copyright © houghton mifflin company. all rights reserved. 1–11–1 chapter one introduction to...

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–1

Chapter One

Introduction to Psychology and

Methods of Research


Did You Know That…

• One of the founders of modern psychology was such a poor student that he was actually left back a grade in school?

• A movement that once dominated psychology believed that psychologists should turn away from the study of the mind?

• The school of psychology originated by Sigmund Freud holds that we are generally unaware of our underlying motives?


Did You Know That… (cont.)

• A major school of psychology was inspired by the view from a train?

• A student successfully completed all Ph.D. requirements at Johns Hopkins University but was refused a doctorate because she was a woman?


Did You Know That… (cont.)

• A sample of 1,500 people may better represent the American population than a sample of 100,000?

• You can obtain listings and abstracts of articles from major psychology journals by using your home computer (and much of it is free of charge)?

Module 1.1

Foundations of Modern Psychology


Module 1.1 Preview Questions

• What is psychology?• What are the origins of psychology?• What are the major early schools of

psychology?• What are the major contemporary

perspectives in psychology?


What Is Psychology?

• The science of behavior and mental processes.

• Why is psychology considered a science?• What do we mean by behavior and mental

processes?


Origins of Psychology

• Greek roots– Psyche “mind”

– Logos “study” or “knowledge”

• Ancient Greek philosophers– Socrates (ca. 469-399 B.C.): Know thyself.

– Plato (ca. 428-348 B.C.): Our senses are not to be trusted.

– Aristotle (ca. 384-332 B.C.): Knowledge through careful observation.

• Confucius (ca. 551-479 B.C.): We are inherently good, not evil.


Figure 1.1: Psychology, the Early Days: A Timeline


Figure 1.1: Psychology, the Early Days: A Timeline (cont’d)


Origins of Psychology (cont.)

• During late 19th century psychology emerges as a scientific discipline.

• Gustav Theodor Fechner (1801-1887) studies psychophysics.

• Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894) studies sensation and perception.– Develops theory of how people perceive color.


Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)

• German scientist.• Established first

psychology laboratory in 1879.

• Psychology transitions from philosophy to science.


Wilhelm Wundt (cont.)

• Interested in people’s mental experiences.• Used method of introspection.• Wanted to develop model of conscious

experience by breaking it down into its component parts.


Edward Titchner (1867-1927)

• Brought Wundt’s teachings and methods to U.S.

• School of psychology known as structuralism.


G. Stanley Hall (1844-1924)

• First American to work in Wundt’s laboratory.• Established first psychological laboratory in

U.S. in 1883.• Founded American Psychological Association

in 1892.• Made important contributions to child

psychology.


William James (1842-1910)

• Founded school of psychology known as functionalism.

• Shift focus from introspection to the functions of behavior.– Why we do what we do.

• Influenced by Darwin’s theory of evolution.– Adaptive behaviors more likely to survive.

• Also concerned with stream of consciousness.


John Watson (1878-1958)

• Founded school of psychology known as behaviorism.

– Since can’t observe mental processes, psychology should become a science of behavior only.

• Environment molds behavior.

• By 1920s, behaviorism becomes dominant force in American psychology.


B. F. Skinner (1904-1990)

• Studied how behavior is shaped by rewards and punishments.

• Principles of learning apply to animals and humans alike.


Max Wertheimer (1880-1943)

• Train ride led to founding of Gestalt psychology.

• How does brain organize and structures perceptions of world?


Figure 1.2: What is This?

Gestalt maxim:“The whole is greater than the sum of the parts.”


Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

• Austrian physician.

• Focused on the unconscious mind.

• Emphasized importance of early childhood experiences.

• View of psychology called the psychodynamic perspective.

• Developed form of psychotherapy known as psychoanalysis.


Contemporary Psychology

• Behavioral Perspective

• Psychodynamic Perspective

• Humanistic Perspective

• Physiological Perspective

• Cognitive Perspective

• Sociocultural Perspective


Figure 1.3: Ethnic/Racial Breakdown of U.S. Population in 2000

Source: (1994, March). Current Population Reports, Series, Household and Family


Figure 1.4: Projected Racial Breakdown of U.S. Population in 2050

Source: (1994, March). Current Population Reports, Series, Household and Family


Module 1.2

Psychologists: Who They Are and What They Do



• What are the various specialties in psychology?

• What changes have occurred in the ethnic and gender characteristics of psychologists over time?


Psychological Research

• Basic Research: Focus is on acquiring knowledge, even if no practical application.

• Applied Research: Focus is on finding solutions to specific problems.


Figure 1.5: Psychologists’ Areas of Specialization

Source: Psychological Association (1998). 1998 APA Directory Survey: Selected


Figure 1.6: Where Psychologists Work

Source: Psychological Association (1998). 1998 APA Directory Survey: Selected


Specialty Areas

• Experimental psychology

• Clinical psychology

• Counseling psychology

• School psychology

• Educational psychology

• Developmental psychology

• Personality psychology

• Social psychology

• Environmental psychology

• Industrial/Organizational psychology

• Health psychology

• Consumer psychology

• Neuropsychology

• Geropsychology

• Forensic psychology

• Sports psychology


Women in Early Psychology

Mary Whiton Calkins(1863-1930)

Margaret Floy Washburn(1871-1939)


African Americans in Early Psychology

Gilbert Haven Jones(1883-1966)

Kenneth Clark (b. 1914)Mamie Clark (1917-1983)


Figure 1.7: Ethnicity of Ph.D. Psychologists

Source: National Science Foundation


Figure 1.8: Women Ph.D. Recipients in Psychology

Source: American Psychological Association, Research Office


Module 1.3

Research Methods in Psychology



• What are the major objectives of science?• What is the scientific method, and what are its

four general steps?• What are the major research methods

psychologists use?• What ethical guidelines must psychologists

follow in their research?


Objectives of Science

• Description– Observations vs. inferences

• Explanation

– Purpose of theories

• Prediction

• Control


Figure 1.9: General Steps in the Scientific Method


Case Study Method

• In-depth study of one or more individuals.• Anecdotes as casual case studies.• Limitations of case study method.


Survey Method

• Information gathered from targeted groups of people.– Structured interviews– Questionnaires

• Goal: generalize from sample to population– Importance of random sampling

• Problems– Social desirability bias– Volunteer bias


Naturalistic Observation

• Direct observation of behavior in natural environment.

• Problems– Observer biases– Possible unintended consequences


Correlational Method

• Used to examine the relationship between two variables.

• Correlation coefficient as a statistical measure of association– Positive vs. negative correlations

• Limitation: Correlation is not causation.


Benefits of the Correlational Method

• Offers clues to underlying causes.• Can identify groups at high risk for physical or

behavioral problems.• Increases understanding of relationships

between variables or events.


Experimental Method

• Allows for investigation of cause-and-effect relationships.

• Independent Variables: Factors that are manipulated in an experiment.

• Dependent Variables: Outcome variables believed to be dependent on independent variable.


Experimental Method

Participants

Independent variable: control group

Independent variable: experimental group

Random Assignment

Measure dependent variable: Is there a difference?


Experimental Method

• Controlling for placebo effects• Controlling for expectancy effects

– Single-blind and double-blind procedures


Ethical Principles in Psychological Research

• Purposes:– Promote individual dignity.– Protect human welfare.– Preserve scientific integrity.

• Role of ethics review committees• Role of informed consent• Importance of confidentiality• Ethical guidelines for animal research


Module 1.4

Application: Becoming a Critical Thinker


Module 1.4 Preview Question

• What are the key features of critical thinking?


Features of Critical Thinking

• Question everything.• Clarify what you mean.• Avoid oversimplifying.• Avoid overgeneralizing.• Don’t confuse correlation with causation.


Features of Critical Thinking (cont’d)

• Consider assumptions.• Examine sources.• Question evidence.• Consider alternative explanations.

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