tasavvuf İlmi ve Akademik Araştırma Dergisi

Ankara, 2000_

İçindekiler

İbadetlerin İç Anlamı 1 Mehmet DEMİRCİ

Hacı Bayram-ı Vell and

His Contributions to Ottoman

State at Interregnum Period 1 Ethem CEBECİOGLU

Türk Edebiyatında Ml'yar Geleneği İçinde

Yiğitbaşı Ahmed ŞemsedQ.in Marmaravi'nin

9

33

Hurde-ı Tarikat'ı 1 Cemal KURNAZ-Mustafa TATCI-Halil ÇELTİK 43

Gülşeniliğ.e Dair Bir Eser: Naz1r İbriihim'in

Beyan-ı Tarikat-ı Gülşeni'si 1 Himmet KONUR 65

A:.z1z Mahmud Huiliiyi'nin Belgıradlı

Ali Efendi'ye Gönderdiği Mektup 1 Cengiz GÜNDOGDU 81

Reenkarnasyon (TeııaSüh) Meselesi ve Mutasavvıfların .

Bu Konuya Bakışlarırun Değerlendirilmesi 1 Mustafa AŞIC.4R 85

A Comparision of The Usage of Metaphor (lsti'are) In The

Islamic Philosophers and Mystics 1 Müfit Selim SARURAN 101

Son Dönem Tekke Mecmiiala.rından

Yeşilzade Mehmed Salih Efendi'nin

Rehber-i Tekaya'sı 1 Mustafa AŞIC.4R 129

Yesevilik Kültürü ve "İiın1 Ateizm"/ Dosay KEN]ETAY 167

Ceride-i S~fiyye'den: SeJ.amet-i Kalbiyye 1 Mesnevfhan Ali Fuad (Haz: Halim GÜL) 179

A Comparlsion of The Usage of Metaphor (Isti'are) In The Islamic Philosophers and Mystics

Müfit Selim SARURAN Dr., Ankara Ü. İHihıyat Fakültesi

A) Introduction.

B) Metaphor (Isti'are), Derivation, Contents, Features, Subdivision.

C) Islarnic Philosophers, Farabi, Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Ibn Rushd (Averroes)

and Their Usage of Metaphor. D) The Usage and Purpose of Metaphor within Islarnic Mysticism (Sufism)

E) Conclusion

F) Turkish Abstract

G) Bibliography

A) Introduction

The purpose of this article is to bring into focus the term "Isti'are" which in

retari c is commonly used in the sense of metaphor. By comman definition and

by etymology, it isa transfer of meaning both in intension and by extension. W e

will concentrate on this subject later, but for now we want to focus on the pur­

pose of writing this article.

First of all we are dealing with the concept of metaphor and its place in both

westem and eastem sources. By giving examples of metaphor and examining

the features of metaphor we aim to give a general understanding of it.

· Our second step will be to take a joumey through the history of Islami c phi­

lo~Ç)phers among them Farabi, Ibn Sina and Ibn Rushd. Quoting from their

grand works, we will be able to see to what extent the use of metaphor takes

place in the IşJ:w:nc philosophers.

It' s generally accepted that, philosophy is a way ofreason and intellect. By

102 tasawıtf

intellect we deduce, compare, and reach conclusions. Islamic philosophers, gi­

ve us a heritage of both reason and religion combined these into a philosophi­

cal structure. They delt with metaphysics, ontology, epistemology, ethics, poli­

tics, and lingui.,tics, taking the best from both Greek philosophy and Islamic cul­

ture.

As we quote from their works on the use of metaphor, the purpose of their

using such linguistic games will become clear. Considering their approach to

philosophical subjects on the basis of reason, we begin to understand the relati­

onship between reason and metaphor. The above mentioned Islamic philosop­

hers became famous under the name of Mashaiyyı.ın which means peripatetiens,

an allusion to Aristotle's giving lectı.ırs by walking. Islamic Philosophers took

tl1eir inspiration from Aristotle and Plato. But living in a Islamic environment and

culture and being aware of Islamic values, they combined both into one.

In ad:ldition to this group we also deal with Sufism (Islamic Mysticism) which

pı.ıts an emphasis on tl1e priority of intı.ıition. For an example of this discipline

we have takenan Islamic Sufi, Mevlana's poems as a case study. Most of the su­

tl views can be understood in tl1e mirror of Mevlana, because his comprehensib­

le thoughts are shared by many sufis.

We are going to examine the philosophical and mystical understanding of

people. In botl1 groups we come across the canception of "Ordinary people"

(A'vam) or "Eminent people" (Havas). Also our investigation aims to explore tl1e

role of metaphor in ilie formatian of suchaduality in c~assification. W e also ho­

pe to explore how this classification gave rise to their usage in speech.

B) Metaphor (lsti'are), Derivation, Contents, Features, Subdivisions

Before examining the usage of metaphor in Islamic thought, especially, as se­

en in philosophy and mysticism, we will shed some light on the concept of me­

taphor.

The tenn Metaphor, consist of two root phonemes: Meta and Phore. Meta

means "further" and Phore means "to transfer, to carry, to pass on."1

The equivalent of metaphor in Islamic literatı.ıre is Isti'are. It is derived from

tl1e word "Ariya" which means to borrow something and use it temporarily. In

tl1e early period, ilie term Isti'are was used occasionally in the sense of "borro­wing a theme from anather auilior. "2

1 See etimological explanations: 77ıe Oxford Englisb DictionaıJ•, 384; 77Je Encyclopedia of Pbi­/osopby, vol.: VI, 284; Tbe American College Encyclopedia, Vol.: I, 75.

2 Ibn Manzur, Lisiinu'I-Arab, vol.: II, 448; Lewis, Ff'I-Luga ve'/ Edeb ve'/ Ulıım, 537; Tabint '1-Meu­

/eu~ Edebiyat Lugati, 71-73; Sami, Kamus-i Türki, 101; Saruhan, Metapbm· in İslamic 77ıoigbt, 1-15.

T

a compmision of tbe usage of ınetapbor (isti'are)... 103

Metaphor and Isti'are (in Arabic) are synonyms. Their cornmonality comes

from both derivation and context.

If we exarnine the definitions of metaphor, we realize that the comman po­

ints in all of these definitions are "to borrow and to transfer". In doing this we

are naming one tlıing with anather name which it resembles.:1

When we deseribe a man as a fox, or as a lion, our effort is to borrow words

from different places and put them into anotlıer place attributing them to man.

Our borrowing and transferring comes from o ur observations. Altlıough it seems

that "word borrowing" could be a misnamer, this is not the case". It's a transfer

of meaning wlıich communicates witlı a great deal of certainicy:·•

Metaphor, may divided in two aspects. We can deal with "open metaphor"

and "covered metaphor". In open metaphor, it is easy to determine the sirnila­

rity, because in the text and in tlıe sentence we find expressions such as, "exact­

ly like, for example, just as; or it's sirnilar".

However, covered metaphor, does not contain any clear metaphorical idi­

oms or prepositions, but nevertheless it is considered within the limits of metap­

hor. An example of this can be given as "sleep is flowing from my eyes."5

What is the purpose of metaphor from the stand point of linguistics?

In searching for a reply to this question, we find in Ricoeuor that airn of me­

taphor is to fill the emptiness of a certain kind of semantics.6 Comparison and

analogy are two ways of saving and filling this vacancy. Two terms are needed

in tlıis comparison. The term "like a lion" does not mean anything in itself. But

in tlıe sentence, "Alım et jumped like a lion" we make a connection between a li­

on' s jumping and Ahmet's.7 In the description we refer to jumping in order to be

better understood.

In Islamic literature, Isti'are is alsa known as "metaphor by reason" (Mecaz-ı

Ald!). When we are likening sameone or sometlıing to anather tlıing, we arrive

at tlıis point from deduction and observation. 8

Tb ere are three types of metaphors.

1) Metapbors based on a comparisian of nations that sbow a close affiııity

3 Cuddon, A Dictionary of LitermJ' Temıs, 543.

4 Pudgett, Ron, Handbook of Peatic Fomıs, 310; Holman, A Handbook to Literatııre, 20.

5 Keklik, Felsefe ue Metqfor(Philosophy and Metaphor), 6.

6 Ricoeuor, 71ıe Ru/e of Metapbor(Transl.: Robert Czemy), Gadanıer, Pbilosopbica/ Hemıeımi­

es, s. 3-11.

7 Kazvini, Telbisı1 '1-Miftah, 38-45.

8 For further consideration about Isti'are and its feature see, Kazvini; ei-Erzincani, [çfi'are, s. 26-

40; Leysi Kasım, Metni Jsti'are, 1-40, Gözübüyük Zade, Takrir ala '1-Jsti'are, 1-30; Mevlevi, Ahid, 71;

Ibn Abd Rabbilı, al !kd al Faid, 3-20; Sukkari, Şerb Eşber al Hısdbal~vyin, 7; Askari, Kitab al Sma­

ateyn, 40; Rummazi, Kitab al Nu kat fl J'caz al Kw·'an, 15; Cürcani, Esrar al Balağa, 5; Ibn Raslıik,

Kitap al Umde, 6.

104 tasauuıif

and in any case belong to the same category "flying"fo?· "running".

2) Metaphors based on a smilarity that can only be understood intellectu­

ally, the metaphors consisting oj; a)Something sensually perceived for inte/leetual concepts "light"for convin­

cing argument. b) Tbings sensually perceived for other things sensually perceived though the

smilarity remains a matte1· of the intellect "green plan ts on a dımg hill" for "be­

autiful women of evil charecter". c) An inte/leetual concept for other inte/leetual concepts, ie. "death "for "ig­

norance", or "life" for "knowledge". 'Meeting death"for 'facing a serioıts eri­

sis", orfor metaphors based on abstract smilarity.9

Tb ere are alsa subdivisions of Metapho1~· Smiles, Idi01ns, Identification, Me­

tonomy, Allusion, Personification and otherfigures ofSpeech. We see Isti'are as

a general name for these terms, and the word metaphor implies "a process of

borrowing themes or figures of speech".

Mecaz (Smile) means, in Arabic, road, or a path which might be passed, or

in the sense of the opposite of reality. Mecaz is used in the formatian of a com­

parision. "Heaven got poured plants" indicates an example this kind of metap­

hor. Iİı this sentence, "rain" is hidden, and the effects of rain, namely plants are

mentioned. For example in Arabic '"Ayn" means several things. First of all it is

the organ of seeing (eyes) at the same time its use d in the sense of "spy" and "fo­

untain".

In the cantext of language idiomatic usage refers to expressions which have

a different meaning at first glance. W e penetrate the internal meaning ·and get a

new meaning. In Turkish there is an idiom for expressing that our body is tired:

"Black water descended to my feet". Now if we look at this Idi om, at first we

see i ts literal meaning, and one may not comprehend all of what is being said.

But at second glance, we begin to perceive its deeper sense. Then we realize

that the words "Black" "water" and the verb "descend" have a specific meaning.

But, indeed, they also combine to form an idiomatic structure in the culture's

language.

W e may give a second example of this in English, when we use the idiom

"cup of tea". If sameone offeres us to do somethirıg, we may say, "It is not my

cup of tea". In this sense, "I don't like it". Like the above mentioned turkish idi­

om this english one ~Iso needs to be analyzed. W e "borrow", "transfer" and

"caiTy" the words like "cup" and "tea" (Meta-Phore, Ariye) for the constitution of

a new sentence which has a different meaning apart from the initial usage.

9 Encyclopedia of Islam, vol.: II, 250.

·-ı 1

a comparisian oj tbe llsage oj mettıpbor (isti'are)... 105

Anather subdivision of metaphore is Analogy which means, making a com­

parisian or a similarility between two things where we mention both sides of a feature in the same sentence. In this type of metaphor, namely, analogy, the sen­

tence "The heart is like a pump", the word heart refers to a body part. Pump is

a technical word, used in enginering. If sameone asks us "How does a heart

work?" we need to make a comparison or an analogy to make clear what the

function of the heart is. For this reason we again borrow, transfer and move a

word from a different cantext and apply it to a definition and description of the

heart. Furthermore, we can not hide the term heart, or pump, instead we refer

to both.

Metanamy (allusion) is alsa a way of expressing our intentions or words. In

this kind of metaphor, for the representation of something general, a particular

is used. For example "bread is waiting for money". Let's look at the meaning

used in this sentence. In this sentence, baker is absent, or hidden, so instead of ·

baker, we see the term "bread" which is a product of the baker. If we accept "ba­

ker" as a general term and "bread" as a parucular one, in this situration we only

mention the parucular and don't express the general idea. W e can find in the Qur'an this kind of usage: "ask the villiage". (12/74) In this

verse only the villiage is mentioned, and the villiagers are hidden. A villiage is

general and the habitants of a villiage are particulars, so it is not akward to ask

a villiage even though it's not a person. In this comparision, "place" takes the place of residents.

Personification: In this type of metaphor we give the attributes of humans

to other things. For instance, "thirsty'' is an attribute of animals, but if we say my

car is thirsty, this is an example of personification. Cars have no emotions but we

again carried and transfered the "word" "thirsty" and have created a new me­

aning.

A metaphor is a way of transfering and maving a word, so this transfer might be classified asfollows:

a) The name of organs are tranfered to nature: "Mouth" is an organ, and in

idiomatic usage this may be transfered to nature as in "mouth of a river"; River being a part of nature, and mouth as an organ ereats a new expression.

b) Words related to nature may be transferred and carried over to human-b~­

ings; i e. "soft like cotton" or "hard as stone". "He is like a wave of the sea"

c) To mak e something concrete is alsa a way of transferring. W e takean abst­

ract object and bring it into a concrete structure.

d) Seeing, hearing, smelling and touching may be used in place of themsel­ves.

d) Name transferring; ie. sun, sametimes may be deseribed as day, or night

ı 06 tasauuzif

as darnkness.

A.fter considering the different ways of transfer we may now look at how

Aristotle, classified meaning transfer in four stages,

a) From animate to inanimate ~ eyes cover

b) From inanimate to animate ~ desk's leg

c) Animate to animate ~He isa fax

d) Comparisian ~ A book is a person's best friend. 10

Isti'are, widely known as metaphor, in Western sources is deseribed by Aris­

tade as "giving a name to a thing which belongs to another. Meanwhile, in Isla­

mic literatı.ıre, Isti'are's generally accepted meaning is "illı.ıstration of abstract

words by carrying and putring concrete words and create a new union.""

Before giving a comparisian of the Islamic philosophers and mystics, we

ought to clarify metaphor as it is usedin the Qı.ır'an. It' s necessary to refer to the

Qur'an, because it' s the main source of tl1e philosophers and mystics with1n Is­

lamic thoı.ıght.

The Metaphorical Approach of The Qur'an

In the Qur'an, we see many comparisian of prepositions [Ke enne, ellezine, ·

Kemesell, Kema, Mislfı, Kezalike, Ke, Kemen]. Besides these prepositions we

can find many types of transfer of meaning. Smiles, figurative speech, idiom,

analogy, metonomy, allusion, and personification, all take place and within the

Qı.ır'an.

Trees, moı.ıntains, clouds, waves, plants, sun, tl1e hand, eye, speech, breat­

hing, or weeping are used in a metaphorical sense. In the Qur'an we come ac­

ross metaphor even concerning Gad, belivers, disbelivers, the hereafter, paradi­

se, hell and many other subjects. What's the purpose of metaphor in the Qur'an?

Why do tl1ey take place in the Qı.ır'an? In short expressian it can be said tl1at it

is "to reach every level of the mind, and to make principles more understandab­

le". Same people may understand theoretical principles and otl1ers only have

tl1e ability to comprehend metaphors. The Qı.ır'an aims to establish a model of

peace, in individuals as well ;;:ıs in the community. That' s why it' s main theme is

tl1e unity of Gad on the theoretical side, and the unity of mankind on the prac-

10 Richard, 77ıe Pbilosopby oj Rbetoric, 90-92; Kurwan, Literature, Rbetoric, Metapbysics, 21;

\Vay, Knowledge, Representation and Metapbor, 14; Aksan, Anlama Bilim ve Türk Anlam Bilimi.

(Seınantics and Turkish Seınantics), s. 123-126; Parkinson, 7be 77ıeory of ıl'ieaning, 130-135; Teo,

Anlam Ka uraını tizeriııe Bir Deneme, 290; Cari, Metpbor and An, 6; Lakoff, Metapbor We Liue By, 10.

ll Askari, Kitab al Sınateyn, 40; Cürcani, Esrar al Balaıa, 5; Erzincani, Isti'are, 26-40.

a comparisian of tbe usage of metapbor (Lçti'are)... 107

tical side. It has cosmological, ethical, social and psychological aspects. The aim

is to adlieve "happiness of man " both here and now and in the hereafter. That' s

why commands are given, especially canceming the need for doing good and

abstaining from falsehood. Who is man, and what is his duty? Is he living in va­

in or should we search for a reasonable goal in life? If we want to find a soluti­

on for tlıis question, we may find many different approaches. Reason is one of

them, the empirical is another, revelation (In Islamic thoughts Vahy) aims to gi­

ve some pre-knowledge and motivation in establishing "an understandable

worldview covering all the aspects of life". Because, Vahy has a deeper connec­

tion with our innıition, it offers us the seeret of life. Here is the essence of the

Qur'anic message. "Sunınıon thou to the way of thy Lord with wisdoın and

kindly warning, dispute with them in the kindest nıanner. "12

Tlıis verse, presents us with three recommenations on how to speak: Use

Wisdom, use kind warnings, and dialecticallanguage. Witlıin these three appro­

aches, there is an indication about tl1ree different ways of addressing people.

Ibn Rushd, an eminent Islamic Philosopher makes a connection between

wisdom language and philosophy: Witl1 kind warning language and Salaffiyya

and with dialecticallanguage and Islamic theology. Ibn Rushd aims at the recon­

ciliation of religion and theology, and tries to find a proper equivalent to tl1e

above mentioned Qur'anic verse from tl1e external world. 13 Aristotle, emphasi­

zed that some people llsten to mathmatical language and others only wan an

example. In short everyone has a specific level of perception.1·' If we hear a fa­

miliar expression, tl1en we have a positive attinıde. Our aim is to communicate

the message.

Now we will explain tl1e role and the usage of metaphor both in the plıilo­

sophers and in tl1e Islamic mystics.

Our first journey begins with the Islamic Plıilosophers.

It's well known that in Islamic thought, philosophers are tl1e representatives

of reason as well as cancentrating on the reconciliation of religion and philo­

sophy. Now our eminent philosophers, Farabi, Ibn Sina (well known as Avicen­

na) and Ibn Rushd (Averroes) will give us comprehensible examples of the use

of metaphor.

12 For translation of this version and others see, 77Je Koran, (translated from the Arabic by J.M.

Rodwell), 268; Nabl, 125 (The Bee).

13 Ibn Rushd, Faslı'i'I-.Makalue Takrim Ma Beyne'ı-Şeria ue'I-Hikme mine'llttisal, l10-l12.

14 Aristode, Metapbysics, (translation of Richard Hope), 21.

108 ıasawıif

C) Farabi (Death 950) And His Usage of Metaphor

History of Philosophy awards Farabi as "second master" (Muallim es-Sani) af­

ter Aristotle. His great contribution to the logic of Aristotle brought this to the at­

tention of the western world. 15 According to Ibn Abı Usaybıa, Ibn Hallikan, Kıft!

and Ibn Nadim, whom are bibliographers, Farabi's written heritage was so gre­

at that he left more than 100 books, most of them dealing in philosophy, me­

taphysics, ethics, politics, philosophy of religion, and linquistics. Consideration of Farabi's great works enables us to see how elegently and

selectively he wrote. The purpose of Farabi, in applying metaphor has two as­

pects. First, wherever he wants to expand his views to a wide range of readers he

writes metaphorically in order to be bettet understood. And second, his purpo­

se is to take philosophical subjects which are priviliged and to hide them from "avam, (the ordinary people)". Havas (eminent, intellectual people) understand

hard metaphors better than others, who are seen as merely avam (ordinary pe­

ople). Me taphor is us ed in Farabi both with easy and difficult terms. Farabi wants

to sametimes make his philosophy understandable, for example in ethics, and

politics. That' s why he prefers to give simple metaphors. But in the case of me­

taphysics, and ontology, he prefers to write in a difficult manner to protect phi­

losophy from people who are not worthy of it. One of his treatises is titled "Whatneeds to be known before beginning phi­

losophy. "16 He alsa was aware of Aristotle types of writings and in his writing, he

summarized the way Aristo? He wrote in his great works as well as in his priva­

te letters. Furthermore, he gave recommendations for tl1e beginner on how to le­

arn philosophy. In anather book, "On the Classification of the Sciences'"7 he al­

so, considers, language (lisan) as a science, and defines it as "knowing the law

of words". Taking his inspiration and first no tion from Aristotle, he alsa gives a similar definition of metaphor. He puts metaphor under the subdivision of no­

un, among them, synonyms, general, particular, common, causative, derivated and transferred. 18

Farabi's most comman usage of metaphor is in rethoric and poetry. Farabi's

metaphorical structure uses every kind of transfer from general to parucular and

15 Ibn Hallikan, Vefayel el-A 'yan, Vol.: II, 113; Ibn Nad1ın, ei-Fibrist, 263; Kıft1, Tarib al HHka­nia, vol.: II, 134-140.

16 Farabi, Risa/e fl ma Yanbagı an Yukaddem Kab/e Tea/lıtın el Felsefe, in es-Semeratü '/ Mer­d~vye, (Al Farabıs Plıilosophische abhandlungen, aus Londoner, Leidener und Berliner, Handchrif­ten, Leiden 1890) Published by Dietrici.

17 Farabi, Jbsaıı '/ U/ımı.

18 Farabi, Kitab Peri Hemıeneias, (translation ofTürker), 78.

a comparisian of tbe llSage oj metapbor (isti'are)... 199

from mankind to society. The main topics which Farabi delt with are metaphors,

politics, prophecy, ethics and metaphysics.

Farabi's Metaphors Concerııing People and Society

In discussing politics he makes connections and gives exarnples of metap­

hor, making the transfer between, society and human organs. Farabi, in his po­litics likens society to the body, a healthy society to a healthy body, the leader

to the heart. He makses use metaphors by transferring body parts to society. Fa­

rabi, in his politics deseribes the social institue as refering to bodily organs and

borrows them to make metaphors. Furthermore, in his anatomy, he uses social

functions and work division for describing the human body. It' s clear that in his

usage, the metaphorical word is transfered from society to the human body and

alsa from the human body to society.

He considers the liver us an organ both a manager and as a servant of the

body. He sees it as a servant of the heart, and alsa as the director of the kidneys.

What about the brain in Farabi's metaphorical approach? It' s seen as vice direc­

tor of the heart. Besides this description, in Farabi's view, the brain is seen as ca­

retaker ofa great palace. The caretaker, is seen as being in the service of lord

(Body) and the servants of the palace run for in favour of Lord. In his embriolo­

gical exphinations are alsa contained metaphorical illustrations. The connection of sperm with blood in the womb is reminiscent of in Farabi's words, milk and

fermentation. The fetus made of sperm brings to our minds the formatian of yog­

hur .from fermentation. The formatian of the fetus by blood in the womb re­

sembles yoghurt being made from milk. 19

In order to understand Farabi's philosophy of religion one must pay attention

to his theory of prophecy. In his view there is no difference between a real phi­losopher anda prophet. Revelation (Vahy) descends through active intellect by

God within an emotional process."" The duty of the prophet according to Para­

bi, is to express and preach divine truth to people by examples and using me­

taphor. This would change the abstract for the concrete in the mind of ordinary

people. In short, stories, comparisions, similes, and all kinds of illustrations in

the holy books are aimed to teach ordinary people.

Farabi, tums his face to Qur'anic verses and wams us not to take words pas­

sing in the Qur'an like, preserved table, pen, chair, the hand of God, keys of Gad

ete. in their literal meaning. According to J:ıirı;l the pen mentioned in the Qur'an

is not for writting nor is chair a chair used just for sittmg. All of these have spiri-

19 Farabi, ei-Medinetı/'1-Fadı/a, 85, 96, 105, 132.

20 Fazlur Rahman, Propbecy in Islam, 11, 24.

110 tasawıif

tual meanings. Farabi, in his philosophical writings frequently refers to metaphors and even

in his poems we come accross this.

"When I understood, time as being temporary, friendship becomes useless,

every president becomes tired, every head becomes sick, I locked myself in my

house and begin to sip the wine of wisdom. My friends are ink bottles. My mu­

sical instmment is their clanking". 21

Ibn Sina (Death 1035) Avicenna

If we were to liken the history of philosophy to a Imge palace, philosophers

are its masons. One of them Avicenna re-read and reviewed the work of previ­

ous philosophers with tlıis view in mind.

In his philosophy he doesn't want to loose eitl1er philosophy or religion. He

is the one man who reconciles religion with philosophy. He wrote several

symbolic stories. His metaphors are expanded in short stories. Let us have a lo­

ok at three of these stories, looking at the metaphors, which he users in them.

a) Hayy b. Yakzan and Metaphorical Usage

In this short story, Ibn Sina presents us an old wise man, named Hayy b. Yak­

zan (The Living Son of the Vigilant). Altl10ugh lıis years have passed, he is able

to see and hear well. He shines witl1 a beauty reminiscent of tl1e divine. As so­

on as he (Ibn Sina) sees tl1e wiseman the desire to speak witl1 him reaches its ze­

nitl1. The wiseman, tells hin1 about lıis etemal joumey. Hayy b. Yakzan tells that

his lmowledge has come from his fatuer, who gave hin1 the key to every kind of

lmowledge. Ibn Sina, leams from lıim the science of physiognomy which helps

him to lmow tl1e character of men. According to this old man, the usefullness of

this special science gives one an advantage in communication. The wiseman,

then predicts our philosopher some details about Ibn Si.na's friends. This predic­

tion bewilders Ibn Sina.

How could he know about his friends features, what kind of fore knowled­

ge does he posses? Ibn Sina offers to join in the journey of the etemal mystery

and finds no approval by Hayy b. Yakzan, He realizes that he has been rejected

by him. Learning from this old man, Hayy b. Yakzan, that this mystery road has

been closed to lıim, he insists on showing his eagemess to acompany the sage.

The wiseman shows tl1at the unique way to join in tlıis marvellous joumey is to

leave everytlıing beloved behind and tum his face forward witl1out looking

21 We find this poem in the introduction of Turkish translation of Medinetı/'1-Fadıla.

----- ----·--··

a comparisian oj tb e usage oj metapbor (isti'are)... 111

back. Having a true knowledge of the heavens and earth our philosopher now

has two roads before him. The road to the west is full of Evil and the material,

and the path to the. east is devoid of the materiaL

Both lead to the source of eternal youth. Ha yy b. Yakzan, leads our philosop­

her to the second path. They see, nine kingdoms nıled by justice and wisdom.

In this story, the characters of these nine kingdoms are alsa mentioned. In spite

of his transcendency the great king brings beauty and glory to his subjects. This

makes it possible to communaticate with him and never can one leave him on­

ce one has tasted of his generousity. Ibn Sina, in this story forms a metaphor bet­

ween the king and God. Let us give ear to his description of the king, who me­

taphorically is God.

Whoever wants to deseribe the King, ina better way, cannot do this. The de­

sire to deseribe him, in fact remains an impossibility. Nobody can deseribe him

properly. Their tongues bum on every attempt, their pen is broken before wri­

ting. It's not possible to find in him an example or similarity because he has no

example or sirnilarity. \Yle cannot reach him by trying to classify Him, but only

by praising Him. If we can not perceive him, this is not because of his mystery.

On the contrary it is because our perception is so weak. W e cannot completely

discover Him.

In this story one of Ibn Sina's aims is to explain the function of the active in­

tellect. In Islarnic metaphysics, Active Intellect is the agent which effects human

reasoning. It guides the human saul. Ibn Sina makes a connection using a me­

taphor between the King and God, between Hayy b. Yakzan and d1e Active In­

tellect. East is source of light, and West is source of darkness."" (In relation of the

sun, rising and setting)

b) The Tretise of The Bird: "Risaletü't-Tayr"

In dus tretise, Risala, Ibn Sina ereares a smiliarity between a spirit and a bird.

The human sprit in escaping from earthly traps resembles a bird escaping from

a cage. The cage is the destiny of sprits, fallawing inthesense of a trap. He com­

pares the relation of birds in a cage to the spirits rebellion against predestinati­

on. They have same hope of salvation. After the required effort, those who ha­

ve escaped, help to free the rest of the prisioners in the cage. After obtaining the­

ir freedam they all begin to search for salvation which is supposed to be a hill

on dıe eighth level of God's mountain in wluch only d1e seventh level actually

exists.

22 Corbin. Auicenııa and 1l1e Visionary Recital, Translation of the Recital of Hayy b. Yakzan,

151-161.

112 tasauvıif

Verdant meadows, waterralls and rivers are chosen for rest stations by birds.

Then they· see a magnificiant, beautiful bird. The birds become a good friends

with this greater bird. This friendship supplies them the opportunity to go to the

king's city. Wherever the birds see the King they all bewithched by the light of

the Kings face. The King gives them real freedom. They all retum having been

enchanted, drunk and ravished.23

According to Macit Fakhry, the metaphor in this story is associated with Pla­

ton's cave metaphor. 24 It must be emphasized strongly that Ibn Sina's metaphor

is more abstract, than Plato's. Furthermore from the standpoint of richness, Ibn

Sina's metaphor contains the fallawing features: Illustration, Borrowing, Compa­

rision, Sirniles and Analogy.

In this story, Ibn Sina' s goal is to draw a picture of humanity and the process

of freedom.

Salaman and Absal

This story reminds us of greek mythology, which had alsa given inspiration

to Ibn Tufeyl in his story by using and adapting the names Salaman and Absal.

Ibn Simi.'s version of this story is as follows:

Salaman and Absal are brothers but only their mather is the same. Absal's li tt­

le brother had been brought up well cultured. Salman's wife falls in love with

Absal the elder brother. She invites Absal to be a tutar for her children in order

to obtain her desires. S he express her emotions, but at first Absal rejects him. But

she wouldn't give up till she obtained her demands. At last, Absal, inclines to be

with her, but heaven doesn't give permitian for this, covers the sky with dark

clouds. The heavenly lights prevent them from commitring adultry. 25 According

to Nasreddin Tusi, Absal represents in this smail story, theoretical reason, and a

degree of knowledge. On the other hand Salamon's elder brother represents the

saul of speech, and his wife represents the lustfull tendeney of the body. Absal's

refused to commit adultry' at the beginning indicates, the influence of the intel­lect of man.

Ibn Sina's Understand.ings of Qur'anic Verse in the light of Metaphor

Ibn Sina looks atreligious textsina metaphorical sense. In order to ~ı.ttain the

23 Corbin, Avicenna and 7be Visionary Recital, Translation of the Recital of the Bird, 186-192. 24 See about this consideration, Fahri, 73 .

. 25 Corbin, 7be Avicennan Version of Salamon and Absal, 224-225.

a comparisian of the ıısage of metapbor (isti'are)... 113

true m eaning one must interpret them metaphorically. Let us give a few examp~ les of this.

"And the Angles shall be on its sides" and over them on that day eight shall bear up the throne of thy Lord. ;?V In the interpretation of this verse, he sees the

throne of God as the Ninth Heaven or as a planet.

In the se verses, "I betake me for refuge to the Lord of day bre ak ... " .... and against the mischief of weird women '"7

, he makes a connection bet­

ween vegetable force and adds "The mischief of weird women is a vegetable for­ce". In the same verse, "and against the mischief of the night when it overtaketh

me" is interpreted by him as an irnaginary force used by an aniİnal soul.28 In his

thought, the Intellectual world is paradise, and the irnaginary one is hell. The

world of sense is the grave since he uses angels in the sense of force and intel­

lect. He classifies the animal soul as being perceptional and practical. In the

Qur'anic version, "Over it are nineteen, angels", Ibn Sina airns to use the num­

ber nineteen in order to classify animal soul into subdivisions.

Ibn Rushd (Death 1198)

Ibn Rushcl has been identified asa commentatar on Aristotle. He was bom in

Cordoba. He like his predecessors was also try~g to make reconciliation betwe­

en religion and philosophy. 29

Regarding his short commentaries on Aristotle's "Topic" "Rhetoric" and "Po­etics" we can gain an understanding of meta ph or in, Ibn Rushd. In his commen­

tary on Aristotle's Topics, he deals with logical subjects, gives a definition of

Analogy, and deals with deduction and induction.

Let us give an example of Ibn Rushd's vie~s on example and likeness. W e ought to speak about. the example. Tbere are [dif.ferent] dasses oj the

examples. (a) With one, it is decided whether a predicate applies to a subject or

does not apply to it because oj that predicate applying to the likeness oj that s!tb­

ject or because oj it not app~ying, For example, it is better known whether the pre­

dicate applies to the likeness or not; /ike our argument that the heavens are cre­

ated because the wall is created. (b) With another, we decide whether a predica­

te applies to a subject or does not apply to it, when it is better known whether that

likeness applies to the subjects or does not apply; for example, our deciding that

the heavens are changeab/e because oj the fa ct that they mo ve. (c) With yet anat­

her, we decided whether a predicate rı('plies to a subject or does not apply to it be-

26 69/17, translation ofRodwell, p. 4; ..

27113/1-;, translation ofRodwell, p. 27. 28 ez-Zehebi, et-Tefsir ve'I-Müfessinm, vol.: III, 92-93.

29 See about Ibn Rushd, Urvoy, AveTTOes, Ibn Rushd, 3-29.

114 tasauuuf

ca use the likeness oj that predicate applies to the likeness oj that su hject or does

not appfcv to it, when it is hetter known that the likeness of the predicate applies

to the likeııess of that subject or when it is better known that it does not app(v; for

example, ·'hoııey di/u tes hecause sugar dissolves". Tbe judgement m ay be universal, white the likeııess is paı1icular, e.g., our ar­

gımıeııt: ''Plesures are had hecause wine is had". Now the differeııce hetween this

and inductioıı is that in induction we conjinn tbe universal by the pm1icular, whereas bere we coı~finn one tbiııg by anather insofar as it is a likeness -not in­

sofar as one of tbem is particu/ar and the. other universal. IJKENESS. Tbere are tıvo c!asses: either a likeness iıı a comman matter or a

likeness by analogy. An e:-.:aınple of the likeness ina comınoıı matter is wbat pre­ceded. Aıı example of the likeness by aııalogy is our argument: ·'Tbe king in the

city is !ike the deity in the world, and just as the deity is one, so too ought the king to be.""'

Metaphor and its place in the Philosophy of Religion of Ibn Rushd

Before giving examples of metaphorical usage in his writting we had better

make clear Ibn Rushd's understandings of religious texts and their interpretati­

on.

1. First group of religious text (Qur'anic verses) in his view have the charac­

teristic of having only one meaning. There is no place for any interpretation be­

ca use of the deamess and stability of its meaning. It' s a great error to attempt to

interpret them.

2. This second group is be divided into four different sub-groups.

a) Only the deeper scholar can penatrate the meaning of the illusturated text

as formed by covered metaphors.

b) The text is quite easy to understand, and is easily written. The average

rnind can easily grasp it' s meaning. It can easily be interpreted.

c) It' s easily recogniazable that some expressions are designed to be given as

examples. But it' s hard to predict and fix to where this sirnilarity should be add­

ressed. It' s only interpretable by erninent people and the deeper scholars.

d) It' s quite clear that some texts are designed for the special purpose of me­

taphor. Each side has a sirnilarity, and the thing being resembled is clear. One should, consider and think about these texts. ~~

His philosophical speeches are addressed to two kinds of people as we ear­

lier pointed out: to ordinary people and to eminent people.

30 See for al tlıese quatations, Avenues tbree sbort commaıırarles on Arlstotle:ç ·'Topic", "Rbeto­ric" and "Poetics", (ed. C. Buttlerworth), 47-50/71-73.

31 Ibn Rushd, Al Kaslif an Menabij al Adil/ab, 247-267.

a comparisian of tbe usage of ınetapbor (isti'are)... 115

In his view, ordinary people, due to their limited intellect, ability, and natı..ı­

re can not comprehend theoretical subjects, or spiritı..ıal beings. For these peop­

le, knowledge is limited to the five senses. Spiritual topics needed to be expla­

ined for their mind by using examples and sirrıiles. Religious knowledge lends

itself to usirıg examples. In this stage we should pay particular attention to Ibn

Rushd's essential question. If the lawgiver is teliing the truth why should it need

to be interpreted? Couldn't he teli all of d1ese instructions by usirıg plain s·peech

wid1out using metaphors?

Ibn Rushd dealing with the different levels of peoples perception affirms that

Qur'anic verses carry an internal meanirıg as well as an external Öne. He alsa has

a open mind. An example of this would be his comparisian how of a knife used

for cutting animals which has been made by non-muslims, doesn't have any inf­

luence upon ho>y effective it is for cutting. There is no harm according to him in

taking the sciences, like Logic, from foreigners.

He compares a knife to logic from the stand point of an instrument.

He sees Shari'a (Law) asa brod1er of philosophy. In speekirıg of the genera­

tion of shari'a he refers to metaphor. The Shari'a hee]s d1e souls like a physici­

ans heels d1e body.

In considering iliis verse, "had there been in either heaven or emth aııy !rods

besides Gad, both surely had gone to ruiıı "12 he makes a number of comments. In

his mind the question about d1e possibility of not usirıg metaphor alsa contains a

metaphorical answer. Let us suppose a talented physician who producted a use­

hı! medicirıe; observirıg iliis rare medicine had a good influence irı most of the pe­

ap! e. On the od1er hand if it had a bad irıfluence irı rest of them, then somebody

might come against d1is product by sayirıg that d1e physicians purpose is diffe­

rent. He may add same new chemical solution in it and in that way it may serve

the physician's purpose. Then d1e people may daim that Ilis contribution to this

medicine is compatible with the physician. Tl1is is l1is daim, in fact. By adding a

new solution he had made a contribution to medicirıe. Most people are inclined

to believe that by using this bad medicine people begin to get sick. People suf­

fer now a second illness after the first disease. Every needles change might ca­

use a new diseases. He compares Qur'anic verses and what the prophet is sa­

ying to a rare medicine and the interpreters to physicians who add new soluti­

ons.

"Gad hath not begotteıı oj spring; neither is there any other with him; or el­

se Gad would assuredly have taken away that which he had created, cmd same

had assuredly set themselves above otheı's. "13

32 2/222, translation of Rodwell, in 338.

33 23/92, translation ofRodwell, in 149.

116 tasauuuf

In the interpretation of this verse he forms a metaphor using the word "King" to best explain the problems of duality. He compares the impossibility of two kings in one country to the impossibility of there being two Gods.

God-+ King City -+Universe Expressions like, God's hand, God'sface, God's key, according to hiin are an

absolu te proof for the existence of attributes in God. In his one proof about God's existence there are also metaphors. Let us assume that a man sa w a stone on the earth. He realized this stone was

suitable to sit on. Then he was aware that this stone. was made by sameone for

a special purpose. There must be sameone who shaped this stone. On the cont­rary if the stone were shapless or unsuitable for sitting, we may judge it' s being there was by chance.

In this example, Ibn Rushcl uses words like "master" or "stone" to define God's attributes.

In Ibn Rushd's writting we also see metaphors canceming the human soul: He compares sleep to death. The stability of organs while sleeping stop the ac­tion of the soul. But this hesiration does not remove the existence of the soul... Like this status of soul after death would be likened as unto sleep.

He compares also the soul to light. The connection between light and the material, resembles the relation of sprit to the body. The effectiviness of a mir­

ror comes from sunlight. Likewise, the soul gives motion to' the body. In his sys­tem the soul is a product of an artist, and metaphoricaly God is the artist. 34

After our consideration of the Islamic Philosophers and the way they used metaphor now we may turn to the intuitional side of Islamic thought, namely Is­lami c mysticism (Sufism). Islamic philosophers are representatives of reason, and the Islami c mystics hel d intuitional knowledge, as the basic core of their phi­losophy.

D) Islamic Mysticism, (Sufism) and the Purpose of Metaphorical Usage

Mysticism ~ithin Islam has a proper name, Tasawuf. It' s a m<~;tter of debate as to where this term came from. Same daim that it com es from Suf which me­ans cloth, others are inclined to believe it is from '~af'which means order. Anat­her group holds the view that it was from "Sophia" a rare group of people tho- . ught it was from "Safa" which means purification, or to cleanse the soul.35

34 Ibn Rushd, Tahafla al Tahajıll, The Inceherence of The Inceherence (trans!.: Simon Von der Bergh), vol.: II, 343.

35 See about these considerations, es-Serrac, Kitabu'l Luma fi't-Tasavvuf, 46-48.

a comparisian of the ıısage of me tapbor (isti'are)... 117

When reconsidering all of these explanations, we would like to emphasize that, Sufism is a process of self actualizing, a turning and llstening to oneself to

sustain spiritual necessity, to emancipate the saul from the effects of the. body.

In this article we prefer to illusturate, Sufism's use of metaphor by pointing

to the Mevlana, the Islarnic poets, the thinkers and mystics. First, it's necessary

to give a general understanding of the Tasawuf concept of metaphor and it's

purpose in being applied to this kind of art.

W e may summarize the purpose of the Sufi's use of metaphor as follows.

-Tbe Hair, face, heart, lips, eyes, all of them have an internal meaning can­ceming divine love and union.

-The Sufi poets use such kind of illustrations, srniles, comparision, meteno­

rnies, in their writings more often than would be seenin normal usage. Through

the use of metaphor we gain a knowledge of the Sufi experience, in a compre­

hensive and perceivable way.36

- The use of these metaphors alsa have a way of hiding the Sufi's real tho­

ughts from laymen.37

Metaphors in Defuıitions of Sufism

In the history of phil6sophy we can fınd hundreds of definitions about phi­

losophy, and every philosopher has a different definition of philosophy. Likewi­

se in Islarnic mysticism, in every Sufi, we come accross, a different desetiption

and definition. Every definition shows a different aspect of the sufi experience.

Abu Ali Ahmet er-Ruzbar! (death 933) defines Sufism as "to kneel down in the

front of the Lo ver, in spite of being rejected". "Gad" and "beloved" are comman

metaphors in Islarnic mysticism. In Sheik Ibrahim (death 1655) "One should become inanimate at the begin­

ning and the King of the Heart at the end of joumey."38

Metaphors in Sufi's Defiııitions

W e see a good example of this,in]unayd Bagdadi (death 909). "T7ıe Sufi is !ike the earth. Every bad thing has been thrown on it. Good and

bad people march on it. Nevertheless beauties einerges from it. Ibe sufi is !ike a cloud, which gives shadows to everything. He is !ike rain, which waters everyt-

36 Nurbakhsh, Sıı.fi Symbolisın, 2

37 Cebecioğlu, "Same Reasorıs for Inabi/i~V of Layman to Understand Sıif'ısın ", 10-26. 38 Ayni, TasauuıifTaribi (History of Sufısm), 222

118 tasauuıtf

h ing. Tasawıif is a language which has an inner value as well as extemal. Tb e

sufi can also be deseribed by words !ike poor, voyage1~ lonely, and lighter. "19

The Human Organs and the Use of Metaphor

The names of Human Organ are used metaphoricaly in the mystics.

Eyebrow: In mystical poems, the eye and eyebrow are used to describing di­

vine beauty. Eyebrow symbolizes the proximity of the vayager to the divine re­

ality.

It also represents a divine appearance and knowledge of the famous sufi po-

e ts. Hatiz uses this word in this sense.

I o.ffered my bem·t

To my darling's eye and eyebrow

Coıne coıne

Observe this bow!"

In this poem he points out the divine reality. The parts of body, feet, fingers,

arms, weight, seeing, and hearing are transfered to a relationship with God.

Annilıilation a way to Sufi's unity with God; in tlıis unity, the sufi, express lıis

thoughts and lıis emotions using different experiences. Language in tlıis stage

knows no linıit and no frontiers. lt express itself freely. This free-speech accor­

ding to sufi tradition has a meaningful stnıcture.

How Wine, Tarverns, Tavernkeepers, Cups, Music, Dance and Entertainments is

Viewed in the Metaphorical Usage of Su.fi Expression

In Sufi poems such kind of items have a specifıc meaning seperate from the

surface meaning. In sufi poems the purpose of tl1is can be summarized as fol­lows:.

-To attract the attention of the reader.

- Being in a state of anilıilation, tl1ey are not aware of their position. Langu-age is used freely here.

- A metaphorical interpretation of wordly words. For example, Hafız uses

"'the cup" (kadeh) seen as penetrating into tl1e light of tl1e unseen word. For ins­

tance;

O, Cupbeere1~ shine our cups

39 Ihid, 223. 40 Nurbakhsh, Sııfism, 65.

----ı-

ı 1

a comparisian of tbe usage of metapbor (isti'are)... 119

Witb tbe lig bt of w ine. Ol Poets you recite "Ibe affairs oftbe world up to ourpleasure. ,u

In this poem the shining of a cup hints at purification of our heart and it' s be­

ing ready to accept divine trı.ıth ... Words like, wbite wine, red ıuiııe, bard wine, generally refer to matter of lo­

ve and the heart. Barkeeper, and wine seller, are used in the sense of a perfect

friend, master, spiritı.ıal, teacher. Candie on the other hand, is seen as the light

of divine secrets. When it is understood Sufism is a union of disquise within language. Metap­

hor is a way of expressian of the sufi's self. This sametimes is indicated exter­

nally and sametimes it is used to cloak the hidden meaning from laymen.

Mevlana As a Case Study of Metaphorical Usage within the Islamic Mystics

Mevlana Jelaleddin Rumi (1209-1273) may be viewed as "the king of heart" witlıin Islamic thought. His reputation and views are not only influential and ac­

cepted by believers, but alsa by disbelievers, and different religions of world al­

so welcomed him. He preaches to the soul with a magical sound, opening new horizions in the

process of becoming a real human. Mevlana uses a simple language in order to be understood.

He himself resembles his words, like "an arrow came out from the bow of God". Furtl1ermore, "nobody can set an obstacle or barrier, against God's bow".

Describing his magnificient book entitled Mesnevi (poetry in rhymed couplets)

as "the soldier of God" who strengthens the spirits of disciples."'2

This reminds us of, a verse from the Qur'an: .. Gad is tbe ligbt oftbe Heavens and oftbe Eartb. His ligbt is !ike a nicbe in

wbicb is a lcmıp -tbe lamp encased in glass- tbe glass, as it were, a glistening s tar. From a blessed tree is it ligbted, tbe olive ııeitber of tbe East nar qf tb e West, wbose oil would well nigb sbine out, even tbougb fire toucbed it not. It is ligbt upon ligbt. '~3

According to him if we had tak en this version in its external meaning, there

would be an internal contradiction. His light not being limited to the universe. How could it be limited in glass? Can the light of God be limited to hearts? This

is like looking into a mirror. We've no picture ina mirror, we have it only when

we look in the mirror. Angel, Heaven, Fire, Paradise and Hell are said to be in

41 Nurbaklıslı, Sı((i .~vmbolism, 126, and see same author's Sufisın, 65.

42 Mevlana, Fibi Mq(ib, 312.

43 24/33. translation of Rodwell.

i20 tasauuıif

the other world. But if we di d not give an example of them in this world they would not be understandable. He sees metaphor, as a way of and making things comperehensible. He alsa tries to show the connection of joy with spring and sadness with fall. In the case of the unequality of a blind man to a seeing man blindness is seen as ignorance and falsehood while seeing is viewed as the knowledge and belief in the light.44

\Yle find a unity among Gad, man, and the universe within the· Mevlana' s sys­

tem. He derives salvation from forms and considers all kinds of objects as news

of Gad. When we remove the forms the treasure of union remains in this level

the sun is viewed as subtance, and water as purity.

Wben you take o.ff and remove your sexual identity, tbere remains only your bzmıanity the tnte you. Forplaying backgammon with yourself you brought: "!"

and ··we" into existence.45

In his questioning "Who is Gad? Is the heart a Gad? or is Gad a heart?" His

reply is that this unity only can be supplied by purification of the spirit.

In the Mevlana, Allah is beloved. He says, be a lover and see the beloved. Be

a heart and see the friend be water under the trees, and rose gardens. There are

numerous examples on this subject. Man consists of body and spirit. The spirit

is dressed to the body. The connection of body to the spirit resembles that of an

ant to wheat relations. How an ant moves wheat is compared to the spirit as the

maving the body.

In anather place, he likens the Mesnevi to the Nile River. It's water can be

drank only by patient people. According to Mevlana, man is a voyager. He is separated from his essentinal

country, namely paradise.

Mevlana makes a flute speek. As an inanimate thing, the flute in his metap­horical poems tells about the story of this separation. Let us give sound to these

magical words in Nicholson's translation. Listen to the reed hoıv it tells a tale, complaining of separations. Saying "Ever since I was ported from the reed-bed, my lament hath caused

m·an and ıvaman to moon.

I want a bosom torn by severance, that I my unfold (to such a one) the pain qf love-desire.

Everyone who is left far from his source wishes back the time when he was united with it.

In every' company I uttered my wailful notes, I consorted with the unhappy and with them that rejoice.

Everyone become my friend from his own opinion: none sought out my see-

44 Fibi Maftb, 256-259. 45 Mesneui, 41-42.

a comparisian of tbe usage of ınetapbor (isti'are)... 121

retsfroın within me. My seeret is not far from my plaint, but ear and eye taek the light (where by

it should be apprehended). Body is not veiled from saul, nor saul from body, yet none is pennitted to see

the saul. This noise of the reed is fire, it is not wind; whose hat h not this fire, ınay he

be naught!'6

To him the world can be seen as gold covered money. The]oy of world and happiness is like lightning. To him the hereafter resembles the sea meanwhile this world is like unprecious foam.

The World and Body are dungeons. Deathis a gate opening to eternity. Also

death is seen as meeting and arriving with the beloved to reach God and the etemaL Every day passing in this world is in fact seperation from etemity and the beloved.

"In the world a lion searches and hunt for dailyföod. But God's lion searc­hes for freedam and death. Because, he sees hımdreds life with death, and burns his existence !ike a propeller".

Now we want to give a few more examples of metaphorical usage in Mevla-na.

Sema (Mystical Dane e)

In Islamic Mysticism, Sema, has a special importance. In the Mevlana's sys­tem it has many extemal and internal meanings. A black robe which the dervis­hes wear symbolyzes non existence and darkness, then removing it and taking it of and wearing white robes hints of existence and light.The black robe is like a grave, a white one is resunection. The Conductor of the Sema, the Shaikh, among dervishes symbolize.ş both the sun and its nucleus.'7

Mevlana alsa explains the Qur'an in an analogical way.The Qur'an resemb­les a bride. Erides dont show their face imrnedietly. If one wants to reach the in­ternal meaning of the Qur'an one has to the open veil of the verses.

The Sharia resembles the Sofa of the Sultan. Commands, prohibitions and awards exist as the place where water is being drunk.48

The Pilgrimage: For ordinary people a pilgrimage is to visit certain places. For lovers and eminents it's an appointment with God. The Kaba is the heart of saints (A vliya) .'"

46 Tb e Matbnawi of ]ala/u 'd din Rumi, (translation and commentary by Reynold A. Nicholson,

I, III.

47 Bayrakdar, Tasauuıif ve Modem Bilim (Sufısm and Modem Science), 100-3.

48 Fibi Maflb, 200.

49 Jbid, 276.

122 tasauuıif

Thanking God: Thanking God involves a relationship and tie. Benefits are

sought out wid1 d1anksgiving. Some people d1ank God for distress and o iliers for

his gifts. Thanking God turns griefs into gifts. It's likean antitode.'rı

The Mesnevi, Fibi Mafih, and Divan-ı Kebir are fue ground works of Metap­

hor. Mevlana sa w eternal arrows coming out from the bow of God. This bow ga­

ve healing to people rad1er d1an injury.

Loue, it is not limited or measurable in numbers In fact it is an attribution of the Real It's metapborically attributed to·God.5

'

. Reason: Reason and angels are d1e same. Angels have wings like birds. But

reason flies without wings. They are like two close friends who aid each other.'"

The Worİd: It disquises itself like a new bride and spoils us. In fact, it is an

aged ugly women. He who falls in love wid1 it spurs pain.'-'

He who falls in love with d1e world is like a h tınter who hunts the shadow of

bird instead of d1e real bird. "'

E) Conclusion

The term Isti'are in rhetoric is commonly used in d1e sense of metaphor. By

comman definition and by etimology a metaphor is a transfer of meaning both

intention and by extension. In the early period d1e term Isti'are, was used occa­

sionally inthesense of "borrowing of a theme by one -:ıud10r from anod1er".

Tropes, sirniles, idioms, identification, metonmy and stories form od1er figu­

res of speech. But we see d1at Isti'are is a general name for d1e above terms. Me­

taphor's meaning "a process of borrowing a theme, irnplies fuose above menti­

oned figures of speech".

Metaphors have different usages in different systems of d1mıght. For examp­

le metaphor plays a vital role in the histarical development of ilie empirical sci­

ences. As Black points out "Eve1y science must staı1 ıuith metaphor and end witb algebra and perhaps without the metapbor there ıvould never have been

any algebra. "'5

The epistemological problem of metaphor appears at d1e heart of the study

of religious language, God, Heaven, Paradise, Death, Miracles, ete. all of them

have a metaphoric usage in holy scriptures.

50 Fibi Mafib, 276.

51 !hi d, Introduction of Turkish translation of Mesnevi.

52 ı'Yfesneui, vol.: III, 3215, 19.

53 !hid, vol.: VI/320-321.

54 Ihid, vol.: I, ll 1.

55 Ma:..: Black, Model and Metapboı; p. 222.

a comparisian of tbe usage of metapbor (isti'are)... 123

The systematic usage of metaphor reaches its zenith with Artstotle. The use

of metaphor in tlıe metaphysical cantext has long been tlıe subject of dispute

among philosophers. A number of phlisolophers from Plato, through the Ger­

man romantics to the present may be regarded as having been among tlıe defen­

ders of metaphor. With the rise of science in 17'ı. cennıry together with its de­

mand for clear and vigorous language we observe, Hobbes, as a representative

of tllis tendency. He considered tlıe use of metaphor as "There can be notlung

so absurd but may be found in tlıe books of pllilosophers as the use of metap­

hors, tropes, and other rhetorical figures instead proper of words.But when w e

look at Ho b bes definition and pllilosoplıy we realize that he couldn't keep Ilinı­

self from using metaphors.

If We look at tlıe general outline of The Sacred Books, at tlıe first glance w e

notice a "Variety of Speech".

During our research about metaphor and its usage witllin philosophy and su­

fism, we tried to recognize tlıat The Human Eady and Nature and its compo­nents were the major concern of metaphor, and also that tlıe essence of borro­

wing a theme in relation to defining divine attributes. \Yle nırned our attention to Jslarnic tlıought. In Islarnic tlıought, Mashaiyyun

( Peripatetiens), was considered as a pioneer of reason witllin Islamic Philo­

sophy. Aside from tllis group, we dealt with sufism wllich represents innıition.

Each of them used metaphor in a different way and for a different purpose.

The former believed that there are two groups of people, Avam (ordinary pe­ople) and Hcwas (Eminent) ones. That dassification gives rise to tlıe dualism in

their speech. When, politics, etllics, and society are tlıe subjects concerned, is­

ti'are is used in a sirnple way to expand their views to ordinary people on the

one hand, and difficult metaphors are used when the mater concernings me­

taphysics as a concequence of tlıeir system (dualism) Such sacred and transcen­

dental virnıes and wisdoms are tınderstood only by the eminent. In the view of

the pllilosophers.

Later (sufism) used metaphors for three purposes.(Nurbakhs, Sufi Symbo­

lism, 2).

ı. Conventional poets used the image of a loved one' s face and feanıres and

the ctırls of hair, and established a language of elegant lyrical expressian wllich

was effective in promoting the appeal of temporal love poetry by employing

imagery of tllis nanıre.

2. Sufis were more able to give their poetic expressions of the Divine Unity

subtle and aesthetic nuances providing elements that make up the symbolic port­

rait of the beloved object of tlıe wayfarer. Such irnages and metaphors penetrate

and are im pressed upon the heart more readily tlıan abstract pllilosopllical terms.

124 tasauuztj

3. Such metaphors have had the further advantage of allowing the sufis to

protect t.h~ secrets of their inward joumey from falling in to hands of the uniniti­

ated and ensuring that only adepts, those with actual experience of spiritual sta­

tes, could fully comprehend what was being expressed in symbolic terms.

F) Turkish Abstrack

İsti'are, Batı dillerindeki kullanım şekliyle Metafor, Aristo tarafından "Başka

bir şeye ait olan ismin bir şeye verilmesidiİ" şeklinde tarif edilirken, İsHim dilbi­

limcilerince de "Soyut kavrarnların somut kıyaslarla, ödünç alınan kelimeler va­

sıtasıyla resirnlendirilmesi" olarak tanımlanmıştır. Gerek yerli ve gerekse yaban­cı tarifler değerlendirildiğinde ortaya çıkan, isti'are'nin bir ödünç alma, aktarma

faaliyeti olduğudur. Her bilim ve sistem kendini tanımlayıp, tanıtınada dile ihti­

yaç duyar. Bireylerin algılama düzeylerinin farklılığı da gözönünde bulunduru­lacak olursa, geniş kitlelere ulaşma noktasında dilin çok yönlü kullanımı devre­

ye girmektedir. Anlaşılır olmak, her sistemin vazgeçilmez unsurudur. Dil, çeşitli

sistemlerde farklı görünürnlere bürünerek, çok işlevlilik görevini yerine getirir.

İsti'are, dilin farklı görünürnlere büründüğü bir alandır. Edebiyat bilimi içinde

ele alınıp incelenen isti'are bir"üslüp olarak felsefe ve tasavvufta da kullanılır.

Mecaz, deyim, teşbih, kıyas, kinaye, şahsll.eştirme dilin farklı görünümlerini

oluşturan kullanım çeşitleridir. İsti'are'nin bir "ödünç alma" ve "aktartna" çabası olarak anlatım türleri arasında hepsim kapsayan bir üst kategori olduğunu de­

ğerlendirmeye yöneldik. Zira söz konusu diğer anlatım türleri de gerçekleşirken

bir kelimenin ödünç alınıp aktarılması olmaktadır.

İsti'are, felsefede kullanımının doruğuna Aristo ile ulaşırken, 18. yüzyılda Po­

zitivist düşüncelerin yayılmaya başlaması ile birlikte inişe geçmiştir. Ama Rob­

bes gibi, isti'are'ye karşı çıkan filozoflar da, isti'areye başvurmaktan kendilerini

alıkoyamarnışlardır.

İslam Düşüncesi'nde Meşşa1 sistem aklın öncülüğüni.i yaparken, tasavvufi sis­

tem ise sezginin temsilciliğini sergiler.

Meşşa1 filozoflar, sıradan topluluklar (avam), seçkin topluluklar (havas) ayı-

. rırnına giderken, bunu bir anlamda anlayış farklılıklanndan hereketle tayin et­

mişlerdi. Öyle ki, bunu tayinle yetinınemişler, felsefi hitabet biçimlerinde bir du­

aliteye gitmişlerdir. Farab1, İbn Sina ve İbn Rüşd isti'areye başvururken, toplum­bilim, siyaset, ahlak çalışmalannda halkın bu konulan daha iyi anlaması için bir

yandan isti'areye başvurarak, konulan basite indirgiyorlardı. Öte yandan da, Me­

tafizik başta olmak üzere diğer konularda ise tam tersi bir yaklaşım sergileyen bu

düşünürler, bazı hakikatierin halkın eline geçmemesi gereğinden hareketle yine

isti'areye başvuruyor, fakat bu kez isti'areyi çok yüksek bir düzeyde tertip edi-

a comparisian oj the ıısage of metaphor (isti'are)... 125

yorlardı. Bu ikilem tasavvufta çok daha değişik bir görünti.i arzeder. Ortaya koy­

duğumuz üzere, sı1fi manevi tecrübeler denizinde yol alırken, yaşadıklarını pay­

laşmak ve aktarmak ister. Hedefi, diğer bireylerin de aydınlarnalarına yardırncı

olmak olduğundan, yaşadıklarını ancak isti'areye, sembolik anlatıma yer vererek·

aktarabilmektedir. Şunu da belirtmek isteriz ki, surmin isti'areye başvurmasının

bir diğer yönü ise, kendince ulaştığı ve elde ettiği ilaili nimetleri muhafaza etmek

ve gizlemek olduğundan isti'areye başvurarak, yüksek düzeyde bir anlatım seç­

mektedir.

İki şeyi aynı görmek ve kabullenmek anlamının yüklendiği isti'are, akli bir te­

mel oluşturduğu oranda gücünü yansıtır ve yaygınlaştırır. Anlamak ve bilmek in­

san hayatını anlamlı kıhin unsurlardır. İsti'are anlaşılır olmak, somut iladelendir­

rnek açılarından ehemrniyet kazanmaktadır.

G) Bibliography and Further Reading

AKALIN Sami, Edeb~yat Terimleri Sözliiğıt, İstanbul 1980.

AKALIN, Mehmet, Anlama Kauramı üzerine Bir Deneme, Ankara 1970.

AKSAN Doğan, Anlam Bilim ue Türk Anlam Bilimi, Ankara 1978.

ALTINTAŞ Hayrani, TasammjTarihı; Ankara 1991(2nd edition).

ARISTOTLE, Metapbysic, (trans!.: Ricphard Hope), in Turkish by Ahmet Arslan, İzmir 1985.

AYNI Mehmet Ali, TasawıifTaribi, İstanbul1992. BAYRAKDAR Mehmet, Tasawzif ue Modern Bilim, İstanbul 1989.

BİLGEGİL Kaya, Edeb~yat ve Bilgi Teori/eri, İstanbul 1989.

BLACK, M., Models and Metaphors, Ithaca, N.Y., Cornell University Press 1962.

BOER T.]., 17ıe History of Philosopby in Islam, London 1933.

CARL R. Hausman, Metapbor and Art, Cambridge University, Press 1989.

CEBECİOGLU Ethem, ·•same Reasons for the Inabili~y of Layman to Understand Sııfısm 'Tasau-uzif'", Quarterly Journal, Ankara 1999.

CUDDON S.A., A Dictionary of Literary Tenns, New York 1991.

CUM'A Lütfi, Tarib Felsefeti'l Islamfi1 Mağrik ve'! Mağrib, Kal1ire 1927.

CÜRCANİ Seyid Şerif, Tarifat, Alfabetik.

DA VIES Brain, An Introduction to 7be Philosophy of Religion, Oxford 1983.

Dictionary n( Modern Critica! Tenns, Edited by Roger Faulen, London 1973.

DOGAN Recai, "Metaphorical Expressions in Prophet Muhammed's Hadith's", Working Pa per in

· Preperation for L.A.U.D., Symposioın, Duisburg 1997.

ERZINCANİSadık Müftü, Isti'are, İstanbul Matbaa-i Arnira, 1279.

Encyclopedia oj Pbilosophy, edited by Paul Edwards, 8 Cilt, New York 1972.

Encyclopedia Britannica, A New Survey for Universal Knowledge, London 1953.

New Edicator Eııcyclopedia, Gerdon L. Laıig, Toronto, 7 Cilt, 1957.

Encyclopedia of Islam, London & Leiden, 2. Baskı, 1871.

-· -·~·-~······----··· _________________ .....:._.._;..___ __

126 /aSGI'/ 11((

F ARABİ, El lviedinetti 'i Fadı/a.

F ARABİ. Pbilosopbiscbe Abbaııdlımgen, Aus Londoner, Leidner und Berlinel-!andcriften, Le iden

1890. FARABİ, İhsa't11 U/ımı, çev.:,Ahmet Ateş, M.E.B., Ankara 199

F ARABf. Peıi Hermeııeias, trans.: Mübahat Türker, Ankara 199

F AZLI.JR Rahnıan, Prophecy in Islam, Chicago & London 1958.

FINK & WAGNALS, Standard Dictionaıy, New York 1?70.

FENNİ İsmail, Uigatçe-i.Fe(sefe, İstanbul134L

GOODMAN Nelson, Language and Art, An Approacb to a 71ıeory of -~vmbols, London 1969.

GÖZÜBÜYÜK ZADE. Takrir ala '1 Isti'are, İstanbul Matbaa-i Aınira 1266.

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HOLMAN Hug C., A Haızdbook to Literature, Macroilan NewYork 1980.

IBN CULCUL, Tabakalll '1 Etibba ue'l Hukema, Kahire 1955.

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IBN R1 ıs:Pı,r.ı. Al'erroe's Tabajıll ai-Tabajıll, 71ıe Incobereııce of the Iııcoberence, trans!. by Si­

mon Von oe:r Bergh, II Volunıes, Cambridge University Press 1978.

IBN RUSHD. Auenves Tbree Short Commentaries oıı Aristotle:ç Topic, Rbetoric, Poetic, edited

and translated by Charles E. Butterwoth, Albaiıy 1977. IBN RUSHD, Faslı/'/ Maka/ ue Tak1i111 ma Beyne'I-şeria ue'/ Hikme miııe'l Jttisa!, ltrasl.: Süley-

man Uludağ), Ankara 1974.

IBN RUSHD, El Kaş( Aıı Manabifal Adiila (in Falsafat Ibn Rushd), Cairo.

Iııterııatioııa! Eueıy Maıı :ç Encyc!opedia, 13 Cilt, New York 1970.

IZ Mahir, Tasauuıif Mab~veti Bfiyıikle1i ue Tarikat/m; 5. Baskı, 1990.

JOHNSON, M, Pbilosopbica! Pes1pectiues on Metapbm; Minneapolis 1980.

KARA Mustafa, Tasam•ıif ı.oe Taıikat!ar Taıibi, İstanbul1985.

KARAALİOGLU Seyit Kemal, Ansiklopedik Edeb~vat Terimleri Sözhiğti, İstanbul 1989.

KATHLEEN Morner, RAUSH Ral ph, NT c:ç Dictionary of Litareıy Temıs, Chicago 1991.

KAZVINİ Celiileddin Muhammed, Telbis, 1275.

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MA'LUF Lewis, El Mımcid Ff'l Luğa pe'/ Edeb ue'/ U/ımı, Beyrut 1960.

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Reprinted 1990), anodıer text translation in Turkish by Velid İzbudak, M.E.B., İstanbul 1990.

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SABBAGH, La Metapbore dans le Coran, (Edited by Mossignon), Paris 1943.

SARRAC, Kitabu'/ Lııma Ff't Tasa11uıif, Hz.AbdülhalinıMahınuı, Kahire 1990.

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Ankara 1994.

SEYDİ Ali, Lılgatçe-i Edeb~vat, İstanbul 1324.

ŞEMSEDDİN Sami, Kamus-i Tılrki, Dersaadet 1317.

Tahir-ül MEVLEvi, Edeb~vat L11gatı, ed.: Kemal Edip Kürkçü, İstanbul 1973.

7HE KORAl\; (translated from the Arabic by ].M. Rodwe!l), London, 2nd edition, 1987.

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1991. WAY, Elleen Cornell, Knowledge Represellfation and Metapbor, New York 1991.

Tekkelere, ztiviyelere gelince; bu ruh-nevaz mer­hamet ocakları "garibler, bfkesler, yurtsuz, yuvasız­lar için tesellf evi, ahlak mektebi, iifan medresesi, hi­

maye ocağı olarak vücuda getirilmiştir. " Bu çatı al­tında birleşen ve dervfş olanlar birbirini kardeş te­ltikkf ider, burada kimse kimseye teftihur, teazzum itmez, idemez.

"Allah için muhabbet-şefkat-mutivenet" gibi tilf hasfetler ancak ve ancak bu merhamet bintilarında­kerem evlerinde pak ve nezih insanların fikirlerine

zerk idi/ir, insanlara hakikf insanlık duygusu, meb­de' ve metid ilmi, ma'rifetü'n-nejs esrarı buralarda anlatılır.

Pfr ocak/arında, meştiyıh nezdinde peruerde ol­mayanlar, tarikat-ı tiliyyeye intisab itmeyen/er, ma­nevf zevkten mahrumdur vesseltim.

Erzurum/u Yeşilzade Mehmed Salih