teori organisasi 1
TRANSCRIPT
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TEORI
ORGANISASIM.K.: T.OM.K.: T.ODosen: Prof.Dr.Azhar Kasim,MPADosen: Prof.Dr.Azhar Kasim,MPA
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Definisi Organisasi
Sekelompok orang yang bekerja-sama
untuk mencapai tujuan bersama
Suatu sistem koordinasi kegiatan antara
dua orang atau lebih untuk mencapai
tujuan tertentu
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Definisi Organisasi
Suatu kegiatan sosial dari sekelompok
manusia, yang saling berintegrasi menurut
suatu pola tertentu sehingga setiapanggota organisasi memiliki fungsi dan
tugasnya masing-masing, yang sebagai
tujan tertentu dan mempunyai batas-batasyang jelas, sehingga bisa dipisahkan
secara jelas dari lingkungannya (Lubis dan
Huseini, 1987)
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Definisi Organisasi
A tool used by people to coordinate their
actions to obtain something they desire or
value to achieve their goals (Jones,1993)
A response to and a means of creating
value that satisfies some human needs(Jones, 1995)
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Perkembangan Teori
Organisasi 1900s (Clasical): F.W.Taylor (1911);
H.Fayol (1919); Max Weber (1924); dan
Barnard (1938) 1950s (Modern): Simon (1945,1958) 1980s (Symbolic - Interpretative)
1990s (Post Modern) 2000s (Knowledge-based)
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Perspevie onaction
Purposive,Intentional,GoalDirected,
Rational
ExternallyConstrainedand Controlled
Emergent,Almost-Random,Dependent
on Processand SocialConstruction
Level
ofanalysis
Individuals,
Coalitions,or Subunits
Expectancy
Theory
Operant
Conditioning
Cognitiive
theory oforganization
Total
Organization
Market
failures,Marxist
Resource
dependence
Institutionalis
m theory
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FLEXIBLITY
Means: Flexibility;
ReadinessEnds: Growth;
Resources
Acquisition
EXTERNAL
Ends: Productivity;
Efficiency
Means: Planning;
Goal Setting
CONTROL
Ends: Stability;
Control
Means: Information;
Management;
Communication
INTERNAL
Means: Cohesion;
Morale
Ends: HumanResources
Development
The Competing Values Diagram
RATIONAL GOAL MODEL
OPEN SYSTEM MODELHUMAN RELATIONS MODEL
INTERNAL PROCESS MODEL
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Models of Organizational
Effectiveness Open Systems Model
An effective organization is one that can acquire the
resources it needs
Rational Goal ModelAn effective organization is one that achieve its goals
Internal Process ModelAn effective organization is one that operates smoothly
and efficiently, without strain Human Relations Model
An effective organization is one that satisfies the
demands and expectations of the groups that have a
strong interest in the organization
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Model Tujuan Rasional Organisasi sebagai alat pencapai tujuan Menekankan kepada perencanaan, evaluasi dan
produktivitas
Kekuatannya: Penilaian keberhasilan didasarkan pada kriteria
menurut perspektif organisasi, bukan atas dasar
kriteria pribadi penilai
Kelemahannya: Kebanyakan organisasi mempunyai tujuan-tujuan yang
saling bertentangan
Sulit meng-operasionalisasikan tujuan-tujuan tersebut
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Model Hubungan Manusia Menekankan pada peranan kel.kerja, norma dan
perilaku informal dalam organisasi
Fungsi kepemimpinan dianggap sebagai
pengembangan organisasi agar tercapai tujuanpribadi maupun tujuan organisasi
Kekuatannya:Mementingkan pendekatan yang manusiawi
Kelemahannya: Cenderung mengabaikan perspektif makro
Tidak cukup/hanya sedikit bukti-bukti empiris
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Model Sistem Terbuka
Organisasi tergantung kepada lingkungan
Apabila < 1 organisasi hanya bisa bertahankalau ada subsidi
Kekuatannya: Pendekatan lebih komprehensif (organisasi) dianggap
sebagai suatu yang dinamis dalam kerangka lingkunganyang lebih luas
Kelemahannya: Sulit diterapkan karena kompleks
Dalam kenyataan organisasi tidak selalu reaktif
Inputs OutputsThroughput(organisasi)
Lingkungan
0I
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Model Proses Internal
Partisipasi dalam proses pembuatan keputusansangat mempengaruhi kesediaan anggota org.untuk menerima perubahan dan konsekuensinya
Komunikasi internal yang terbuka meningkatkan
keikutsertaan/partisipasi anggota Menekankan pada M.I.S. dan pembuatan
keputusan dalam organisasi Komunikasi sebagai alat koordinasi dan
pengarahan Kekuatannya: mengevaluasi keberhasilan
berdasarkan proses daripada berdasarkan tujuan Kelemahannya: sulit mengidentifikasikan,
mengukur proses-proses internal organisasi
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Beberapa Construct
Efektivitas OrganisasiScott: Sistem Rasional
(prod+efisiensi)Sistem Alamiah(moril + kohesi)
Sistem Terbuka
(adaptasi)
Seashore: Model Tujuan Model Sistem Alamiah Model ProsesKeputusan
Cameron: Model Tujuan Model KepuasanPartisipan
Model SumberDaya
Model ProsesInternal
Quinn &Rohrbaugh:
Model TujuanRasional
Model HubunganManusia
Model SistemTerbuka
Model ProsesInternal
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Figure 1.1. Sources of Inspiration to
Organization TheoryCulture Studies
Literary TheoryPoststructuralist Theory
Postmodern ArchitectureLinguisticsSemiotics
FolkloreCultural Anthropology
Social AnthropologyIndustrial Sociology
Biology - EcologyPolitical Science
SociologyEngineering
Economics1900s 1950s 1980s 1990s
CLASSICAL MODERN
SYMBOLIC-
INTERPRETIVE POST MODERN
Adam smith (1776)
Karl Marx (1867)
Emile Durkheim
(1893)
F.W.Taylor (1911)
Henri Fayol (1919)
Max Weber (1924)
Chester Barnard
(1938)
Herbert Simon (1945,
1958)
Talcott parsons (1951)
Alferd Gouldner (1954)James March (1958)
Melville dalton (1959)
Ludwig von Bertalanffy
(1968)
Alferd Schutz (1932)
Phillip Selznick (1948)
Peter Berger (1966)
Thomas Luckman (1966)Clifford Geertz (1973)
Erving Goffman (1971)
William Foote Whyte (1943)
Paul Ricoeur (1981)
Vladimir Proop (1828)
Roland Barthes (1972)Ferdinand de Saussure (1959)
Kenneth Burke (1954)
Michel Foucault
(1972, 1973)
Charles Jencks (1977)
Jacques Derrida(1978,1980)
Mikhail Bakhtin (1981)
Jean-Francois
Lyotard (1984)
Richard Rorty (1989)
Jean Baudrillard
(1988)
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Knowledge-based Organization
Organisasi yang berbasis pengetahuan
adalah organisasi yang menciptakan nilai
melalui kemampuan modal intektual yangdimilikinya (knowledge management)
Modal intelektual terdiri dari modal
manusia (human capital) dan modalstruktural (structural capital)
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Knowledge-based Organization
Modal struktural terdiri dari modal strukturinternal dan modal struktural eksternal
Modal struktur internal misalnya, paten,sistem informasi metode, manual dansebagainya
Modal struktural eksternal adalah modalyang berkaitan dengan hubungan denganpelanggan, dan stakeholders yang lain
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Knowledge-based Organization
Human capital adalah kombinasipengetahuan, keterampilan dan
pengalaman individu dalam perusahaan(Cevendish et al. 1999) Human capital adalah kombinasi
kemampuan otak, keterampilan danwawasan individu dalam organisasi(Edvinson, 2003)
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Penulis Knowledge-based
Organization/ Management, a.l:1. Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995)
2. Choo (1998)
3. Stacey, Griffin and Shaw (2000)
4. Oliver and Koos (2000)
5. Kanichi Ohmae (2000)
6. Cartada and Woods (eds) (2000)
7. Fonseca (2002)8. Patricia Shaw (2002)
9. Dougla Griffin (2002)
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Figure 1.1. Sources of Inspiration to
Organization Theory The boxes indicate four major perspective on
organizations used as a framework for this book.
The dates above the boxes indicate the decadewhen the perspective became recognizable
within the field. Contributing discipline are
indicated above the boxes and some of their
influential thinkers are indicated below. Noticethat some contributors predate their influence on
organization theory indicating the lag in
communication between disciplines
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Table 2.3. Differences in the Multiple
Perspective of Organization TheoryPerspective Subject/Focus Method Results
Classical The effects oforganization on
societyManagement of theorganization
Observation andhistorical analysis
Personal reflectionon experience
Typologies andtheoretical
frameworksPrescriptions formanagementpractices
Modern The organization
through objectivemeasures
Descriptive
measuresCorrelation amongstandardizesmeasures
Comparative
studiesStatistical analysis
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Table 2.3. Differences in the Multiple
Perspective of Organization TheoryPerspective Subject/Focus Method Results
Symbolic-Interpretive
The organizationthrough subjective
perceptions
Participantobservation
Ethnographicinterviewing
Narrative texts suchas case studies and
organizationalethnographies
Postmodern Organization theoryand theorizing
practices
Deconstruction
Critique oftheorizing practices
Reflexivity andreflexive accounts
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Table 2.4 The Metaphors of
Organization Theoryperspective Metaphor Image of the
Organization as..Image of theManager as..
Classical
period
Machine A machine designed and
constructed bymanagement to achievepredefined goals
An engineer who
designs builds andoperates theorganizationalmachine
Modern Organism A living system that
performs the functionsnecessary to survivalasp. Adaptation to ahostile world
An interdependent part
of an adaptive system
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Table 2.4 The Metaphors of
Organization Theoryperspective Metaphor Image of the
Organization as..Image of theManager as..
Symbolic-
Interpretive
Culture A pattern of meanings
created and maintainedby human associationthrough shared values,traditions, and customs
An artifact who would
like to be a symbol ofthe organization
Postmodern Collage An organization theory is
a collage made from bitsof knowledge andunderstanding broughttogether to form a newperspective that hasreference to the past
A theorist the theorist
is an artist
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Table 1.2. Approaches to Measuring
Organizational EffectivenessApproach Description Goals to Set to Measures
Effectiveness
ExternalResources
Approach
Evaluates theorganizations abilityto secure, manage,
and control scarceand valued skillsand resources
Lower costs of inputs
Obtain high-quality inputs of raw materials andemployee
Increase market share
Increase stock price
Gain support of stakeholders such asgovernment or environmentalists
InternalSystems
Approach
Evaluate theorganizations abilityto be innovative andfunction quickly andresponsively
Cut decision-making timeIncrease rate of product innovation
Increase coordination and motivation ofemployees
Reduce conflict
Reduce time to market
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Table 1.2. Approaches to Measuring
Organizational EffectivenessApproach Description Goals to Set to Measures
Effectiveness
Technical
Approach
Evaluates the
organizationsability to convertskills andresources intogoods and serviceefficiently
Increase product quality
Reduce number of defectsReduce production costs
Improve customer service
Reduce delivery time to customer
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Which increases
the value that anorganization can
create
Exert power and control
Economize on
transaction costs
Manage the externalenvironment
Use large-scale
technology
Increase specialization
and the division of labor
The Use of an
Organizationallows people
jointly to
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Table 2.4. Prinsip-prinsip
Manajemen Modern vs. PosmodernModern PostmodernShort term profit goal Long term profit goals
Mass production Flexible production
Worker is a cost Worker is an investmentVertical planning Horizontal planning
Top down focus Internal and external customer focus
Planning leads to order Planning leads to disorder andconfusion
One man, one job and de-skilledjobs
Work teams, multi-skilled workers
Labor-management confrontation Labor-management cooperation
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Table 2.4. Prinsip-prinsip
Manajemen Modern vs. PosmodernModern PosmodernDivision of departments Flexible networks with permeable
boundaries
Tall is better Flat is better
Homogeneity is strength Diversity is strength
Top has voice & diversity istolerated
Many-voices and diversity is anasset
Efficiency increase withspecialization, formalization,routinization, fragmentation, divisionof labor
Efficiency decreases withspecialization, formalization,routinization, fragmentation, divisionof labor
Sumber: Bojo, et.all (200o,p.;2-3)
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Table 3.1 Perbedaan Pendekatan Penelitian
Positivisme, Interpretivisme dan Posmodernisme
Positivism/Modernism
Interpretive SocialScience
Critical SocialScience/
Postmodernism
AlasanPenelitian
To discover naturallaws so people can
predict and controlevents
To understand anddescribe meaningful
social action
To smash myths andempower people to
change societyradically
KenyataanSosial
Stable preexistingpattern or order thatcan be discovered
Fluid definitions of asituation created byhuman interaction
Conflict filled andgoverned by hiddenunderlying structures
TabiatKemanu-siaan
Self-interested andrational individualswho are shaped byexternal forces
Social beings whocreate earning and whoconstantly make senseof their worlds
Creative, adaptivepeople withunrealized potential,trapped by illusionand exploitation
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Table 3.1 Perbedaan Pendekatan Penelitian
Positivisme, Interpretivisme dan Posmodernisme
Positivism/
Modernism
Interpretive SocialScience
Critical SocialScience/
Postmodernism
Peran Akal
Sehat
Clearly distinct from
and less valid thanscience
Powerful everyday
theories used byordinary people
False beliefs that hide
power and objectiveconditions
KemiripanTeori
A logical, deductivesystem, ofinterconnecteddefinitions, axioms,
and laws
As description of how agroups meaningsystem is generatedand sustained
A critique that revealstrue conditions andhelps people see theway to a better world
Penjelasanyang Benar
Is logicallyconnected to lawsand based on facts
Resonates or feels rightto those who are beingstudied
Supplies people withtools needed tochange the world
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Table 3.1 Perbedaan Pendekatan Penelitian
Positivisme, Interpretivisme dan Posmodernisme
Positivism/
Modernism
Interpretive SocialScience
Critical SocialScience/
Postmodernism
Bukti yang
Baik
Is based on precise
observations thatothers can repeat
Is embedded in the
context of fluid socialinteractions
Is informed by a
theory that unveilsillusions
Nilai-nilai Science is valuefree, and values
have no placeexcept whenchoosing a topic
Values are an integralpart of social life: no
groups values wrong,only different
All science mustbegin with a value
position; somepositions are right,some are wrong
Sumber: Neuman (1997,p.:83)
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Figure 7.3 . Scheins
Three Levels of CultureArtifacts
Values
Assumptions
Visible but often
undecipherable
Greater level of
awareness
Taken for grantedinvisible
Adapted from Organizational Culture and Leadership (p.14) by E.H.Schein.
Copyright @ 1985 Jossey Bass Inc., Publisher, San Francisco. All right reserved
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Table 7.2 Our Understanding of
Organizational Man Expands with Each
New Perspective in Organization TheoryPerspective Assumption Focus/Values
Classical Economic man Wealth
Power
Early Modern Scientific man Rationality
Management Control
Modern Ecological man Environment
External Control
Symbolic-Interpretive
Symbolic man Interpretation
Meaning
postmodern Aesthetic man Creativity
Freedom
Responsibility
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Struktur OrganisasiMEKANISTIK ORGANIK
1. Pekerjaan terbagi menjadi tugas-
tugas khusus (specialized) dan
terpisah satu sama lain
1. Tiap bagian seakan-akan
mempunyai tugas tertentu yang
utuh yang dikerjakan bersama
tanpa pembagian tugas yangrinci antara anggota tim
2. tugas tiap anggota organisasi
terdefinisi secara rinci
2. Tugas tiap anggota organisasi bisa
berubah sesuai interaksi antar
karyawan
3. Hirarki otoritas dan kontrol sangat
tegas, dilakukan dengan banyak
peraturan
3. Hiriarki otoritas dan kontrol tidak
tegas, hanya ada sedikit
peraturan
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Struktur OrganisasiMEKANISTIK ORGANIK
4. Pengetahuan tentang tugas hanya
dimiliki pemimpin, dengan
sentralisasi yang tinggi dalam
pengontrolan tugas
4. Pengetahuan tentang tugas tidak
hanya ada pada pimpinan.
Pengontrolan bisa terjadi pada
setiap tingkatan dalam organisasi
5. Komunikasi dalam organisasi
umumnya vertikal
5. Komunikasi dalam organisasi
umumnya horizontal/lateral
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Organizational Iceberg
Aspek-aspek yang Resmi
(Formal or Overt Aspects)
Tujuan-tujuan organisasi
Tehnologi
Struktur
Kebijakan dan prosedurProduk
Sumber-sumber Keuangan
Aspek-aspek yang tidak Resmi
(Informal or Covert Aspects)
Kepercayaan dan asumsi-asumsiPersepsi
Sikap
Perasaan (marah, takut, suka, sedih, dll)
Nilai-nilai
Interaksi informil
Norma-norma Kelompok
Tentang sistem yang resmiMaupun yang tidak resmi
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The sources of the problems areourselves
Our organizations work the way they work
because of how we think and how weinteract
If we seek to bring about fundamentalchange we wont change anything until weget down to how we think and how weinteract
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Figure 6.1. Greiners Model of
Organizational Lifecycles
Adapted and reprinted by permission ofHarvard Business Review. From Evaluation
and Revolution as Organizations, grow by Larry Greiner, 50 (July- August) 1972.
Copyright 1972 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College, all rights reserved.
Leadership
Crisis
Anatomy
Crisis
Control
Crisis
Red-Tape
Crisis
Renewal
Crisis
Entrepreneurial
Phase
Collectivity
Phase
Delegation
Phase
Formalization
Phase
Collaboration
Phase
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S Mill Ti ll T tt 1996
Greater Dispersion of Both
Economic and Political Power
Greater
dispersionof control
over
knowledge
Time
The Future
Knowledge
Industrial
Feudal
Slavery