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RE‐STORYINGANDVISUALIZINGTHECHANGINGENTREPRENEURIALIDENTITIES
OFBILLGATESANDRICHARDBRANSON
RobertSmithandDavidBoje–acceptedCultureandOrganizationJournalMarch112010
ABSTRACT
Thestorytellingintextualandvisualre‐constructionsofBillGatesandRichardBransonbytheirorganizationsproduceentrepreneurialidentitiesboundintoparticularsocialpower‐knowledgerelations.Ourpurposeistoexaminehowtheseorganizations,andtheircritics,mobilizestorytellinginactsofre‐storying(enlivening)orre‐narrating(brandingamonologic)practicesusingInternettechnologiestoinviteviewerstoframetheworldofentrepreneurship.WeusevisualdiscourseandstorytellingmethodstoanalyzehowMicrosoftandVirginGroupusevariouskindsofentrepreneurialimagesandtextualnarrativestore‐narrateandproduceparticularbrandsofcapitalism.Theseorganizations’scopticregimesofrepresentationarecontestedincounter‐visualizingandcounterstorypracticesofexternalstakeholders.Wesuggestthattheimageandtextualpracticesofstorytellinghavechangedasbothentrepreneursentercourtphilanthropicandsocialentrepreneuridentitymarkers.Ourcontributiontoentrepreneurialidentityistoapplydoubleandmultiplenarrations,theappropriationofanother’snarrativewords(orimages)intoanother’snarrative,andrelatesuchstorytellingmovestovisuality.
KEYWORDS
EntrepreneurialIdentity;EntrepreneurialLeadership;Microsoft;VirginGroup;RichardBranson;BillGates;Narrative;Restorying.
INTRODUCTION
Weconsiderentrepreneurialidentitytobeacombinationofindividualandorganizational
symbolismandstartfromthepointthatstorytellingincludingvisualconstructionsof
entrepreneursandtheirorganizationsproduceentrepreneurialidentitiesboundedbyparticular
socialpower‐knowledgerelations.Thetwomostfamousandvisuallyiconicentrepreneursinthe
Westernworld‐BillGatesandSirRichardBranson‐havebeenhighlysuccessfulincraftingand
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subsequentlyre‐inventingtheirentrepreneurialidentitiesovertheyears.TheidentitiesofGates
andBransonasentrepreneurialareseldomcalledintoquestion.However,thelatestadaptation
oftheirentrepreneurialidentityistheirattemptstorepositionthemselveswithinthedomainof
socialentrepreneurshipandphilanthropy.Inthispaperwethereforestudyhowthisidentity
constructionisachievedthroughvisualityandnarrativepractices.Inthisrespectitissignificant
thatSwedberg(2006)extendsSchumpeter’seconomictheoryofentrepreneurshipintothe
developingspheretosocialentrepreneurship.Forexample,Schumpeter’s(1942:81‐86)ideaof
creativedestructionisthattheoldeconomicstructureisdestroyedfromwithinincreatinga
newone.Changespromptedfromoutsidethesphereareconsideredtobeadaptation.
Schumpeterianscholarshavebeenexploringentrepreneurshipascreativedestruction(or
development),ratherthanadaptationinrecentEnglishtranslationsfromSchumpeter’s1911
ThoeriederwirtschaftlichenEntwicklung(2002,2003).ForSchumpeterdevelopmentand
adaptationhavenothingincommon(Swedberg,2006:24)becausedevelopmentarisesfrom
withineconomiclife(Schumpeter,2002:405)whileadaptationisaresponsetoforcesoutside
theeconomy(Schumpeter,2002:406).
ThistensionliesattheheartofthisstudyinrelationtotheattemptsofBransonand
Gatesseekingtore‐storyorinsomecasesre‐narratetheirentrepreneurialidentities.Are‐
storiedidentitybreaksoutofadominantnarrative(White&Epson,1990).Tore‐narrateisto
tetherindifferencesinlivingstoryplurality,intoafewbrandedelementsofidentity.
ThisdistinctionhasrelevancetoouranalysisofbothGatesandBransonbecauseGates
doesnotwanttochangeMicrosoftandhissoftwarechangesoverthelastdecadehavebeen
withingivenlimits.Heisnotreallyswitchingfromonetypeofsoftwaretoanother.Wesee
adaptation,butnothingradicallynew.Gatesiswedtotheold,anddoesnotmakechanges
unlesssomethinghappensoutside,suchastheemergenceofInternetwebbrowsers.Gates
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exhibitsstaticbehavior,whilstBransonismoreapttodowhatisunfamiliartohimselfandto
VirginGroup.Heisaclassicexampleofaperson“swimmingagainstthestream”(Schumpeter,
1911:121).Gatesadaptsbyswimmingwiththestream,andBransonheroicallydevelops
venturesagainstit.Gatesreliesmoreonrationalchoicewithinlimitsofrationalbehavior,but
Bransonisknowntorelyonintuition,tojumpinandtakerisks.Ifentrepreneurshipismore
aboutdevelopment(creativedestruction)thanadaptation,thenwemightquestionwhether
Gates,afterhisinitialentryintosoftwaredesign,stillqualifiesasadevelopmentalentrepreneur
becauseheisnotmakingnewcombinationsanymore.However,bearinmindthefollowing
quote:‐
“Ourassumptionisthathewhomakesnewcombinationsisanentrepreneur”(Schumpeter,1911:172,ascitedinSwedberg,2006:28).
Bransonbrandsanewcombinationoruseofanexistinggood,openingupnewmarkets.Both
GatesandBransonhaveestablishedlargecorporations,andmadebillionsofdollars.Butitis
Bransonwhocontinuouslyactstobreaktheoldmould,andenvisionsdoingthingsdifferently.
Gatesseemstorepeatorappropriatewhathasalreadybeendone,andthendefenditagainst
newalternatives.
ItisinterestingtowatchthewaysinwhichbothGatesandBransonaremovinginto
socialentrepreneurship.Gates’CreativeCapitalismresurrectsAdamSmithasjustificationfor
thewealthyhelpingthepooritbeingimpliedthatmakingMicrosofttechnologyavailabletothe
poorinAfricawillautomaticallyleadtoprogress.ButasSwedberg(2006:30)pointsout,
Schumpeterdoesnotagreethattheeconomywillgrowbyitselfandinsistsentrepreneurial
changeismoredynamic.Thesocialentrepreneurthendoesnotmerelyrepeatwhathasalready
beendone.Branson,ontheotherhand,entersGaiaCapitalism,withitsmoredynamic
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entrepreneurialapproach.Bransonchosetheterm"GaiaCapitalism"torefertotheideological
intentionsoftheVirginBusinessGroup.ThewordGaiaorGaea,isderivedfromancientGreek
mythologyandmeansearthgoddess.GaiawasthemotherofCronusofthemythological
Titans.GaiaCapitalismseekstosynthesisCapitalismasaprivateenterprisesystemwithbeing
eco‐friendly.TheGaiathesiswasfirstproposedbyJamesLovelock(Lovelock,2001)tointegrate
thephysicalcomponentsofthebiosphere.Tocapturethischangingnuancedentrepreneurial
identityweconductcriticaldiscourseanalysisinconjunctionwithasemioticanalysisofimages
ofBransonandGatesfromtheirrespectivecompanywebsitesandcontrastthesetocartoon
imageslocatedontheinternet.Thisarticlethereforeembodiesasemioticanalysisofhowboth
fashiontheirentrepreneurialidentityquitedifferentlyastheyrepositionthemselvesinthenew
hagiographicnarrativeofsocialentrepreneurship.
Weconsiderthatthemaincontributionofthepaperliesinthedomainofconceptual
analysis.However,asisoftenthecasethereareempiricalimplicationstoobecauseitis
notoriouslydifficulttoseparateconceptualandempiricalcontributions.Theempirical
implicationsareimplicitinthatinexpandingtheuseofsemioticanalysisasalegitimatedataset
forempiricalanalysiswemakealimitedcontributionintermsofempiricism.Weillustratethis
reconceptualisationbymeansoftheimagesofGatesandBransonwhichwepresent.Weuse
toolsadoptedfromBakhtin(1981)tounderstandhowentrepreneurialidentities(asa
combinationofindividualandorganizationalsymbolism)areconstructedbyvisualappearances.
WeillustratethissymbolismwithdifferentexamplesofGatesandBranson.
Theremainderofthearticleisstructuredinsixsections.Wefirstdiscusschanging
entrepreneurialidentitiesanddiscourses.Thereafter,wereviewvisualandstorytellinganalysis
identifyingsomeneglectedlinksbetweenvisualityandstorytelling.Wethenintroducereaders
toBakhtin’s(1981)discoursetheoryofinternalanexternaldialogisms.Wethendiscussissuesof
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methodologybeforeexploringauthorizedcaricaturesofGates&Bransoninimagesand
narrativesproducedbyMicrosoftandVirginGroup.Finally,weexaminetheimplicationsofthis
studyforresearchandpracticeofentrepreneurialidentity.
CHANGINGENTREPRENEURIALIDENTITIESANDDISCOURSES
Weseektoexplorethedisplacementbetweenenterpriseandequalitydiscoursebyfocusingon
differencesinentrepreneurialidentityconstruction.Discourseherereferstoimages,
storytelling,metaphorsandtropesthattogetherproduceaparticularversionoftheworld
(Foucault,1972;Laclau&Mouffe,1985).Towardsthisend,welookatimagesandstoriesofthe
huntforbillionaireentrepreneurstosaveAfricaorsavetheEarth.Thesearebutsomeofthe
multipleimagesandstoriesavailabletonarrateentrepreneurialidentity.Ahl(2002)andOgbor
(2000)demonstratethat‘white,‘male’andentrepreneurseemtocohereindiscursivepractices
encouragingustotakeacloserlookatthe“identitywork”(Svenningsson&Alvesson,2003:
1165)ofGatesandBranson,aswellastheirenterprises,MicrosoftandVirginGroup.Identity
workinvolvesforming,repairing,maintaining,andstrengtheningorrevisingtheself(Berglund,
2006:237).Discourseandidentityconstruction(throughvisualnarration)arerelatedinthat
storytelling(includingnarrative)isasubdomainofdiscourse.Entrepreneurialidentityis
accomplishedinnarrativere‐presentationstotheworld.Giventhatweviewdiscourseas
referringtodomainsincludingstorytelling,imagesmetaphorsandtropes,thattogetherproduce
aparticularversionoftheworld,thereappearstobeanobviousleaningtowardsthelinguistic.
Thusinseekingtore‐storyanestablishednarrativeidentityitisimportanttobeginwithother
aspectsofdiscourse,toassociationstometaphors,tropesandimages.Ifthesearealigneditis
likelythatthevisualelementofthenarratedidentitywillcorrespond.
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Berglund(2006)arguesthatenterprisediscoursebeingrootedineconomicrationalityof
largecompanies,framesentrepreneurshipdifferentlythantheequalitydiscoursewhereall
inhabitantsofasphereorregionareseenasentrepreneurs.Thisdictatesthatinenterprise
discourse,(social)entrepreneursarenotsoughtlocallyoramongtheranksforthepoor.Thereis
apresumptionthatheroic‐CEOsandtheirenterprisesdominateentrepreneurship.In
patriarchicalculture,itisviaactionthatsubjectsaredefinedasentrepreneurs,perceivedasrisk‐
takers,withthecreativeimaginationnecessaryforradicalchange.“Thecreaturetobesoughtis
clearlyamanwhoisstrong‐willed,determined,persistent,resolute,detachedandself‐
centered”(Berglund,2006:239).
Organizationsareincreasinglydefiningthemselvesandtheirleadersthroughvisuality
practicesviatheInternetinwaysthatconstructspecialpowerrelationswithothergroups.Our
focusisonthekindsofpracticesthatframeentrepreneurialidentityalongvariousformsof
capitalism.ThereisacentralityofvisualincontemporaryWesternsociallife(Berger,1972;Jay,
1993).Organizationsarebeginningtoturnvisualityintoascopticregimeorscopicregime
(Haraway,1991;Rose,2007)conflatingseeingandknowingwithpower.Suchregimesoperate
viathedeliberateintroductionofmockery.
Theproliferationofstorytelling,includingtextualandvisualizationtechnologies,suchas
theInternet,diffusesscopticregimesthroughoutlatemoderncapitalism.Websitesare
becomingincreasinglymultimodalwithvisualsaccompaniedbynarrativestodirect(orcontrol)
howviewersmakesenseinintendedways.Individualscannowbrowsethenetanddownload
imagesofcelebrityentrepreneursofinteresttotheminamannerwhichtheycouldnothave
donetwentyyearsago.Internetwebsitessuchas‘GoogleImages’allowustobrowseimages
fromavarietyof[oftendubious]sourcesinjuxta‐positiontoeachotheractingasmagnifyingloci
fortheimagespresentedtherein.Asmanyoftheseareoftencaricaturesoraresatiricalin
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naturesuchsiteshavehugepotentialtoinfluencehowthepublicperceiveindividual
entrepreneurs.Andindeed,theentrepreneurial‐images,aswellasstorytellingpractices,are
becomingsitesofresistance(Armstrong,1996:28).
WetakeaBakhtiniandialogicalapproachtostorytelling,differentiatingcontrol
narrativesthataremonologic,frommoredialogicmanneroflivingstoriesandantenarratives,in
ordertoshowtheinteractivityasforceandcounterforce.Bakhtin(1973:12),forexamplesays,
“Narrativegenresarealwaysenclosedinasolidandunshakablemonologicalframework.”
Derrida(1979:94)alsoseesnarrativeashegemonic.Czarniawska(2004)pointsoutthepositive
aspectsofnarrativepetrification,inaccomplishingthecohesionforstrongcorporateculture.
ThereisforBakhtin,a“Dialogicalmannerofstory”(1981:60).Derrida(1979:99‐100),for
example,treatsstorymoreintermsoftheirreflexivitywebofstorytootherstories.
Antenarrativeisdefinedasa‘before’‐narrative,andasaprospective‘bet’shapingthefuture
(Boje,2001).Toourknowledge,adialogizedapproachtostorytelling,astriadicofmultiple
retrospectivenarrations,websoflivingstories,andprospectiveantenarratinghasnotbeen
developedeitherinorganizationnarrativestudies(Boje,2001,2008;Czarniawska,1997,2004;
Gabriel,2000,2004),orinentrepreneurshipstudies.Herewelookatre‐storyingand–re‐
narrating,asakindofantenarrativeexchangeprocessinwhichnarrative(petrification)is
undonetoallowtransformationofthestablenarrative.Inre‐narrating,dialogiclivingstory
pluralityordifferences,becometemperedintomoremonologicnarrative.
Inrelationtoentrepreneurship,scopticregimeisthestudyofhowseveralsortsof
conflictingentrepreneurialidentitiesvieforpublicattentionascapitalistrolemodels.Inthecase
ofGatesandBranson,exploitativeidentitiesofprofit‐maximizingentrepreneurialinitiative
comeintoconflictwiththeirrecentturntosocialentrepreneurshipandtheiractivepromotion
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ofsocialentrepreneurship.Consumersareinvitedtore‐imagineGatesandBransonthroughthe
hagiographicfogofsocialentrepreneurship.
BillionaireGatesandBransonincallingforarevisionofcapitalismseektochangetheir
identityandinstitutionstofitanewbrandofemergingsocialentrepreneurialcapitalism.Both
areventuresomeprotagonistsmovingtheplotofsocialentrepreneurshipforward.Gatesand
Bransonaretransformingtheirentrepreneurialidentitiesfromthatofthetraditionalcapitalist
entrepreneurtosocialentrepreneurs.Gatesistheundisputedsoftwarebaron,andBransonthe
acknowledgedbrandedventurebaron.Whatisinterestingisthetransitionfrom
“entrepreneurialfreemarketcapitalism”toGates’“CreativeCapitalismandBranson’s‘Gaia
Capitalism.”Freemarketentrepreneurialcapitalismcelebratestheindividualentrepreneur‐
hero,discountstheroleofgovernment,andtreatsbusinesscompetitionastheanswertoall
life’sproblems.
HowmuchofGatesandBranson’schangeofheartisimagemanagementandhowmuch
isaheartfeltchangeofattitude?Entrepreneurialidentity,forexample,isthoughttobea
constructthatindividualsmanageandchangeintransitionsinorganizingfacedbyorganizations
(Ibarra,2003;Ashforth,2001;Louis,1980;Stebbens,1970).Someapproachesequate
entrepreneurshipwiththephenomenonofnewventurecreation(Gartner1985)and
organizationbuilding(Bird,1989).Microsofthasfendedoffattemptstobreakupits
monopolisticgriponthesoftwareindustry,andiscopingwithGatesmovefromfull‐timeCEO,
andheandhiswifedivertingbillionsformMicrosoftandfamilyfortunesintotheirphilanthropic
foundation.Branson’sgreeninitiativecouldsaveVirginAtlanticmoneyinfuelcosts,andbea
publicrelationswindfall.
Wesensethatentrepreneurialimagesundertheculturallogicoflatemoderncapitalism
maybebecomingmoreephemeral,fluid,fleeting,andsuperficialwiththeadventofInternet
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technologies.Harvey(1989)andJameson(1984),forexample,arguethatlatestagesoflate
postmoderncapitalismarerootedinimageproduction.Ifso,thencorporations,suchas
MicrosoftandVirginGrouparebecomingimplicatedinconstructingentrepreneurialidentity
differentlyusingmorefluid,ephemeralimages.Theseentrepreneurialimagesofpostmodern
capitalismproduceidentitiesthatinfluencethesocial.
Wearguethatacorporatedoublenarrationoccurswherebyauthorial‐intentionis
achievedthroughanother’scitednarration.Forexample,ataninstitutionallevel,weexpect
thatmosttimeswhenacelebrityorretiredexecutivebehiredasaspokesperson,their
narrations,narratetheidealsandideologyofthecorporateteamwritingtheirscripts.1
Previousstudiesofentrepreneurialidentityinitiallyfocusedonhowheroic‐
entrepreneursboreriskandmanageduncertainty(Brockhaus,1982).Thereishoweverreason
toquestionthepopularconceptionofheroic‐entrepreneur.Forexample,Schumpeter(1942)
rejectedentrepreneurial‐heroismasanexplanationoforganizationalsuccess,preferringto
locate‘creativedestruction’inbroaderpoliticaleconomy,suchasdifferencesbetween
capitalismandsocialism.Whilethereis‘entrepreneurship’increativedestruction,itisthe‘firm
andthesociety,’nottheentrepreneur‐CEOdoingthis.Schumpeter’snarrativeisthe“capitalistic
civilizationisrationalistic,‘andanti‐heroic’”(Schumpeter,1942:127).Habitsofentrepreneurial
thought,forSchumpeter,arerationalizedintosocioeconomicinfrastructure.Thissuggeststhata
comparisonofBillGatesandRichardBransonwouldbeinstructive.Theformerismorethe
rationalisticcreativedestructorofcomputingandsoftware,whilethelaterismoreofthe
heroic‐entrepreneurrisktaker.Howsocioeconomicandpoliticalpracticesusedby
organizationsthatsurroundhowentrepreneurial‐imagesareseenandusedhasyettobe
1 TherearetimeswhentheretiredCEObadmouthsthecorporationanditsproduct;thisoccurredinthecaseofCol.Sanderswhodidnotappreciatethewaythenewownersinterpretedqualityandservice.
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researched.Herewearemoreconcernedwithhowimagesandassociatednarrative‐texts
constructentrepreneurshipandentrepreneurialidentities.
Previousstudieshavenotlookedatdiscourseornarrativeinrelationtovisuality.Weare
particularlyconcernedwithhowentrepreneurial‐imagespositionthespectator(viewer)in
relationtocertainwaysofseeingandknowingontheInternet.White‐maleentrepreneurs(e.g.
Gates&Branson)areoftenrepresentedasmoreactive,andingeniousthannon‐White,non‐
maleentrepreneurs.Imagesarecompositionallydesignedusingstrategiesofcontent,color,and
spatialorganization,alongwithsound,movingimagestoattractviewerstoparticularwaysof
viewingentrepreneurs.Thereactionexpected:“Ohhowextraordinaryandrichlymarvelousis
theWhite‐maleentrepreneur!”Ourapproachistoidentifythevisualandstorytellingaspectsof
theirrespectiveentrepreneurialidentity.
VISUALITYANDSTORYTELLING
Webimagesoftentimesinviteacertainviewerwayofappreciative‐seeingandknowing
organizationsandtheirleaders.Webtechnologiesacttodetermineentrepreneurial‐images’
form,meaning,andaudience‐effectsmakesacontributiontodiscoursestudies.Discourse
analysis(DA)isdefinedas“thestudyofhowmeaningsareproduced,andofwhichmeanings
prevailinsociety”(Iedema,2008:389).
WeadoptCriticaldiscourseanalysis(CDA)suchasintheworkofFairclough(1992b)and
Rose(2007).CDAisthestudyofcriticaltextual,language,andsocioculturaldiscoursepractices.
Rose(2007)andHaraway(1991)arguethatcriticalscholarsmustalsoconsidertheirownways
oflookingatimages.Haraway(1991:190)suggests,“wemightbecomeanswerableforwhatwe
learnhowtosee.”Thisraisesquestionsofcriticaldiscourseanalysts’ownreflexivity.Wenotice
thatinRose’streatmentofCDAasacriticalvisualmethod,thereisnomentionofnarrativein
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relationtovisuality.However,Rose’s(2007)approachtodiscourseanalysisoffoursitesof
visuality(production,composition‐design,social,andauthorial),webelievecanbeextendedto
storytelling,inparticularthekindsofnarrativeaspectsofimages.Moreover,itissignificantthat
caricaturesandcartoonsareimportantvehiclesinthetransmissionofculturalvaluesbecause
theyremovetheelementofauthorialcontrolawayfromtheindividualentrepreneurandthe
organization.
WesuggestthatCDAcanbenefitfromnarrativeapproachesincorporatingcriticalvisual
methods.Internetisthesiteofproducingentrepreneurialnarrativesthroughimages.Internet
technologiesofcompositional‐designofentrepreneurialimagesarereinforcedinandresonate
withaccompanyingtextualnarratives.Thesocialprocessesofwhoisandisnotanentrepreneur
areacombinationofimageandnarrative‐textpractices.ForRose,eachofthesethreesites
reverberatesinthefourthsite,theauthorial.
SeveralcriticalvisualissuesandquestionsproblematizeCDAandimpingeuponour
study.Dovisualrepresentationsofentrepreneurshavetheirowneffects?Orarevisual‐
entrepreneurialeffectsentirelyreducibletocontext?Ifwethinkcriticallyaboutthesocial
categoriesofimagesofentrepreneurship,howarevarioussocialconflictsnegotiatedtoproduce
socialsubjects?Forexample,howarecertainraces,ethnicgroups,socialclasses,nationalities,
andgendersdepictedinentrepreneurialimages?RolandBarthessupportstheideathatthe
cameracapturesimagesofwhatwasreallythere,andhowthingsreallyare.Rose(2007)argues
thattruthfulnessofphotosisconstructed,andthatpeopleinimagescanbeposed.Thereforean
organization’swebimagesarecompositionallydesignedtobeaformofvisualsocialcapital.
“Dominantdiscoursesofglobalismandgovernancehavebeguntocolonizeorganizational
thinkingandstrategizing”(Iedema,2008:389).Explorationsontheboundarybetween
organizationandmoresocietaldiscourselevelsarejustbeginning(Boje,1995;Boje1999;
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O’Connor,1995;Keenoyetal.1997;Hardy&Phillips,1999).Thebroadersocietalcontextisan
influentialdiscursiveresourcetotheinstitutionalfieldoforganizationandinterorganizational
discursiveactivity(Keenoyetal.1997;Hardy&Phillips,1999)andsuccessiveorganizational
rolesofentrepreneurshiparethoughttobeassociatedwithsocialization(Burke&Tully,1977;
Ibarra,1999).Identityroletheorybuildsuponsymbolicinteractionism(Mead,1934),by
suggestingthatidentityformationisinfluencedbybroadersocietalstructureofwhatis
consideredentrepreneurial(Gecas,1982).WeturnnexttoBakhtin’s(1981)theoriesof
dialogismforitspotentialcontributiontovisualityandstorytellingofentrepreneurialidentity.
INTERNALANDEXTERNALDIALOGISM
Thelivingutterance,havingtakenmeaningandshapeataparticularhistoricalmomentinasociallyspecificenvironment,cannotfailtobrushupagainstthousandsoflivingdialogicthreads,wovenbysocio‐ideologicalconsciousnessaroundagivenobjectofanutterance;itcannotfailtobecomeanactiveparticipantinsocialdialogue(Bakhtin,1973:276).
WethuslooktoDerrida(1979)andBakhtin(1973)foracriticalapproachtonarrative,
onewherenarrativeandstoryarenotthesame.ForBakhtin,narrativeisalwaysmonological,
whereasstoryismoredialogical.Oftentimes,entrepreneurstories,forexample,arereducedin
aHoratioAlgernarrativeofragstoriches,toaratherlinearplotofovercomingobstacles,and
becominglarger‐than‐lifelegends.Thisoutdatedimagerydoesnotresonatewitheveryoneand
wearguethatitisagrossoversimplification(reductionism).Consequentiallyweadoptand
adaptMikhailBakhtin’s(1981)notionofdoublenarrationandextendittoaccommodate
multiplenarrations.Bakhtin(1973:324)developstheconceptofdouble‐voicednarrationor
“double‐voiceddiscourse.”Thetwovoicesweareconcernedwitharethedirectdiscourseofthe
entrepreneurandthenarrationbyoneormorecorporatehandlersasbothvoicesare
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“dialogicallyinterrelated”(Bakhtin,1973:324).Therearetwoconstructsofdialogism,internal
andexternal,whichinteract.
InternaldialogismisdefinedbyBakhtin(1973:280,italicsinoriginal)“everywordis
directedtowardananswerandcannotescapetheprofoundinfluenceoftheansweringword
thatitanticipates.”AmongstotherargumentsBakhtin’s(1919/1990)firstpublishedessayrefers
tohowwestrivetorelieveourselvesof“answerability”(p.2).Ourresearchquestionisdoes
thisinternalandtheexternalcallforanswerability(inshort,thedialogism)occurwithindouble‐
narratedentrepreneurdiscourse?
Thereisanimportantinterrelationbetweenvisuality,andtheinternaldialogismofan
organization’sdoublenarration,andthebackgroundenvironmentofexternaldialogismof
counterstoriesbyexternalstakeholders.Atbothlevels,andinbetween,thespeechactsof
dialogismconstituteunexploredunder‐researchedsocialpractices.Ourcontributiontocritical
discourseanalysisistoshowtheinterplayofentrepreneurialvisualidentityanddouble
narrativeconstructionswithsocietallevelsofdiscourse.
Theapplicationofroleidentitytoentrepreneurshiplooksatrelationshipswith
Entrepreneur‐identitywithidealtypespropagatedbythemediaandbroaderculture.
Entrepreneursarenotsolelyproducedbythisinstitutionalfielddiscourseofaparticular
organization.Therearealsothebroaderdiscoursesatthesocietallevel,whichconstruct
alternativeimagesofentrepreneurs.WeseeBakhtin’s(1981)doublenarrationasintersecting
withVolosinov’squasi‐directdiscourseandparticularizedtype.Inboth,therearetwospeech
actsinthestorytellingthatmayormaynotresultinironic,theparodic,ormocking.Bakhtin
(1973:25)arguesthat“theheroturnsintoajester”narratedwithasenseofambivalent
laughtertobecomeamore“dialogizedstory.”Thequestionis,ininstitutionalandsocietal
discourse,doBillGatesandRichardBransonbecomemorecarnivalesque,morehumorous
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familiarizing”oneitherplane(Bakhtin,1973:37)?Indialogizedstorytelling,therearetwo
simultaneousspeechactsthatmeetina“zoneofdialogicalcontact”(Bakhtin,1973:45).
Specifically,wewanttoseeifanepicportrayaldialogizeswithamorecarnivalesqueambivalent
caricature.Atthecorporate(institutional)levelofdiscourse,thenarrativecanbeinternally
dialogized,andatasocietallevel,onewouldexpectthelevelofsatiretobemorepronounced
(approachingmockery,insomeinstances).Manyofthecriticalimagesoftheseentrepreneurs
aredrawningrotesquestyle.Agrotesqueimageexaggeratesthebody.Visuallanguagesevolve
inanenvironmentofsocialheteroglossia;cartoonsare“shotthroughwithintentionand
accents”(Bakhtin,1973:292‐293).
Entrepreneurshipisadialogizedprocessandadialogizedimageofmanufacturing
identity.Especiallyatasocietallevel,“discourselives,asitwere,ontheboundarybetweenits
owncontextandanother,aliencontext”(Bakhtin,1973:284).Therefore,onewouldexpectthat
entrepreneurspresentcontradictionsthatenrichsocialheteroglossia,sothat,adeeperdialogue
ofopposingvoicesarisesoutoftheirenterprise.
Itseemssensibletosuggestthatentrepreneurshipisadialogizedsystemofidentity
construction;perhapsentrepreneurs,atboththeinstitutionalandsocietaldiscourselevelare
narratedasambivalentcharactersthatgoagainstthesocietal‐grain;perhapsentrepreneurship
isanidentityconstructionoutsidetraditionalstoriesofleadership.Anentrepreneur,perhapsis
moreliketheclownoftheMiddleAges,who“withvaryingdegreesofqualification,respected
thefreedomofthefool’scapandallottedaratherbroadlicensetolaughterandthelaughing
word”(Bakhtin,1973:72).
Manyexecutivesandsuccessfulentrepreneursofmajorcorporationshavespeech
writers,pressreleasewriters,andotherswhonarratetheirstoriesforthem,intheirstead;
ghostwritersareoftentimeshiredtowriteanentrepreneur’sautobiography,totakefragments
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ofdirectlyquoteddiscourse,andpackageitwithnarrativecommentaryandcorporate
intonations.Itisnotveryoftenthatcorporateorchestratorsofentrepreneurorexecutive
narrationengageinhypocriticalprose.Inshort,mostofthetimeofficialnarrators(handlers&
entrepreneurs)narrateinthesamemutuallyreinforcingdirection.Therearetimeswhereafalse
pathosisconstructed,sothatthereisparodicstylizationoftheentrepreneurbyhandlers.More
often,wesuspectthisparodicstylizationwithhypocriticaljudgmentsandunflattering
intonationsoccursinsocietaldiscourse.
OurapproachtoCDAisnarratology,howinstitutionalnarrativeandmoredialogic
counterstoryinterplaytoconstructentrepreneurialidentityalongideologicallines.Discourse
domainsincludenarrative,metaphor,andtropeconveyedintextandsocialaction.Wecan
examineMicrosoftandVirginGroupasnarratorsoftheirrespectiveentrepreneur,usingmore
orlessoriginalstylesofstorytelling,andstrangetwistsandturnsofthestoryline.Onewould
expectthatBillGatesstoriestoldbyMicrosoftaremoretoneddownincomparisontoRichard
BransonstoriestoldbyVirginGroup.Wewouldexpectlessspeechinterferenceandless
particularizeddirectdiscoursemodifications.Nextweturntoexaminetheinstitutional
narrativesandthevisualityofBillGatesincontrasttoRichardBranson.
VISUALITYANDADDRESSINGMETHODOLOGICALTENSIONS
SincetheadventoftheInternetandtheproliferationofsearchenginessuchasGoogleImages
thepublicincreasinglyhaveunprecedentedaccesstoavirtuallibraryofoftencontroversial
imagesoverwhichindividualsandorganizationshavelittlecontrol.Aswediscoveredthese
invariablyincludesatiricalandcartoonimages.Asentrepreneurshipscholars,wehavebeen
slowtocapturethisrichsourceofdatawhichinlegaltermssitssomewhereinacontested‘no
mansland’.Nevertheless,wecontestthattheseimagesareinthepublicdomain.Afewbrave
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scholarssuchasVenkatramanandNelson(2008:forthcoming)haveincorporatedsemiotic
analysisintotheirrepertoireandhavepresentedimagestoillustratethetext.Wefollowthis
trendandpresenttheimagestoenhancetheanalyticexperienceforthereader.
Weperformtwoanalyses.First,weanalyzehowvisualimagery(Rose,2007)issituated
tofashionquitedifferententrepreneurialidentities.Second,weanalyzethestorytelling,
includinginstancesofquasi‐directdiscourse.Quasi‐directdiscourseisdefinedas“halfnarration
andhalfreportedspeech”(Volosinov1930/1973:134).Quasi‐indirectdiscourse,bycontrast,isa
narrationaboutthediscoursespoken,whereasdirectdiscoursequotesthespeakers.Quasi‐
indirectdiscourseinvolvesatranspositionofutterancesbythenarrator.Thereisatextureto
thestorytelling,theuseofpauses,fillinginthegaps,orfillinginthecontext,makingmore
commentary,andusingmoreexpressiveconstruction(metaphors,rhythmofspeech,etc.).
ORGANIZATION,ENTREPRENEURIALSTORYTELLING
ANDTHEVISUALITYOFGATESANDBRANSON
Inthissectionweconsiderauthored(authorized)imagesofBransonandGatesdownloaded
fromtheircompanywebsites.Thisenablesustocompareandcontrasttheseimagesto
illustratedifferententrepreneurialidentitiesandleadershipstylesdemonstratingthe
contrastingsemioticstylesofGatesandBransonaswellastoconsiderthepurposesofthe
restoryingprocess.
AuthorizedImages
SeePhotoSeries1:GatesandBransonintheappendix.IntheimageontheleftweseeWilliam
(‘Bill’)GatesIII,ChairpersonofMicrosoft.iTheimageisoneofguardednesswitharmsfolded.On
therightimage,weseeSirRichardBransoninamorecasualposewithhandsinpocketsatthe
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launchofVirginTrains.iiTheoverallvisualthemeforBillGatesisthatofageekcomputernerd
whobuiltacorporateempire.Itisalsoaverystandardizedcorporateimage.ForBranson,the
imageprojectedisthatoftheplayboyanddaredevilwhobuiltacorporateempire,andwas
evenknightedbytheQueen,astheroyal“entrepreneur.”
SeePhotoSeries2:Gatesatfar‐left,Visualityiiiintheappendix.Thisisathemethat
continuesinthecorporatechoiceofphotos.Microsoft’simagesrepresentGatesinglassesanda
sweater.AgainweseeGateswitharmsfoldedinaguardedposewhichpositionshimaslessofa
risktakerthanBranson.ItismuchlessflamboyantthanBranson’simages.Branson’simages
depicthimusingunorthodoxmethodstopromotetheVirginbrand.Thephotographactsasa
storyboardrestoryingtheimageintoaminibiography.Nevertheless,bothhavebuilt
corporationsthatarerecognizedasglobalbrands,MicrosoftandVirginGroup.
SeePhotoSeries3:PhotoMontageonVirginGroupHistorypageiv.Images:Who’s
RichardBranson?Thesignature:beard,gleamingteeth,andcoiffedhairdo;theportrayalaspilot
ofplanesandballoons,andexplorer;thesearephotosthatfuelthephantasm,andconstructhis
virtualentrepreneurialimageandentrepreneurialidentity.
SeePhotoSeries4–BransonPhotoVirginAtlantichistorypage.Theabovephotois
fromtheVirginAtlantichistorypage,showsBransoninananimatedpose,beneaththe“diving
Virgin”cartoon,entitled,the“ScarletLady.”Thevisualelementsreinforcetheplayboywho
buildsempiretheme.TheFoxrealityTVshow,“TheBillionaire”promotesthephantasm:
BRANSON’SQUESTFORTHEBEST:SIRRICHARDBRANSON,thecolorfulfounderandChairmanoftheVirginGroupofCompanies,teamswithaward‐winningBunim‐MurrayProductions(“TheSimpleLife,”“RealWorld”)toleadagroupofyoungentrepreneursonanepicjourneyaroundtheworld,testingtheirmettlebyhavingthemrelivesomeofhisowncolorfuladventures.v
Bothcompanywebsitesusetextualstorytellingtoaccentparticularaspectsoftheir
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respectiveentrepreneurialidentities.
StorytellingontheMicrosoftWebsiteviIn1973,GatesenteredHarvardUniversityasafreshman,wherehe
liveddownthehallfromSteveBallmer,nowMicrosoft'schiefexecutiveofficer.WhileatHarvard,GatesdevelopedaversionoftheprogramminglanguageBASICforthefirstmicrocomputer‐theMITSAltair.
Inhisjunioryear,GatesleftHarvardtodevotehisenergiestoMicrosoft,acompanyhehadbegunin1975withhischildhoodfriendPaulAllen.Guidedbyabeliefthatthecomputerwouldbeavaluabletooloneveryofficedesktopandineveryhome,theybegandevelopingsoftwareforpersonalcomputers.Gates'foresightandhisvisionforpersonalcomputinghavebeencentraltothesuccessofMicrosoftandthesoftwareindustry.
UnderGates'leadership,Microsoft'smissionhasbeentocontinuallyadvanceandimprovesoftwaretechnology,andtomakeiteasier,morecost‐effectiveandmoreenjoyableforpeopletousecomputers.Thecompanyiscommittedtoalong‐termview,reflectedinitsinvestmentofapproximately$7.1billiononresearchanddevelopmentinthe2007fiscalyear.In1999,GateswroteBusiness@theSpeedofThought,abookthatshowshowcomputertechnologycansolvebusinessproblemsinfundamentallynewways.
….Inadditiontohisloveofcomputersandsoftware,GatesfoundedCorbis,whichisdevelopingoneoftheworld'slargestresourcesofvisualinformation‐acomprehensivedigitalarchiveofartandphotographyfrompublicandprivatecollectionsaroundtheglobe.HeisalsoamemberoftheboardofdirectorsofBerkshireHathawayInc.,whichinvestsincompaniesengagedindiversebusinessactivities.PhilanthropyisalsoimportanttoGates.Heandhiswife,Melinda,haveendowedafoundationwithmorethan$28.8billion(asofJanuary2005)tosupportphilanthropicinitiativesintheareasofglobalhealthandlearning,withthehopethatinthe21stcentury,advancesinthesecriticalareaswillbeavailableforallpeople.
IntheaboveMicrosoftstorytelling,Gatesispositionedasthefirstmicrocomputer
language,havingthe“foresightandvision”toforetellpersonalcomputingascentralto
Microsoftsuccessinsoftwareindustry.Throughquasi‐directdiscourse,includingexamplesof
speechinterference,theentrepreneursandthecorporatenarratorsrecreateaphantasmagoric
livingpast.GatesissaidtofoundCorbis(digitalarchiving),andhasmovedintophilanthropyfor
globalhealthandlearning(withhiswifeMelinda).ItisthisstorytellingthathaspositionedGates
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asamongthebest‐knownentrepreneursofpersonalandbusinesscomputersoftware.For
examplein1999EntrepreneurMagazinepickedGatesasitsEntrepreneuroftheMillennium.vii
Gateshasbeennumberoneonthe"Forbes400"listfrom1993throughto2007andnumber
oneonForbeslistof"TheWorld'sRichestPeople"from1995to2007with58billionU.S.
dollars.viii
Officialcorporatestorytellingofentrepreneurshipinvitescounterstories.Forexample,
ratherthantheBasicsoftwarelanguagewrittenin1975(withhelpfromPaulAllen),forthe
Altaircomputer,CriticsassertitwassoftwarepurchasedbyGatesfor$50,000fromaSeattle
companythatisthegutsofMS‐DOSthatbecameanindustrystandard.ixAnditwastheMS‐DOS
licensingagreementwithIBMthatexplainsthefortunesofMicrosoft.xGatesdidnotrecognize
thepotentialoftheInternetuntil1996(2yearsafterbrowsersweredebuted).xiItisthese
counterstoriesthatledGelernter(1998),forexample,toarguethatGate’sentrepreneurial
identityisover‐blown,sinceMicrosoftproductscombineideasalreadyexistinginthe
marketplace.Finally,Gatesiswidelycriticizedforanticompetitivepracticesthatculminatedin
1998U.S.versusMicrosoftantitrustlawsuit.xiiThesethemesareportrayedinthe1999
docudrama,PiratesofSiliconValley.Inshort,whileMicrosoftandGatesmakesignificant
contributionstothesoftwareindustry,neitherthecompanynoritsco‐founderisinnovative.
AndMicrosoft’smonopolisticmarketshareisanimpedimenttoentrepreneurshipand
innovation.xiiiMicrosoftredesignsexistingproductsandrivaldevelopers’projects,ratherthan
inventingnewones.xiv
ThesecounterstoriesareconsistentwithSchumpeter’sdistinctionbetweenadaptive
anddevelopmentalentrepreneur.Gatesadaptsexistingideasintoprofitmakingideas,then
aggressivelyprotectsthelong‐terminterestsofMicrosoftagainstrisk.Firsthandaccountsof
meetingsofGateswithMicrosoft’sseniormanagersportrayGatesas“hostile,berating
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managersforperceivedholdsintheirbusinessstrategiesortheirproposalswhichplacethe
company’slong‐terminterestsatrisk”and“shoutingatlengthatemployeesbeforelettingthem
continue,withsuchremarksas,‘That’sthestupidestthingI’veeverheard’and,‘Whydon’tyou
justgiveupyouroptionsandjointhePeaceCorps?’”xv
Letuscontinuetheofficialstorytellingwiththeonline“MicrosoftMuseum.”
WelcometotheMicrosoftMuseumxvi‐Itallstartedwiththedreamof“acomputeroneverydeskandineveryhome.”Injust28years,Microsoftturnthisrevolutionaryideaintoareality,creatinganewindustryandtransforminghowwework,live,learnandplay…Intheaboveexcerpt,thereisafragmentofquoteddiscoursethatseemsindirectly
attributabletoBillGates.“Acomputeroneverydeskandineveryhome”seemstosuggestwhat
theentrepreneurwasthinking,butnotdirectlyuttering,ormorepreciselywhatMicrosoftnow
saysheshouldhavebeenthinking.Theexcerptalsohisseveralpositiveepithets:“dream,”
“revolutionary,”“new,”and“transforming.”Asanexampleofdoublenarration,thetwovoices
(corporatenarratorsandtheentrepreneur)areinalignment,noapparentcontradictionor
interferencecanbeseen:thetwospeechactsreinforceoneanother.
MUSEUMTOUR–AttheMicrosoftMuseum,youcanexplorethevision,products,cultureandhistoryofMicrosoft…Ourmuseumtellsthestoryoftheideas,dreams,andaccomplishmentsofthepeoplewhomakeupMicrosoft.Throughinteractiveexhibitsandengagingstorytelling,visitorscanexplorehowpeoplearerealizingtheirpotentialthroughthemagicofsoftware…
Inthe“MuseumTour”excerpt,“story”and“storytelling”areexplicitlyacknowledged.Software
isgivena“magic”quality.Thisisanexampleofindirectdiscourse,onewhereBillGatesisnot
acknowledged(exceptasoneofthepeople,partofthehistory,perhapsareferencetothe
“dream”inthepreceding,‘WelcometotheMicrosoftMuseum,’excerpt).
MAKINGHISTORY–TIMELINE–It’shardtobelievethatMicrosoftisalready28yearsold.ThecompanythatmadeRedmond,Washingtonahouseholdnamewasactuallyfoundedinanothercity,in1975,bytwoyoungmenfromSeattle,oneofwhomwasacollegedropout.Fromthisinauspicious
21
beginningcameanequallyimprobablevision:Apersonalcomputeroneverydeskandineveryhome…whenonlyahandfulofpeopleknewwhatapersonalcomputerwas,itwasagreatleapoffaithanddaring.
The‘MakingHistory–TimeLine’excerptisoneoftheonlyexampleswecouldlocateof
MicrosoftnarratingBillGatesinwaysusingsomespeechinterference.Gates,notmentionedby
name,isthe“collegedropout,”whose“inauspiciousbeginning”and“equallyimprobablevision”
wasa“leapoffaithanddaring.”YetthisspeechinterferencedoesnarrateGatesasan
entrepreneur,implantingtraitsinhischaracterizationthattintthehero,makinghisjourneyall
themoreincredible.Thesearevaluejudgments,andportraythenarrator’s(authorial)attitude,
anddogivereferentialweighttoasomewhatpicturesquehero.
InMicrosoft’sofficialbiographyofWilliamH.Gates,threeexcerptsmeritquasi‐direct
discourseanalysis:(foreaseofreference,thesearenumbered1,2,&3).xvii
1)…In1973,GatesenteredHarvardUniversityasafreshman,whereheliveddownthehallfromSteveBallmer,nowMicrosoft’schiefexecutiveofficer.WhileatHarvard,GatesdevelopedaversionoftheprogramminglanguageBASICforthefirstmicrocomputer–theMITSAltair.
Intheofficialbiographyexcerpt1(above),thenewCEO(Ballmer),wholiveddownthe
hallfromGatesistiedintothebiography.Thiscommentarypresetsthetellingofthestoryof
Microsoft’sfounding,linkingformerCEO,toitscurrentCEO.Next,Gates’softwareprogramming
ofBASICfortheMITSAltairissetoutasanevent(thisalsopresetsthefounding).The“entered
Harvard”and“atHarvard”givereferentialweighttothesoftwaredesignevent.Thereareparts
ofthestoryleftout,whichonecanonlyfindinthesocietal(extra‐institutional)discourseabout
GatesandMicrosofthistory(wewillleavethispointuntilthatsection).
2)Inhisjunioryear,GatesleftHarvardtodevotehisenergiestoMicrosoft,acompanyhehadbegunin1975withhischildhoodfriendPaulAllen.Guidedbyabeliefthatthecomputerwouldbeavaluabletooloneveryofficedesktopandineveryhome,theybegandevelopingsoftwareforpersonalcomputers.Gates’
22
foresightandhisvisionforpersonalcomputinghavebeencentraltothesuccessofMicrosoftandthesoftwareindustry.
Inexcerpt2(above),wearetoldthat“GatesleftHarvard”forthisreason“todevotehis
energiestoMicrosoft.”Itisastrangeconstruction,sinceGatesleftayearbeforestartingthe
company.WearenottoldthatGatesand“hischildhoodfriendPaulAllen”foundeda
partnershipin1977,not1975(thatkeyeventisintheMicrosoftHistory,inadifferentlocation
inthewebsite).TheKeyeventsinMicrosoftHistorypagessayitwasNov261976when“The
tradename‘Microsoft’isregisteredwiththeOfficeoftheSecretaryofthestateofNew
Mexico.”xviii
3)UnderGates’leadership,Microsoft’smissionhasbeentocontinuallyadvanceandimprovesoftwaretechnology,andtomakeiteasier,morecost‐effectiveandmoreenjoyableforpeopletousecomputers…
Branson’sVirginGroupwebsitepresentsquitedifferentstorytelling:xix
VirginAtlanticStorytelling:–Sowho'stheguywiththebeard?KeepreadingtofindoutallaboutRichardBranson....
RichardBransonwasbornin1950andeducatedatStoweSchool.ItwasherethathebegantosetupStudentMagazinewhenhewasjust16.By17he'dalsosetupStudentAdvisoryCentre,whichwasacharitytohelpyoungpeople.
In1970hefoundedVirginasamailorderrecordretailer,andnotlongafterheopenedarecordshopinOxfordStreet,London.During1972arecordingstudiowasbuiltinOxfordshire,andthefirstVirginartist,MikeOldfield,recorded"TubularBells"whichwasreleasedin1973.Thisalbumwentontosellover5millioncopies!Sincethenmanyhouseholdnames,includingBelindaCarlisle,Genesis,PhilCollins,JanetJacksonandTheRollingStoneshavehelpedtomakeVirginMusiconeofthetopsixrecordcompaniesintheworld.TheequityofVirginMusicGroup‐recordlabels,musicpublishing,andrecordingstudioswassoldtoTHORNEMIin1992inaUS$1billiondeal.
ThispositionsBransonasadeveloperofbusinessventuresthataresubsumedundertheVirgin
brand.Virginbrandedsome200companies,employing50,000peopleworldwide,in30
countries,withrevenuesexceeding£10billion(approx.US$20billion).xx
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Thestorytellingisaccomplishedwithquasi‐directdiscoursepracticestoarousewhat
Volosinov,1930/1973:148)callsthe“reader’sfantasy.”Forexample,intheVirginAtlantic
historypage,Branson’s“story”isreplottedalongthelinesofDavidandGoliath,astoryistoldin
moreartistictelling,withmorepictorialmetaphorsandlotsofsurprise:a“VirginStory”ofthe
“newcomer”whotakesonthe“giant”andischaracterizedasthe“people’schampion”anda
reputationfor“innovativeproductdevelopment.”xxi
1) “…VirginAtlanticisthequintessentialVirginstory.Ithaseveryingredient,thesmallnewcomertakingonthegiantandcomplacentestablishment,thepeople’schampionintroducingbetterserviceandlowercostsforcustomerswithareputationforqualityandinnovativeproductdevelopment.
Thenextextract,aswithGatesnarrationbyMicrosoft,thereisabitofspeechinterference:
“young”and“unorthodoxchairman.”
2) VirginAtlanticwasdevelopedasanoffshootofRichardBranson’sVirgingroup,whichwasbetterknownatthetimeasaleadinglightintheworldofpopandrockmusic.Inearly1984,thethenyoungandunorthodoxchairmanofVirginwassurprisedwhenhewascontactedbyanAnglo‐USlawyercalledRandolphfieldswithaproposalforaninvolvementinanewairline…
TheVirginGroupcorporatenarratorsrepresentBransonaslivingthedream.
3) HISTORY–Backintheearly80sRichardBransonwasprobablybestknow[n]forVirginRecords–thelegendaryrecordlabelthatsignedmajornamesliketheRollingStones,JanetJacksonandTheHumanLeague.In1984,muchtothehorrorofhisdirectors,Richardannouncedtotheworldthatahighquality,valueformoneyairlinewouldbeginoperationwithinthreemonths…
Excerptthree(above)makestherecordlabel“legendary”andassociatesBransonwiththe
“majornames”(RollingStones,JanetJackson&TheHumanLeague),thenmakestheincredible
bet:hecanbringanewairlineintobeing“withinthreemonths.”
Insum,whatisimportantabouttheuseofquasi‐directdiscourseinboththeMicrosoft
andtheVirginGroupwebsitesisthatthestorytellingeffectuateseconomicandsocialinterests.
24
AtMicrosoftwevisitthepastinthevirtual“LivingMuseum”andtakeavirtualtourofBillGates
90million‐dollarhome.AtVirginGroup,wecanvisitBranson’s“VirginIsland”getaway.Theuse
ofpicturesquespeech,scrollingandinteractivetextinvitesthereaderintotheconstructed
phantasm,withaneconomicintent(forthewebsitesarealsoportalsforemploymentand
investment).BothGatesandBransongiveadvicetoyoungstudentswhowanttobecome
entrepreneurs,andinhabitthelivingfantasy;thepicturesquespeech,thepositivevalue
judgments,andthespeechinterferenceadstothephantasm,andtotheoveralltheme.
MicrosoftandVirginGroupPersons–Bothcompaniesfashionvisualimagesofwhatisthe
identityoftheircorporateperson.Microsoftrepresentscaricaturesofthe“MicrosoftPerson”
thataremorePreppy.SeePhotoSeries5:MicrosoftPersonxxii.
WhoisaMicrosoftPerson?Imagesandfragmentsofdiscoursealsoconstruct“whoisa
Microsoftemployee?”the“MicrosoftPerson”
“Allkindsofpeople;allkindsofpotentialAtMicrosoft,whenwetalkaboutrecruitingthebestandthebrightest,we'retalkingaboutpeoplewhothriveontheexcitementofcollaborationandthediscoveryofnewopportunities.Theylikesettingtheirowngoalsandworkinghardtoachievethemintheirownstyle.”xxiii
ContrastthistoVirginGroup’s“VirginPerson.”The“VirginPerson”usesmoregrotesque
imagery.
WhatisaVirginemployee?ThevisualconstructionsareofaFrankenstein‐likemaleand
femalebodypartsingrotesqueproportions.SeePhotoSeries6‐“VirginPerson”xxiv.The“Virgin
Person”issomeonewith“signsofcreativity,”“smellsnewbusinessopportunities,””listensto
customers,”“desirestoplease,”“canmulti‐taskwithtenprojectsatonce”has“passionfornew
25
ideas,”thinks“differently,”with“attentiveeyes,”“fidgetyfingers,”“whohatesstandingstill”
andsoforth.
CreatingSocialEntrepreneurialIdentity‐Bothentrepreneurshavemovedintosocial
entrepreneurialidentities.IntheMicrosoftwebsiteofficialstorytelling,mostrecentlyGatesis
resituatedfromsoftwareimpresariotosocialentrepreneur.Gates’Jan24,2008speechtothe
WorldEconomicForuminDavosSwitzerlandmakesacasefor“CreativeCapitalism”citingAdam
Smith’sideaofthevalueofself‐interestasthecureforworldpoverty.SeePhotoSeries7.In
theimagesbothentrepreneursusetheirhandstoexpresstheirtransformation.ForGates,there
isanuncharachteristicposeofhim“jamming”withaguitar.ForBranson,theexpressionisa
smile,asGoreglancessomewhatadmiringlyasBransontossesaglobeintotheair.AsBranson
putsit,funismoreimportantthanrisk,inhisideaofentrepreneurship:xxv
Theveryideaofentrepreneurshipnotonlyconjuresupthoughtsaboutstartingupbusinessesandbuildingthem,butalsothemorefrighteningprospectoftakingrisksandfailing.It'sthelastpartthatputssomanypeopleofftakingaleapintotheunknownandworkingforthemselves.IhaveenjoyedallthechallengeswehavetakenatVirgin,sobecauseI'mhavingfundoingwhatIdo,theriskfactortakessecondplace.
Bransoniswellknownforhisdeathdefyinganticsasasportsman,whichaccentuatehis
daredevilbusinessstrategies(suchas,making2008theyearofthespaceship,atthepress
conferenceattheAmercianMuseumofNaturalHistoryinManhattan).xxviBransonisalsoknow
forhavingfun,suchasdressingasabridetopublicizehisVirginBride,weddingstores.His
realityTVshowistitled,TheRebelBillionaire,anidentityhecultivates.
Socialentrepreneurshipiswovenintohisantics,suchaspledging$3billionoverten
yearstodevelopalternativefuelsourcesandalleviateglobalwarming.Healsoopenedthe
BransonSchoolofEntrepreneurshipinSouthAfrica.AsForbesreports,“Bransondidn'teven
26
believeinglobalwarminguntilfiveyearsagowhenhereadBjornLomborg’s,TheSkeptical
Environmentalist.IntypicalBransonstyle,oncehewasconvinced,itwasfullsteamahead.He
createdVirginUnite,theindependentcharitablearmofhiscompany,in2004.”xxvii
ForGates(2008)‘CreativeCapitalism’isarevisionofcapitalismtoaddresstheneedsof
peopleintheworld’spoorestnations.Gates"CreativeCapitalism"usesmarketforces(self‐
interestamongthehaves)toaddresspoor‐countryneedsofthehave‐notsthathefeelswealthy
capitalistshaveignored.GatescitesAdamSmithWealthofNationsand1979bookTheTheory
ofMoralSentiments,arguingthathumansgainpleasureformtakinganinterestinthe“fortunes
ofothers.”GateswantstoofferMicrosoftsoftware,computers,andwirelessInternetproducts
tothepoor.Criticsarguethatthepooroftenlackelectricity,andthatitistheruleoflaw,health
care,educationandgovernmentcorruptionthatneedtobeaddressed.xxviii
Microsoftisgoingtobuildproductsandservicesforthepoor.Thereisskepticismabout
thepotentialprofitabilityofMicrosoftandothersbuildingproductstoselltothepoor,
especiallysinceMicrosoftfiercecompetitivestrategieshasdrawnlegalchallengesfromantitrust
authorities."There'salotofpeopleatthebottomofthepyramidbutthesizeofthe
transactionsissosmallitisnotworthitforprivatebusinessmostofthetime,"saysWilliam
Easterly,aNewYorkUniversityprofessorandformerWorldBankeconomist.Gatescreditshis
changeofoutlookregardingcapitalismtohistripstoAfricaandIndia,andtobooksbyAdam
Smith(1759,TheTheoryofMoralSentiments).Easterly’s(2006)book,TheWhiteMan’sBurden,
whichcritiquesthefailureoffivedecadesofinternationalaid,Prahalad(2004)TheFortuneat
theBottomofthePyramid,whichviewstheworld’spoorasaviableconsumerproductmarket,
andPaulCollier’s(2007)TheBottomBillion,examinationofhowthegapinlivingstandards
betweenthepoorestfiftycountriesandtherestoftheworld,iswidening.xxixHelpingthebillion
peopleatthebottomofthepyramidlivingonlessthanadollaradaywasthecentralthemeof
27
hisspeechattheWorldEconomicForuminDavos.Socialentrepreneurshipisanotherwayto
describewhatGatescalls‘creativecapitalism.’
LikeGates,SirRichardBranson(knightedbytheQueenforhisentrepreneurship)has
madeasimilarchangetowardssocialentrepreneurship,butmoreintheenvironmental
direction.February2007,Branson(withAlGore)encouraged‘GaiaCapitalism’witha$25million
prize(TheVirginEarthChallenge)tocomeupwithawaytoremovegreenhousegasesfromthe
atmosphere.Healsopledged$3bn(£1.66bn)overthenext10yearstohelpcombatglobal
warming.Thecommitmentistoinvest100%ofallfutureproceedsoftheVirginGroup’s
transportationinterestintoglobalwarmingsolutions.VirginFuelsisinvestingupto$400min
renewableenergyinitiatives.xxx
Themovestheseentrepreneursaremakingareironic,giventhatSchumpetersaw
entrepreneurialcapitalismasthreatenedbybigcorporationsthatwoulddampencreative
destructionwithmonopolisticpractices.Schramm(2006:3)putsitthisway,“Schumpeter
concludedthattheimportanceofentrepreneurswouldfadeovertimeascapitalismsought
predictabilityfromgovernmentswhowouldplaneconomicactivityaswellasordersocial
benefits.”xxxi
IMPLICATIONS
Double‐voiceddiscoursetakesonmoreimportancewasthewordsoftheentrepreneur
mustrefractawidersocialpolyphonyinvisuality.Entrepreneurshiphasbeendeaftodouble
voicednarrationandtothesophisticateduseofScopticregimes,whichweseeasasignificant
problemastheentrepreneurbecomesembeddedinamorecomplexcorporateenterprise.Asa
consequencetheirpublicimagesdonotmatchtheirrepositioningasheroicsocial
entrepreneurs.TherearenoheroicimagesofthesavingtheworldortheAfricanContinent.
28
Whilsttheycancontrolandauthortheirorganizationalnarrativesandidentitytheycannot
controlhowtheyareportrayedvisuallytothepublic.
Ourstudysuggeststhatthewayimagesandnarrativesare“dialectologicallyorganized,”
(Bakhtin,1973:356).Webelievethedialectologicmanufactureofentrepreneurialidentityisan
importantareaoforganizationalstudy.Itisthroughdialectologicalindividuationthatthe
corporationanditsnarratedentrepreneur,andthesocietaldiscourseofcounter‐entrepreneurs
becomeintertwinedinastruggleofideologicalvoices.Inquasi‐directdiscourse,an
entrepreneur’sdirectdiscoursebecomeshybridwiththecorporate‐narrator’scommentaryand
intonationsaboutmeaning‐context.Insomecasesthisisparallel,inotherinstancesthereisa
semanticinterference,aformofcarnivalesqueresistanceofonediscoursetoanother.Both
GatesandBransonpresentexamplesofcarnivalesqueinterferencewiththeaffirmativeimage
oftheentrepreneurbythecorporateauthorsofentrepreneurial‐identity.Quasi‐directdiscourse
isadialogizedhybridthatcanbeemergent(ananswertosocietalorculturejamportrayal)or
purposefullyorchestratedbycorporateauthors.Thedoubleandmultiplenarrationspresented
intheunauthorizedcartoonsarecounterstorieswhichconflictwiththeirnewselfimageoftheir
entrepreneurialidentity.TheirinnovativeuseofScopticregimeshasnotledCartooniststo
reciprocate.
Inthecurrentstudy,BransonismoreironicallynarratedthanisGatesatthelevelof
institutionaldiscourse;Bransonismorelikelytobeacharacterizationthatdistortsthebody.At
thesocietallevel,bothareequallydialogizedinironicways.However,thereislessdistance
betweeninstitutionallynarratedBransonandthesocietalcaricaturesthanismanifestinimages
ofGates.
CONCLUSIONS
29
BillGatesandSirRichardBransoncompetetobethemostfamousentrepreneurofthis
era.Yettheyexhibitvastlydifferententrepreneurialidentities.GatesandBransonwentagainst
prevailinginstitutionalandsocietalstandardsatthetimeoftheentrepreneurialdisruptionof
thestatusquo.OvertimeGateshascometobeidentifiedwiththestatusquoofsoftware
hegemony.Branson,ontheotherhand,continuestoleapfrogintootherdomains,suchasthe
recentBillionaireseriesorparodyingtheadventuregenrebyenlistingregularfolkstotakea
thrilling,highlyriskyadventurewithBranson.
Weconcludethatcriticaldiscourseanalysisofcartooncaricaturesandentrepreneurial‐
narrativescanbeextendedbylookingatVolosinov’s(1930/1973)conceptof“quasi‐direct
discourse”andBakhtin’s(1981)conceptof“double‐narration.”Wehavetriedtointegratethe
twoconceptstoshowthehowthespeechacts(betheynarrative,photo,orcartooncaricature)
arespeechactsinwhichthereisahighlevelofdialogism(answeringthecommentaryofother
authors’texts).MicrosoftandVirginGroupco‐manufacturetheidentityoftheir
entrepreneurial‐leaders,interminglingthecorporateintentionalityoftheimagesandnarratives
withfragmentsofdirectdiscourse.
Thesocietaldiscoursepresentedincartoonsrecontextualizestheseentrepreneurs.This
createsaspaceforanimportantdialoguebetweeninstitutionalandsocietalinterlocutors.We
concludethatadditionalstudyofdoublespeechactsofquasi‐directdiscourseanddouble
narrationwillgainfurtherinsightintosocialpracticesontheboundarybetweeninstitutional
andsocietaldiscourse.Totheextentthatvisualimagesandnarratedimagesofentrepreneurs
canbesubjectedtocriticaldiscourseanalysis,wegainanimportantunderstandingofthe
manufactureofentrepreneurialidentity.Thebasicideabehindthearticlewastoshowhowthe
story‐textreinforcesthevisualimages(andviceversa).ThiswasdoneusingSchumpeter'stwo
versionsofentrepreneurialidentitytodemonstratetwoverydifferentpersonas,andshowhow
30
theyshiftovertime(becomere‐storiedorre‐narrated)tothesocialentrepreneurialidentity,
butmaintainverydifferentpersonas.WhilstBransonisobviouslyaSchumpetrianentrepreneur
inthathisversionofgaiacapitalismiscreativedestructioninanewarena,Gatesretainshis
elementofconservativetraditionalism.Nevertheless,bothBransonandGatescanbe
consideredtohavesuccessfullyre‐storiedtheirentrepreneurialidentitiesasbutindifferent
ways‐Bransonbyengaginginare‐brandingtowardsgaiacapitalismandGatesthrougheco‐
philanthropyonagargantuanlevel.BythejuxtapositioningofSchumpeteriandifferences,we
makeavaluablecontribution.Thispaperoffersanewmethodforunderstandinghow
entrepreneursaremanufacturedthroughdiscourseontheorganizationalandsocietallevelsand
inparticularitusescriticaldiscourseanalysistofurtherourunderstandingofhowentrepreneurs
areproducedinorganizationalandsocietaldiscourse.
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APPENDIX–IMAGESSECTIONPhotoSeries1:GatesandBranson
PrintedwithpermissionofMicrosoft
PrintedwithpermissionoftheVirginGroup
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PhotoSeries2:Visuality
PrintedwithpermissionPrintedwithpermissionoftheVirginGroupofMicrosoftPhotoSeries3:PhotoMontageonVirginGroupHistorypage
PrintedwithpermissionoftheVirginGroup
37
PhotoSeries4:BransonPhotoVirginAtlantichistorypage
PrintedwithpermissionoftheVirginGroup
PhotoSeries5:MicrosoftPerson
38
PrintedwithpermissionofMicrosoftPhotoSeries6:AVirginPerson
PrintedwithpermissionoftheVirginGroup
39
PhotoSeries7–
PrintedwithpermissionofMicrosoftPrintedwithpermissionoftheVirginGroup
PhotoSeries8:SocietalPhotoofBransonandGates
PrintedwithPermissionofVirginGroup
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PrintedwithpermissionofMicrosoft
i BillGatesChairman,MicrosoftCorp.Published:May30,2002|Updated:July30,2007http://www.microsoft.com/presspass/exec/billg/bio.mspxAccessed11March2010.iiInthisphotoweseeSirRichardBransoninapublicityphotographforthelaunchofVirginTrains.http://www.virgin.com/history/#Accessed11March,2010.iiihttp://www.microsoft.com/presspass/exec/billg/gallery/default.mspx#EXAccessed11March2010.ivBransonVirginGroupbiophoto,accessedAugust20,2004,athttp://www.virgin.com/aboutvirgin/allaboutvirgin/whosrichardbranson/default.aspvTheBillionaire(May27,2004)FromFOX:“THEBILLIONAIRE,accessedAugust21,2004,athttp://www.realitytvcalendar.com/shows/richardsbigadventure.htmlviStorytellingaboutBillGatesonMicrosoftwebsite:http://www.microsoft.com/presspass/exec/billg/bio.mspxvii ScottS.SmitharticleinEntrepreneurMagazine‐December1999http://www.entrepreneur.com/magazine/entrepreneur/1999/december/issue116936.html viiihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_billionairesix http://www.evancarmichael.com/Famous‐Entrepreneurs/556/Launching‐A‐Revolution‐The‐Start‐of‐Microsoft.html. x http://www.evancarmichael.com/Famous‐Entrepreneurs/556/Launching‐A‐Revolution‐The‐Start‐of‐Microsoft.html xihttp://entrepreneurs.about.com/od/famousentrepreneurs/p/billgates.htmxiiShenk,David(1998‐01‐26)."SlammingGates".TheNewRepublic.http://davidshenk.com/webimages/THENEWREPUBLIC.PDFFindingsofFact.UnitedStatesv.Microsoft(1998).http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v._Microsoft
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xiii See innovation critique at http://www.icmrindia.org/casestudies/catalogue/Leadership%20and%20Entrepreneurship/Leadership%20the%20Bill%20Gates%20Way‐Leadership%20and%20Entrepreneurship‐Case%20StudiesExcp.htm xivhttp://voteview.ucsd.edu/gates.htmxvSeeWikipediawebsiteonBillGateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_GatesxviMicrosoftMuseumexcerptsassessedAugust20,2004,fromwww.microsoft.com/mscorp/museum/xviiAllBillGatesofficialMicrosoftbiographyexcerptsaccessedAugust20,2004fromhttp://www.microsoft.com/billgates/bio.aspxviiiMicrosoftdocument:KeyEventsinMicrosoftHistory,accessedAugust20,2004,athttp://addressof.com/blog/articles/300.aspxxixVirginGroupstorytellingaboutRichardBransonhttp://www.virgin.com/AboutVirgin/RichardBranson/WhosRichardBranson.aspxxxhttp://www.virgin.com/AboutVirgin/WhatWeAreAbout/WhatWeAreAbout.aspxxxiVirginAtlantichistoryaccessedAugust20,2004,atBransonandVIRGINATLANTIChttp://www.virgin‐atlantic.com/en/gb/corporateandtrade/index.jspxxiiWhoWeAre,Microsoft–accessedAugust20,2004,http://www.microsoft.com/careers/mslife/whoweare/default.mspxxxiiiMicrosoft“MeetOurPeople,”accessedAugust20,2004fromhttp://www.microsoft.com/careers/mslife/meetpeople/xxivAVirginPerson–accessedAugust20,2004,fromhttp://virgincola.com/aboutvirgin/howitallworks/virginequalspeople/default.aspxxvhttp://www.virgin.com/AboutVirgin/RichardBranson/RichardReplies.aspx?L3_GenericContent_NavigateToPage=4xxviAmericanMuseumofNaturalHistoryhttp://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/organizations/a/american_museum_of_natural_history/index.html?inline=nyt‐orgxxviihttp://www.forbes.com/corporatecitizenship/2006/11/26/leadership‐branson‐virgin‐lead‐citizen‐cx_tw_1128branson.html.xxviiiRoviaConspiracyblog2008http://www.rovianconspiracy.com/2008/01/bill‐gates‐is‐idiot.htmlxxixThebookswerementionedinaWallStreetJournalarticle
http://online.wsj.com/article/SB120113473219511791.html?mod=djemalertTECHxxxInthisimageweseeBillGatesashepreparesforhis"GuitarHero"battlewithRobbieBach,President,EntertainmentandDevicesDivisionduringtheopeningkeynotefor2008InternationalCES.In1995imaheofBransonweseehiminapublicityshotforVirginDirectholdingashell.Notetheactionorientatedbackground.xxxiMakingtheturn:EntrepreneurialCapitalismanditsEuropeanpromise,byCarlJ.Schramm.http://www.kauffman.org/pdf/schramm_eu_finance_0406_final.pdfxxxiiihttp://www.virgin.com/history/#TheimageofBransonisanotheronedemonstratinghispenchantforpublicityandhissociabilitybyposingasabrideforthelaunchofhiscompanyVirginBrides.http://www.microsoft.com/presspass/exec/billg/?tab=images.ThisimagedepictsBillGatesplayinganXboxcarracinggameduringhiskeynoteatthe2005InternationalConsumerElectronicsShow.LasVegas,NV,Jan.5,2005.