if previous research will be invalid or unverifiable the new research will also get effected. Research is an ongoing process and not only research helps in the general development of the humanity but it more specifically is used by the new researchers to generate more information.

Sequential

The research should have to be conducted and written in a logical manner. The researcher should follow a sequence so that he cannot get troubled in the end as to how to compile this research. It is better if you start writing the research paper as you are conducting it.

Example

You cannot write the analysis before writing about the data collection and data processing. You have to follow a procedure and sequence.

Precise

Preciseness means that the research paper should have completeness and it should contain detailed investigation of the research topic.

Example

The research should contain exact answers to the research questions. It is not possible that the researcher formulates a specific research question about women injustice in underdeveloped countries but answers the question about more general topic like gender biases.

Original

The research paper should contain only original content and copy work should be completely avoided. You can add literature from other sources in various forms like in the form of literature review but you should never compromise on the originality of the research paper.

Example

Suppose a researcher is conducting a research on the impact of financial resources in family on the personality development of children. The researcher has decided to take black Negroes population and he cannot get the required number of sample, in this case, he cannot use other people’s findings to justify his research. He has to use truly original data that has been collected from truly representative sample.

Coherent

Coherence is necessary because it makes the research paper a complete and one unit. Every part of the research paper should be so linked that it makes a whole.

Example

The researcher should stick to one theme and should not wander from one topic to another.

Academic style of writing

Writing a research paper is the last step of the research and writing requires rigorousness. The researcher should follow an academic style of writing and any ostentatiousness in writing should be avoided. The language of the research paper should have to be simple and easy to understand.

Example

A research paper, thesis or dissertation should have decency and there should have to be least ornamentation. The purpose of the research is to bring into light facts and

figures. The researcher should avoid the use of double baralled sentences, complex language or unnecessary details. The research should have to be concise and precise in nature.

Generalizable

The research paper findings should be generalizable and the findings should be applicable to the society in one way or other. Sometimes the purpose of the research is to develop new research tools, techniques or data collection instruments. Such research may not be useful for the society in general but in the long run researchers will be bale to use these tools or techniques to conduct more researches.

Example

The researcher is conducting a study on the life of transgender class in the society. He has to collect data from different people who belong to this class, the researcher should understand that he cannot generalize his findings untill he has selected an unbiased and truly representative sample. He cannot select a sample from one area of the population rather he should select sample from every area of the population to make it representative of the whole population.

Reference:

http://readingcraze.com/index.php/what-are-the-qualities-of-a-good-research-paper/

D. Values of Research

P Values Type of use Definition

Perceptual value 

Conceptual use

The importance of research to change the perception, conceptualization, and knowledge of people about the world.

Political value 

Strategic use 

The worthiness of research for policy making. The level of acceptability of the findings is an important determinant of this value.

Practical value 

Instrumental use 

The significance of research for practice. Practice may be what individuals do (behaviour), or how they do things (procedure).

Proforma value Symbolic useThe tactical use of research to support pre-determined positions, decisions, and actions.

Proficiency value    Educational

useThe usefulness of research to improve analytical (research) skills of individuals.

Placement value

Economical use  

The importance of research to create job opportunities and income for ‘educated’ people.

Prestige valueDiscriminatory use

The use of research experience to create disparity in the ‘status’ and ‘reputation’ among individuals.

II. THE RESEARCH PROBLEM AND OBJECTIVES

A. What is Research Problem

According to Bryman (2007), a research problem is a statement about an area of concern, a condition to be improved upon, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or in practice that point to the need for meaningful understanding and deliberate investigation. In some social science disciplines the research problem is typically posed in the form of one or more questions. A research problem does not state how to do something, offer a vague or broad proposition, or present a value question.

Reference:

Bryman, Alan. “The Research Question in Social Research: What is its Role?” International Journal of Social Research Methodology 10 (2007): 5-20.

B. Characteristics of a Research Problem

In the field of business, education and medicine among others there is always a room for investigations. Research assists in creating learning opportunities, which either offer a proof to already documented study, or offer information opposing documented study. From the two perspectives, the research problem should assist in improving the present or existing problem. According to Creswell (2011), the topic of interest to be investigated should establish where and what the researcher is conveying to the public,

government or business organization. The research problem needs to recognize the specific objectives about which the study speaks (Ellis & Levy, 2011). As mentioned above, the world significantly depends on research in order to make improvement. As such, research is important in making that the society is ever improving each day. When a researcher is conducting a research, it is important that he or she develop a research problem, which supports the needs of improvement and advancement. A researchable problem therefore needs not to support personal gain. According to Winsten-Bartlett (2011), if the research does not advance or improve the world’s information, then, it is just a collection of information. Unfortunately, many people recognize that research is collecting information.

Reference(s):

Creswell, J. (2011). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Ellis, T., & Levy, Y. (2011). Framework of problem‐based research: A guide for novice researchers on the development of a research‐worthy problem. Informing Science: The International Journal of an Emerging Transdiscipline , 11 (2), 17‐33.

Hernon, P., & Metoyer-Duran, C. (1993). Problem statements: An exploratory study of their function, significance, and form. Library & Information Science Research , 15, 71-92.

Leedy, P. D., & Ormrod, J. E. (2010). Practical research: Planning and design.Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merril.

C. The Research Objectives

What are research objectives? Description of what is to be achieved by the study

Importance Narrows and focus the study Guides information to be collected Facilitate development of METHODOLOGY

TYPES OF OBJECTIVES Broad objective Specific objectives

Broad objectiveStates what is to be achieved by the study in general terms.

Usually only one per study Related to core problem and topic of the study Shows target population and place Use action verb

Example: To determine the factors associated with increased number of diarrhea

cases among under fives in X villageSpecific objectives

Describe the variables that are measured by the study Several in one study Use action verb

Example:1. To find out methods used for excreta disposal2. To find out methods used for water treatment3. To determine the feeding habits of the under fives

Qualities of specific objectives Stated in logical sequence Clear and unambiguous

What is to be done? Specific

Addressing one thing only Measurable

Can be evaluated Use proper action verbs (Determine, Find out, Identify)

Attainable, given the resources available

Realistic, given the local conditions Time bound, can be achieved in the given time

Qualities – S.M.A.R.T.SpecificMeasurableAttainableRealisticTime bound

Reference(s):

M.C.Masatu, MD, MSc, PhD

D. Statement of the Problem

A problem statement is a brief description of the issues that need to be addressed by a problem solving team and should be presented to them (or created by them) before they try to solve the problem. On the other hand, a statement of the problem is a claim of one or two sentences in length that outlines the problem addressed by the study. The statement of the problem should briefly address the question: What is the problem that the research will address?[1]

When bringing together a team to achieve a particular purpose, provide them with a problem statement. A good problem statement should answer these questions:

1. What is the problem? This should explain why the team is needed.2. Who has the problem or who is the client/customer? This should explain who

needs the solution and who will decide the problem has been solved.3. What form can the resolution be? What is the scope and limitations (in time,

money, resources, and technologies) that can be used to solve the problem? Does the client want a white paper? A web-tool? A new feature for a product? A brainstorming on a topic?

The primary purpose of a problem statement is to focus the attention of the problem solving team. However, if the focus of the problem is too narrow or the scope of the solution too limited the creativity and innovation of the solution can be stifling.

In project management, the problem statement is part of the project charter. It lists what's essential about the project and enables the project manager to identify the project scope as well as the project stakeholders.[2]

A research-worthy problem statement is the description of an active challenge (i.e. problem) faced by researchers and/or practitioners that does not have adequate solutions available. The adequate solutions include the simplified theoretical foundation and argumentation for a viable solution based on respected peer-reviewed sources.

The research-worthy problem statement should address all six questions: what, how, where, when, why, and who.

A problem statement is a statement that is a brief statement that sums up the problem for the event.

Reference(s):

Ellis, TJ; Levy, Y (2008). "A framework of problem-based research: A guide for novice researchers" (PDF). Informing Science: the International Journal of an Emerging Transdiscipline 11: 17–33.ISSN 1547-9684.

Defining Six Sigma Projects - Retrieved March 22, 2010

E. Hypothesis

According to Roundy (A hypothesis is an educated prediction that can be tested. You will discover the purpose of a hypothesis then learn how one is developed and written. Examples are provided to aid your understanding and there is a quiz to test your knowledge.

What Is a Hypothesis?Imagine you have a test at school tomorrow. You stay out late and see a movie with friends. You know that when you study the night before, you get good grades. What do you think will happen on tomorrow's test?

When you answered this question, you formed a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction. It describes in concrete terms what you expect will happen in a certain circumstance. Your hypothesis may have been, 'If not studying lowers test performance and I do not study, then I will get a low grade on the test.'

The Purpose of a HypothesisA hypothesis is used in an experiment to define the relationship between two variables. The purpose of a hypothesis is to find the answer to a question. A formalized hypothesis will force us to think about what results we should look for in an experiment.

The first variable is called the independent variable. This is the part of the experiment that can be changed and tested. The independent variable happens first and can be considered the cause of any changes in the outcome. The outcome is called the dependent variable. The independent variable in our previous example is not studying for a test. The dependent variable that you are using to measure outcome is your test score.

Let's use the previous example again to illustrate these ideas. The hypothesis is testable because you will receive a score on your test performance. It is measurable

because you can compare test scores received from when you did study and test scores received from when you did not study.

A hypothesis should always:

Explain what you expect to happen Be clear and understandable Be testable Be measurable And contain an independent and dependent variable

How to Develop a HypothesisAnother important aspect of a hypothesis is that it should be based on research. Remember that the purpose of a hypothesis is to find the answer to a question. The first thing you should do if you want to answer a question is to find as much information on the topic as you can. Before you come up with a specific hypothesis, spend some time doing research. Then, start thinking of questions you still have. After thoroughly researching your question, you should have an educated guess about how things work. This guess about the answer to your question is where your hypothesis comes from.

Let's imagine that you want to know why the leaves on the tree in your front yard change color in the fall. First, you would research this phenomenon. You observe what you see happen and read about the subject. You discover that the color change happens when the temperature cools. What question does this information make you ask?

You come up with the following question: 'Does temperature cause the leaves to change color on the tree in my front yard?' Next, you ask yourself if this can be tested. If it can be tested, you'll write a hypothesis that states what you expect to find. Your hypothesis could be 'If lower temperatures cause leaves to change color and the temperature surrounding a tree is decreased, then the leaves will change color.'

How to Write a HypothesisLet's learn how to properly write a hypothesis using the previous example of tomorrow's test. Examine the differences in the following hypotheses:

Not studying may cause a lower grade on my test.

This statement is not clear enough to be useful. Your hypothesis should be as specific as possible. You're trying to find the answer to a question. If the hypothesis is vague, it's unclear how to find the answer to your question.

F. Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

Theoretical FrameworkA theoretical framework consists of concepts and, together with their definitions and reference to relevant scholarly literature, existing theory that is used for your particular study. The theoretical framework must demonstrate an understanding of theories and concepts that are relevant to the topic of your research paper and that relate to the broader areas of knowledge being considered.

The theoretical framework is most often not something readily found within the literature. You must review course readings and pertinent research studies for theories and analytic models that are relevant to the research problem you are investigating. The selection of a theory should depend on its appropriateness, ease of application, and explanatory power.

The theoretical framework strengthens the study in the following ways:

1. An explicit statement of theoretical assumptions permits the reader to evaluate them critically.

2. The theoretical framework connects the researcher to existing knowledge. Guided by a relevant theory, you are given a basis for your hypotheses and choice of research methods.

3. Articulating the theoretical assumptions of a research study forces you to address questions of why and how. It permits you to intellectually transition from simply describing a phenomenon you have observed to generalizing about various aspects of that phenomenon.

4. Having a theory helps you identify the limits to those generalizations. A theoretical framework specifies which key variables influence a phenomenon of interest and highlights the need to examine how those key variables might differ and under what circumstances.

By virtue of its application nature, good theory in the social sciences is of value precisely because it fulfills one primary purpose: to explain the meaning, nature, and challenges associated with a phenomenon, often experienced but unexplained in the world in which we live, so that we may use that knowledge and understanding to act in more informed and effective ways.

Conceptual Framework

a group of concepts that are broadly defined and systematically organized to provide a focus, a rationale, and a tool for the integration and interpretationof information. Usually expressed abstractly through word models, a conceptual framework is the conceptual basis for many theories, such ascommunication theory and general systems theory.

References:

The Conceptual Framework. College of Education. Alabama State University; Corvellec, Hervé, ed. 

What is Theory?: Answers from the Social and Cultural Sciences. Stockholm: Copenhagen Business School Press, 2013;Asher, Herbert B. 

Theory-Building and Data Analysis in the Social Sciences. Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1984; 

Drafting an Argument. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Trochim, William M.K. Philosophy of Research. Research Methods Knowledge Base. 2006;

Jarvis, Peter. The Practitioner-Researcher. Developing Theory from Practice. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1999.

G. Significance of the Study

The rationale often explains which specific groups of people can benefit from the research. It typically indicates how the specific project fits within the developing body of knowledge. If the research project is part of a larger investigation, the rationale explains the overall importance of that larger project as well.

Researchers attempting to describe the significance of a study should consider why their work is important and what its implications are. They should consider how the study might fill in knowledge gaps in their field, develop better theoretical models or point the way toward further study. Researchers should also examine what impact the study might have not just on the academic or scientific community but also on the general public. They should present practical benefits, such as how the work might inform policy, improve some aspect of people's lives, help people save money, make a process more efficient or help the environment. They should also explain the unique perspectives they or their team bring to the project.

H. Scope and Delimitation of the study

The scope of study is a section of a research paper that explains what information or subject is being analyzed. For example, the scope of a historical research paper includes a scope section that explains what time period the writer is analyzing. Since it is impossible to study every aspect of every subject, the scope of study tells the reader which aspects of a subject the writer has chosen to analyze. Most research is limited in scope by sample size, time and geographic area. The scope of study is usually followed by an explanation of the limitations of the research.

The delimitation of study is the explanation of the scope of study. This section allows the writer to explain why certain aspects of a subject were chosen and why others were

excluded. It is also common for a writer to explain the chosen research method in this section and explain why certain theories were applied to the data.

Reference(s):

bcps.org clt.astate.edu

III. RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

A. Importance of Related Literature and StudiesIt is important for a researcher to have a comprehensive and relevant body of supporting materials to his research work. The related literature and studies are needed for the following reasons:1. It provides insight into the theoretical/conceptual background of the study. 2. It provides the rationale of the framework of the study. The theoretical framework

for instance, is obtained or conceived through the literature search.3. Reviewing related materials helps the researcher to gather valuable data and

ideas that can guide him in his own research.4. It prepares the reader to better assimilate and understand the concepts of the

study and gives him a bird’s eye view of the quality of readings the researcher has done in support of his study.

B. Purpose and Functions of Related Literature

The purpose of a literature review is to:

establish a theoretical framework for your topic / subject area define key terms, definitions and terminology identify studies, models, case studies etc supporting your topic define / establish your area of study, ie your research topic.

The three key points of a literature review

Tell me what the research says (theory). Tell me how the research was carried out (methodology). Tell me what is missing, ie the gap that your research intends to fill.

C. Sources and where to locate the sources

The sources that you might use for a history research paper can be divided into primary and secondary sources.  A primary sources is any item that has a direct connection to the topic you are studying.  Thus, if you are studying Abraham Lincoln, primary sources would include anything that Lincoln wrote or anything written about him by persons who knew him.  These written materials might have been published and thus available in libraries; if unpublished, the original manuscripts are housed in public and private archives and libraries (or in the personal collections of descendants or of manuscript collectors).  In addition to written documents, primary sources for various topics can include coins, clothing, buildings, battlefields, music, photographs, paintings, and so on.   

Secondary sources are those items not directly connected to the topic being studied.  A biography of Abraham Lincoln written by a history professor in 1995 would be a secondary source, for that historian had no direct connection to Abraham Lincoln.  In writing the book, however, the historian would have used many primary sources.

D. Related Legal Bases, Related Literature/Studies

IV. RESEARCH METHODS AND DESIGN

A. Historical Design

The purpose of a historical research design is to collect, verify, and synthesize evidence from the past to establish facts that defend or refute a hypothesis. It uses secondary sources and a variety of primary documentary evidence, such as, diaries, official records, reports, archives, and non-textual information [maps, pictures, audio and visual recordings]. The limitation is that the sources must be both authentic and valid.

B. Descriptive Design

Descriptive research designs help provide answers to the questions of who, what, when, where, and how associated with a particular research problem; a descriptive study cannot conclusively ascertain answers to why. Descriptive research is used to obtain information concerning the current status of the phenomena and to describe "what exists" with respect to variables or conditions in a situation.

C. Experimental Design

A blueprint of the procedure that enables the researcher to maintain control over all factors that may affect the result of an experiment. In doing this, the researcher attempts to determine or predict what may occur. Experimental research is often used where there is time priority in a causal relationship (cause precedes effect), there is consistency in a causal relationship (a cause will always lead to the same effect), and the magnitude of the correlation is great. The classic experimental design specifies an experimental group and a control group. The independent variable is administered to the experimental group and not to the control group, and both groups are measured on the same dependent variable. Subsequent experimental designs have used more groups and more measurements over longer periods. True experiments must have control, randomization, and manipulation.

V. SAMPLING DESIGNS

A. Definition, Purpose, Terminologies and Principles

In statistics, quality assurance, and survey methodology, sampling is concerned with the selection of a subset of individuals from within a statistical population to estimate characteristics of the whole population. Each observation measures one or more properties (such as weight, location, color) of observable bodies distinguished as independent objects or individuals. In survey sampling, weights can be applied to the data to adjust for the sample design, particularly stratified sampling. Results from probability theory and statistical theoryare employed to guide practice. In business and medical research, sampling is widely used for gathering information about a population.[1]

The sampling process comprises several stages:

Defining the population of concern Specifying a sampling frame, a set of items or events possible to measure Specifying a sampling method for selecting items or events from the frame Determining the sample size Implementing the sampling plan Sampling and data collecting Data which can be selected

B. Advantages and Disadvantages of Sampling

 

Type of Sampling 

 

When to use it

 

Advantages

 

Disadvantages

Probability Strategies

     

 Simple Random Sampling

When the population members are similar to one another on important variables

 

Ensures a high degree of representativeness

 

Time consuming and tedious

  When the population

Ensures a high degree of

 

Systematic Sampling

members are similar to one another on important variables

representativeness, and no need to use a table of random numbers

Less random than simple random sampling

 

Stratified Random Sampling

When the population is heterogeneous and contains several different groups, some of which are related to the topic of the study

 

Ensures a high degree of representativeness of all the strata or layers in the population

 

Time consuming and tedious

 

Cluster Sampling

When the population consists of units rather than individuals

 

Easy and convenient

Possibly, members of units are different from one another, decreasing the techniques effectiveness

Non-Probability Sampling

     

 

Convenience Sampling

When the members of the population are convenient to sample

 

Convenience and inexpensive

 

Degree of generalizability is questionable

 

Quota Sampling

When strata are present and stratified sampling is not possible

 

Insures some degree of representativeness of all the strata in the population

 

 

Degree of generalizability is questionable

C. Determination of Sample Size

Sample size determination is the act of choosing the number of observations or replicates to include in a statistical sample. The sample size is an important feature of any empirical study in which the goal is to make inferences about a population from a

sample. In practice, the sample size used in a study is determined based on the expense of data collection, and the need to have sufficient statistical power. In complicated studies there may be several different sample sizes involved in the study: for example, in a stratified survey there would be different sample sizes for each stratum. In a census, data are collected on the entire population, hence the sample size is equal to the population size. In experimental design, where a study may be divided into different treatment groups, there may be different sample sizes for each group.

Sample sizes may be chosen in several different ways:

experience - For example, include those items readily available or convenient to collect. A choice of small sample sizes, though sometimes necessary, can result in wide confidence intervals or risks of errors in statistical hypothesis testing.

using a target variance for an estimate to be derived from the sample eventually obtained

using a target for the power of a statistical test to be applied once the sample is collected.

D. Sample Design: Scientific and Non-Scientific

 Scientific research is a logically stepped process used for investigating and acquiring or expanding our understanding. The findings of scientific research can be reproduced and demonstrated to be consistent.

Nonscientific research is acquiring knowledge and truths about the world using techniques that do not follow the scientific method. For instance, Plato was a large proponent of some of these, and Freud's theories use several of them as well. Let's look at several of the more oft-used nonscientific methods to see what pitfalls are out there.

VI. Collection of DataA. Classification Data according to SourceB. Selecting Method of Collecting DataC. Research Instrument ToolsD. The Questionnaire

Types of questionnaire

1. Structured questionnaire a) Have definite and concrete questions.b) Is prepared well in advance.c) Initiates a formal inquiry.d) Supplements and checks the data, previously accumulated.e) Used in studies of the economics and the social problems, studies of the administrative policies and changes etc.

2. Unstructured questionnaire a) Used at the time of the interview.b) Acts as the guide for the interviewer.c) Is very flexible in working.d) Used in studies related to the group of families or those relating to the personal experiences, beliefs etc.

A questionnaire can also be divided as the follows depending on the nature of the questions therein

1. Open ended questionnaire a) Respondent is free to express his views and the ideas.b) Used in making intensive studies of the limited number of the cases.c) Merely an issue is raised by such a questionnaire.d) Do not provide any structure for the respondent’s reply.e) The questions and their orders are pre – determined in the nature.

2. Close ended questionnaire a) Responses are limited to the stated alternatives.b) One of the alternatives is simply YES or NO.c) Respondent cannot express his own judgment.

3. Mixed questionnairea) Questions are both close and open ended.b) Used in field of social research.

4. Pictorial questionnaire a) Used very rarely.b) Pictures are used to promote the interest in answering the questions.c) Used in studies related to the social attitudes and the pre – judices in the children.

E. The InterviewInterviewing involves asking questions and getting answers from participants in a study.  Interviewing has a variety of forms including: individual, face-to-face interviews and face-to-face group interviewing.  The asking and answering of questions can be mediated by the telephone or other electronic devices (e.g. computers). Interviews can be structured, semi-structure or unstructured. 

Structured Interviews

Semi-Structured Interviews

Unstructured Interviews

Informal Interviews

Focus Groups

There are a number of ways to classify interviews by type.  Consider reading about all the different types of interviews, since these distinctions are somewhat artifical, and there are important similarties and differences across these types. 

F. Summary

VII. DATA PROCESSING AND STATISTICAL TREATMENT

A. Definition: Data Processing

Advanced AnalyticsThe acquisition of sample and transformation of data into knowledge is no longer a simple matter of providing lists of names and summary tables. Luth’s value and expertise comes from the fact that we understand that each type of research objective imposes different kinds of requirements and offers different possibilities for consideration.From the beginning, we approach data gathering as an attempt to match research methodologies, sample acquisition strategies, sample types and information requirements to business objectives, rather than just filling a quota. The nature of the research objective affects who you ask, what you ask them, and how you get the data.With an experienced team of research and statistical professionals, Luth offers a range of analytical support services that are geared to make research more efficient and effective—in essence—turning knowledge into intelligence.

Validation & CalibrationTo address the increasing demand for using combined research methods (for example, online surveying and telephone interviewing), Luth Research provides side-by-side comparison analysis and guidance in maximizing the advantages of different research techniques.

Luth offers multi-mode data collection methods, which are fundamental for methodological validation and calibration, or assessing feasibility and benefits of using online or a combination of online and telephone surveying methods.Sampling Design & TechniquesBefore a client proposes or designs a research project, our team helps clients determine the desired total sample size and sub-group sample sizes to statistically sound comparison. In addition, we conduct power analysis to optimize the sample size recommendations according to the types of analytical techniques to be performed using the research data.

Luth Research can also assist in recommending the proper sampling method and design by utilizing SurveySavvy®, the company’s online community, and/or external sample sources. For research projects that require a representative sample, Luth establishes sample quotas to closely mirror the Census statistics.

When warranted by the research situations, we will also perform weighting of the data to reflect the true population parameters in demographics, as well as known product or service usage characteristics. Conducting this weighting allows you to gain an in-depth look at the data for population projection in new product development, brand audit or market share benchmarking.Specific Services include:

Sample Size Determination with Estimated Margin of Error Power Analysis Research Method Comparison Sampling Method Recommendation and Designo Simple Random Samplingo Stratified Samplingo Sample Balancing Based on the Censuso Sample Weighting

Data Quality AssuranceUpon completion of data collection, data diagnostics can be performed to ensure clean and quality data for further analysis. We can also help clients in identifying outliers and perform data cleansing procedures. To further determine the appropriate analytical procedures in the next step, Luth Research provides statistical analysis to test the data distribution and measure reliability and validity of measures.Specific Services include:

Outliers Determination and Data Cleaning Measurement of Skewness (symmetry) and Kurtosis (Peaked or Flat) Examining Reliability of Measures Examining Validity of Measures

Data ProcessingLuth Research provides data processing services to ensure a smooth one-stop service experience for clients.

Cross Tabulation Simple and Complex Nested Cross Tabulations Frequencies and Percentages Calculation Descriptive Statistics, Including Mean, Median, Mode, Standard Deviation, and

Standard Error Simple and Complex Summary Tables for Comparison of Means, Top or Bottom Boxes Statistical Significance Testing, Multiple Confidence Levels, T and Z Tests, ANOVA,

Chi-Square Weighting Integration of Coded Open-Ended Responses Platforms: SPSS tables, CFMC Mentor Output Formats: Microsoft Word, Excel, HTML, PowerPoint (Charts) Automatically Generated Table Index

Content Analysis/Coding

Well Trained and Experienced Coders Code Development from Verbatim Content Measurement of Inter-Coder Reliability (Cohen’s Kappa) Output Formats: Excel, ASCII, or Other Client-Specified Formats

Statistical Analysis

Luth Research helps clients apply advanced statistical procedures and modeling to best answer their research hypothesis. Our set of analytical tools includes:

Distribution Fitting Multiple Regression Logistic Regression Factor Analysis Discriminant Analysis Multivariate Analysis or Variance Multi-Dimensional Scaling Cluster Analysis Conjoint Analysis Correspondence Analysis Structural Equation Modeling Canonical Correlation Survival Analysis Time Series Analysis

B. Data MatrixC. Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics are numbers that are used to summarize and describe data. The word "data" refers to the information that has been collected from an experiment, a survey, a historical record, etc. (By the way, "data" is plural. One piece of information is called a "datum.") If we are analyzing birth certificates, for example, a descriptive statistic might be the percentage of certificates issued in New York State, or the average age of the mother. Any other number we choose to compute also counts as a descriptive statistic for the data from which the statistic is computed. Several descriptive statistics are often used at one time to give a full picture of the data.

Descriptive statistics are just descriptive. They do not involve generalizing beyond the data at hand. Generalizing from our data to another set of cases is the business of inferential statistics, which you'll be studying in another section. Here we focus on (mere) descriptive statistics.

D. Inferential Statistics

We have seen that descriptive statistics provide information about our immediate group of data. For example, we could calculate the mean and standard deviation of the exam marks for the 100 students and this could provide valuable information about this group of 100 students. Any group of data like this, which includes all the data you are interested in, is called a population. A population can be small or large, as long as it includes all the data you are interested in. For example, if you were only interested in the exam marks of 100 students, the 100 students would represent your population. Descriptive statistics are applied to populations, and the properties of populations, like the mean or standard deviation, are called parameters as they represent the whole population (i.e., everybody you are interested in).

Often, however, you do not have access to the whole population you are interested in investigating, but only a limited number of data instead. For example, you might be interested in the exam marks of all students in the UK. It is not feasible to measure all exam marks of all students in the whole of the UK so you have to measure a smaller sample of students (e.g., 100 students), which are used to represent the larger population of all UK students. Properties of samples, such as the mean or standard deviation, are not called parameters, but statistics. Inferential statistics are techniques that allow us to use these samples to make generalizations about the populations from which the samples were drawn. It is, therefore, important that the sample accurately represents the population. The process of achieving this is called sampling. Inferential statistics arise out of the fact that sampling naturally incurs sampling error and thus a sample is not expected to perfectly represent the population. The methods of inferential statistics are (1) the estimation of parameter(s) and (2) testing of statistical hypotheses.

VIII. Presentation and Interpretation of Data

A. Data Analysis

It is the process of systematically applying statistical and/or logical techniques to describe and illustrate, condense and recap, and evaluate data. According to Shamoo and Resnik (2003) various analytic procedures “provide a way of drawing inductive inferences from data and distinguishing the signal (the phenomenon of interest) from the noise (statistical fluctuations) present in the data”

B. Presentation of Data

C. Textual Documentation

IX. Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations

A. Summary and FindingsB. ConclusionsC. Recommendations

X. Senior Research Project

A. Writing RequirementsB. Content and StructureC. Format and StyleD. BibliographyE. Curriculum Vitae