judaism a vincint-1934-257pgs-rel

JUDAISMBY

A . VINCENTPROFESSOR IN THE FACULTY OF CATHOLIC THEOLOGY

AT THE UNIVERSITY OF STRASBOURG

TRANSLATED BY

JAMES DONALD SCANLAN, D.C.L .

THE B. HERDER BOOK COMPANY15 & 17 SOUTH BROADWAY

ST. LOUIS MO .1 934

Ribil Obstat :JOANNES GRAY

Censor Librorwn

Imprimatur :JOSEPH ANDREAS O.S.B .

Archiep . S. Andr . ci Ed.

Edimburgi,die qa Aprilis, x934

MADE AND PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN

TO THE VENERATED MEMORY

OF

THE REVEREND FATHER LEONCE DR GRANDMAISON, S.J.

WHO WAS FOR ME

A GUIDE AND A FRIEND

A. V .

CONTENTSPAGE

INTRODUCTION 9I THE END OF JEWISH INDEPENDENCE I I

II RABBINIC LITERATURE . . 4.2

III THE TORAH 70IV DOGMAS IN JUDAISM

. . 86V MONOTHEISM

. . 105VI THE VOCATION OF ISRAEL AND MESSIANISM 130

VII MAN AND HIS DESTINY

. . 157VIII JEWISH MORALITY . . 180

IX THE MYSTICAL LIFE IN ISRAEL 202

X PRIVATE AND PUBLIC WORSHIP 227

INTRODUCTION

What is Judaism?How did the Jews, after the capture of Jerusalem,

organize themselves to lead their own life, that lifewhich protects their faith while safeguarding theirnationality? How were these sacred books formed, theMichnah and the Talmuds, a jurisprudence whichappears to us arid and which has made them forget theinterior religion, so comprehensive and so intense of theProphets and the Psalms? To what dogmas is the faithof Israel attached nowadays, and, after centuries ofwaiting, what has become of that immense Messianichope which permeates the whole of the Old Testament?What system of morality is professed by the Jew wholives side by side with us, and what is the cult practisedby him in the privacy of his home or in the Synagogue?

These are the questions which this little book isattempting to answer as objectively as possible .

This work is not polemical : its purpose is only to giveinformation. We have studied Judaism with the greatestsympathy. In it are to be found some admirable virtues,a piety which touches us, spiritual treasures which donot surprise us, because it is based on the Revelation ofSinai, and above all, it is, in the words of Saint Paul,"the good olive tree" and "the root which bearest us ."

We have had now and again to stress the disagreementwhich reveals itself between Jewish and Christianthought . There is no hostility in that, but the statementof a historic fact which appears to us undeniable, to wit

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INTRODUCTION

that Christianity constitutes the normal florison of therevelation of the Old Testament, which is common toboth religions, whereas Judaism is merely a nationaldeviation therefrom, which, as it proceeds, is becomingless and less .'

Feast of the Purification of Our Blessed LadyFebruary 1932

'I must here express all the gratitude which I owe to the ReverendFather Bonsirven, S.J., one of the masters in France of Jewishstudies who has been good enough to allow me to draw largely uponhis admirable book, Sur les ruins du Temple, and his Chroniquessur le Judaisme, which are always so well informed .

CHAPTER I

THE END OF JEWISH INDEPENDENCE

The taking of Jerusalem by Titus . Destruction of Jerusalemand of the Temple.-The Diaspora. Foundation of theSchool of Jamnia and organization of a Jewish auto-nomy.-Revolt of Bar Koziba and persecution by Hadrian .Re-establishment of the Jews and organization of theGalilean schools . The Nasi of Galilee; the period of theTannaites; the Michnah and the Talmud of Jerusalem .-Abolition of the Jewish patriarchate of Galilee by Theo-dosius II.-Babylonian Judaism .-The Rosch Galoutha.-The great schools of Mesopotamia and the Talmud ofBabylonia.-The Gaonat.-With the coming of Islamthe Jews lose the last remnants of autonomy .

THE TAKING OF JERUSALEM BY TITUS

Titus had been besieging Jerusalem for four months .A period of violent assaults had been succeeded by siegewarfare, and a wall of thirty-nine stades encircled thecity on the side of Bezetha and the Mount of Olives . IOn the I2th of July A.D . 70, the perpetual sacrifice hadceased in the Temple, for want of men, writes Josephus, 2

more probably it was for want of victims . A similarinterruption had occurred only in the darkest days duringthe Babylonian captivity and in the persecution ofAntiochus .

Great was the emotion among the Jews, together withIJos. Bell. ,dud., xii, 2 .

21b ., VI, ii, I .II

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a vague apprehension that this time, their cult hadceased for ever .This foreboding did not deceive them ; Israel was no

more to sacrifice upon the Holy Mount and at this veryday lamentation is made for it by a solemn fast on theoccasion of this mournful anniversary .' Some daysafterwards, on the 8th of August, the lower part of thetemple was burned, and two days after, the assault des-troyed all the sanctuary properly so-called . Josephusnarrates that a soldier, without any order, but as ifinspired by God, 2 seized a beam which was still alightin the porches set on fire two evenings before, and withthe help of one of his comrades, hurled it into one of thechambers which encircled the Holy Place . In a fewminutes, these panelled rooms caught fire and theTemple was burned . For an instant Titus made aneffort to arrest the flames. The soldiery, carried away bythe heat of battle and the prospect of loot, did not evenhear his voice. Accompanied by several officers, hearrived at the Holy of Holies, gazed for a moment at itsmarvels, and would have saved them, but while he wasengaged in driving back the attackers, a soldier who hadremained behind him set fire to the inside . Titus sawthat the Temple was doomed and withdrew .3 When thefire subsided, all that remained on Moriah were twocharred gates, and the ruin of the enclosure reserved forwomen .The fast of the 19th Ab 4 recalls this sorrowful anni-

versary to the Jews . (loth August, 70.) Some daysafterwards, the Roman legions assembled their eaglesin the Temple, on the side of the Eastern gate, andoffered sacrifice to these idolatrous emblems . 5 At this

'Taanith IV, 5.

'Taanith, IV, 5 .'Jos . Bell . ,jud. VI, 5 .

6,76s. Bell. Jud. VI, i . Matt ., xxiv, t5 .'JJos . Bell. ,dud. VI, iv, 6 and 7 .

END OF JEWISH INDEPENDENCE

13

last blow the Jews could no longer have any misgiving,"the abomination of desolation" begun by the excessesof the Zelotes was reaching its term under their veryeyes .

THE DESTRUCTION OF JERUSALEM AND OF THE TEMPLE

For one who was ignorant of the energy with whichIsrael was attached to life, it would have appeared thatthe Jewish people were finished . Palestine was devas-tated. The population before the war might have beenas high as four or five millions.' It is admitted that thefamine, the massacres, forced emigration and slaveryreduced this number by a good third . Josephus relatesthat 97,000 prisoners remained in the hands of the con-querors, and at Jerusalem alone, I,100,ooo Jews,according to him, met their death. Tacitus, with morereason, reduces this figure to 6oo,ooo . The outskirts ofthe city, formerly a mass of verdure, had nothing more toshow than a desert of stones . Whole districts likeBezetha, Acre and Ophel had disappeared : the Xthlegion was encamped upon the ruins of the Temple, andthe three towers, Hippicus, Phasael, and Mariannebore witness, on the testimony of Titus, as to whatobstacles he had to surmount . 2The conditions imposed by Vespasian were hard. The

country became the personal and private property of theEmperor, subject in consequence to his good pleasurenot a single town was rebuilt; but not far from Jerusalem8oo veterans split up the territory of Emmaus as a pre-caution against an impossible rising . To guard against

'Cf. Juster, Les Juifs dans 1'Empire Romain, t. i, p. 21o ; Felten,Neutestament liche .Zeitgeschichte, t . i, p . 32 . The estimate of Harnack,Die Mission and Ausbreitung des Christentums, t . i, p . 7, and of Meyer,Die Bevolkerung des Altertums in the Handworterbuch der Staatswissen-schaften, 2,687, which reduce this figure to 700,000, seems to us muchtoo low.

'Bell. ,yud. VI, ix, 3.

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JUDAISM

any pretension to a possible kingdom, likely to provide aleader for the vanquished, Vespasian had a censusmade of those who were considered to belong to the raceof David.' And something more serious ; the Temple,which hitherto was still considered as the centre ofnational life, had disappeared in the storm .

The sacrifices were impossible from now on, the priest-hood scattered, and the last high-priest, Phannias, sonof Samuel, had died during the siege . 2

Titus carried off, as his share of the booty, the veil ofthe Holy of Holies, the book of the Law, the table ofthe shew-bread, and the seven-branched candlestick .The di-drachma tax, due from every Jew for the up-keep of the Temple, had no longer any raison d'etrebut Rome continued to levy it on her own account,and devoted it to the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus . 3Josephus undoubtedly relates that Jerusalem had beencompletely razed to the ground to such an extent thatone could not say whether it had ever been inhabited,but he himself assumes the contrary in the discourse ofEleazar at Masada. 4 It therefore seems that the townsoon revived. Access to its ruins had not been forbidden,even in the early time, and the humble and prudentelements of a population which ordinary intercoursearound the camps of the legionaries, or devotion to thememories of the past, collected on the site of the ruinedcity, s must speedily have gathered there; but it wasmerely a city without any glamour, and the Jews wereless attached to it than one would have imagined at firstsight .

'Eusebius,Eccles . Hist. III, 12 .'Jos. Bell. jud. IV, iii, 8 ; Ana. XX x, 23 .'Bell jud. VII, vi, 6 .

',Jos . Bell. jud. VII, viii, 7 .'Schlatter, "Die Tage Trajans and Hadrians" in the Beitrage Zur

Forderung christlicher Theologie, 1897, p . 68-87 .


15

THE DIASPORA

It was in fact a long time since Israel had confined her-self within the narrow limits of Palestine . Even beforethe deportations of 582, 587, 589, and 6o6 had resultedin the formation of a more or less considerable Jewishcommunity "upon the rivers of Babylon," the Jews hadalready emigrated .Under Achab, the Ephraimites had their quarter in

Damascus. In 72 I, Sargon deported 30,000 Israelites toAssyria. The Jewish colony of Elephantis is known, andthe heading of the last prophecy of Jeremias on the Jewsin Egypt allows us to suppose that there was a fairlylarge Diaspora in that country . The capture of Jeru-salem by Nabuchodonosor in 587, the exile of Juda withthe elite of the nation-but an elite which had under-gone the influence of the great prophets, of Josias andthe book of Deuteronomy-strengthened the position ofIsrael abroad, and also her religious ideals . Awaybeyond the circle of the Babylonian Gola, Ezechieladdresses himself to "all the remnant of his people" andto "all the house of Israel," and it may be argued thatdispersion and misery forced the Israelites to takecognisance anew of their ethnical and religious unity .They are from now on "the Holy People" who areliving in the midst of pagans, and the scribes of theexile, the writers of Esdras, by codifying the ancientcustoms and systematising the religious tradition of theancient sanctuaries, were to prepare the solid foundationof monotheism and the bond which was to link thescattered members of the Diaspora .

The Jewish restoration of 537, and the reconstructionof the Temple under Cyrus and Darius were the workof the "children of the captivity" who had returned from

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JUDAISM

Babylonia and were supported by the Persian authority,but the latter, at the same time, were reforming thecustoms and religion and purifying the body of the chil-dren of Israel. Under the domination of the Ache-menides, under the successors of Alexander, at thebeginning of the Hellenistic period, the Jews learned tolive among the nations . Their chief colonies weresituated at the cross-roads of the highways between thenations, in countries of mixed races and civilizations, inMesopotomia, Chaldea and in Egypt in the territory ofthe Delta .The ancestral language, Hebrew, ceased to be spoken ;

it was replaced by Aramaic, the official and commerciallanguage, and subsequently by Greek . The nationalpolitical institution having disappeared, the handingdown of tradition and the teaching of the Law naturallytook place within the family circle; it was the fathers who,in accordance with the exhortation of Deuteronomy,inculcated in their children the fear of Yahweh andtaught them the commandments . At the head of eachgroup, the elders carried on the administration, and pre-sumably judged in cases of dispute; priests, descendantsof the priestly families, scribes and doctors interpretedthe tradition .

For this purpose the dispersed had their meeting-places and their regular assemblies . The synagogueswere the creation of the Diaspora, and it was in imita-tion of the Diaspora that they were established in Judea .Thus there was developed a new piety, more spiritual,and more detached from the material practices whichwere reserved for the sanctuary of Jerusalem alone .Adoration is no longer expressed solely in the ceremoniesof the sacrificial cult, but the true prayer is in "theapproach to God, and conversation with Him ."

Yahweh is near to those who invoke him and He hears


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their cry . This mystical piety in which post-exilicJudaism reached its highest point was by no meansincompatible with the maintenance of ritual institutionsand a certain organization of the community. For thosewho were not able to take part in the worship of theTemple, "to search for the face of Jahweh" on MountMoriah, there was the cult of the Torah, i the cult ofthe Law.

Thanks to it, the faithful soul felt itself attached to Godby a whole system of acts of piety and observances forevery hour.

For the pious Jew of Damascus or Alexandria, devo-tion from now on consisted in "keeping the command-ments, the statutes and ordinances," and in "puttingthem into practice ." It was a rule by means of which thefaithful soul was confirmed in justice and in the will ofGod. It was only at a later date that the Torah was tobecome, in the piety of the Pharisees of later times, theheavy fetter from which Christ was to free His disciples .But if the Law was the food of piety, and a light on theway, it was at the same time, the link in the community .The conventicles of the Diaspora tended to be groupedround the common practice, and zeal for the Torah wasthe ground upon which the feeling of a brotherhoodwhich was at the same time ethnical and spiritual wasgoing to develop . Unfortunately, under the influence ofthe persecutions, and all manner of trials which theJewish nation had to endure, the universalist spirit of theprophets, the practical outlook of a Jeremias (xxlx, 7),"Seek the peace of the city to which I have caused you

'The word Torah, in a general sense, means teaching law, andmore precisely the body of the Mosaic Law, written and oral, whichis now the content of the Old Testament, the Michnah, and theTalmud. In a stricter sense, the Torah of Moses means the Penta-teuch, and in a still stricter sense, the Torah means the legislativeparts of the Pentateuch.

P

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JUDAISM

to be carried away captives, for in the peace thereofshall be your peace," had to yield to feelings of quite adifferent nature. The solidarity of the faithful became alink that was too slender, absolute devotion to the com-munity finished by allowing that all means were good,and a ferocious hatred for the rest of the human race,"adversus omnes alios hostile odium," as Tacitus 1 was to sayat a later date, was added to the exaltation of the faithfulminority.

At the time of the capture of Jerusalem by Titus andthe disappearance of the Jewish state, the Diasporaextended over all the ancient world . The Sibyl saysthat the Jews filled all countries and were spread overall the seas . 2 Strabo, quoted by Josephus, informs usthat the Jews had penetrated into all countries, andthat it was not easy to find a single spot in the wholeworld which had not received this race and where theyhad not become masters . 3 As a matter of fact, this iseverywhere attested by ancient monuments . They wereto be found in Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, Spain, Gaul,Germany, Great Britain, Pannonia, Dalmatia, Scythia,Thrace, Macedonia, and in Greece . They were numer-ous in Asia Minor, and Syria, Transjordania, Armenia,all Mesopotamia, Media, Elamitidis, and as far asthe Arabia. Egypt became their second fatherland, andthe Falachas of Abyssinia go back possibly to this epoch .There were some of them in Ethiopia and over all theAfrican coast of the Mediterranean, from Cyrenaica toMauritania . 4In the first century of our era, these communities

'For the origins of the Diaspora and its part in the formation ofJudaism, cf. A . Causse, Les Disperses d'Israel, Paris, 1929 .

'Orac . Sybil. III, 271 .

'Antt. Jud . XIV, vii, 2 .4Cf. Duster, Les Juifs dans l'Empire Romain, 1, p. 179 sq. Harnack,

Die Mission and Ausbreitung, des Christentums in den drei ersten Jahrhun .derten . II, p . 3 ss.


19

scattered about the world were not merely disorderlyhandfuls of men, but frequently cities without territory,very strong in numbers . In Egypt, at this date, theJews were almost a million strong, and formed one-eighth of the population. There was the same propor-tion in Cyrenaica. In Rome, under Tiberius, theynumbered 50 to 6o thousand out of 8oo,ooo inhabitants,and we learn from Josephus that in the year 70, 10,000were massacred at Damascus' and I3,ooo at Scytho-polis. 2 Historians reckon that the number of Jews inthe world might have been as much as six or sevenmillion .

Powerful and strongly linked with each other, as wellas being united with Jerusalem, the Metropolis, theJewish communities of the Diaspora constituted a forcewhich could, if necessary, rise against the Empire. Theydid not revolt at the time of the Jewish-Roman war inA.D. 7o and, if their sympathies perfectly naturallywent out to the members of their race, they did not sup-port their compatriots by revolts which might havecaused formidable diversions. Were the capture of Jeru-salem and the destruction of the Temple going todestroy this unity of Judaism? This might have beenapprehended . But Rome herself maintained thiscohesion, and gave a head and chiefs to its members whowould perhaps have separated.

FOUNDING OF THE SCHOOL OF JAMNIA ANDORGANIZATION OF INDEPENDENCE

The excesses of the assassins at the time of the rebellionof 69-70, and their continual quarrels had alienated themost prudent elements in the nation. The great aris-tocracy of the priestly families had disappeared, and by

'Bell. ,dud. II, xx, 2.

'Bell. ,dud. II, xviii, z .

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that very fact the influence of the Sadducees 1 in nationalaffairs . The Zelotes had made themselves impossible ;the Pharisee party remained . 2 For the most part theScribes, who were its moving spirit, had kept themselvesaloof, and many among them, following the example ofJosephus, the historian, had taken refuge with theRomans. Vespasian, like the skilful politician he was,did not refuse them, and fixed Ludd and Jamnia orJabnes as their residence . Ludd became the centre of aflourishing school of scribes to which lustre was givenat the end of the first century and beginning of thesecond by Tannaites like Rabbi Eliezer and RabbiAqiba .

The former member of the Sanhedrin, Jokhanan benZakkai, whom, it is said, the famous Hillel 4 had pro-

'The Sadducees were chiefly drawn from among the high digni-taries of the nation, high-priests, priestly families and wealthy Jews .They were in fact realistic aristocrats, and from the religious stand-point reactionary conservatives. They rejected the oral traditionadmitted by the Pharisees and accepted only the written law (thePentateuch). We know from Josephus and the New Testament thatthey denied the resurrection of the dead, immortality of the soul, theexistence of pure spirits, and the providence of God .

2The Pharisees, strictly speaking, formed neither a political partynor a religious sect. They were simply those who wished to achieve,in the most perfect way, the sanctity prescribed by the law, and werethe uncompromising representatives of legalism . They were charac-terised by a deep hatred of paganism and a passionate attachmentto the law . The Scribes, the masters and doctors of the law, were allPharisees . In politics, they were in theory indifferent, because politicsinterested them only in so far as it affected religion. The Phariseesadmitted an oral tradition which interpreted and, if necessary, com-pleted the written law . Being more "croyants," they professed allthe relatively new doctrines of later Judaism, and in particular, theimmortality of the soul, the resurrection of the just, and free will .

$Bell. ,dud. IV, viii, i .4Hillel, called the Ancient or the Great, one of the most famous

doctors of Judaism at the period immediately preceding that of theTannaites was the head of a celebrated school at Jerusalem between4o n .c. and A .D. so. He was famous, as against Chammai, for hismildness and his tendency to attenuate the rigour of the laws.


21

phetically designated as "the father of generationsto come," set up at Jamnia and, surrounded by his dis-ciples, continued his teaching there . It is said that at thetime when the news of the destruction of the Temple wasbrought to the refugees, one of the disciples namedJosue cried out "Woe to us, our place of expiation isdestroyed ." And Rabbi Jokhanan answered him : "Haveno fear. We have still an expiation which is worth thatof the sacrifices-which is the exercise of works ofcharity, for it is written : "I desired mercy and notsacrifice ." (Osee, vi, 6) 1. This answer was sympto-matic and showed how the ruling Judaism had, aboveall, faith in the superiority of its doctrine and its customs .

The temple, with its religious organization, had dis-appeared, the exercise of the priesthood had becomeimpossible, and the chief pre-occupation of Jokhananben Zakkai and the masters who surrounded him wasto safeguard those parts of the law which could still bepractised, the sabbath, circumcision, the prescriptionsrelating to cleanness and uncleanness, etc ., while care-fully preserving the prescriptions relating to worshipagainst the day when it might be restored .The effort of Rome had been directed to preventing

the Jews from re-establishing themselves as a kingdom,and from setting up in Palestine a supreme head . Ves-pasian, Domitian and Trajan had those who mighthave become their head put to death . 2 On the con-trary the entire life of Jokhanan showed a tendency to

1Aboth de R. Nathan, c . 4, cited by P . Lagrange, Le Messianismeehez les Juifs, p . 302 .

'Chron . Pasch . ad an 5, 579 (1, 464. Bonn) ; ad ann 5, bog (s,471. Bonn) . Michel le Syrein 6.3 (Ed . Chabot, i, 16ga) . Euseb.,Hut. Eccl., III, 2o. The fact that Vespasian wished to destroy anydesire among the Jews for centralization is proved anew by the des-truction of the Temple of Leontopolis which was ordered by him .Bell . Jud. VII, x, i j .

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JUDAISMreconstitute a national organism which would allowthe unity ofJudaism to be maintained . The Sanhedrin, apolitical, legislative, and judicial body, which, side byside with the Jewish monarchy, had disappeared in thestorm, and indeed it represented the Sadducean spiritwhich was hateful to the Pharisees, and there couldtherefore be no question of re-establishing it .

One of the first tasks of Jokhanan ben Zakkai was toset up a "Beth-din," a Tribunal which was, in fact, totake the place of the Sanhedrin, and which was animatedby the undiluted Pharisaic spirit . I There would nolonger be question, at least at the very beginning, oflegislative power, but the special privileges of Jerusalemand of the Temple would be transferred to the Beth-dinof Jamnia . It would be its task to determine the date ofthe appearance of the new moon and the fixing of thefeasts which followed thereon . And it was before thistribunal that the Jews had to bring the differences whicharose among them.2 Undoubtedly in Palestine as in allthe rest of the Empire, the Roman jurisdiction wasexercised concurrently with the local jurisdiction, butthe Rabbinic sources show that the Jewish tribunalpossessed thenceforward competence in civil matterswhen the two parties were Jews . s In dependence onthis new sanhedrin, there was re-constituted a Beth-hamidrash, a rabbinic school which, under the activeinfluence of Jokhanan, endeavoured to bring togetherthe two schools of Hillel and Chammai . a Rabbi Jok-

'Nevertheless there are to be found in it, at least at the beginning,the opposing tendencies of the two rival schools of Hillel and Cham-mai. Cf. Dubnow, Weltgeschichte des 7udischen Volkes, III, p . 26.

'Midrasch Mekhilta ad Exod ., 21 . Talmud. B. Sanhedrin 32b. Cf.also Derenbourg, Palestine, p . 3o6,-.4 ; 310, n. z ; 320 .

$Cf. ,duster, op . cit., II . p. 95 sq.'Chammai, doctor of the law in the course of the ist century

before Christ . The harshness and severity of the opinions professed


23hanan ben Zakkai died between 8o and 85. His suc-cessor was Gamaliel II who, following in the footstepsof his predecessor, was to bring all his efforts to bear onthe expansion of this independent life.Gamaliel the Younger of Jamnia was the grandson of

Gamaliel ben Simon, St . Paul's master, and he hadamong his ancestors Hillel the Great . It seems clearthat he was accepted by Rome as the spiritual head ofthe nation, and recognized by the authorities as thesupreme instance of jurisdiction in religious matters .

It is evidently on this title that he was the head of thedelegation which, in 95, went to Rome in the attemptto make Domitian repeal the edict which forbade theJews to proselytize. His authority however, was notexercised without challenge ; he was more than oncecompelled to impose it by force, and on one occasion,his colleagues went so far as to depose him . Continuingthe work of Jokhanan ben Zakkai, Gamaliel organizedworship and gave to it the form which, in many cases,has survived up to our own day. To him is due theinstitution of the Pasch replacing the ancient immolationof the lamb which had become impossible, as well asthe definitive edition of the prayer par excellence, theSchemone Esre, preceded by the Schema, the professionof faith . The religious service of the Synagogue with itsreading of the Torah and the Prophets, the sermons, theofficial prayers, the date of the great feasts of the nation,the community council with its charitable organization,came to be fixed by him. A synod held at Jamnia ingo determined the canon of the Scriptures . Eccle-siastes, the Canticle of Canticles, the book of Proverbsand Esther were recognized as belonging to the Bible,but a narrow particularistic spirit caused a part of thein his school were in contrast with the more indulgent doctrines ofHillel which in the end prevailed generally.

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lawful inheritance of their ancestors to be cast aside,and the assembly rejected Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus,Macchabees, Judith and Tobias .'

THE REVOLT OF BAR KOZIBA AND THEPERSECUTION OF HADRIAN

When Gamaliel II died under Trajan, probablybefore the first revolts of the Diaspora, it may be saidthat, taking everything into consideration, Israel hadre-fashioned for itself a national life .The Jews had an officially recognized head, the

patriarch or nasi . Despite the turning to the profit of theRoman treasury of the didrachma tax the majoritysupported the expenses of the patriarch by a special tax,the aurum coronarium . 2 The Torah had become the linkand the symbol of Jewish unity, and Israel could be atpeace in the midst of the nations. The intellectual lifewas intense, $ but it is precisely from this intensity oflife that the gravest danger was going to spring . FatherLagrange has well shown that the revolt which came to ahead on the destruction of the Temple had been pro-voked by Messianic delusions . * Despite the hardlessons of the year 70, these delusions survived and per-

'The decision was in conformity with the opinions of the School ofHillel . It seems, moreover, that it was at this period that a generaldecision intervened in favour of the doctrines of Hillel . A legendhas it that one day at Jamnia a voice from heaven was heard saying :"The teachings of the two schools are the words of the living God,but, in practice, the Halakah of the School of Hillel must be fol-lowed." (Jer. Berakoth 3 b ; 'Erubi n, 13b) .

'This is the name given to it by the Theodosian Code whichrecognized its legality .

'The two greatest masters of this generation, at the time imme-diately preceding the revolt against Hadrian, were Rabbi Aqiba benJoseph and Rabbi Ismael ben Elicha . To Aqiba is due the systema-tization of the Halakah which the Michnah has rendered familiarto us, and which has given to the oral law the form of a code .

4Le Messianisme che,t les juifs, Paris, 1909, p . 300 sq .


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sisted: a temporal and national Messianism announcedthe political restoration, the independence of the raceand vengeance upon their enemies.' Writings like theIVth book of Esdras, the Apocalypses of Baruch Abra-ham, Elias and Sophonias, the IVth book of Maccha-bees, the Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs, by excit-ing exaggerated hopes of a restoration of Israel whichwould open an era of happiness by the domination ofthe world, the very exaggeration of a piety which exalteditself into a far-fetched nationalism, made Israel losesight of what it could accomplish . 2

Already, towards the end of Trajan's reign, the peaceof the Jewish world had been profoundly disturbed . Itappears that the disturbances began in Alexandria, butthe conflagration soon spread over the whole of Egypt,to Cyrenaica and Mesopotamia. (A.D. 116) . EvenPalestine was the scene of a disturbance which LusiusQuietus was called upon to crush . The Jewish risingunder Hadrian was even more alarming and lastedthree and a half years, from 132 to 1 35 .Whatever were the circumstances which occasioned

these outbreaks, Jewish sources do not stress any seriouscauses. Father Lagrange has the right point of view inwriting: "The true cause in both cases (the revoltsunder Trajan, and Hadrian's war) was undoubtedlythe extreme exaltation (of the Jews)-and why not sayit out-their Messianic hopes raised to boiling point bytheir miseries, the end of which seemed to be deter-

'The prayers instituted by Gamaliel insisted upon the restorationof the Temple, the rebuilding of Jerusalem, and the re-establish-ment of the kingdom of David by the sending of the Messias . It isnear this period (the beginning of the 2nd century), that Aquilathe Jew, a proselyte and disciple of Rabbi Aqiba, composed the moreliteral version of the Old Testament which bears his name, in orderto replace the Septuagint version used by the Christians .

'The fact is admitted in obscure terms by Moore, Judaism, p. 83 .

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JUDAISM

mined when sixty years had elapsed since the destruc-tion of the Temple ." 1The moving spirit in the revolt was Aqiba ben

Joseph, the father of rabbinic lore . Of profound erudi-tion and with a penetrating intellect, he was, never-theless, narrow-minded and blinded by an exclusivisticnationalism . Rejecting all interpretation, whetherallegorical or spiritual, he was the first to superimposeon every letter of the Torah the thousands of legalobservances which fetter Jewish life, and to codify thiscomplete work which took the name of Michnah (repe-tition) . When the leader who was to fight against theRomans appeared in the person of Simon of Koziba,Aqiba greeted him with the name of Messias . 2 Simonwas in reality an adventurer, like so many of his pre-decessors, but the sign of the star, recognized by theexegesis of the greatest of masters, made him the libe-rator of a people in bondage .

A series of Jewish successes attended the beginning ofthe revolt. Jerusalem, occupied by a legion, was cap-tured, and for a time it became a real Jewish state withits prince, its high-priest, and capital . s Hadrian sentJulius Severus, one of his best generals, to pacify Judea,and was himself present for a time to direct operations.In the month of Ab, in the year 134, Jerusalem was

'Op. cit. P. 315 .2Aqiba relied on the text of the oracle of Balaam (Num. xxiv, 17) .

Instead of reading : "A star (kokab) shall rise out of Jacob," he pro-posed to read "Koziba shall rise out of Jacob ." Koziba was thusidentified with the star of Jacob. Bar Koziba was thus transformedinto Bar Kobebas "the son of the star." This is the name which hebears in all the Christian sources, and undoubtedly the one givento him when he played the role of Messias . This is evidently alludedto in the star which shines above the Temple on one of his coins .(Lagrange, op . cit, p . 316 .)

sThe regaining of their sovereignty and independence wasmarked by the striking of new coins bearing the date, the year I orII of "the liberation of Israel ."


27

recaptured by the Romans, and a year after, Bether,the last refuge of the Jews, was carried by assault . It wasthere that Bar Koziba met his death. The Talmudictradition asserted that Bether fell on the 9th of themonth of Ab, on the anniversary of the capture ofJerusalem by Nabuchodonosor, and the burning of theTemple by Titus. On the same day the Romans drovethe harrow over the ruins of Jerusalem and laid thefoundations of a new city, Aelia Capitolina . 1 Therising had resulted only in more hopeless and completeruin .

There was pitiless repression on the part of the Romans .Half a million Jews were slain. A large number of themwere sold as slaves at Hebron "under the terebinth ofAbraham." Fifty strongholds and a thousand villageswere destroyed in Judea. On the site ofJerusalem a newand completely pagan city arose, and the temple ofJupiter Capitolinus covered the hill on which had stoodthe Holy of Holies. The Jews were forbidden, underpain of death, to enter or even approach the Holy Cityand it was apparently not until the first Christian Em-peror that they were allowed to come and pray, once ayear, at the rock which is covered by the Mosque ofOmar, the old base of the altar of holocausts .

Many of the Rabbis became martyrs and met theirdeath because of their attachment to the faith, amongthem the most famous of all, Aqiba ben Joseph . Hadrianwanted to be done with this rebellious race. He sup-pressed their privileges and forbade every act of Jewishworship . 2 Not only was circumcision prohibited but

'Taanith, IV, 6 .'Hadrian's anti-Jewish edicts relating to worship are attested

only by Rabbinic sources, and are found collected together inHamburger, Real-Encyclopadie fur Bibel and Talmud, 2nd Edition .Streliz, s .v. Hadrianische Verfolgungsedikte ; Derenbourg, Histoirede la Palestine. . . . P. 430 : Graetz, 4', p . 462 ss .

28

JUDAISM

also sabbath observance, the teaching of the Torah, andthe maintenance of their religious organization by ordi-nation . I The study centre at Jamnia was broken up .It was forbidden to teach the Law and even to possesscopies of the Torah . A certain number of Aqiba'sdisciples took refuge at Nehardea in Babylonia, whereKhanania, nephew of the famous Josue ben Khanania,had founded a school, But Babylonia's time was notyet. As soon as the schools in Palestine were re-organizedthey again affirmed their superiority .

REVIVAL OF THE JEWS AND ORGANIZATION OFTHE SCHOOLS IN GALILEE .

Antoninus Pius ( 1 38-161 ), Hadrian's successor,realized that he had to choose between concessions toJewish particularism and the extermination of the race .Rather than see the outbbreak of new wars, he chose thefirst alternative . The Jews were authorized to circum-cise their children, they were allowed to study theirsacred books in peace, and they were even permitted tohave once more their spiritual leaders who became morethan ever their leaders in civil matters; it may be saidthat it was from this moment that Judaism by abandon-ing its illusory visions of a national Messias, concentratedits efforts on the preservation of the race and of the law .Hence the disciples of Aqiba returned and undertookthe duty of re-organizing the religious life. At the firstopportunity, they met at Uscha in Galilee, and simul-taneously restored the tribunals and the patriarchate .Simon, the son of Gamaliel, who had fled during

Hadrian's persecution, succeeded his father and became

'This ordination has no connection with the exercise of the priest-hood. It was a promotion to the title of rabbi with the transmissionof doctrinal authority and jurisdiction.


29

noted for his toleration and spirit of opportunism . Hisattitude with regard to Rome was a submissiveness whichhad, above all things, to avoid unpleasant incidents .He understood that it was the best means of obtainingfor his race what the Jews have always striven for,namely to become citizens of a country in order toenjoy the privileges thereof without having to bear itsburdens .'This epoch was rich in great doctors. Side by side

with Rabbi Meir, who founded the famous school ofTiberias, Judah Ben Illai, Jose ben Halaphta and Simonben Jokhai all shared at Sepphoris and Uscha thefavour of the students . 2 As a whole, Aqiba's system wasadopted, the Master's compilation was revised and putinto order; this was the third stage in the codificationof the Michnah. On one occasion, under MarcusAurelius (16 I-I8o) and his fellow-Emperor, Verus,(161-163), the Parthian, Vologesus the Illrd invadedCappadocia and Syria . It appears that certain Jewishelements in Palestine attempted to derive profit fromthese difficulties . But the Parthians were defeated, andVerus punished the Jews by depriving them of theirjudicial autonomy and inflicting other restrictions.These rigorous measures were repealed after his death(163)

'This observation comes from Theodore Reinach, art. "Judaei" inthe Dictionnaire des Antigitls of Daremberg and Saglio, p. 626, whonotices this surprising contradiction : "Not that, according to theideas of the ancients, one could not belong to two countries at thesame time, but because the Jews wished to accumulate the rights ofcitizenship with the maintenance of their peculiar privileges, withtheir financial and judicial autonomy, with exemption from militaryservice, etc ."

'Within the scope of the Halakah (traditional law), each schoolhad, in fact, its Michnah (repetition) . It was the Michnah of RabbiMeir which, after adaptation and revision by the patriarch, Judah,has become the official Michnah.

30

JUDAISM

THE "NASI" OF GALILEE; THE PERIOD OF THETANNAITES ; THE MICHNAH AND THE TALMUD OF

JERUSALEM

A year afterwards, Judah I became patriarch andsettled at first at Beth-Schearim and then at Sepphoris.He enjoyed the favour of the Antonines and his positionwas that of a veritable king over all the Jews of theDiaspora. The Empire gave him legal recognition, andthis was, on the part of Rome, political adroitness . Sincethe Jews were set on having a leader, it was just as wellto give them one.Recognized by the Romans, instead of being a mal-

content and promoter of disaffection, he became underobligation to them and remained subject to the Empire,with legally determined rights freely and overtlyexercised, but consequently under control.' When theLex Antoniana de civitate, promulgated by Caracalla in 212,granted the title of Roman citizen to all the inhabitantsof the Empire who were at that time privileged "pere-grini," the Jews became privileged citizens because theyshared in the burdens of the state only to the veryrestricted extent left by the racial privileges whichthey always tenaciously claimed. Rome secured peace,Judaism did not lose thereby and on the part of itsreligious authorities it was a real success and the resultof a policy as supple as it was skilful . In contrast withhis father and grandfather, Judah was one of thegreatest literary men of his time . His labours completedthe codification of the Michnah and with him the periodof the Tannaites came to an end .Judah died in 217 and was succeeded by his eldest

son, Gamaliel III (2 17-255)He removed the patriarchal residence to Tiberias on"Cf. Juster, Los Juifs dare ''empire romain, Vol. I, p. 391 sq.


31

the shores of the lake of Genesareth, and the uncleancity built by Herod Antipas became for a time thespiritual centre of Rabbinic Judaism .

This was the most brilliant period of the patriarchate,and Origen informs us that the nasi differed in nothingfrom a king.' He was clothed in purple, held importantrank among the functionaries of the Empire, was giventhe titles of clarissimus and spectabilis, and we find himin possession of the praefectura honoraria . Unfortunately,the frequent abuses of power indulged in by some of thepatriarchs-exaction, unjust collection of taxes, en-croachments on authority, scandalous luxury 2-verysoon compelled the authorities to reduce these privileges,and to make the patriarch submit to the common legis-lation concerning the Jews . In these circumstances, thedirection of the great schools, and by that very fact of thenation which lived by its Torah, was lost by the patri-archs who became mere intermediaries between theJewish people and the Roman governor of Cesarea .Judah II, 225-255, Gamaliel IV, 255-275, and JudahIII, 275-320 had thenceforward an insignificant part .

On the other hand, the new spiritual guides were toimprint an indelible mark upon the Jewish people.

Their teaching had no longer to be connected to thesame extent with the collecting of the materials of tradi-tion-they were brought together in the Michnah . Itwas now a question of discussing them in order to extractfrom them new deductions and to formulate laws . Thiscommentary on the Michnah was the Gemara" addi-tion," and the combination of the Michnah and theGemara took the name of Talmud-the dialectic expo-

'Ep ad Africanum, para 14, P.G. Vol . XI, 82, ss.'These excesses are admitted by the Rabbinic sources themselves,

b. Baba Bathra g8a; b. Sota 22b; b. Sanhedrin 7 b; MidraschEcclesiast. rabba ad Eccles 42. Cf. also Bacher, Agada der palastAmoraer, 2 .149, n .3.

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JUDAISM

sition. Johhanan bar Nappaha (d . 2'79) was to lay thefoundations of the Palestine Talmud called that ofJerusalem, and was to be helped in his task above all bySimon bar Lakisch and Eleazar bar Pedath who camefrom Babylonia . This work was to last more than acentury and a half. The final edition was completedapparently towards 45 0 . 1

ABOLITION OF THE JEWISH PATRIARCHATE INJERUSALEM BY THEODOSIUS II

The acquisition of power by the Christian Emperorsmade at first no alteration in the legal conditions underwhich the Jews were living . The edict of tolerationannounced at Milan in 313 had given to all the subjectsof the Empire, and therefore to the Jews, the right toprofess the religion of their choice. Hence Judaism con-tinued to be a lawful religion which had to be protectedagainst any unjust oppression. But in the nature ofthings its situation in the Empire had perforce to evolve .The Christian emperors had no reason for maintaining,in the case of the Jews, the advantages which made themprivileged citizens ; they had, on the contrary, morereasons than one for removing them, namely the abuse

'After the completion of the Talmud, at the time of the greatestprosperity of the Babylonian schools, those of Palestine and moreparticularly the doctors of Tiberias devoted their efforts to the literalpreservation of the sacred text. It was they who executed almost thewhole of the Massoretic work, but the names of the editors who suc-ceeded them have not been preserved . They are known only underthe general name of Ba`ali masordh, "masters of the massorah," theMassorites . Their object was to fix the pronunciation of the sacredtext . Their work consisted in the determination of the accents andthe addition to the consonants of a certain number of points andsigns destined to play the part of vowels . Later on the doctors of theMassorah finished their labours with a collection of notes and com-ments at the bottom or in the margin of the sacred text and whichsurround it like a "protecting hedge." The work was only completedin the ninth century A.D .


33of these privileges, persecutions and calumnies againstthe Christians, treason with regard to the Empire, etc .This return to the common law could, however, takeplace but slowly and under pressure of circumstances .The Theodosian Code 1 maintained the Jewish privilegesby insisting on the idea of justice and toleration, therespect due to the Mosaic religion, its old establishedprivileges, or even the prescription already acquired . 2The Church herself defended them as being "testesveritatis," the living proof of Christianity, and sheinsisted on the Emperors allowing the privileges whichwere indispensable to Jewish worship to remain .

From that time on, one can distinguish in legislationmeasures aimed at protecting the Jewish religion, lawsrelating to the civil and political situation of the Jews,and finally measures of religious attack or defence .Judaism was a lawful religion . It celebrated withouthindrance its feasts, its sabbaths, its assemblies ; thesynagogues had to be respected, and their dignitarieswere assimilated to the Catholic clergy . But the ideathat the Jews could legally be in command of Christiansappeared intolerable : public office was forbidden tothem and they lost their judicial autonomy. In every-thing which did not belong to the purely religious order,they were subjected to the Roman Law. No attemptwas made against their civil rights except as far asregards slaves and marriage, in which matters they hadthenceforward to conform to the Roman laws .3 Jewishpropaganda was checked ; Jews were forbidden to marry

'The Theodosian Code is an official collection comprising all thelaws passed from Constantine to 438, at which date it was promul-gated by Theodosius II in the East and Valentinian III in the West .

2Theod. Code, XVI, 8,13 (397) ; XVI, 8, 20 (412 and 420) ; XVI,8, 17 (404)

'This is admitted by Juster himself in his Les Jnifs dons l'empireremain, Vol. I, p. 227, and note 6.

C

34

JUDAISM

Christian women, to proselytize Christian freedmen andslaves . The danger of seduction or even forced circum-cision was to be apprehended with regard to slaves, andfinally they were forbidden to have non-Jewish slaves .

These laws, however, were not applied for long overthe whole Empire which, was in process of crumbling .There were waves of almost complete liberty and ofrigorous repression according to circumstances and thetemperament of their rulers . Under Constantius II(337-361), at the time of the expedition against thePersian Schabour II, collisions between the PalestinianJews and the army of Ursicinus led to local revolts whichwere sternly repressed . Tiberias, Sepphoris and Luddwere almost destroyed (351), and the seats of Jewishlearning thus received their first death blow. Thepatriarch Hillel II was the last striking personality ofthe long line founded by Hillel the Elder, but he him-self hastened the decay of his task by divesting himselfof the most important of his prerogatives. He fixed, inaccordance with the calculations of Byzantine astro-nomers, a perpetual calendar which, on being broughtto the knowledge of all, dispensed distant communitiesfrom recourse to the nasi to ascertain the exact date of thefeasts (358) . Julian the Apostate (361-363), by hisopposition to Christianity, showed himself favourable tothe Jews, and promised them that he would rebuild theTemple . The enterprise was entrusted to personagesof high rank, but was not completed . When the founda-tions of the old edifice were shaken, flames whichburned several labourers terrified Julian's men and putan end to the attempt.' Moreover Galilee which hadremained almost entirely Jewish up to the beginningof the fourth century 2, saw itself invaded more and more

'Ammien, XXIII, z .2Saint Epiphanius, Adv haeres., Vol . XLI, col . 426, narrates


35by Christians, and the economic life of the Jews becameprecarious. The schools were closed for lack of funds .Hillel II was succeeded by Gamaliel Vth (365-385) andsubsequently by Judah VI (385-400) . But whenGamaliel VI (400-425) died without male descendants,Theodosius II abolished the patriarchate which, in hisview, had no longer any raison d'etre . Thus disappearedthe last vestige of national organization in Palestine,and the centre of Jewish intellectual and religious lifepassed over to other countries .

BABYLONIAN JUDAISM

It was Babylonia which secured this heritage ofJewish lore . When Scheschbassar in 538, then Nehe-mias in 445 and 428, and Esdras in 398, returned toPalestine, the great majority of the captives remained inMesopotamia. There they had their families and theirinterests ; hence their good wishes accompanied thesacred Gala, abundant subsidies were supplied by them,and they accepted as something quite natural spiritualdirection from Palestine, but stayed where they were .

Hence there is nothing to be surprised at if until thetime of Judah I, at the beginning of the third century,the Babylonian Jews were in the background . Moreover,under the Parthian Arsacides (247 B.c- to A.D . 224), lifein that country was easy . The support which the Jewshad afforded the Parthians against the Romans hadgained for them the favour of authority, the adminis-tration was tolerant, the country fertile, trade waseasy; and according to the expression of the Talmud,

that in the Jewish villages in Galilee, until the time of Constantius,no "Greek, Samaritan or Christian was tolerated among them,especially at Tiberias, Diocesarea, Sepphoris, Nazareth and Caphar-naum where the Jews exercised great care that no one belonging toanother race should live among them ."

36

JUDAISM

"seven years of famine are not enough for it to penetratethe artisan's home."

THE RoscH GALOUTHA

The whole of their public life was organized as inPalestine . The exilarch, the "Rosch Galoutha," theirhead in captivity, was considered by the court as theofficial representative of the race and responsible for thetax levied on all the Jews in the Empire . He claimeddescent from David through King Joachin, who haddied in captivity ; his authority was unhindered by anysanhedrin; and the Jews of Persia at first, and then thewhole Diaspora, regarded him for long as a real nationalsovereign. His chief mission was to render justice, andhis decision made law in matters of internal adminis-tration. l In contrast to Palestine where the patriarchwas most often a man of culture, the exilarch of Baby-lonia restricted his activity to civil matters, whilefamous schools with their celebrated masters occupiedthemselves with religious questions .

THE GREAT Scuoors OF MESOPOTAMIA AND THETALMUD OF BABYLONIA

The man who laid the foundations on which the wholeJewish life of Babylonia rested was Abba Areka, sur-named Rab, "the master ." He was of Babylonian originand had studied in Palestine at Sepphoris under thedirection of Judah I . In 2I g he returned to Mesopo-tamia, and his arrival is considered by Jewish historiansas the beginning of the Talmudic era in that country .After having taught for some time at Nehardea, 2 where

'The first Rosch Galoutha mentioned by this title was Nahum orNahania towards A.D . I4o. Ezekiah was, in io4o, the last Gaon andthe last exilarch .

2At the junction of the Euphrates with the Malka, not far fromAncient Babylonia in the South . Nehardea was the official resi-


37an already famous academy was flourishing, Rabinstalled himself at Soura and there founded his school .Basing himself on the Michnah of the patriarch Judah II,which he had brought back from Palestine, he deve-loped that corpus of tradition already codified, and thusbegan the work which was destined to become theBabylonian Talmud. He had as colleague and friend,Samuel Yarhina'ah (165-257), better known by thename of Mar Samuel . After Rab's death in 247, Samuelbecame the recognized spiritual guide of all the Jews inBabylonia. These two men of culture modified theterminology of many ancient prayers in such a way as toexpress more clearly the intimate aspirations of therace, and they enriched the Book of Prayers with newformulas. Thus it was that the shortened form of theEighteen Blessings was composed by Samuel, whileRab wrote the Adoration ('Aleinou) for New Year's day .The Arsacides had, in general, shown themselves

favourable to the Jews . The coming of Sassanides in 224marked a revival of Persian nationalism. Undoubtedlythe Jews hated the Romans, the destroyers of theirTemple, and lent, against them, the support of theirmoney and their men, but the ancient Mazdeism,renewed by Zoroaster, afforded considerable moralsupport to the new dynasty . In exchange it became thestate religion, and on this account, let loose a series ofpersecutions against the Jews and the Christians . SaporI (24.1-272) needed financial subsidies to fight againstRome, and therefore spared the Jews. The EmperorValerian was beaten and made prisoner (260) but thisvictory was nullified by Odenath of Palmyra, who,on two occasions, drove the Persians as far back asCtesiphon (263-265) . The Jews had fought against thedente of the Exilarch. Soura is one or two days march more tothe south in the neighbourhood of the ancient town of Koufa .

38

JUDAISM

Palmyrenians with particular determination . Theinvaders took their revenge by razing the town ofNehardea to the ground . This was a terrible blowfor the Rabbinic school which was situated there, and,later on, when it finished by finding asylum at Mahouza,Judah ben Ezechiel had already founded a new centreof learning at Poumbedita . This university soon becamean important rival to the one founded by Rab at Soura .They both existed side by side for several centuries,passing through alternating periods of brilliance andobscurity, according as the presiding master had moreor less favour with the students . Houna, the successorof Rab, died in 297 . He was succeeded by Rabbah benNahman (309-330) and his brother Abbai (d . 368) whocame from Poumbedita . Raba ben Joseph ben Hama(280-352) taught especially at Mahouza . They wereeclipsed by Aschi (352-427) the most famous represen-tative of the Amoraites . It was he who arranged allthe explanations of which the Michnah had been theobject in the Babylonian academies, classified thematerials, established the interdependence of the ques-tions and answers, the arguments pro and con, andthus immediately prepared the work which was destinedto become the Babylonian Talmud . The scholars whowere to follow him merely completed it by adding theopinions of Aschi himself and of his successors .But a series of persecutions was to bring this activity

of the Amoraites to an abrupt conclusion . YezdeguerdII (438-457) forbade the observance of the sabbath andeven the recitation of the Chema ; Peroz (457-484) hadmany of the Jews put to death, and closed their schools .Fearing that, in these circumstances, there would bean interruption of the oral tradition, Rabina II benHuna (d. 500), who taught at Soura, made a gravedecision . Hitherto the masters had abstained from


39writing and their teaching was purely oral . Under thesupreme direction of Rabina II, a college of scholarsfixed in writing, following the order and rules laid downby Aschi, the complete teaching and the Babyloniancommentaries on the Michnah. It is this monumentalwork which bears the name of the Talmud of Babylon .

THE GAONAT. THE END OF JEWISH INDEPENDENCE

The immediate successors of the Amoraites calledthemselves the "meditators or deliberators" (Saboraim) .They were content with improving the edition of theTalmud, merely introducing some additions and com-pleting the arrangement by treatises and chapters .During this period of transition, 500-540, the Jewssuffered fresh persecutions, in particular under Kavadh I(488-531), and then under Hormadz IV (5'79-59o) . Onthe other hand, at the time of the revolt of Bahram, theJews who had supported him again secured authority toopen their schools . (583). The masters who directedthe schools of Soura and Poumbedita called themselvesGaons (Geonim. Excellence) .

Their function essentially was to explain the Talmud,and to give religious-legal decisions relating to theirteaching.' The first years of the eighth century wit-nessed conflicts between Byzantium and Persia : theybrought about the destruction of the school of Mahouza .Moreover the support given by the Jews to Chosroes IIat the time of the campaign which resulted in the cap-

'The Gaonat began with Hanan of Hiskiya in 589 at Poumbeditaand in 658 with Mar ben Mar at Soura . Samuel ben Hophni(d . 1034) was the last Gaon of Soura . Hezekiah who died in 1040was the last Gaon as well as the last exilarch . The Gaons were, at thesame time, the heads of the school and the supreme judges. Theywere independent of the exilarchs but were obliged to go everyyear to render homage to them . The list of the Gaons is to be foundin The Jewish Encyclopedia, Vol . V, p . 571 .

40

JUDAISM

ture of Jerusalem in 614, excited the wrath of Heraclius,and resulted in a serious restriction of their rights forthe Jews spread all over the empire . Yesdeguerd III,the last Persian king, ascended the throne in 632, butthe Arabian armies were already on the march for theconquest of the East. I In the commotion which ensued,the Jews were to lose the last remnants of their independ-ence, and see the extinction of their schools in Palestineor Babylonia. The era of the Talmud had definitelycome to a close .

BIBLIOGRAPHY 2

Abrahams, Jewish Life in the Middle Ages, Philadelphia,191 1 .

Graetz, Geschichte der Juden non der altesten Zeiten bis aufdie Gegenwart, Leipzig, 13 Vol. in 8vo. (EnglishTranslation, 5 Vols ., London, IgoI.)

Dubnow, Weltgeschichte des Judischen Volkes non semenUranfangen bis zur Gegenwart, Berlin, Io Vol .,1 927-1 930-

Th. Reinach, Histoire des Israelites depuis la ruine de leurinddpendance jusqu'd nos jours, Paris, Igo I .

Bonsirven, Sur les ruines du Temple, Paris, 1928 (Englishtranslation, On the Ruins of the Temple, Burns, Oates& Co., London, I93I ) .

Max S. Margolis and A . Marx, A History of the JewishPeople. From the Creation to 1925 .

1The capture of Damascus by the Arabs occurred in 635, thebattle of Yarmouk, which gave them Syria and Palestine in 636, andthe whole of Iran was to fall into their hands after the victory ofNehavend in 642 .

'The Bibliography appended to every chapter is in no wayintended to furnish an exhaustive list of the literature on the subjectdealt with in the preceding pages . Its object is merely to serve as aguide for readers who wish to make their studies on such questionsmore complete .


4 1

Jewish Encyclopedia, Vol. I-XII, New York, Igo1-Igo6 .Encyclopaedia Judaica, Das Judentum in Geschichte and

Gegenwart, in course of publication; 6 volumesalready published, Berlin, 1927-1930 .

M. Schwab, Le Talmud de Jerusalem, French translation,Vol. I-XI, Paris, 1878-1890 .

A. Cohen, Everyman's Talmud, Dent, London, 1932 .L. Goldschmidt, Der Babylonische Talmud, Vol . I-VIII,

1897-1912. A new edition is in course of publica-tion, 5 volumes of which have already appeared,1929-1931 . Berlin, Judischer Verlag.

Josephus, The Worki of, Loeb Classical Library, Heine-mann, London, 1926 .

Schurer, Geschichte des Judischen Volkes im Zeitalter JesuChristi, Leipzig, 1go1-Igo6 . (English translation,A History of the Jewish People in the Time of JesusChrist, 5 vols.) .

Harnack, Mission and Ausbreitung der Christentums, 2ndEdition, Leipzig, 1915.

Duster, Les Juifs dans l'Empire Romain . Leur conditionjuridique, economique et sociale, 2 Volumes in 8vo,Paris, 1 9 14 .

Lagrange, Le Messianisme chez les Juifs (150 B .C .-A .D .200) Paris, 1gog .

Derenbourg, Essai sur l'histoire de la Palestine d'apres lesTalmuds, Paris, 1867 .

J. F. Moore, Judaism In the First Centuries of the ChristianEra. The Age of the Tannaim, Cambridge, 1927 .

Schatter, Die Tage Trajans and Hadrians (Beitrage zurForderung Christi. Theologie, 1897) .

Buchler, The Political Leaders of The Jewish Community atSepphoris in the Second and Third Centuries, London, I gog .

Funk, Die Juden in Babylonien, Berlin, I got-I gob .

CHAPTER II

RABBINIC LITERATURE

The role of tradition and the explanation of the Law .-TheMidrach.-The Michnah.-The Michnah of Judah theHoly One.-Its contents and influence .-The Tosephta .-The Gemara.-The Talmud of Jerusalem .-TheTalmud of Babylon.-The Haggadah.-The Midrachim .-The Targums. Historical works .-Writings of un-orthodox Jews.

THE ROLE OF TRADITION AND THE EXPLANATION OFTHE LAW

ON their return from captivity, when the Jews wishedto make their nation a real theocracy, they soon sawthat the Torah, though codified in the books of thePentateuch, was far from sufficient for all the needs ofdaily life; obscurities existed; there were above alllacunae, and it was necessary to complete it . Moreover,since the Sacred Books represented the word of Goditself, it was fitting that, in proportion as the eventswhich had made Israel the people of Jahweh becamedistant, the facts, names and explanations capable ofelucidation should be collected, and for that reason tocollect all the oral tradition which was still alive .

The Rabbis taught that this tradition was as sacredin its origin as the written law itself . Like the Torah,Moses had received it from God on Mount Sinai, andit was transmitted successively to Josuah, the judges,

42

RABBINIC LITERATURE

43

the Prophets, the wise men of the Great Synagogue atthe time of Esdrasl and finally to the doctors of the lawand to their heirs the rabbis .

This exegetical and legislative work had begun longbefore the taking of Jerusalem and the destruction of theTemple by Titus. From the time of Esdras, and aboveall at the time of the Macchabees, during the firstcentury B.C ., the scribes (soferim) who were later to beknown by the name of rabbi, devoted themselves withadmirable zeal to this exegetical work which, in theirintention, was simply to be the completion of the Torah .It is the whole of this production which is assembledunder the name of Rabbinic literature .But the work of the scribes and the Rabbis on the

sacred text bore little resemblance to exegesis in themodern sense of the term . It was not a question ofdetermining the literal sense of the text, but whatdoctrinal or legal conclusions could possibly be extractedfrom it by means of logical reasoning, combinations withother passages or allegorical explanations . 2 This com-mentary which related equally to the legislative,historical, and moral portions of the sacred books wascalled the Midrach 3 (research, whence study, exegesis) .

'The men of the Great Synagogue existed only in the imagina-tion of the rabbis, but this term sufficiently explains the origin androle of the scribes, who, after the exile, had attached the tradition tothe Prophets. Simeon the just, towards 320, was one of the last wisemen of this so-called Great Synagogue . After him, the oral law wastransmitted to the Zekenim Ha-Richonim (the first ancients), ofwhom the greatest were Hillel and Chammai . About A.D . io camethe Tannaim (teachers) who perpetuated and developed the lawuntil it was committed to writing in the Michnah (about A.D. 220 .)

'Cf. on this point, Bacher in the appendix to the 2nd Edition ofthe 1st Volume of the Agada der Tannaiten, and in French the Revuedes Etudes Juives, Vol. XXXVIII, p. 211-21g ; Les trois branches de lascience de la veille tradition juive, le Midrasch, les Halachot et les Haggadoth .See also Lagrange, Le Messianisme chez les Juifs, p . 141, note 1 .

$From the Hebrew darach, to investigate, explain, deepen.

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JUDAISM

It started from Scripture to end with the Halakah andthe Haggadah .

THE MIDRASCH

The Midrachim or Rabbinic commentaries referred,some to the legal texts of the Sacred Books, others to thehistorical or moral texts . The first bore the name ofHalakah I way, rule to be followed, and in the religioussense, law, rule of conduct which was not contained inScripture, but which, nevertheless, was considered theword of God ; the others were termed Haggadah, 2 nar-rative, teaching .

THE HALAKAH

The Halakah or the Halakistic Midrach had therefore,as its object, in its study of Holy Scripture, the makingknown of the laws, the determination of their true sense,the indication of the cases in which they were to beapplied, the modification of their practical bearingwhen circumstances so demanded, the resolution ofconflicts which arose from incompatible obligations, thesupplying of analogy for the silence of the legislativetexts in a very great number of other cases, in a word,to put before everyone without fear of error and with thecertainty of carrying out the Torah, the will of God,the exact commandment which it was proper to fulfil inany particular given case. In order to meet these needsof practical morality, the doctors drew not merely onthe written law, the Torah contained in the Pentateuch,but also on the sense of justice which had to inspire themand on customary law . Hence Jewish legislation wasnourished from two sources, the Torah, a written docu-ment, and the Halakah, which was for a long time oraland published only after the Christian era. The Halakah

'In Hebrew, halak, to go .'In Hebrew, higgid, to narrate .

RABBINIC LITERATURE

45

comprised traditional decisions whose origin was tracedback to Moses, commandments of ancient Halakistswhich, moreover, formed the greater part of the Halakah,and finally the prescriptions of the scribes . The latterwere considered in theory as being of less importance,but in fact this customary law created no less a numberof obligations as strict as those of the Law itself.The Halakah, at the time of Jesus Christ, did not

therefore constitute a completed and codified whole,but was, on the contrary, a code in process of formation,and Halakistic exegesis was working unceasingly todraw from it new conclusions capable of being appliedto new circumstances . Undoubtedly a number ofthese decisions already represented an obligatory juris-diction which had the force of law, but in the course ofsucceeding periods, new decisions were taken by theRabbis which were termed judgments (din) . It wasonly when the majority of the scholars had confirmedthese decisions that the judgments were incorporatedinto the Halakah and became a point of law obligatoryupon all.' Hence the reason why, after the capture ofJerusalem in A.D . 70 the first patriarchs of Jamnia andTiberias directed their efforts at first to preserving thejuridical treasure amassed by preceding generations,and also to conciliate the opposing schools of Hilleland Chammai.The law was obviously always held as the basis of

customary law, no matter how far the Halakah had

'As a matter of fact "every commentary developed especiallywhen it was a question of living laws. The tribunals which judgedvery precisely according to the law, created, although they possessedone, a jurisprudence . Little by little it took its place by the side ofthe law, not merely to interpret it, but still more to complete it .Such was the position of the doctors of the law ; their influence wasall the wider because no authorised legislator existed capable ofanswering new needs by completing or modifying the legislation .Lagrange, Lc Messianisme che; les Juifs, p . 1 39.

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departed from it . The decisions of the doctors wereconnected with it by means of the logical rules whichinspired the seven rules of Hillel : (I) from the less tothe greater, and from the simple to the difficult ; (2)from like to like by analogy ; (3) according to onepassage in the law ; (4) according to two passages in theLaw; (5) from the general to the particular ; and fromthe particular to the general ; (6) explanation of onetext by another ; (7) explanation of a text by the con-text. Rabbi Ismael increased these rules or Middothto thirteen. The Halakah concentrated above all on lawsof a religious nature, sacrifices, feasts, the Temple andits ministers, and legal cleanness and uncleanness . Thecivil and criminal laws were the object of much fewerstudies. Marriage legislation alone underwent veryconsiderable development .

THE MICHNAH

On the destruction of Jerusalem, the Halakah becamethe principal teaching matter in the schools whichwere opened at Jamnia, Ludd, and after Hadrian'swar at Sepphoris and Tiberias. The Jewish doctors hadrealised that the political role of the race was finished .Henceforward they sought to consolidate their religiousunity by devoting their efforts to the study of their lawand their traditions. The Michnah was the result of thisactivity . I The Halakah was taught in two ways-either

MMichnah comes from the Hebrew verb chdndh, to double, change(cf. chenayim, two) whence the meaning doubling. The Fatherstranslated this word by Seurepwair and called the authors of theMichnah by the name of SeurepW rat . The Michnah is therefore, incontrast with the written law of the sacred books, the oral "lesson"in traditional law, such as the doctors taught their pupils . TheAramaic thana has the same meaning as the Hebrew chanah hencethe name Tannaim, literally repeaters (Tannaites) given to the doctorswho compiled the Michnah .

RABBINIC LITERATURE

47

under the form of connected commentaries closelyrelated to the text, or else in a systematic way by groupingthe different kinds of laws . It was the latter methodwhich prevailed, and which is the only one employed inRabbinic literature . We know of the existence of thefirst method, but not a scrap of evidence remains sincethe Halakah was transmitted solely by tradition . ) Acertain scruple was felt in committing it to writing, anda Rabbi went so far as to say : "Whoever puts a Halakahin writing is like to a man who burns the Torah."However, in the long run, the needs of practice andteaching overcome this repugnance . Many doctors, inorder to simplify the study of the Halakoth which hadbecome more and more numerous, undertook to arrangethem methodically under different rubrics distributedaccording to matter .

The Sanhedrin, in order to end the incessant discus-sions of the disciples of Hillel and Chammai, instituteda sort of enquiry by witnesses which allowed the defini-tive decision of certain controverted points of doctrine .Presumably some written record of this enquiry wasdrawn up. Aqiba, Meir and Rabbi Jose made moreextensive collections of the same kind, which receivedthe name of Michnah .

'At the time of Jesus Christ, the Pharisee party recognized alegislative value in the traditions transmitted in the schools, whichcompleted the law and adapted it to new needs. But the same partyshowed extreme repugnance to putting these traditions into writing,and above all to making them public. It was evidently fearedthat the contradictions between the masters made prominent by thecontroversy between Hillel and Chammai and perpetuated in theirschools, would prejudice the authority of tradition . Another motivewas also alleged ; the fear that the Gentiles who had in a certainmeasure taken possession of the Scripture by means of the Greektranslation would also lay hands on the treasure of the traditions ."Lagrange, Le Judaisme avant Jesus Christ, p. xv .

48 JUDAISM

THE MICHNAH OF JUDAH THE HOLY :ITS CONTENTS AND INFLUENCE

But the Michnah par excellence, the one which eclipsedall the others and became, as it were, the definitivecode of the oral law, was that of Rabbi Judah Ha-Nasi(164-217) surnamed the Holy One, the leader of theschool of Tiberias . For the composition of this, RabbiJudah must have had at his disposal something otherthan purely oral sources. There is all the more inclina-tion to the belief that collections dating from the second(100-130) and the third (130-I6o) generation of Tan-naites, already existed when it is seen that Saint Epi-phanias (3I5-403) 1 distinguished four 8ev-repoSvess of theJews, that of Moses, namely Deuteronomy, that ofRabbi Aqiba, that of Judah, and that of the Asmoneens,probably the codification undertaken by John Hyrcanin order to settle the doctrine of the Pharisees . There isalso question of this in Megillah Ta`anith . 2 Comparisonbetween the texts, and the manner in which are groupedthe interlocutors whose opinions are reported, allowus to distinguish four successive generations of doctorswho must have worked at the elaboration of the Michnah :

First Generation from 70 to loo : Rabbi Jokhanan benZakkai, Rabbi Khanania, leader of the priests, andRabbi Eliezer ben Jacob .

Second Generation from 10o to 130: Rabbi Gamaliel,Rabbi Josua ben Khanania, Rabbi Ismael, RabbiAquiba ben Joseph, Rabbi Tarphon .

Third Generation from 130 to 16o : Rabbi Juda benElai, Rabbi Meir, Rabbi Simon ben Jokhai, RabbiSimon ben Gamaliel .

'Haer XXXIII, 9, Vol . x1i, col . 563 .I CE Derenbourg, "Essai de restitution de 1'ancienne rddaction de

Massechet Kippourim" in Revue des Etudes ,7tdves, Paris, 1883,Vol. VI, p . 43 .

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49

Fourth Generation from I6o to Zoo : Rabbi JudahHa-Nasi, Rabbi Jose ben Juda Elai. They are generallydesignated by the name of Tannaites (teachers or,better, repeaters) .The Michnah is divided into six "sedarim" or "orders,"

forming sixty massekthoth or treatises, increased to 63by the paragraphs adopted in the printed texts . Eachtreatise is dived into "peraqim" or "chapters," dividedin turn into "michniyoth" or "little lessons ." All thesetreatises are written in Hebrew except the treatisesAboth and Middoth which are in Aramaic. The bestmethod of giving an idea of the contents of the Michnahis to transcribe the summary :

I. First Order or Seder Zer'aim "order of the seed."(I) Berakoth, on prayers ; (2) Peah, on the portion ofthe field and the crop to be left to the poor; (3) Demai,on the use of fruits from the point of view of tithes ;(q.) Kilàyim, mixtures forbidden ; (5) Chebi'ith, sab-batical year ; (6) Terumoth, tax due for the priests ;(7) Ma'aseroth, tithe due for the levites ; (8) Mz'asercheni, second tithe ; (9) Khallah, priestly due on cereals ;(I o) Òrlah, produce of forbidden trees ; (I I) Bikkurimfirst fruits ;

II. Second order or Seder moèd, "order of feasts" :(12) Chabbtah, the Sabbath ; (I3) 'Erubin, walk allowedon the Sabbath day ; (14) Pesakhim, the feast of thePasch ; (I5) Cheqalim, the didrachma tax ; (I6) Toma,the day of expiation; (I7) Sukkah, the feast of Taber-nacles ; (I8) Beigah or Tom tob, prohibitions for feastdays (eggs laid on that day) (I9) Roch ha-chanah, thefirst day of the New Year ; (20) Ta anith, days ofmourning ; (21) Megillah, the roll of Esther and thefeast of Purim ; (22) Wed qaton, days of intermediate

D

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feasts; (23) Khaggigah, obligatory pilgrimages toJerusalem ;

III . Third order or Seder nachim, "order of women":(24) Tebamoth, levirate ; (25) Kethubboth, marriage con-tracts ; (26), Nedarim, vows ; (27) Nazir, the nazirate ;(28) Gittin, divorce and letters of repudiation; (29)Satah, woman suspected of adultery ; (30) Qidduchin,bethrothals ;

IV. Fourth order, or Seder neziquin, "order of damages"(3I) Baba gdmmd, "first door," damages in generaland their reparation ; (32) Babd meci'a, "middledoor," damages to moveables, immoveables, usury,leases; (33) Babd bathrd, "last door," purchases, sales,successions; (34) Sanhedrin, tribunals and criminaljustice; (35) Makkoth, flagellation ; (36) Chebu loth,oaths ; (37) 'Eduyoth, evidence; (38) 'Abodah Zarah,idolatry ; (39) Aboth or Pirkd Aboth, decisions of theFathers ; (40) Horayoth, on the erroneous decisionsof the Sanhedrin, mistakes of the high priest or ofthe princes ;

V. Fifth Order or Seder godachim, "order of holy things" :(41) Zebakhim, bloody sacrifices ; (42) Menakhoth,offerings; (43) Khullin, profane things which canneither be offered nor eaten ; (44) Bekoroth, the first-born ; (45) 'Arakin, redemption of persons or thingsconsecrated to the use of the sanctuary ; (46) Themurah,substitution for offerings; (47) Kerithoth, penalty ofextermination ; (48) Me`ilah, profanations ; (49 )Thamid, daily sacrifice and service of the Temple ;(50) Niddoth, measurements and descriptions of theTemple; (5I) Qinnim, sacrifices of birds ;

VI. Sixth Order or Seder teharoth, "order ofpurifications" :(52) Kelim, vessels, conditions for purity ; (53) `0haloth,purification of a house, especially after a death ;

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51

(54) Neg`aim, on lepers ; (55) Parah, on the red cow ;(56) Teharoth, different impurities ; (57) Miqvaoth, ritualbaths ; (58), Niddah, uncleannesses of women ; (59)Makchirin, liquids which defile ; (6o) Zabim, unclean-nesses of men ; (6 I) Tebul Yom, defilements by contact(62) ; Tadaim, washing of the hands ; (63) 'Uqin,uncleanness in fruits .

The Michnah finished up by becoming, for the Jews,a second law whose importance surpassed that of thefirst law, and already, in the gospels, Our Lord re-proached them vigorously for it.' This false point ofview only increased as time went on . The Michnah,in fact, restricted itself to giving the opinions of thefamous doctors relating to the practice of the Law .The latter was unable to enter into all the details, andit was therefore good that wise men should intervenein order to settle details which had to be decided .Unfortunately they descended to minutiae and arbitrarydistinctions ; their innumerable prescriptions ended byoccupying a predominant place in Jewish life, and thelaw, which had been brief and luminous, disappearedas though it had been choked by the weeds of the hedgewhereby they claimed to protect it . It was a veritablemisfortune, since the veneration which surrounded theMichnah in many instances reduced the Jewish religionto the level of being no longer a worship in spirit andtruth, but a vain formalism as burdensome to practiseas it was incapable of sanctifying . Nevertheless forChristians, the Michnah is a valuable source of informa-tion. Intended to settle practice and doctrine at theend of the second century, it can serve as a basis for thehistory of Hebrew law before that date, for it containsrules formed at different epochs . It also supplies

'Cf. Matt. xv, z-3 ; Mark vii, 5-8 .

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interesting details of Jewish life at the time of JesusChrist and throws light on the manner in which manylegal prescriptions were understood and practised, onwhich point Holy Scripture merely gives indicationswhich are all too brief.

It is, however, prudent to use it with discernment, forthe prescriptions of the Michnah have undergone succes-sive modifications, and certain alleged historical detailsare merely a reflexion of Jewish life in Galilee afterHadrian's war." An edition with a complete Latintranslation has been made by G . Surenhusius, viz :Mischna sive totius hebraeorum juris . . . systema clarissimorumRabbinorum Maimonidis et Bartenorae commentariis integris. . . . latinitate donavit ae notis illustravit, 6 Vol . in folio,Amsterdam, 1698-1703 . s

THE TOSEPHTA

It is certain that the Tannaite doctors were not contentwith collecting purely and simply the oral traditions, thehalakoth . 3 In many cases they were commented on andexpanded by explanatory notes . These notes preserved

'This suffices for those who appeal indiscriminately to theMichnah and Talmud in discussions on questions relating to Jewishlaw or daily life in the time of Our Lord .

'An edition exists of the text with vowel points and a Germantranslation by J . M. Vost, 6 vol ., Berlin, 1832-1834 .. A new edition isin course of publication with a German translation and commentary,Die Mischna, Text, Uebersetzung and ausfurliche Erklaru»g hrsg . von G.Beer and O. Holtzmann, 1912 ss., Giessen.

'A portion of the rules and opinions of doctors who lived beforethe compilation of the Michnah and which were not collected thereinis called Baraithoth, externae (sing . Baraitha from Bar or Bara, outside .The word Mathnaitha, tradition, must be understood.) They areunited in the Tosephta . Some of them were preserved under thisname in the two Talmuds of Jerusalem and Babylonia, as well as inthe three commentaries of the Pentateuch contemporary, or almostso with the Michnah : Mekilta, on Exodus, Sifra on Leviticus, andSifre on Numbers and Deuteronomy.

RABBINIC LITERATURE

53

in this way which were not inserted in the Michnah ofRabbi Juda Ha-Nasi, are called Tosephta (addition,supplement) . The Tosephta, as now edited and arranged,recalls the plan of the Michnah and is presented as itscompletion. As a matter of fact, it is a totally differentwork, for the Tosephta represents the Halakah at a stagebefore its codification in the Michnah and consequentlymore primitive. As we have already seen, Rabbi Aqibawrote a Michnah which has not been preserved. Histwo chief pupils, Rabbi Meir and Rabbi Nehemiah,both based their own teaching on this Michnah, butwhereas Rabbi Meir composed for his pupils a simplemanual of legal traditions and an aide-memoire, RabbiNehemiah, not content with collecting the baraithoth ofprevious Tannaites, added notes and explanations drawnfrom the tradition of the ancients.The Tosephta therefore constitutes a work independent

of the Michnah, composed, it is true, with a similarobject, but differently conceived . Juda Ha-Nasifollowed the method of Rabbi Meir, while the lasteditors of the Tosephta, according to tradition, RabbiHigya bar Abba and Rabbi Hoschaia, adopted themethod of Rabbi Nehemiah, Like the Michnah, theTosephta is divided into six orders or sedarim : (I) ,Zer` aim,seeds ; (2) Mo'ed, sacred times ; (3) Nachim, women;(4) Nezigin, damages; (5) Qpdachim, sacred things ;(6) Teharoth, cleanness or purifications . However, thenumber of treatises is only fifty-nine, for those dealingwith Aboth, Thamid, Middoth and Qinnim are wanting .Zukermandel published a complete edition of theTosephta, Pasewald and Trier, I88o-1883 . A latintranslation of the first three parts is to be found inUgolino, Thesaurus antiquitatum sacrarum.

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THE GEMARA

The Michnah became, in its turn, the book on whichthe doctors of the third and fourth centuries, theAmoraim, 1 were to be formed . Their teaching, Gemara, 2departing more and more from the letter of the Penta-teuch, took for its basic text the Michnah of Rabbi JudahHa-Nasi. Moreover, they were not content to pass onfrom generation to generation the rules laid down bythe Tannaites, but made an effort to develop andharmonize them, to make note of their internal reasons,and finally to apply the general principles to real orimaginary cases which the ancient doctors had notforeseen.Analyses, deductions, comparisons with analogous

cases, illustrations with the help of parables and anec-dotes, this was above all the work of the Amoraites .Numbers of Baraithoth, propositions of doctors ofpreceding ages and which had found no place in theMichnah, were carefully collected in the Gemara . Theywere quoted in Hebrew, whereas the rest of the newcompilation was in Aramaic . The Michnah combinedwith its commentary took the name of Talmud, 3 theTalmud of Jerusalem or rather of Palestine or theTalmud of Babylonia, according to the place oforigin of the Gemara.

THE TALMUD OF JERUSALEM

The Talmud of Jerusalem dates from the third andfourth centuries. The beginnings of the edition may go

'Amoraim, interpreters, word for word "the speakers" from theHebrew amar, to say, to explain .

$Gemarafrom the Aramaic gemar, to finish, complete, to assimilatecompletely the matter of a lesson, from which, in the BabylonianTalmud, the special sense of teaching .

From the Hebrew lamad, to teach .

RABBINIC LITERATURE

55back to the beginning of the third century, sinceDiocletian (284-305) and the Emperor Julian (361-363) are cited in it, and it seems to be the case that wecannot go beyond 450, for no Jewish authority laterthan the middle of the fourth century is referred totherein. Jokhanan bar Nappaha (d . 279) and RabbiSimlai who laid its foundations, and after them RabbiMani, Rabbi Abun and his son Jose ben Abun werethe chief editors of the collection. The Halakah occupiesthe chief place in the Talmud of Jerusalem, but there arealso to be found fairly extensive passages which go backto the Haggadah. It is not known whether the Talmudof Palestine commented on the whole of the Michnah .In any case we possess only the commentaries on thefour first Sedarim (orders), at least the treatises 37,'Edwyoth, 39, Aboth, and the commentary on the treatise58, Niddah .The leading edition of the Talmud of Jerusalem is

Bomberg's which appeared at Venice with no indica-tion as to its date, but probably in 1523 or 1524 .

There is a French translation of this : Le Talmud deJerusalem traduit pour la premiere fois par Moise Schwab,2 Vols. in 8vo, with a volume of tables . Volume I,1871, and 2nd Ed . 18go, the other volumes, 1878-1889 .The style of the Talmud of Jerusalem is sometimes

obscure, the thought involved and elliptical, objectionsand answers follow each other often without anythingto distinguish them . These particularly striking defectswere probably the reason which decided the Babyloniandoctors to make a new commentary on the Michnah.

THE TALMUD OF BABYLONIA

We have observed how the schools of Babyloniaflourished longer and more brilliantly than those of

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Galilee . Abba Areka, surnamed the Rab, educated inGalilee in the school of Rabbi Judah Ha-Nasi, broughtto his fellow countrymen the Michnah of his master. Itwas on this very Michnah that the different schools ofNehardea, Poumbedita, Soura, Mahouza constructedtheir Gemara . They endeavoured, above all, to restoreto unity opinions which were far too divergent, toremove certain contradictions, to give a solution ofdoubtful cases in conformity with the general teachingof the Tannaites and the Amoraites, to record thedecisions and rules adopted by the most outstandingrabbis since the closing of the Michnah, and finally topreserve the allegorical and mystical explanations ofthe Bible, the parables and legends which seemed tothem worthy of memory.Rabbi Aschi (352-427) and Rabina II ben Huna

(d. 499) may be considered the authors of the Talmudof Babylonia, for their disciples, the Saboraim, 1 werecontent merely to improve the editing ; they introducedonly some additions, but completed its arrangement intotreatises and chapters .The Talmud of Babylonia is compiled in Aramaic,

with quotations in Hebrew from the most ancientdoctors. In it the Haggadah is more developed than inthe Talmud of Jerusalem, and the Michnah is no longercommented on in its entirety. The first seder (order),except the treatise (I) Berakoth, is wanting. Similarlythe treatises (I5) Chegalim, (37) 'Eduyoth, (39) Aboth,(50) Qinnim, the half of 49 Thamid, and all the sixthseder, with the exception of treatise (58) Niddah, aremissing. Although the Talmud of Jerusalem refers tothirty-nine treatises and that of Babylonia to only thirty-six and a half, the latter is four times more developed

'Saboraim, singular sabora, one who gives an opinion, from cram,to think, from which sebara, result of thought, mind, opinion .

RABBINIC LITERATURE

57than the former; it is the latter which is more frequentlycited, and it is also the latter which has had mostinfluence on Jewish thought .'

The leading edition of the Talmud of Babylonia waspublished by Bomberg at Venice, 1520-1523 . There isa French translation of a great part of the Talmud ofBabylonia in Rabbinowicz: Legislation criminelle duTalmud. Organisation de la magistrature rabbinique . . . outraduction critique des traites Sanhedrin et Mahhoth et des deuxpassages du traiti Edjath, Paris, 1876 . Legislation civile duThammud. Nouveau commentaire et traduction critique ; 5 Vols .,Paris, 1877-I88o . The text with an English translation .M. L. Rodkinson, New Edition of the Babylonian Talmud .Original text edited, corrected, formulated and translated intoEnglish, 2o Vols, 1896-1903 . Text with German trans-lation in course of publication, L . Goldschmidt, Derbabylonische Talmud herausg nach der ersten Zensurfreien,Talmudhandschrift . . . nebst Parianten . . . der MunchenerTalmudhandschri moglischst sinn and wortgetreu ubersetz,Berlin, 1897 ss .The two Talmuds constitute an imposing juridical

work in which discussions which are often closely argued,subtle and well conducted but sometimes with an excessof brevity leading to obscurity, are submerged in a massof legends, mystical or edifying stories, anecdotes,historical narratives, scientific data on all manner ofsubjects, including even sorcery . They form the funda-mental book which contributed to give to Judaism itscharacteristic quality, by endowing it with respect,tradition, the cult of learning, although at the same

I The citations of the Michnah are made according to chaptersand verses : Berakoth, IV, 3 . Those from the Talmud of Jerusalemin the following manner : jer . Berahoth, IV, 3 . Those from the Baby-lonian Talmud by pages with indication of the front a or the back b ;Bab . Bcrakoth, 28b or simply 28b .

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time leading it into subtilities and ratiocinations of themost minute and confusing types .'

THE HAGGADAH

In contrast to the Halakah which is, properly speaking,a system of jurisprudence, the Haggadah (narration) is, inthe Talmudic literature, the collection of non juridicalinterpretations and traditions, which legally have notthe force of law. In it imagination has full play in allthe domains of religious, moral, and philosophicalknowledge and speculation . In a certain measure itrepresents the imaginative element in Judaism . 2 Wehave already seen how the Halakistic Midrach in applyingitself to the legislative texts deduces the juridical con-sequences therefrom ; the Haggadistic Midrach, on thecontrary, is concerned with constructing on the sacred

'In the course of the eighth century, this immense effort ofRabbinic literature produced an important reaction . Under theinfluence of the Sunnite schism which then divided Islam, theKaraites (from mikra, reading, a word which meant the books of theBible in opposition to the Talmud), rejected tradition and refused allauthority to the Talmud even in its strictly legal parts, and recog-nized the Bible alone as the source of legislative and religious know-ledge and practices . Their founder, Anan ben David, nephew ofSalomon the Babylonian, exilarch under the Arab domination,claimed connection with the ancient Sadducees . Karaism had abrilliant period between the ninth and twelfth centuries in Jerusalem,Constantinople, Arabia, Egypt and even in Spain . At the presenttime there are only some thousands of adherents in Turkey, theCrimea, Galicia and Poland . It may be said that with Karaism theTalmudic period, properly so-called, came to an end, because, inorder to triumph over that sect, the Jewish doctors with Saadia attheir head, had recourse to new forms of exposition. NeverthelessTalmudic thought is not dead. In the same way as oral tradition,by developing the biblical texts, had created the Michnah, and bydeveloping the Michnah produced in turn the Talmuds, so also didthe latter, the deep study of which became a religious duty, give rise,in their turn, to fresh controversies, out of which came a great portionof medixval Jewish literature .

$The expression is that of Theodore Reinach in his Histoire desIsraelites, 2nd edition, p . 30.

RABBINIC LITERATURE

59text an immense literature which is historical, folklor-istic and homilectic in character . Moreover, the termMidrach is more particularly attached to the Haggadisticmidrachim of which the different collections countamongst the most original documents of the Jewishgenius .The Haggadah often attempts to complete history by

adding facts which have been preserved in memoryand handed down by tradition to the generations con-temporary with Christ . These facts are often clearly of alegendary character. Of this nature are those whichare added to the account of the Creation, Aboth, V, 6,to the history of Adam, of Enoch and the patriarchs,and which have served as the theme of a certain numberof apocryphal books .

On other occasions, the historical additions assume amore positive character. Many traces of them arefound in Josephus, Philo, the Talmuds, etc . It is scarcelypossible to check the value of this information . Never-theless some of them figure in the New Testament . Itis from Jewish tradition and in consequence through theHaggadah that we know that Moses was brought up inall the wisdom of the Egyptians, Acts vii, 22 ; that themagicians who opposed him were called Jannes andJmbres or Mambres, II Tim . iii, 8 ; that the law was givento Moses by means of angels, Acts vii, 53 ; Gal . iii, Ig ;Heb. ii, 2 ; that the Archangel Michael fought withSatan for the body of Moses, Jude ix ; etc . The Hag-gadists also occupied themselves with studying andcommenting upon the moral and religious teaching ofthe Bible. Unfortunately and only too often theyattacked this work with merely narrow and systematicviews which too often departed from the true religiousspirit . Instead of fixing on the very basis of the religiousteaching, they lost themselves in speculations or inter-

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minable digressions on a hundred and one things whichhave nothing to do with worship or the rule of morals .The rules of exegesis which these doctors claimed tofollow were formulated in the Hebrew word pardes,"paradise" ; pechat, "stripped," recalls the simple andliteral sense ; renieez, "signification," the allegoricalsense ; deruch, "research," the sense which is deducedfrom the research ; sod, "secret," the theosophical oresoteric sense. With the march of time, the imaginationof the Rabbis attached itself especially to this lastsense, and their extravagances ended in the Qabbala .

The speculative moral or edifying texts of the Hag-gadah are not matter of faith, but are accepted un-animously by Jewish theologians . Nevertheless formany people they have contributed much to the forma-tion of piety and belief. IThe Haggadah is found scattered among the Talmudic

works, but it is especially preserved in two kinds ofRabbinic compilations, the Midraschim (researches andin the present case, commentaries) and the Targums(interpretations) .

THE MIDRASCHIM

The Midraschim or commentaries which compose theHaggadistic Midrach are all written in Hebrew. Thefirst and most important among them is the LittleGenesis or Book of jubilees, but as it was compiled prob-ably at the time of John Hyrcan (135-104 13-C .), it isprior to the period which we are studying . After thecapture of Jerusalem and the destruction of the TempleRabbi Aqiba, Rabbi Ismael and Simon ben Jokhai were

""We accept only what the intelligence admits" declared SamuelHannigid (d . at Granada in io55), according to Strack, Eintelungin Talmud and Midrasch, 2nd edition, Munich, ig2i . Maimonides,in the last chapters of his Michne Torah, also rejects the value of theHaggadah .

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6i

occupied especially in commenting on the Torah . Theirworks side by side with haggadistic elements thereforeincluded a certain number of halakistic elements .Their basic date was the second century, but with manyinterpolations subsequent to that date. These areMekiltha (the standard, the custom) on Exodus xii-xxiii, z g, which is attributed to Rabbi Ismael . Sifra(the book) on Leviticus, Sifre or Sifri (the books parexcellence) on Numbers and Deuteronomy . Hiyya,the pupil of the Rabbi, was the author . These firstthree books were translated into Latin in Ugolini,Thesaurus antiquit. sacr., vol. XIV, pp. 2-586 . Theseare often quoted in the Talmud .

Other more recent books in which the Haggadisticmaterials are predominant were composed at differentdates with ancient elements preserved at first by oraltradition and subsequently in writings which are nowlost, and even frequently with data taken from theTalmud. These are the Midrachim which form the groupcalled Rabboth or Midrach Rabboth, a combination ofcommentaries composed at different times on thePentateuch and the five Megilloth. 1 Canticles, Ruth,Lamentations, Ecclesiastes and Esther . These com-mentaries are the following : (z) Bereschith rabba, orGenesis rabba (Gn. R.), on Genesis, composed in Palestineabout the sixth century, with the exception of the lastfive chapters which are more recent. (2) Chemoth rabbaor Exodus rabba (Ex. R.) on Exodus, which is datedfrom the eleventh to the twelfth century . (3) Vayyikrarabba or Leviticus rabba (Lev . R.), on Leviticus, com-posed in Palestine about the seventh century ; (4)Bamidbar rabba or Numeri rabba (Num . R.), on Numbers,

'Megilloth (rolls.) Thus were designated the five books of theBible which were short enough to be written on a roll of small sizewhich was read in its entirety on the occasion of certain solemnities .

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due probably to two authors the latter of whom wasliving in the twelfth century ; (5) Debarim rabba orDeuteronomium rabba (Dt . R.), on Deuteronomy, at thebeginning of the tenth century ; (6) Chir hechirim rabbaor midrach cant. rabba, on Canticles, probably prior tothe middle of the ninth century ; (7) Midrach Ruth,probably of the same period as the above ; (8) MidrachThroni or 'Eika rabbati, on Lamentations, composed inPalestine in the second half of the seventh century ;(g) Midrach Koheleth or Eccles rabba, on Ecclesiastes,probably before the middle of the ninth century ; (I o)Midrach Esther or Haggadath Megillah, before the tenthcentury. All these Rabboth were translated into Latinin Ugolini . Thesaurus antiquit. sacra., vol. XIV, pp .586-1630; vol. XV, pp. 2-969 .The Midrach Pesiqtha or Pesiqtha of Rab Kahana is a

collection of thirty-two homilies on passages taken fromthe Pentateuch and the Prophets ; they were read onfeast days and on the chief sabbaths of the year. Itscomposition would seem to date from the beginning ofthe eighth century. This midrach must not be confusedwith the two which follow and bear the same name .These are Pesiqtha rabbathi, from the second half of theninth century, and Pesiqha Sutarta or Lekach tob from thetwelfth century, composed by Tobias ben Eliezer ofMainz. Pirkd or Baraitha of Rabbi Eliezer is a com-mentary in fifty-four chapters which dates, at theearliest, from the eighth century and which goes backto the history of the first man, the patriarchs and to thetime of Moses .

Thanhouma or Ielamdenou 1 is a commentary on theentire Pentateuch . It was written in the ninth centuryin Greece or South Italy, and appears to be the develop-

'It takes this name from the formula frequently met with thereinielamdenu rabbenu"may our master teach it to us ."

RABBINIC LITERATURE

63ment of a Midrach composed in the fifth century by arabbi named Thanhouma .

lalqut Chimeonii is a commentary on the whole Bible,compiled in accordance with the ancient commentariesin the same way as the biblical catenae of the Christianmiddle ages. It is attributed to Rabbi Simeon whoprobably lived at Frankfort on the Main at the beginningof the thirteenth century .

THE TARGUMS

Targum (in the plural Targumim, translation, interpre-tation) . After the return from the Babylonian captivity(539 B .c .), Hebrew ceased to be the spoken tongue ofPalestine and was replaced by Aramaic. The customwas then established, in the synagogue service, offollowing up the reading in Hebrew of sections of theLaw and the Prophets with a translation in the vulgartongue-Aramaic-which everyone understood. TheAramaic version was also used in the schools for teachingthe Bible (Mikra) . For a long time this translation waspurely oral and handed down by tradition . It haslong been disputed at what date it ended by beingcommitted to writing. However, it now seems to beadmitted that the primitive basis of these versions goesback to the first century of the Christian era, and thattheir definitive edition belongs to the fourth century.The most ancient Targums are, in the main, almost

literal versions in which interpretation has introducedbut few additions . On the other hand, the most recentare veritable paraphrases, full, as they are, of Jewishlegends and commentaries, in which are reflected thereligious conceptions of different epochs, Sadduceism,Hellenism, etc., The use of the Targums ceased, with

'lalqut, from ldgat to collect .

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the Jews, as soon as the latter ceased to speak Aramaic,but from the critical and exegetical point of view theyare of great utility .The Babylonian Targum of the Pentateuch, called

the Targum of Onkelos, was for a long time attributed toOnkelos, the disciple of Gamaliel; as a matter of fact,its author is unknown. It appears to have been com-posed in Palestine in the second century, for it reproducesthe Halakah and the Haggadah of the school of Aqiba.Revised in Palestine in the fourth or fifth century, it wasrecognised there as the authorised version of the Penta-teuch . This Targum renders the Hebrew text in analmost literal fashion. The version was made on a textwhich differed a little from the massoretic edition, butthe Tannaite ideas on the Memra (the word of God)and the Chekina (the glory of God) are found againtherein .

Targum of the Prophets of Jonathan ben Uzziel . Theauthor of this Targum is unknown, but he bears thename of a disciple of Hillel, who must have lived in thefirst half of the first century of our era . According to acertain number of Jewish scholars, this was a Babylonianwork begun by the Rabbis of that country in the thirdcentury, and finally edited in the fifth . This Targumcontains the translation of the whole of the Nebiim1(prophets), that is to say, according to the Jews, thewhole of the historical books from Josue to the prophetsproperly so called. It is less literal and more para-phrased than that of Onkelos, particularly in theprophetic books, where there are many Haggadisticlegends. Although the influence of contemporary

'The Jews distinguished in the Bible the Law (Torah) in thePentateuch ; the Prophets (nebiim), i .e . Josue, Judges, Kings and theprophets properly so-called; the Hagiographical books (ketubim)comprising the Psalms, Proverbs, job, the five megilloth with theaddition of Daniel, Esdras, Nehemias and Chronicles .

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65

ideas is less noticeable than in the Targum of Onkelos,they nevertheless direct attention to themselves, and init the name of Yahweh is often replaced by the termChekina (the glory of God) .

Targums of Jerusalem on the Pentateuch . A Targum onthe Pentateuch is falsely attributed to Jonathan benUzziel. This Targum is not a translation but a con-tinuous paraphrase . It is, moreover, valuable in thatit informs us of the religious and national traditions ofthe Jews which it faithfully reproduces . Its authorused the Targum of Onkelos and wrote in Palestinetowards the middle of the seventh century .

The second Targum of Jerusalem on the Pentateuch doesnot form a complete whole. It is simply a collection offragments dating probably from the seventh century andoriginating in Palestine . Recent critics regard it as aneffort to adapt the Targum of Onkelos to Palestinewith additions taken from different sources, both Tal-mudic and post-Talmudic. Fragments exist of a thirdTargum of Jerusalem on the Prophets.

The Targums on the Hagiographa formed a single groupwhichis usually subdivided into three : the Targums ofJob,of the Psalms and of Proverbs, the Targums of the five megilloth,Canticle of Canticles, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastesand Esther. Lastly the Targum of Chronicles or Parali-pomenon . They are all of a later date, towards theeighth or ninth century .

HISTORICAL WORKS

By the side of this immense religious production,historical works occupy in Rabbinic literature merely avery modest place which consists solely in chronicleswhich are very dry when they are not legendary . Thechief ones are :

Megillah Ta'anith or the Roll of Fasts enumerates thea

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thirty-five days of the Jewish year when it is forbiddento fast and which consequently recall most often happymemories for Israel with an indication of the monthand day, but never of the year. This Aramaic chronicle,possibly composed in part before 7o and completedafter the death of Trajan (A.D. 117), is provided withHebrew glosses which are posterior in date .

Seder Olam or Seder Olam Rabba, "Chronicle" or "GreatChronicle of the World," runs from Adam to Alexanderthe Great. Composed towards the second century, it iscalled "Great" to distinguish it from-

Seder Olam Zoutta or "Little Chronicle of the World ."It is a genealogy of Biblical personages and of theExilarchs .

lossipon or Joseph ben Gorion is the name of anauthor to whom is attributed a chronicle in Hebrewmingled with legendary accounts which run from Adamto the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus . Composedprobably in Italy towards the ninth century accordingto Biblical books, apocryphal and pseudo-epigraphicalworks, it uses for more recent times the Books of theMacchabees and the work of Flavius Josephus .

WRITINGS OF THE DISSIDENTS

It would be a mistake to think that despite the triumphof the Pharisees, whose ideas were imposed on theJewish people after the capture of Jerusalem, theSadducees wrote nothing . Of them there remains themention of the Book of Decisions, I which must have beena collection of Jewish laws according to the doctrine ofthe Sadducees. This work constituted the fundamentalbook of the Sadducees, but the latter had, in addition,composed a whole series of works, which although

'Megillath Taanith, c . IV, i, io .

RABBINIC LITERATURE

67preserved up to the tenth century, have not come downto us. However, a little work discovered in the Guenizaof Cairo, and published for the first time in I g I o, 1informs us that at the very time of Jesus Christ, a Jewof Jerusalem founded a sect which he called the "NewAlliance" approaching in certain of his doctrines thoseof the Sadducees, and emigrated with his partisans intothe country of Damascus where the community appearsto have subsisted for several centuries . Written in aHebrew which is tolerably pure, the work contains inits first part a sermon which is, as it were, the expositionof its motives, the introduction to a second part whichforms a collection of the laws and statutes of a dissidentJewish community.

As for the collection of the laws, it is more conserva-tive than official Judaism and claims to contain the exactand correct interpretations of the Bible on religiousquestions, civil and penal law, and the rules of life . Thisdiscovery makes it possible for us to penetrate, withthese statutes in our hands, the internal organization ofone of the many sectarian clans, which, separated fromofficial Judaism by questions of dogma or the interestsof castes, are nevertheless not estranged from the lawof Moses, a possibility which is denied to us, in the caseof the official Jewish communities, by the large volumesof the Targum and the Midraschim . Therein we cannote a religious life of exceptional austerity . s

'S. Schechter, Documents of Jewish Sectaries . Vol. I. Fragmentsof a Zadokite Work. Cambridge, igio .

2To all the above works, which constitute, properly speaking,Rabbinic literature, there may be added, although very much laterin date: (i) The Mischne Torah or Tad Hazaka (the strong hand) ofMaimonides. This work, completed about i i8o, after, as it were,sifting the Talmud and the connected collections of tradition,classifies and expounds methodically in a clear Hebrew, all the

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BIBLIOGRAPHYFor Jewish literature as a whole, the chief work is E .

Schiirer, Geschichte des judischen Volkes im ,Z'eitalter,Jesu Christi, 3rd edition, Leipzig, Vol. I, 1901,p. 3I-16I, §3 Quellen; Vol. II, 4th edition, 1907 .§ 25, Die Schriftgelehrsamkeit, p . 363-4.47 . (Trans-lated into English, A History of the Jewish People inthe time of, Jesus Christ, 5 Vols.) See also W . Bousset,Die Religion des ,Judentums im neutestamentlichen Zeitalter, 3rd edition, Tubingen, 1926. On Rabbinicliterature H. Strack, Einleitung in Talmud and Midras,5th edition, Munich, 1921, may be profitably con-sulted . See also, M. Bacher, Die Agada der baby-lonischen Amoraer, 1878 . Die Agada der Tannaiten, I

Band : Von Hillel bis Akiba, Strasbourg, 1884 ; 2Band: Von Akibas Tod bis zum Abschluss der Mischna,Strasbourg, 1890 . Die Agada der palastinensischenAmoraer, 4 Vols., 1892, 1896, 1899, 1902 . Lesetre,Mischna in Dictionnaire de la Bible, Vol. III, col . 1127-II30. Mangenot, Targums, ibid., Vol. IV, col .1595-2008. Konigsberger, Die Quellen der Halacha,Leipzig, 1890. Guttman, .Zur Enleitung in dieHalacha, Budapesth, 1 gog, in 32 Iahresh . des Landes-Rabbinerschule in Budapest . Zukermandel, Tosephta,Mischna and Boraitha in ihren Verhaltnis zu einander, 2

matter of the Torah written and oral, from theology and ethic to thepolitical laws and the rules of the Jewish calendar .

(')The Schoulhan Aroukh (Table drawn up), compiled by J . Carofrom 1522-1554, is a codification of the Talmud which for almostfour hundred years was obligatory on the Israelite world and settledtraditional jurisprudence. The first part, Orah Haym (Way of Life)deals with liturgy and feasts . The second, Yore Dea (Teaches know-ledge), proclaims what is permitted and forbidden (Food laws) . Thethird Eben Haezer (Stone of succour) contains the family laws .Lastly, the fourth, Hoschenha-Mischpat (Breastplate of judgment)contains civil and penal law (obligations, contracts, wills, etc .) .

RABBINIC LITERATURE

69Vols., Frankfort, Igo8-Igog. M. Steinschneider,Die Geschichtsliteratur der Juden in Driickwerken andHandschrflen zussammengestellt, I . Abteilung (the onlyone that has appeared) . Bibliographie der HebraischenSchriften . Frankfort, 1905 . Lagrange, Le Messianismechez les Juifs, Paris, 1905 . Lagrange, La secte juivede la Nouvelle Alliance au pays de Damas, Revue Biblique,Paris, 1912, p. 213-240, 321-360. L. Dennefeld, LeJudaisme Biblique, Paris, 1925 . Jewish Encyclopedia,passim. Lagrange, Le Judaisme avant Jesus Christ,Paris, 1931 .

CHAPTER III

THE TORAH

The Torah.-The revealed Datum of Judaism.-The writtenTorah and the oral Torah.-The Torah constitutes theDivine Gift par excellence ; it is immutable and sacrosanct .-The Torah and Reason .-Tendency of Liberal Jewsto empty the Torah of its Divine Content in order to allowsolely a purely natural Religion . Evolution of the Torah .-The Dispute between Literalists and Allegorists .-TheTorah and Biblical Criticism.-Incompatibility ofauthentic and conservative Judaism with the Conclusionsof Evolutionary Criticism.

THE TORAH: THE REVEALED DATUM OF JUDAISMI BELIEVE with a perfect faith that the words of theprophets are true . . . that the prophecy of Moses, ourmaster (peace be to him) was true, and that he is thefather of the prophets and of those who preceded himand of those who have followed him . . . . That the Torah,whole and entire, which is now within our hands, wasgiven to Moses, our master (peace be to him) . . . . Thatthis Torah will not be changed, and that another Torahwill not come from the hand of the Creator, blessed behis name. (Maimonides, Profession of faith, articles 6-9 .)

Judaism is essentially a revealed religion and thisrevelation is found included in the Torah, or better,the Torah is itself the revelation of God . In the strictestsense of the word, the Torah is the five books of the

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THE TORAH

71

Pentateuch attributed to Moses, for which the Israelites,even those affected with radical criticism, retain venera-tion and faith .

The other portions of Scripture, prophets, and hagio-graphy are considered as being contained in the Torahproperly so called . They are considered to add nothingto it, since the hagiographical books merely explain thelaw of Moses and determine certain details thereof .As for the prophets, their function consisted precisely insupervising the maintenance of the Mosaic law and thecovenant with God which was its consequence. Theirwritings being only a confirmation of the Torah, shareits authority, and can be invoked in the same way asdivine testimony .

WRITTEN TORAH AND ORAL TORAH

The divine Torah is not, however, entirely containedin the sacred books . According to the Rabbinic tradi-tions, God, on Sinai, gave to Moses not only the Torah,but also the Prophets and the Hagiographical books aswell as the Michnah and the Talmuds (Berakoth 5a), andat the same time revealed to him the commandments,their interpretations, and the rules that flow therefrom(Siphra, 112 c) . In addition to this, Moses communicatedthe Torah to Josue, Josue to the judges, then to theprophets and the latter to the men of the Great Syna-gogue, thereby ensuring an uninterrupted tradition(Aboth i, I) . Under the guise of legends, all theseaccounts suggest the principle which is necessary andadmitted by all: Side by side with the written law thereexists and is transmitted a tradition or oral law whichshares in its inspiration and enjoys equal authority .Juda Halevi (Khozari, iii, 36) bases the origin and

lawfulness of this tradition on the passage of Deuter-onomy xvii, 8-12, which institutes official interpreters of

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the Law, and confers divine and uncontested authorityon their decisions . The priests were originally investedwith this function of explaining the Law and of pre-serving its character of a living authority . They weresubsequently replaced by the scribes and Phariseedoctors. This legislative work was governed by a two-fold principle that it appeared to be based upon anadmissible exegesis of the sacred texts and on goodreasons. The prescriptions which emanated from thisliving authority were considered to have equal, if notsuperior, legal value to that of a sacred text . Thistradition, in its preceptive part, the Halakah, and in itsedifying part, the Haggadah, constitutes the oral law,the Torah which is transmitted from mouth to mouth .The Sadducees and the Karaites rejected this oral

law as being a human invention and an arbitraryexcrescence, but the Pharisees always accepted anddefended it. The equality and unity of the doubleTorah, written and oral, is, in their religious conception,a fundamental and characteristic principle of which theysecured the adoption by later Judaism . Hence it ispermitted to identify this Judaism with Pharisaism . 1

The Torah is therefore, first and foremost, the Mosaiclegislation, the "613" mitzvot, positive as well as negative,which the Rabbis of the Talmud counted in the Penta-teuch, but it is also the doctrine transmitted and taught,the oral teaching which sprang up around the veneratedScriptural texts, and which were accumulated for

'This is the thesis which is commonly admitted . It is sustainedespecially by Travers Herford, The Pharisees, new edition, London,1924, and by Abrahams, Studies in Pharisaism and the Gospels, 2ndseries, Cambridge, 1924 and 1927 . (Cited by Bonsirven, Sur lesruines du Temple, p . 127, n .1) . It is also defended by G. Foot Moore,,Judaism in the First Centuries of the Christian Era, the Age of the Tannaim,Cambridge, 1927, and has just been taken up again with specialvigour by Joseph Klausner, ,Jesus of Nazareth, His Life, Times andTeaching .

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centuries until they formed the compilation of theMidrachim and the Talmuds. It is at the same timeletter and spirit, a fixed and living thing, it bears thesacred texts which carry the revelation made to Mosesthen by their side the interpretation, the lesson whichis living and diverse, wherein, under the tendencies ofeach epoch, is manifested the will of God in regard toIsrael and His law given to the world . Materially it isenclosed within the Mosaic revelation ; it finds its expres-sion in the Torah which is transmitted as the livingIsrael.

THE TORAH CONSTITUTES THE GIFT PAR EXCELLENCE :IT Is IMMUTABLE AND INVIOLABLE

The Torah is thus not merely a law, but a religiousteaching which communicates the will of God . Con-sidered in itself, in its most elevated aspect, it appearsas an almost divine being . God created it two thousandyears before the world (Pesiqtha Rabbi Kahana, Ioga), itstays close to the Creator, like a counsellor whom Heconsults before undertaking His work, it occupies theplace and plays the part attributed by certain books ofthe Old Testament to the Divine Wisdom personified.'This gift of the Torah to men is, moreover, a more

important event than the Creation itself. It is thedivine benefaction par excellence, whereby God ispresent in the world. It is God's substitute, and byadhering to it, one shares in the sanctity of its Author .In addition it is definitive and immutable and as themodifications introduced by the prophets and Rabbis

'This figure is not to be taken absolutely literally. It merelymeans that the faithful soul must serve God with all his membersand at every moment of his life . As early as the third century, effortswere made to render its observance easy by reducing all these com-mandments to this single principle of the prophet Habacuc (ii, 4)"The just shall live in his faith ." Cf. Makkoth, 23b, 24a (quoted byBonsirven, op . cit., p . 128 .

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cannot be mistaken, this principle is limited to theTorah of Moses, the Pentateuch : "The prophets and theother writings will pass away but the five books of theTorah will not be abrogated." (Jer. Megillah, 7od). Noprophet, were he a worker of miracles, could contradictMoses, or set himself against him as a new divine legate ;it would therefore be allowable to permit temporaryor non-essential changes, but the foundation remainsinviolable (Maimonides, Foundations, ix, 2-5, Iqqarim, iii,13-20) .'

THE TORAH AND REASON. TENDENCY OF LIBERAL JEWSTO EMPTY THE TORAH OF ITS DIVINE CONTENT AND TO

ADMIT ONLY A PURELY NATURAL RELIGION

The conception of the Torah which has just beenexpounded is that of the Tannaites and of the firstcenturies of Judaism which survived the establishmentof Christianity. To this formula of the Torah as areligious revelation were added other ideas which,

'The Torah is often identified by the ancient Jewish writers withthe Divine Wisdom (Hokmah) which the books of the Old Testamentso clearly personified, Moore (Judaism) considers this identification tobe admitted in the Ecclesiasticus of Jesus ben Sirach (200 B.C.), I, 5, andin Baruch IV, i, and shows how it became the common opinionamong the Tannaites. But at the point where the Gospel revelationwas destined to result, for Christians, in Wisdom, the Word of God,Judaism by abandoning the priceless indications of Old Testamentrevelation allowed the doctrines of the Spirit and Wisdom to dis-appear and even the doctrine of the Word to be distorted . Thus it isthat in the Testament of Levi, the Aramaic fragments where, it isbelieved, a more ancient source is to be recognized, give the firstplace to Wisdom, whereas the Greek text gives it to the Law. Atthe beginning of the Berechith Rabba, Rabbi Hosaia the Great inter-prets the first verse of Genesis by the text of Proverbs (xiii, 3 0 )where the role of Wisdom in regard to Yahweh in the creation isdescribed, but it explains it by substituting the Law for Wisdom .It was the Torah which was then the instrument of God and alsothe ideal model according to which God conceived the world . TheJewish theologians start from this point to affirm that it is perfect andimmutable. Traces of this conception are found in the Gospel, but

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moreover, are merely the development of principlesproposed from the very beginning . We have alreadystressed the manner in which reason must intervene inthe establishing of the oral law which is a necessarycomplement of the written and revealed law . In thecourse of centuries, the part played by reason was moreconsiderably developed, and many Rabbis arrived atthe stage of considering the use of human reason ashaving the religious value of a divine revelation .

The most ancient Jewish theologians of the middleages did not forget to indicate reason as a valid authorityparallel to and on the same title as the written Torahand tradition . This was done in particular by GaonSaadia (882-942), who was the first to expound syste-matically the "beliefs and opinions belonging to thefaith of Israel ." In his Arabic work, Kitab al Amanatwal-I `tikadat, better known under its Hebrew name SeferEmounot ve De'ot, "book of faith and knowledge," helays down the principle that human reason is a meansof knowing the divine revelation, that faith in revela-tion does not exclude independent research, and thatreason must direct theology by basing itself upon con-temporary philosophical investigations .'

But in point of fact, this role assigned to reason in theexamination and even the control of the revealedteaching and of tradition does not date from him .Long before Saadia, Jewish thinkers of the Hellenisticepoch and in particular, Philo, to cite only the most

with a quite different force. Cf., for example, Luke xvi, 17 ; Matt. v,18 . It is to be noted that in Matt . xxiv, 35 ; Mark xiii, 31 ; Luke xxi,33, Jesus Christ identifies His teaching with the Law which does notpass away. Cf. Moore, Judaism, Ch. IV, Perpetuity of the Law, p . 263 ss.Lebreton, Histoire du dogme de la Triniti, Vol . I, Les Origins, p . i6o ss .

'In this we can observe the strict connection between the ideasof Saadia and the contemporary doctrines of the Motazilites the"rationalists of Islam."

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distinguished of them, made it their business to demon-strate the harmony between Biblical revelation andreason, the inspirer of the great philosophies on whichhumanity relies, between the divine Torah and humanwisdom which is constantly kept on the watch . In thethird century the exegesis of Rabbi Jokhanan showeditself to be fairly rationalistic, and in contact withArabian philosophy, the great Rabbis of the Spanishmiddle ages, Alfasi, Ibn Gabirol, and Maimonides, lstressed still more the importance of reason in Jewishtheology and the conception of the Torah .It is with them that Spinoza and especially M .

Mendelssohn are directly connected. Of the latter(1729-1786) it may truly be said that he is the fatherof liberal Judaism . His work, Jerusalem or the ReligiousPower and Judaism, gives an exposition of Judaism whichis frankly liberal, philosophical and anti-dogmatic, butin tone sincerely religious and entirely Jewish . Forhim the essence of religion is constituted simultaneouslyby the general truths which every man can attain bymeans of his reason and by the moral law, the Torah,which reason is capable of discovering and justifying bymeans of its own powers . Consequently, in conformitywith minds which are evidently broad and elevated,the best in doctrines manifested outside the circle ofIsrael, whatever is noblest, most reasonable, and mostelevated therein, the Aristotelianism of yesterday withthe Bergsonian philosophy of to-morrow, can be incor-porated in the Torah and become an integral partthereof. 2

'Cf. Guide of the Lost, I, Chapter 50, p . 179 . The controversiesraised by the bold views of Maimonides gave rise, after his death, tobitter disputes, and in 1234, the Jews went so far as to bring theircase before the ecclesiastical authorities .

2Moritz Lazarus in his Ethik des Judentums (Frankfort 1898-1911)has systematized the moral teaching of the Bible and the Talmud,

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77The Emouna, the Jewish faith, is nothing more than a

confidence which comes from a union of the heart andthe Torah, and apart from certain positive or negativecommandments entails only adhesion to some funda-mental truths, God, Providence, the spirituality of thesoul, free will, the future life, which are obligatory onuniversal reason. The liberal Jews, in fact, base theirreligion with its dogmatic and preceptive contententirely on reason . I But this position is radicallyopposed, it must be admitted, to the essential spirit oftraditional Judaism, which does not regard its religionas the conclusion of a process of reasoning, but acceptsthe Torah as essentially revealed by God .

In his book, The Faith of Israel, An Essay on the Teachingof Judaism, 2 M. J. Weill endeavours to harmonizeeverything. The Jewish teaching, he says, comes fromGod, it comes from Israel, it comes from thinkinghumanity. It is at the same time divine, Jewish andhuman. It is the religion of the Torah, which has laiddown her way for Israel, but by speaking to her heartand reason by the eloquence of the Neboua, of prophecy,and the arguments of the Hokhma, of universal wisdom"(p. 39)- Moreover, he concludes by a pragmatismtending to make the Jewish life a model for humanitywhich nothing justifies : "The Torah is the Jewish lifeitself in its most characteristic form" (p . 39) .

His thought becomes still more explicit in his last

by showing the affinities of this system of Ethics with Kantianmorality. In the same order of ideas, H. Cohen has left behind hima Religion of the Reason according to the Sources of Judaism, in which hetakes account only of the rational value of Judaism . (Die Religion derVernunft each der Quellen des Judentums.) Connected with this currentof ideas is the noteworthy Essence of Judaism (Das Wesen des Juden-tums) of Leo Baeck (Frankfort, 1928) .

1 Khozari, 1, 13 .2 Paris, 1926.

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work, Judaism 1 : "The great plan of the Torah is to forma type-people which shall organize a society of justice,purity and equality, the seed of future humanity whichwill know or recognize God through Israel" (p. 84) .It is doubtful whether this manner of elevating to thedignity of a divine revelation Jewish life with all itcontains of undoubted permanent religious value, butalso with elements which are effete or insufficient, canbe admitted by a mind which is religious or even merelyphilosophical .

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE TORAH:THE DISPUTE BETWEEN THE LITERALISTS AND THE

ALLEGORISTS

This dispute in the interpretation of the Torah is inreality connected with the quarrel between the literalistsand the allegorists . Must everything that the Torahnarrates and imposes be taken literally? How are itscontents to be harmonized with the data of science?The ancient Judaism of the Diaspora was already dividedon this point . Such Jews as were instructed in the Greeklanguage were preoccupied with extending to paganismthe benefits of the religious truths contained in theBible; they wished to harmonize the teachings of Platoand Aristotle with those of Moses, and they arrived atthis object by means of allegory which, for example,allowed Philo to extract an ethical system from the lifeof the Patriarchs and a complete humanitarian philos-ophy from the Mosaic legislation . But this symbolismby influencing minds to search for the thought hiddenbeneath the letter, led frequently to neglect of the letter,and at the time of Philo there existed at Alexandria aparty of antinomians, inclined to detach themselves

1 Collection, Les Religions, Paris, Alcan, 1931 .

THE TORAH

79from the ritual or ceremonial observances, the Sabbath,circumcision, and food prohibitions, which theyinterpreted figuratively . 1 Later on, under the domin-ation of the Spanish Moors, in this Sephardic Judaismwhich drew its instruction from the school of Arabianphilosophers and theologians, the problem of the con-ciliation of pagan wisdom with the Torah againappeared, and was resolved by methods fairly similar tothose of the first century of our era .The quarrel between the partisans and opponents of

philosophical culture was a lively one, and this time itwas conservative Judaism which again secured thevictory. It is perhaps this blind attachment to the mostancient traditions of Israel which maintained thecohesion ofJudaism during the evil days of the fourteenthand fifteenth centuries .

Six centuries later, this same quarrel again broughtinto conflict, under Mendelssohn and his successors, thepartisans of an exclusively Jewish culture and thesupporters of a general culture. Education has spreadamong the masses, there is merely a question of socialfusion and assimilation between citizens of the samecountry. The Torah, taken literally, with the peculi-arity of its rites and observances, stands in the way .Hence modern Judaism also proceeds to employsymbolism and rationalistic explanations, but notwithout detaching a number of the faithful from thepractices of their ancestors . By way of reaction, con-servatism, especially in Germany and in the East,insists on simple filial obedience to the observances ofthe Torah, although one of the most brilliant apostles ofthis Jewish neo-orthodoxy in Germany in the nineteenthcentury, Samson Raphael Hirsch, is nevertheless obligedto use this symbolic method, so urgent has become the

' Philo. De migr. Abr, 1, 450 (Ed . Mangey.)

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JUDAISM

need of adapting the ancient Torah to the exigencies ofthe modern mind ."

THE TORAH AND BIBLICAL CRITICISM

This antagonism which thus opposes the ancient rigidconception of a Torah which descended as a living andperfect thing from the heights of Sinai, imposing itselfunchangeably on all Jews till the end of time, to theidea of a Mosaic law which develops throughout theworld according to times and circumstances, is still moreviolently affirmed by the fact of Biblical criticism .Without wishing to enter into the details of moderntheories, we must simply observe that, according to it,the Pentateuch is merely a compilation from sourceswhich differ in origin, date, and tendency, the mostancient of which goes back only to a date which is muchlater than that of Moses and Exodus . In opposition tothe traditional belief, the Torah came into being afterprophecy; Deuteronomy was compiled only in 622under Josias, and numerous laws and prescriptions dateonly from the reforms of Esdras .For long, Jewish scholars, whether liberal or con-

servative, remained implicitly in agreement not to dealwith these questions. To touch the Pentateuch wouldbe to touch the Sacred Ark, to shake the foundations ofthe Temple, and apparently to destroy the Torah .Abraham Geiger ( 1810-1874) was the first to introducecriticism into Jewish scholarship . The most out-standing representative of liberal Judaism, he publishedin 1857 his chief work, Urschrift and Ubersetzungen derHeiligen Schrift in ihrer Abhangigkeit von der inneren Eut-wicklung des ,Judentunu . 2 His fundamental idea is that tothe primitive documents of Scripture were added, little

' J. Weill, Le Judaisme, P . 74 .' Second Edition, 1928.

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by little, in the course of centuries many additions theresult of the religious experience of contemporaries.From this he drew the conclusion that the Torah wasnot given entirely at one and the same time, that it was,on the contrary, an essentially living and developingthing, and that, in consequence, Judaism itself, whichis based on the Torah, can and must transform itself.

From that time other scholars appeared in order towiden the gulf between conservative and liberalJudaism. Without involving itself with metaphysic orreligious psychology, the ancient Jewish faith held bythe conservatives admitted that Moses and the prophetswere inspired and that their teaching represents adivine revelation.' The moderns, on the other hand,profess a purely immanentistic conception ; revelationis nothing more than God manifesting Himself to menin their religious experience, or the manifestation of areligious genius which is more developed in the case ofcertain powerful minds . 2 Men like James Darmesteter,Theodore and Salomon Reinach in France became theprotagonists of these ideas, and deduced extremeconsequences therefrom .

Rejecting all the ritual observances, ceremonies,feasts and food prohibitions in which they see nothingmore than "a family symbol" destined to disappear,they conceive Judaism only as "Divine Unity and Messi-anism, that is to say, unity of law in the world, and theearthly triumph of justice in humanity ." a It wouldseem that this cannot still be termed religion .

1 Formulary of Maimonides, Article VI, specially maintained byJoseph Albo who reduced the thirteen articles to three, among whichis Revelation (Ikkarim, 1, 4, III, 8 .)

'Cf. Julien Weill, Lafoi d'Israel, p. 97-99, K. Kohler, ThdologiesystEmatique du Judaisme, 28 ss .

$Salomon Reinach, Preface to the new edition of Prophdtes d'Israel by James Darmesteter, Paris, 1931, p. 10 . S. Reinach had

F

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Some, like Rabbi J. Weill, seek a middle path capableof harmonizing "the search for scientific truth withfidelity to the great preconceived notions which arescientifically not demonstrable, but without which theedifice of religious faith is in ruins."' He therefore refusesto admit that the opposition in principle, howeveracute it may appear, between the two types of Judaism,can constitute an insoluble antinomy. He accepts thegreat fact of revelation, which consists in the com-munication made to an entire people of a law of life, ofwhich the Decalogue is the culminating point . He setshimself the question of ascertaining whether all thePentateuch comes from Moses, and whether successiveadditions have not been included under this venerablename. He recognizes that the Torah, if it has pro-scribed a number of pagan rites, has retained otherswhich possess an educational or spiritual value, butalso that it has maintained the bloody sacrifices ofanimals and the perpetuity of taboos, the legacy of aremote primitive past . Moreover, it has promulgatedthe One and Only, the God whose image cannot berepresented, before whom all polytheism and multi-plicity is annihilated, the God of Israel who is also theMaster of all the nations . Finally he concludes thatthere is in the monotheism proposed by the Pentateuchwith unparalleled splendour, as well as in the moral,social and even ritual precepts which it proposes toIsrael and to all her succeeding generations, somethingout of which to fashion the relative union of all Jewish

previously proclaimed in Orpheus, p . 303, that : "the Jewish religionis by no means burdensome except for those who claim to be adher-ents without practising it," and on p . 310 : "Among educated Jews,almost universally, rationalism is predominant, along with a certainrespect for their ancestors which in their case, takes the place offaith ."

2 Idem, p . 81 .

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83

hearts which have not opted for sceptism or agnosticism.'Many would refuse to admit that this evolutionism,

moderate though it be, is compatible with the trueJudaism as it has been believed and practised sinceEsdras .

If it is recalled that, in point of fact, the dogma of aTorah revealed by God to Moses, which is immutableand sacrosanct, whose every part is truth, constitutesfor Israel the revealed data upon which her belief inGod is built, as well as her faith in her mission in theworld and her rule of life, it will be deduced therefromthat the claims of liberal Judaism as well as the con-clusions of the higher criticism cannot be squared withauthentic Judaism . If, moreover, the specific observancesof the Jewish law have no longer any raison d'etre,inasmuch as they are merely the legacy of a primitivepast which has definitely been abolished ; if it is only aquestion of a moral monotheism explained by reason,what remains of Judaism to constitute it . a distinctreligion?

INCOMPATIBILITY OF AUTHENTIC AND CONSERVATIVEJUDAISM WITH THE CONCLUSIONS OF EVOLUTIONARY

CRITICISM

If the matter is probed still deeper, the question maybe asked, which is right, conservative Judaism or liberalJudaism? If we take our stand from the point of viewof ancient and authentic Judaism, if we admit thatJudaism is a revealed religion, and that its corpus ofdoctrine is derived from the clearly expressed will of apersonal God, if we do not see that an abrogation hascome therefrom to interrupt its course, conservativeJudaism alone is in the line which goes back directly

'Idem, PP. 82-85 passim .

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to Moses through Esdras, and none of the dispositionsof the law can fall away.

If, on the other hand, revelation does not go back toGod, if the Torah is merely the summary of the religiousexperience of the ancient Israelites, an experienceadapted to time and place, if we profess that everythingis reduced to a moral monotheism the law of which isinterpreted progressively,' then liberal Judaism is right,but as has been observed above, apart from its con-nection with certain ethnical links, it can no longer beunderstood how a true and distinct religion can beconstituted out of a vague natural deism .

But there is a third solution which Judaism will notface even although it may be forced to admit it at leastimplicitly, namely that there has been an abrogation ofall that constitutes specific Judaism and gives it anessentially transitory character . This is what Christianityteaches: Jesus Christ has abrogated the law. FatherLagrange has observed this with great force! If we goto the bottom of things it is a question not merely ofknowing whether the yoke of the Talmud is to beshaken off or not . It is the law of Moses itself which is atstake. If the Jews were authorized to rebuild the Temple,they were in consequence bound by the law to resumethe bloody sacrifices, mention of which they will nottolerate, and rightly so . On this point again, therabbinical subtilities come to the aid of the law . For,say some modern masters, the law admits sacrifices onlyif the priests are in the state of legal purity. This is nolonger the case, since the red cow is no longer sacrificedin order to purify them . But in order to sacrifice thered cow one must be in a state of legal purity, etc ., etc . 2

And it is thanks to this subterfuge that they conceal

' Claude Montefiore, Le,Judaisme liberal, p . 107 .2 Lagrange, L'Evangile de Jesus Christ, p . 468, note i .

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85

the evidence of the fact that they hold the law of bloodysacrifices-such an important part of the Pentateuch-as abrogated. What can be more characteristic?

More than one Israelite theologian recognizes itimplicitly: "Prayer represents an immediate effort,sacrifice, a mediate drawing near, we should say acrutch by means of which to approach God . Thiscrutch is not merely rejected in such a way that wecannot take it up again, but broken beyond repair .Is it not more than folly, is it not a crime, to pray Godto restore the sacrifice in these days when the mountainof the Lord shall be raised above all mountains, andwhen God shall give to all peoples a pure language inorder to serve him with a single heart? Must there beagain upon this hill of God a priest with arms extended,the knife in his blood-stained hand, to slit the throat of awretched lamb in order to please this God, of whom hesays, the Lord is filled with bounty for all, and hismercy extends over all his works?" (Stein, Die Weisheitder Rabbinen, p. 62) .

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bonsirven, On the Ruins of the Temple . J. Weill, La foid'Israel, Paris, 1926 . Le Judaisme, Paris, 1931 .J. Albo, Buch Ikkarim, Grund- and Glaubenslehren derMosaischen Religion, Berlin, 1922 . Friedlander, Die,Jiidische Religion, Frankfort, 1927 . L. Stern, DieVorschriften der Thora, Frankfort, 1929. L. Baeck,Das Wesen des Judentums, Frankfort, 1926 .

CHAPTER IV

DOGMAS IN JUDAISM

Absence of an official creed and dogmatic formulary obligatory onall Judaism.-The creed of post-exilic Judaism.-

Import-ance of the faith element in Judaism in the first centuries .-Lex orandi, lex credendi; the creed according to the mostancient prayers, the Chema, the Chemone Esre, the Deca-logue, the first Tannaite doctors . The biblical Emouna.-The formulary of Maimonides; of Crescas; of JosephAlbo; of Max L. Margolis.-M. Mendelssohn andmodernistic Judaism. Incredulity of James Darmesteterand Salomon Reinach. Declaration of the principles ofliberal Judaism .-The via media of Julien Weill .

ABSENCE OF AN OFFICIAL CREED AND DOGMATICFORMULARY OBLIGATORY ON ALL JUDAISM

THE German Jewish theologians say of the Torah thatit is not a teaching (Belehrung) but a conversion, a law oflife (Bekehrung) . This expression is correct in the sensethat the Torah first of all imposes itself on man in orderto direct his whole life in accordance with the will ofGod. But if the Torah directs the will and actions of thepious Jew, it consequently informs the intelligence as wellwhich illuminates the will and indicates to it the objectof its faith. As Julien Weill notes : "The mere idea ofrevealed legislation implies above all the notion of anall-powerful and revered legislator with all the dogmatic

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87

consequences of such an affirmation ." 1 ConservativeJudaism has understood this, which, while entirelyabstaining from publishing an explicit and detaileddogmatic formulary, has nevertheless always admitted acertain number of belief-principles on which the wholeof the Jewish religion reposes .

The reason for this absence of an official creed impera-tively binding on the adhesion of the faithful has beenexcellently noted by Father Bonsirven : s "The Jewishreligious spirit which has little of the dogmatic realizesthe principles of its faith above all in their effects . Pre-occupations of order and clarity have conduced to thesuccessive treatment of more speculative doctrines,religious usages, and moral precepts. Many of themodern authors of Jewish theologies have observed thatit is fantastic and impossible to wish to construct a com-plete and ordered system of Jewish and Rabbinictheology: Judaism has never worried much abouttheology: its literature gives merely fragmentarymaterials which are at times contradictory ."

It has, however, been possible to write Jewish theo-logies from the Old Testament and to assemble in abody of doctrine the beliefs which are observed ashaving been generally admitted from Esdras till thetime of the destruction of the second Temple. 3

THE CREED OF POST-EXILIC JUDAISM

The chief points of this Jewish faith in the second andfirst centuries before Jesus Christ can be summarizedas follows, even if it is only to determine and thus to mark

' Le Judaisme, p. 91 .' Sur les ruins du Temple, p . 49 .'Reference may be made to the most noteworthy works on this

subject : Bertholet, Die judische Religion von der Zeit Esras bis zumZeitalter Christi ; Bousset, Die Religion des Judentums im neutestamentlichen Zeitalter; E . Koenig, Theologie des Alten Testaments, etc .

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the progress or decline of the dogmas in the course of thelife ofJudaism : Yahweh is the only God, the Creator andMaster of the world . He is a Holy and TranscendentGod. Without going so far as to admit the existence inGod of distinct hypostases, post-exilic Judaism appearsto accept that there are in God personifications likeWisdom, the Logos, the Memra, whose nature is suffi-ciently ill-defined . Between God and man are situatedthe angels. The good angels are the servants of God andthe benefactors of men, the bad angels incline men toevil. Man, the creature of God, answers personally forhis offences, nevertheless value is still attributed to thebirth from and the social link with the people of Israel .But an obvious antinomy will be noticed ; whereas thebelief in a universal God Who has created the entireworld ends in the salvation of all men, the Phariseesprofess, on the other hand, a harsh particularism whichtends to reserve salvation to Jews alone . Man is com-posed of a body and soul . Even when separated fromthe body, the soul retains its proper life, a fact whichallows for retribution . Later Judaism would associate thebody with the eternal destiny of the soul through theresurrection . Man is free, but by reason of his fall inAdam, fallen humanity has a tendency to evil . Every-one has, however, the possibility of working out hissalvation, and, with God's help, of living in conformitywith the law. The sinner can always become converted,and divine grace will never fail him for this purpose . AMessias will come, descended from the race of David,who is to found a kingdom of justice and holiness butupon the earth and within the bosom of Israel . More-over it is through Israel that justice and peace are toreign. All this sum of beliefs reposes on the revelationwhich was made by God to Moses first of all, and thento the prophets .

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89

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE FAITH ELEMENT IN THEJUDAISM OF THE FIRST CENTURIES

Exaggeration of the part played by observance of theLaw in the daily life of the post-exilic Israelite has toooften led historians to conceive of faith as being asecondary element therein . This is an error, becausethe very fact that a whole people thus accept thisintolerable yoke, presupposes a very lively faith in thesoul. Moreover it was faith which kept Israel from sink-ing into despair at the time of Nabuchodonozor'sdeportations, it was faith which was to give to thosewho were restored to their country from the very first,the courage to break with the easy life of the Chaldeanplains and reach again the rugged mountains of Judea,and faith it was which was to inspire the missionaries ofproselytism in the ancient world, the heroes of the timeof the Macchabees, and the martyrs under Hadrian'spersecution .

The Judaism of the Tannaites which was destined toresult in the formation of the Michnah and the Talmudin the first centuries of our era, did not go further andelaborate a theological system . It received from theTorah fundamental principles which dominate beliefand life, and these it carefully guarded . At the very mostit may be noted that by a reaction against Christianity,its canon of sacred books became narrower and thedoctrine on the hypostases was attenuated . The Logos,Wisdom, the Memra and the Chekina were no longerpersonal except to the extent that they represented God .Messianism was transferred to the end of the world, tothe days when the universal religion was to triumphunder the domination of the King-Messias aroundJerusalem and by means of the holy nation .

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LEX ORANDI, LEX CREDENDI.THE CREED ACCORDING TO THE MOST ANCIENT

PRAYERS

But if there is an absence of dogmatic formularies, theprinciple lex orandi. lex credendi, on the other hand, appliesto Judaism as well as to other religions . According to theMichnah, Thamid IV, at the end, v, I, every maleadult Israelite had to recite daily the prayer ChemaIsrael, "Hear, 0 Israel." This custom was certainlyalready in vogue before A.D . 70. In reality the Chema is aprofession of faith rather than a prayer.

It is composed of three passages from the Pentateuch,Deut. vi, 4-9 ; xi, 13-21 ; Numbers xv, 37-41, precededand followed by some benedictions. Another prayer,Emet veyafir, the primitive text of which was recited atthe time of the second Temple (Michnah, Thamid V, i),is a confirmation of this profession of monotheistic faith .Without, however, reflecting any metaphysical teach-ing, it attests by the repetition of words, by the vigourand emotion of expression, the importance attached tothe Chema. The Chemone-Esre (eighteen), the prayer ofthe eighteen benedictions, forms with the Chema theessential element in private daily worship . It datesfrom the end of the first century, perhaps round about8o, and no one has any doubt about its Pharisaicorigin . Every Israelite had to recite it three times aday . I

I. Blessed be thou, I.H.V.H., our God and the God of

1 There are two versions of this prayer, the Babylonian, which isstill in use to-day and which is composed of nineteen requests, thefourteenth, on the Messianic era, being divided into two, and thePalestinian version which is more ancient and is distinguished fromthe other by a malediction against Christians, introduced by adecision of a synod of Jamnia (Jer. Berakoth, 5a, 8a) . We give thislast according to Lagrange, Le Messianisme avant Jesus Christ, p. 466 .

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our fathers, God of Abraham, God of Isaac and Godof Jacob ; God great, heroic and fearful, God mosthigh, Creator of heaven and earth, our shield andthe shield of our fathers, our hope for ever and ever .Blessed be thou, I.H.V.H., shield of Abraham.

II. Thou art a Hero, casting down those who areraised up, strong, and judging oppressors, living forages, raising up the dead, bringing the wind andmaking the dew descend, maintaining life, vivifyingthe dead; with a glance thou makest salvation springforth for us .Blessed be thou, I.H.V.H ., vivifying the dead .

III . Thou art holy and thy name is fearful, there is noGod apart from thee. Blessed art thou, Holy God .

IV. Grant us, Our Father, knowledge from thee, andintelligence and comprehension of thy Law.Blessed be thou, I.H.V.H ., who givest knowledge .

V. Bring us back to thee, I.H.V.H ., and we will come ;restore our days as of yore .Blessed be thou, I.H.V.H., who art pleased withrepentance.

VI. Forgive us, Our Father, for against thee have wesinned; wash away our iniquities ; banish them fromthy sight, for thy mercies are many .Blessed be thou, I.H.V.H ., always ready to pardon .

VII. See our affliction and support our cause, anddeliver us for Thy Name's sake .Blessed be thou, I.H.V.H ., liberator of Israel .

VIII. Heal us, I.H.V.H., from the wound in our heartand banish from us sorrow and sighing; extend thyhealing over all our wounds .Blessed be thou who healest the malady of thy peopleIsrael .

IX. Bless for us, I .H.V.H., this year, that it may begood in all the kinds of its fruits ; and grant a speedy

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approach of the final year of our deliverance, andgive dew and rain on the face of the earth, and fillthe world with the treasures of thy bounty and blessthe work of our hands .Blessed be thou, I.H.V.H., who blesseth the years .

X. Sound a great trumpet for our liberty, and place astandard to gather together our dispersed brethren .Blessed be thou, I.H.V.H., who gatherest togetherthe remnants of thy people Israel .

XI. Bring back our judges as in the beginning, andour counsellors likewise, and reign over us thoualone.Blessed be thou, I.H.V.H., who loveth judgment.

XII . That there may be no longer hope for apostates,hasten to root out the kingdom of pride of our days,and may Christians and heretics perish in an instant ;may they be expunged from the book of life, neithermay they be written with the just .Blessed be thou, I.H.V.H., thou who bendest theproud .

XIII. May thy mercies spread over the proselytes ofjustice, and give us a good reward with those who dothy good pleasure .Blessed be thou, I .H.V.H., the hope of the just .

XIV. Be merciful, I.H.V.H., our God, according tothy many mercies, on Israel, thy people, and onJerusalem, thy city, and on Sion, the dwelling-placeof thy glory, and on thy temple and on thy dwellingand on the kingdom of the house of David, theanointed one of thy justice . Blessed be thou,I .H.V.H., God of David, founder of Jerusalem .

XV. Hear, I.H.V.H., our God, the voice of our prayer,and show unto us mercy, for thou art a God ofclemency and mercy.Blessed be thou, I.H.V.H., who heareth our prayer .

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93XVI. Be pleased, I.H.V.H ., our God, and dwell in

Sion and may thy servants serve thee in Jerusalem .Blessed be thou, I.H.V.H., for we serve thee withfear .

XVII. We render thanks to thee ; (thou art) I.H.V.H .,our God and the God of our fathers, for all thybounties, the favour and the mercies which thouhast accomplished and exercised towards us andtowards our fathers before us ; and if we say : "ourfoot is wavering" ; thy favour, I.H.V.H., strengthensus .Blessed be thou, I .H.V.H., to whom it is good torender thanks .

XVIII. Establish thy peace upon Israel, thy people,and upon thy city, and upon its heritage and blessus all like one man .Blessed be thou, I.H.V.H ., who maketh peace.

This prayer with its praises, its supplications, its peti-tions as well as its maledictions, constitutes a veritablecredo. It shows us a faith in activity which has no needof being otherwise codified, but which becomes exces-sively national, and instead of widening its horizon,turns back upon itself .

For all that, this faith exists, and the proof will befound in this passage of Philo who thus summarizes thedogmatic teaching of Judaism on the subject of God . i

"Moses in this treatise on the Creation of the Worldteaches you many things ; among which are some morebeautiful and better than others : first, that there is a Godwho presides over this world . . . . Secondly, that thereis only one God, against those who say that there is amultitude of Gods . . . . Thirdly, that this world had a

' De mundi opificio . Quoted by J. Weill, La foi d'Israel, accordingto P . Bellier'stranslation, p . 51 ss .

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beginning, against those who think that it is uncreatedand eternal . . . . Fourthly, that this world is alone andunique, God, who is unique, having made it as his work,like to him according to its unity . . . . Fifthly, thatGod has the provision of the world . . . . He, therefore,who has derived his knowledge not so much from hearingas from understanding, and has imprinted within hissoul the admirable and so desirable kinds of these things :that there is a God who governs the world ; that he isunique, that he has created the world and made itunique (as has been said) making it like unto himself inthis that it is alone and unique, and that he always hascare of his creation, that man will have a happy life andone full of fortune, being fashioned out of the teachingsand ordinances of Piety and Divinity ." i

Moreover the Jewish religion being not merely anadhesion to some fundamental religious principles, butabove all a rule of life, the doctors owed it to themselvesto stress the importance of the Decalogue . The circum-stances in which the revelation occurred, the setting ofSinai, the tables of stone graven by God, all that wasmade to give to the commandments and especially thetwo first, an unequalled importance . Verse iv, 13, ofDeuteronomy stresses it by saying : "He showed you hiscovenant, which he commanded you to do (namely)the ten words."

Also, from the time of the second Temple, the dailyrecitation of the Decalogue was obligatory in the sameway as the Chema. Exodus xx, 2-17 . Many of the doctorsof the Michnah or of the Talmud observed more thanonce that some particular verse of the Torah, some sen-

1 Out of respect for the divine name, the Jews replaced the nameof Yahweh by this other word, the Eternal. Cf. J . Weill, Le Judaisme,p. 97 ss for the persistence of this sentiment and the reasons givenby the author for this .

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tence that they had long pondered over, expressed theessential foundation of Judaism: "Thou shalt love thyneighbour as thyself" was for Rabbi Aqiba a primaryrule, whereas another would condense the Scripture intothe words of Habacuc ii, 4, "the just shall live in hisfaith," or in this last verse of the Kohelet : "Fear God andkeep his commandments, for that is the whole man." Itwill be noticed that in all these efforts to express theessence of Judaism, nothing is to be found whichresembles theology properly so-called and still lessresembles metaphysic . The biblical Emouna (faith)recalls the faith of certain Protestants, and there is in itmore assent of the will, directing of the heart and con-fidence, than adhesion of the intellect .

THE FORMULARY OF MAIMONIDES, OF CRESCAS, OFJ. ALBO, AND OF MAx L. MARGOLIS

It was only at a later date, in the course of the middleages, starting with the appearance of the Karaite doc-trines, the arrival of Arabian philosophy, controversieswith the Mussulmans and Christians, that Judaism feltthe need to render more explicit the theological contentof its faith and to affirm it in face of opposing confessions,in which, at this particular time, theology was playing avery important part . The great theologian, MosesMaimonides the first (II35-1204), formulated the thir-teen articles of faith to which the immense majority ofpractising Jews have adhered . They form the conclusionof his introduction to Chapter XI of the Talmudictreatise Sanhedrin .

I . I believe with perfect faith that the Creator,blessed be His name, is He who creates anddirects all creatures, that it is He alone who hasmade, who makes and will make all things .

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2 . I believe with perfect faith that the Creator,blessed be His name, is unique and that there is nounity like His in any respect ; that He is alone ourGod, who has been, who is, and who will be forever.

3. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator,blessed be His name, is not a body, and that noproperties of bodies concern him ; and thatabsolutely nothing resembles Him .

4. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator,blessed be His name, is the first and last .

5. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator,blessed be His name, is alone worthy of beingprayed to and that no one is worthy of beingprayed to apart from Him .

6. I believe with perfect faith that the words of theProphets are truth .

7. I believe with perfect faith that the prophecy ofMoses, our Master-peace be on him-was trueand that he is the father of the prophets and ofthose who preceded him and those who havefollowed him .

8. I believe with a perfect faith that the entire Lawwhich is now within our hands, was given toMoses, our Master, upon whom be peace .

9. I believe with perfect faith that this Law will notbe changed and that no other Law will come fromthe Creator, blessed be His name .

i o . I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, blessedbe His name, knows all the actions of men and alltheir thoughts, for it is said : "He who hath madethe hearts of every one of them : who understan-deth all their works ." Ps. xxxii, 1 5-

i i . I believe with perfect faith that the Creator,blessed be His name, rewards those who keep His

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commandments and punishes those who trans-gress His commandments .

12 . I believe with perfect faith in the coming of theMessias, and although it may be deferred, I hopeeach day that He will come .

13- I believe with perfect faith that the vivification(Resurrection) of the dead will take place at thetime which shall please the Creator, blessed beHis name, and may His memory be exalted forever and ever .

Although these articles were received with markedfavour, and became, as it were, the rule of faith ofconservative Judaism, it must nevertheless be admittedthat the exposition lacks logic . Propositions of primaryimportance and others which are more secondary areseen to be placed on the same level ; for example inarticle 5 Maimonides takes special account of attributeswhich are of a metaphysical character (unity, infinity,spirituality), without insisting upon the divine goodnessand justice. He combines in a single paragraph, notperhaps without a certain equivocation, the resurrec-tion and immortality, and he is silent about free willand the election of Israel.This is perhaps the reason why the majority of the

theologians who succeeded Maimonides did not hesi-tate to modify this formulary, but one of them, YedayaPinini, finding this creed too bald, proclaimed as manyas thirty-five articles of faith ; the immense majority,however, reduced the number of essential propositionsof faith .' Hasdai Crescas (fourteenth century) countedonly eight doctrines as obligatory under pain of renounc-ing Judaism. The Jew must believe that the world wascreated out of nothing by the will of God at a given

'J. Weill, Lafoi d'Israel, p. 58 .G

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moment and that the soul is immortal ; he must believein the retribution of the other world, the resurrection ofthe dead, the immutability of the Torah, the perpetualmaintenance of its obligatory character which cannotbe abrogated, in the supremacy of Moses over theprophets who preceded or succeeded him, in the inspira-tion residing within the Urim and Thummim of thepriests and in the Messianic redemption .

Such as it was, this formulary seemed still too narrow .Joseph Albo (d . 1444), possibly as a result of the con-ference of Tortosa (February 14 1 3-November I4I4),wrote his book on the "Dogmas" which rapidly becamepopular . He distinguishes the fundamental dogmas(Iqqarim, roots) without which, moreover, all revealedreligion is inconceivable : a single God, creator, a Reve-lation . A Retribution-theological categories suffi-ciently pliable to include therein many distinct opinions .He also admitted derived beliefs (secondary roots),which flow from the fundamental dogmas and cannotbe denied without at the same time denying the latter,and finally beliefs which, although obligatory for theJew, are merely "subsidiary" (branches) . Thus onemay be recognized as a Jew, while at the same timeadmitting the pre-existence of matter to creation . Thebelief in the Messias does not constitute for Albo afundamental doctrine in Judaism . He also accepted themutability of the Torah, but added that, while admit-ting that a future prophet should appear and declarethe law abrogated, with the exception of the funda-mental dogmas, this message must be authenticated, asit was for Moses, by the assent of all the people of Israel .Metaphysical and moral monotheism, revelation to

which the Torah is necessarily connected, retributionwhich includes immortality and messianism, the combi-nation of these conceptions constitutes Jewish dogma,

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99and it is this which has been perfectly understood andexpressed by Max L. Margolis, one of the most out-standing Jewish professors in the United States,' in hisformulary of 1 904-

I believe in God, the Unique and Holy One, theCreator and maintainer of the world .

I believe that man possesses a divine power wherebyhe can subdue his evil impulses and passions, andforce himself to approach nearer and nearer to theperfection of God .

I believe that chosen individuals are from time totime called by God as prophets and charged with themission of proclaiming His will among men .

I believe that man is subject to the divine law andresponsible to the scrutineer of the human heart andthe just judge for all his thoughts and actions .

I believe that he who confesses his sins and turnsaway from his evil ways and sincerely repents ispardoned with love by a Father in heaven .

I believe that the pious persons who obey the lawof God and accomplish his will with a perfect heartand who truly repent, participate as immortal soulsin the eternal life of God .

I believe that Israel has been chosen by God as hisanointed servant to proclaim his truth among thefamilies of humanity, and although scorned and setat naught among men, to continue as his witnessuntil the advent through Israel of the Kingdom ofpeace and moral perfection and the plenitude of theknowledge of God, the true community of the chil-dren of the living God .

'Professor of Hebraic Philology at Dropsie College for Hebrewand Cognate Learning at Philadelphia, author of a new translationof the Bible in English and of a History of the Jewish people .

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M. M$NDtLSSOHN AND MODE' RNIST JUDAISM

Up to the eighteenth century, rabbinic Judaism hadproduced in particular only undigested casuistical com-mentaries. Apart from some names like Raschi, Mai-monides, and David Kimhi, Judaism was plunged inignorance, and obstinately closed the windows of theGhetto. It was the task of Moses Mendelssohn (1729-1786) to throw them wide open and to resume thetradition of the great Jews in the Arabic language . Inhis work, Jerusalem or The Religious power of Judaism(1713), he affirmed that Judaism is a revealed legisla-tion and not a revealed theology or philosophy . In theprescriptions of the Mosaic Law, said he, it is nowheresaid : Believe or Believe not, but do such and such athing or refrain therefrom . The Torah orders the willand disciplines conduct, without constraining thought orsentiment from which it demands only that it listen andunderstand. The Emouna, biblical faith, does not signifyintellectual adhesion, but trust, obedience and fidelity .'Mendelssohn did not wish to maintain that it was anindifferent or accessory thing to believe, he simplywished to stress thereby how foreign it is to the spirit ofJudaism to enclose within rigid and immobile formulasthe living and practical faith of the religion of theTorah. But while showing how the law and traditionof Israel could adapt itself to the general civilization inorder to enrich it, and insisting upon the universalistmessage of Israel, many of his disciples entered uponthe way of modernist Judaism which is a "dejudaization ."In 1799, David Freidlander addressed a letter to PastorTeller, superior counsellor of the Berlin Consistory, inwhich "Some fathers of Jewish families" declared thatthey desired to renounce Israelite rites and asked to be

' J. Weill, Lafoi d'Israel, p . 43 .

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admitted into the Christian community, on conditionthat they were dispensed from belief in the divinity ofChrist, and exempted from the observance of ceremonialpractices . Following the example of Protestantism,Judaism tended to empty itself of its dogmatic andhistoric content in order to become pure subjectivism.In France, J. Salvador (1796-1873) in his works, LaLoi de Moise ou Systeme religieux et politique des Hebreux,Paris, Rome et ,Jerusalem, attempted to sketch a universalreligion based upon a transformed Judaism . AbrahamGeiger ( 181 0- 1874) by his books Urschrift and Ueberset-zungen der Bibel (1857) and especially by Das judentumand seine Geschichte (1864) made himself the apostle of areforming Judaism which was to strip itself of its par-ticularistic ritualism and even of its Palestinian andDavidic messianism, in order the more to exalt andpromote this broad human messianism which emanatesfrom the prophets of Israel .

UNBELIEF OF J. DARMESTETER AND S . REINACHThe extreme consequences of these principles were

drawn by J. Darmesteter, Coup d'Oeil sur l'histoire duPeuple Juif, i881, Les Prophetes d'Israel, 1881, and S .Reinach, Orpheus, who no longer admitted anything but"Divine unity and messianism, that is to say, unity of lawin the world, and earthly triumph ofjustice in humanity." 1DECLARATION OF THE PRINCIPLES OF LIBERAL JUDAISM

Despite this, many liberal Jews have refused to go sofar as this absolute denial of the supernatural . If theirtheology, elaborated in the course of the nineteenthcentury, is necessarily vaguer in outline and withwider boundaries than those of conservative Judaism, itis nevertheless easy enough to perceive its main ideas

I Cf. Les Prophetes d'Israel par James Darmesteter . Preface bySalomon Reinach, p . 1o .

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and thus to note what it retains or preserves as well aswhat it adds and suppresses .

The liberal Rabbis of Germany published in 1912 adeclaration of principles, the essential points of whichare given below. 1

I . Liberal Judaism is connected with the essence ofthe Jewish religion in its eternal truths and itsfundamental prescriptions in the moral order,whose historic destiny is to become one day theuniversal religion .

2 . The eternal truths and the fundamental moralprescriptions of the Jewish religion, in so far asthey are common to all the epochs and to all thetendencies manifested in the bosom of Judaism,are :

(a) The doctrine of a sole and unique God, purespirit, holy, God of justice and love ;

(b) The doctrine of man made to the image of God,of the immortality of the soul, of its aptitudefor moral liberty and of its capacity to attainits destiny which consists in progress withoutceasing towards a higher perfection, a per-fection which is moral and spiritual ;

(c) The doctrine of men, all children of God andof the end of humanity, which is to approachnearer and nearer to the messianic ideal bymeans of truth, justice and love .

3. The task prescribed by Providence for Israel con-sists in preserving her religion in its purity, as wellas to announce it by the living force of example,and to give testimony thereof by the sacrifice and

1 This document was published, at the time, in the Israelitepress. A development of it, which is moreover independent, is tobe found in the work of the most noteworthy German rabbi of ourday, Leo Baeck, Das Wesen des Judentums, 5th Edition,Frankfort, 1926.

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gift of one's self, working in this fashion for thecoming of the Kingdom of God .

4. The historic basis of the Jewish religion is con-stituted by Scripture, developed in the post-Biblical writings and in theological literature upto our own days .

5. In so far as it is a historical religion, Judaism hastranslated its eternal verities and moral preceptsinto religious forms and ideas conditioned byhistorical circumstances . Each generation hasmade its own the religion of its fathers throughthe religious forms and ideas proper to itself .This is why Liberal Judaism takes its stand fromthe point of view of a successive development,subsisting in the bosom of Judaism, by virtue ofwhich each epoch has the right and the duty,while preserving the essential truths, of develop-ing or creating new religious forms conditionedby historical circumstances .

6. This duty becomes one of the most urgent in ourtime. By the entry of Jews into the civilizationand social life of an age which has widened itsintellectual horizon by newly acquired knowledge,and which has, in this way, arrived at a trans-formation in all the departments of life, manyforms, institutions and customs have disappearedfrom life and consciousness, having lost theirspiritual meaning and content.'

THE VIA MEDIA OF JULIEN WEILL

Weill2 endeavours to strike a happy medium betweenthese two extremes. In addition to the dogmatic affir-

i Cf. Maurice Liber, "O>7 en est le Judaisme" in the Revue deParis, 1st JulY, 1930, P . 87, ss .

2 J. Weill, La foi d'Israel and Le Judaisme.

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mations of the old formularies on God, man, his liberty,and the special vocation of Israel, he admits a certainmutability in the Torah, and, in practice, the abrogationof that portion of the Mosaic which concerns sacrifices,the laws of purity, tithes, etc .l

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Lagrange, Le Judaisme avant Jesus-Christ . Dennefeld,Le Judaisme biblique . Bertholet, Die Judische Religionvon der Zeit Esras bis zum ,Zeitalter . Bousset, DieReligion des Judentums im neutestamentlichen Zeitalter .Bonsirven, On the Ruins of the Temple. J . Weill,La foi d'Israel; Le Judaisme . M. Liber, Oh on est leJudaisme, in the Revue de Paris, Ist July, 1930, p . 71,ss . Rituel des prieres journaliires, rite Aschkenazi. J .Albo, Buch Ikkarim, Grund- and Glaubenslehren dermosaichen Religion . Friedlaender, Die Judisch Reli-gion. L . Baeck, Das Wesen des Judentums. M. Men-delssohn, Jerusalem, oder Religiose Macht and Juden-thum. Salvador, La Loi de Moise ou Systeme religieux etpolitique des Hebreux; Paris, Rome et Jerusalem . Geiger,Urschrift and Uebersetzungen der Bibel; Das Judentumand seine Geschichte . (Judaism and its History, Englishversion by Newburgh, Bloch Publishing Co ., 191I) .

1 Le Judaism, p . 129 .

CHAPTER V

MONOTHEISM

Monotheism the Fundamental Dogma of Judaism .-The Partsplayed by Revelation and Reason in the Knowledge ofGod.-The Unity of God. God the Creator and Almighty .-Miracles.-The Spirituality of God.-The Eternity ofGod.-The Omnipresence of God.-The Omniscience ofGod.-The Moral Attributes of God; His Sanctity,Justice and Goodness.-An Objection : Do the Old Testa-ment and Judaism which continues it represent only theLaw of Fear?- The Fear of God in the Old Testament.-The Ineffable Name of God.-The Evolution of the Con-ception of the Fear of God.-The Veneration and Love ofGod.-The Narrowing and Impoverishment of the JewishReligion. God, The Father of Israel and Just Jews .-The Place of non-Jews in the Revealed Religion .-TheIntermediaries between God and Men, the Angels .

MONOTHEISM, THE FUNDAMENTAL DOGMAOF JUDAISM

Hear, 0 Israel: the Lord our God is one Lord .(Deut. vi, 4) .

THE fundamental dogma of Judaism, for which manyof the faithful did not hesitate to give their lives, isobviously monotheism : "There is but one God, Creatorof Heaven and Earth, who governs everything . ThisGod is one and He alone is our God ." For the fervent

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Jew, this God is not the pure act of philosophy, he is notthe first mover of Aristotle, but the God whom thepatriarchs obeyed, the Master to be feared and good,who made himself known to Moses and who led Israelout of Egypt : "I am the Lord thy God, who broughtthee out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bond-age." (Exodus xx, 2 .)His moral attributes constitute him a personality

worthy of adoration and love : "0 the Lord, the LordGod, merciful and gracious, patient and of much com-passion, and true, who keepest mercy unto thousands :who takest away iniquity, and wickedness and sin, andno man of himself is innocent before thee ." (Exodusxxxiv, 6 ss. )

THE PARTS PLAYED BY REVELATION AND REASONIN THE KNOWLEDGE OF GOD

Whatever the pious Jew knows of God, he has notacquired from philosophic arguments, nor has his reasondemonstrated it to him . He holds it simply from hisparents and ancestors, from the belief of all his people,and is at once satisfied to vivify this datum by his reli-gious experience and his own meditation, and if he hasthis boon, by such direct illuminations as the EternalSpirit may deign to grant to him .'God's attributes are not for him the result of any

philosophic reflection. From the day when he learned toread, the faithful Jew has seen in his Bible that God is aliving being who governs the world, occupies himselfwith men, chooses Israel as his servant, rewards thejust and punishes the wicked, who indeed lives in aninaccessible sanctity, surrounded by a court of angels,but who, despite this, does not disdain to interest him-

1J. Weill, Le Judaism, p. 93 ; Khozari, I, 25 .

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self in the humble efforts of the sinner who is seeking toraise himself. In thus establishing his belief, the Jewremains in the true traditional line of the prophets whowere more concerned with what God might be in him-self, than with what he is for men and with what menmust be for him .

Nevertheless the Jewish theologians and philosophersnever omitted to stress the part played by reason in theknowledge of God .Maimonides even maintained that the knowledge of

God acquired by the exercise of our reason is superiorto that given by Biblical revelation : "The knowledgeof God obtained by tradition is inferior to that whichcomes through reason, the only knowledge which canmake a man virtuous . . . . Those who meditate uponGod, attaching themselves only to a belief received bytradition, do not really think of God and do not medi-tate upon him. God must be conceived by the intellect ;the highest worship follows perception . (Guide III, 23,51) . 1 It is probably owing to the influence of themediaeval Arabian theologians that Maimonides in-sisted in his formulary upon the metaphysical attributesof God, and that, having thus become an integral part ofthe Jewish religion, they were immediately studied ingreater detail .Conservative Judaism continued, however, to look

askance on these speculations, and in his most recentwork, Rabbi J. Weill still stresses its danger. 2 On theother hand, one of the most sympathetic representativesof Liberal Judaism, M. H. Cohen, in his admirablebook Religion der Vernunft aus den Quellen des ,Judentums, 3begins by establishing the great religious ideas according

'Quoted by Bonsirven, op. cit ., p. 62 .'J . Weill, Le Judaism, p. 95 .3 2nd Edition Frankfort-on-Main, 1930 .

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to reason; it is only after this that he demonstrates howthey are contained in the sacred text .

THE UNITY OF GOD

"I believe with a perfect faith that the Creator,blessed be his name, is one only, that there is no unitylike to his in any respect, and that he alone is our Godwho has been, who is, and who will be for ever ." (Art 2)The question of the existence of God is one that is notasked in Judaism . God has revealed himself in the wholeof Scripture, he spoke to Moses and the prophets ; thatalone suffices, and it is useless to go and search forphilosophic proofs of his existence since his faithfulpeople are certain of it for other reasons.God exists and Judaism at a single bound goes much

further and asserts : This God is the only God . He isunique and there is no other God but him . In this wayare excluded all polytheism, all adoration of severalpowers, all paganism, all apotheosis of a finite being orthing. In this way Judaism rejects dualism, so seductivefor certain minds, witnesses of the perpetual strugglebetween the forces of good and evil, the monotheisticTrinity of the Christians and pantheistic monism . Thisbelief in a single God was considered by the Jews as thefoundation stone of their religion, and in its defenceinnumerable martyrs have given the testimony of theirblood . Under the stress of persecution, some mighthave abandoned the sabbath or violated the laws withregard to food, but when it was a question of confessingthe unity of God, never did they hesitate to give theirlives.'When Aqiba was brought out to be led to death, it

was the hour of the Chema prayer. His flesh was brushed'Friedlander, Die Judische Religion, p . 34 .

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with brushes of iron and he prayed, taking upon him-self the yoke of the kingdom of heaven with love . Andhis disciples said to him: "Enough, Rabbi, enough ."To whom he replied : "Every day have I afflicted mysoul over the passage : Thou shalt love the Eternal, thyGod, with all thy soul, and I said to myself: When shallthis moment come? And now that it is at hand, shall Inot accomplish that for which I have yearned!" Andas he was saying : "The Eternal is one," he prolongedthe word "One" until his soul left his body . Then was avoice heard from Heaven saying : "Blessed art thou,Rabbi Aqiba, whose soul has departed proclaiming myunity, for thou art destined to the life of the eternalworld." (Berakoth -61 b.)

UNICITY OF GOD

God is not only unique, there is only one God, but Heis one in Himself. God, the Jewish theologians explain,has created everything in pairs, but His glory is unique(Deuteronomy vi, 4), and they demonstrate, againstChristianity, that the dogma of the Trinity is withoutfoundation in revelation, contradictory and absurd initself.' In their opposition to the Gospel revelation,some of them go so far as to refuse every particularattribute to God, for fear that this attribute may be oneday personified and the divine unity be thus broken . 2It is perhaps for this reason that they now explain theChekina and the Memra as simple names given to God, 3which explain nothing personal except in the measure

'Without entering into a discussion, which is out of place here,it may be noted that the Jewish theologians do not appear to suspectthe importance of the treatise De Deo Uno in Christian theology .

'Friedlander, op. cit ., p . 33 .$On the Chekina, the Memra, the Holy Ghost, the Logos, cf .

Lebreton, Histoire du dogme de la Trinitd, Vol . I .

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that they represent God, respectful metonomicalexpressions to signify God .

Thence arises also the modern tendency to unite allthe divine attributes in the single fact that God possessesbeing, that He is simply He who exists : "The Uniqueand the Living par excellence who, by creation, anattribute which is inherent to His essence, gives lifeand spontaneity to the created, a simple movement atthe bottom of the scale of beings, more and morecomplex according as one ascends, becoming in thehuman kingdom, consciousness, thought, choice betweengood and evil, morality.'

GOD, THE CREATOR AND ALMIGHTY

I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, blessedbe his name, is he who creates and directs all his crea-tures, that it is he alone who has made, who makes andwill make all things. (Art I .) "In the beginning Godcreated heaven and earth ." (Gen . i, I .) Hence God isCreator and his providence governs everything. This,moreover, is not, in the prophets, a special attribute,but the firm assurance that nothing is to be found out-side the domain of the Eternal . Conservative Judaismdraws from this the conclusion that the eternity ofmatter is a hypothesis to be rejected . 2 Heaven andearth are, on the contrary, the witnesses of God, thework of creation shows a finality which forces us to goback to a first cause, sovereign in its intelligence, andtherefore Psalm cxlvi makes the whole of nature intonea glorious alleluia in honour of its Creator.

To this title of Creator and master who governs theworld is attached naturally the attribute of omnipotence .God is the almighty father who reigns in heaven . A

'Friedlander, op . cit ., p . 26 .

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III

fact which the Scribes explain by saying that God is thecentre of that which is his wisdom, his power and hismight. It is in this thought that one must undoubtedlylook for the reason why Jewish orthodoxy has alwaysbeen particularly opposed to that magic which claimsto exercise some restraint with regard to God .

This omnipotence of God has nothing on earth towhich it is comparable, no single human concept beingable to give any idea thereof.

MIRACLES

The ordinary course of things, the extraordinaryorder of prodigies, all come from God, and Jewishtraditionalism is outraged that miracles can be doubted,or that it is sought to explain them in a natural way . IThe idea that the Tannaites and Amoraites formed ofmiracles differs but little from the notion of the miracu-lous given by Catholic theology . 2 Moreover Scriptureabounds in miracles of all sorts, and for many a longyear pious Jews gave complete belief to these accounts .God is the absolute master, he does what he pleases, andhis omnipotence has no limits other than his wisdom andjustice.

Modern Jews are more reserved in this acceptance ofthe traditional conception : "We, Israelites, writes thegreat Rabbi H. Meir, who cannot admit as an article offaith what is absurd or contrary to reason, must en-deavour, if possible, to explain in a natural way what atfirst sight may appear to us miraculous . (Considerationssur le, JudaIsme, Paris, 1926, p. 45 .) 3

As always, Weill makes every effort to steer a middle

'Friedlander, op . cit., p. 27.2Moore, Judaism I, p . 376 .'Quoted by Bonsirven, op . Cit., p . 73 .

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course, equally distant from blind credulity and abso-lute scepticism. He recognizes in Judaism differentcurrents, successive or simultaneous, side by side with afixed tradition which, at certain times, has become toorigid .

One finds there, it goes without saying, completeliteral belief in the Scripture, from the walking of Godin the garden of Eden, to the hand which traced Mane,Thecel, Phares, at Balthazar's feast . . . . and on theother hand, all the shades of rationalism which waslater to explain some accounts as being visions, others asallegories or moral tales, and finally the interpretationsderived from the science of religious folk-lore . . . .Judaism in this way does not shrink from interpreta-tions, which at times seem bold ; but "whatever may bethe real significance of any particular text, Judaismteaches that human history in general, and the historyof Israel in particular, attests the activity of God, evenif it is awkward to make an exact line of demarcationbetween what is of God and what of man .'

THE SPIRITUALITY OF GOD

"I believe with a perfect faith that the Creator,blessed be his name, is not a body, and that none of thequalities of a body are applicable to him, and thatabsolutely nothing is like to him." (Art . 3 .)

The unity of God necessarily entails his spirituality .A body, in point of fact, presupposes matter and exten-sion, things which are incompatible with the One-God .This article would, at first sight, seem useless, and onemight ask why Maimonides wanted to introduce it intohis formulary, were it not remembered that manyrabbis, taking literally the anthropomorphism of the

'J. Weill, La Foi D'Israel, p. 88 ss .

MONOTHEISM

11 3Bible, ascribed to God our manner of seeing and feeling,or in other words, applied in a strict sense to God theimperfections of human language, against which theold philosophy of analogy never ceased to protest .

In order to understand to what a degree this anthro-pomorphism must have appeared abominable to such adeeply pious theologian as Moses ben Maimon, it willbe sufficient to recollect the rigid prohibition proclaimedin the Bible, of any image or representation of theDivinity: "Keep therefore your souls carefully . Yousaw not any similitude in the day that the Lord Godspoke to you in Horeb from the midst of the fire ; lestperhaps being deceived you might make you a gravensimilitude, or image of male or female, the similitudeof any beasts, that are upon the earth, or of birds thatfly under heaven, or of creeping things, that move onthe earth, or of fishes, that abide in the waters under theearth" (Deut. iv, 1 5 -1 9)-It is in fact certain that if one took many of the

Talmudic expressions literally, God comported him-self like an ordinary pious mortal . Respectful of allthe observances, the King of heaven had his times forprayer, for which he assumed special phylacteries . Hewas attentive to the invocations of his children, and inorder to receive them more effectively, he made a littleopening in the firmament . At certain times, Godgroans, sheds tears, roars like a lion over the destructionof the Temple, which he has willed and his roaringshakes the world. (Berakoth, 3 a. 59 a .)

Almost endless chatter of a similar nature could betranscribed ; they are still to be found in the medizvvaldoctors who are opposed to the philosophers ; manyechoes of this sort of thing are to be seen in not a fewportions, especially poetical, of the books containingthe official prayers . Bonsirven asks whether this means

H

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to say that Jewish thought sank into gross anthropo-morphism. Was it necessary to await the philosophers,pupils of the Greeks and Arabs, to recall the absolutespirituality of God? It is clear that the ancient mastersdid not show the same zeal and the same precision asJuda Halevi and Maimonides in removing from theDivinity all corporeity and all human feeling . . . .Nevertheless they conceived the Creator as havingnothing in common with His creatures . This is mani-fested in the periphrases employed by the Aramaicinterpreters of Scripture in order not to invest God witha human attitude . . . . In short instead of accusingthe Rabbis of blasphemous irreverence, would it not befairer to look upon them as popular preachers with arealistic imagination and truculent in their language,who, addressing themselves to believers, all bowed downbefore the heavenly Majesty, but trusting in the loveof God, the Father of Israel, judged it expedient toexcite at times terrific fear and at times filial abandon-ment? 1

Whether they were Babylonian doctors or mediaevalSpanish rabbis, they knew without doubt the text ofIsaias, xi, 18 ss : "To whom then have you likenedGod? Or what image will you make for him?" . . ."And to whom have you likened me or made me equal,saith the Holy One? . . . Knowest thou not or hastthou not heard? The Lord is the everlasting God, whohath created the ends of the earth. He shall not faintnor labour, neither is there any searching out of hiswisdom." Hence from the spirituality of God, Jewishtheology rightly concludes his immutability . 2

'Bonsirven, op . cit . p . 6g ss .'Friedlander, op . cit . p . 38 .

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THE ETERNITY OF GOD

"I believe with a perfect faith, that the Creator,blessed be his name, is the first and the last" (Art . 4) .From the moment that God is the first principle of allbeings, that for his own being he has need of no otherprinciple, and that the idea of existence is inseparablefrom the idea of God, it follows that God has alwaysexisted and that his existence has had no beginning andwill have no end . This is the reasoning of the moderntheology according to Maimonides, but the Tannaite orAmoraite rabbis did not carry their researches so far .They recalled Psalm ci, 26-28 : "In the beginning, 0 Lord,thou foundest the earth : and the heavens are the worksof thy hands . They shall perish, but thou remainest :and all of them shall grow old like a garment : And as avesture thou shalt change them, and they shall bechanged. But thou art always the selfsame : and thyyears shall not fail ." Or again these other words ofIsaias xliv, 6 : "Thus saith the Lord, the king of Israeland his redeemer, the Lord of hosts: I am the First, andI am the Last : and besides me there is no God ." More-over the Eternal is one of the most frequently usednames for God in Jewish literature and by the mastersof the first centuries . It marks a particular oppositionto the pagan gods who are born, who change and whosometimes die .

THE OMNIPRESENCE OF GOD

The Israelites always believed in a special presence ofGod among them. Already in the desert, the Taber-nacle symbolized the dwelling-place of God, and the All-Highest manifested his presence therein by a cloud .(Exodus xl, 15 .) The temple of Solomon was the objectof a similar favour (III Kings, viii, Io-I I), but it does

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not appear that the temple of Zorobabel nor that ofHerod was the scene of any such divine manifestation .In any event they represented, for the Jews, the house ofGod and a place which was especially sacred . However,even after the destruction of the Temple, Eleazar benPedat affirmed the presence of God on the ruins ofMoriah, in the accomplishment of the promise: "Ihave sanctified this house, which thou hast built, toput my name there forever : and my eyes and my heartshall be there always" (III Kings, ix, 3) and the Tan-naites admitted a particular presence of God in Pales-tine . 1

But the Rabbis insisted on the fact that if this presenceof God was manifested in this way, it was not becauseGod had need of a dwelling upon earth, but because ofthe chosen people, of the pious Israelite whose frailtyhad to be supported by this mark of favour . They lovedto recall that God is present everywhere, that the universeis his temple, and they were quick to quote the words ofBaruch, iii, 24-25 : "0 Israel, how great is the house ofGod, and how vast is the place of his possession . It isgreat and hath no end : it is high and immense ." Whilethus affirming the omnipresence of God, the Jews in noway thought of a philosophic attribute of God. Forthem it was the realization of the text of Jeremias(xxiii, 23 ss) : "Am I, think ye, a God at hand, saith theLord, and not a God afar off? Shall a man be hid insecret places and I not see him, saith the Lord? Do notI fill heaven and earth, saith the Lord?" Since God is

'One of the most distinguished rabbis in Paris, in a conversationabout the question of the Wailing Wall, said : "We know quite wellthat God is everywhere, but the Wailing Wall formed part of thesecond Temple, its stones were as if impregnated with the prayersof our race, and we therefore believe that God is more particularlypresent in that place, just as you Catholics believe it of your morevenerated sanctuaries."

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everywhere, everything is subject to his providentialactivity, and nothing can be hidden from him .

To this presence of God here below, the Jews gave aspecial name. They called it the Chekinah (dwelling-place) . It was the Chekinah which appeared in theTemple in the Holy of Holies, which, in the days of itsindependence, covered Palestine with its protectingeffulgence and which still floats over the faithful ofIsrael . It resides in the synagogues, in the meetingsfor prayer and study, it descends into every devout man(Khozari, V, 23), and the Rabbi Gamaliel used to say :"that there is no place on earth from which the Chekinahis absent (Pesiqtha Rabbi Kahana, 2b.) I

THE OMNISCIENCE OF GOD

The omnipresence of God is closely connected withanother attribute which is strictly attached thereto,viz., omniscience . Since God is everywhere, nothing canescape him and he knows everything. And whereas hisomnipresence is no more limited in time than in space,his knowledge is no less limited . But since God knowsall things, it follows at once that everything he revealsto the prophets is true. It does not appear that theJewish theologians experienced the difficulty there wasin harmonizing the omnipotence and prescience of Godwith the freedom of man . Some of them noticed it,but they have not carried the discussion of that questionas far as Christian theologians .

THE MORAL ATTRIBUTES OF GOD :

SANCTITY, JUSTICE, GOODNESS

The Rabbis placed beside the attributes which are, soto speak, metaphysical, and which, by separating God

'Cf. Lebreton. Histoire du dogme de la Trinitd .

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completely from his creatures, constitute monotheismin absolute opposition to paganism, the moral attributes,sanctity, justice, and goodness .The Eternal is the thrice holy God, and Chapter vi

of Isaias, in a magnificent picture, insists upon thischaracter of the divinity . But the sanctity which theprophet glorifies in this manner, and which demands thepurification of his lips, is above all composed of inacces-sible majesty, inviolability, and of separation fromeverything which might indicate any imperfection orimpurity whatsoever .

Other scriptural writings present sanctity as the sumof all the moral perfections . Moses had asked of theAll-Highest to be able to contemplate his glory . Yahwehanswers him that no man can see the face of God with-out dying, but nevertheless allows him to catch aglimpse of his "goodness," that is to say that he willallow him to comprehend the moral nature of the DivineBeing, which constitutes the basis of God's relationswith man: "And when he passed before him, he said :O the Lord, the Lord God, merciful and gracious,patient and of much compassion and true, Who keepestmercy unto thousands : who takest away iniquity, andwickedness, and sin, and no man of himself is innocentbefore thee" (Exodus, xxxiv, 6) . For the rabbis, theconcept of this moral sanctity is connected with the ideaof purity, of aloofness from any sexual idea, and thusthe God of Judaism is opposed to the impure divinitiesof paganism. And because God regards impurity withhorror, previous purification is imposed also upon thepriests who approach the Temple or even on the indi-vidual member of the faithftxl who desires to pray . Itshould be noted that the sanctity of God is always givenin the Torah as the reason why the chosen race must beholy : (Lev . xi, 44) Sancti estote quia ego sanctus sum .

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Justice and goodness are therefore, according toExodus, the two elements of God's moral sanctity, andthe Tannaite exegesis bases thereon the alternative usein the Bible of the names of Yahweh and Elohim,Yahweh signifying God in his goodness, and Elohim theseverity of the judge .' This justice of God is, first of all,the assurance which men have that God will neverexercise the fullness of his might without previouslytaking into account the right of the least among them .The scene in which Abraham begs of God to spareSodom and Gomorrha if there be found fifty just menin the city (Genesis xviii, 23 ss) must be recalled . Butit is also the assurance that, in view of the respect forthe infinitely wise sovereignty of God, the violation ofthe law demands a punishment which, moreover, will befor the greater good of man . Hence the names of Judge,Master of judgment, which Judaism gives to God andwhich place him as the foundation of all order, therevealer of moral duty, the master of reward andpunishment.

Even when sentence has been pronounced, there isalways room for pardon because God is good . Notmerely is he good when he inflicts a punishment, butthe very moment of punishment is precisely when heshows pity . s The rabbis affirm that in the judgment,God always inclines in favour of man, and they showhow his warnings and chastisements are directed tobring the sinner to repentance . How can this goodnessbe squared with justice? That is the mystery . In anexplanation of Psalm xxv, 8, "The Lord is sweet andrighteous, therefore he will give a law to sinners in the

'Pesiqta, Edition of Buber, f., 164, quoted by Moore, Judaism,Vol . I, p . 387 .

2Philo, Quod Deus sit immutabilis . Ed. Mangey, I, 284 . Kai ov ,aovovStKdoas ' eXeel, axXa Kat 'eXe9]oaS &KdE,et,

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way," the commentator asks : "Why is God good?"And he answers: "Because he is just. And why is hejust? Because he is good. And how does he show theway to the sinner? By showing him the path of repent-ance ." 1 Nevertheless it must not be forgotten thatMaimonides excluded these moral attributes from thetrue and real knowledge of God . They teach us nothingof God, and simply mark the impression which God'sconduct in regard to us makes upon our souls . Itappears to be the case that modern Judaism makes itsown this conception of Judao-Spanish philosophy, 2and J. Weill gives very special approval to Maimonidesbecause he has carefully refrained from affirming posi-tively any other attribute of God than that of Beingitself.

AN OBJECTION: DO THE OLD TESTAMENT ANDJUDAISM WHICH Is ITS CONTINUATION, PRESENT

SOLELY A LAW OF FEAR?

This short exposition of Jewish theodicy would not becomplete if we ignored an objection to Judaism which isfrequently made . Bonsirven in his book Sur les ruinesdu Temple 3 has set it out with all its force . "The revela-tion granted to Israel is not merely monotheistic,entirely metaphysical and morally indifferent, but,according to an expression which is dear to moderns,the revelation of an ethical monotheism . God manifestshimself to men, above all, in order to invite them toimitate his own sanctity and provides them with themeans of so doing . These means are his law, a law o1sanctity which comes from a God which is thrice holyand is destined to constitute men in a like state of

'Quoted by Moore, Judaism, Vol. I, p. 393.'Friedlander, op. cit., p. 38 .3Lafoi d'Israel, p. 66 .

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sanctity. But will the creature not be crushed under thesuper-human weight of the divine will and its precepts?

The fear of failing in innumerable obligations and ofincurring the wrath of one's judge, will they not obli-terate filial confidence? Is not the religion of the OldTestament above all a religion of fear, love remainingcompletely reserved to the New? 1

The Jewish theologians themselves saw in this objec-tion an appearance of reason and the way in which theydefended themselves against it constitutes an admission :Schechter (Some Aspects of Rabbinic Theology, p. 23)writes : "According to the reproach made against us bymany theologians, God is too distant, the king of theUniverse is too cosmopolitan and the Father of heaventoo high for the Jewish mind, and is therefore an impos-sible object of adoration ." 2

It is certainly true that there exists in fact in Rabbinicliterature a very strong current which tends to make Godaloof from the world and men, and this current has itssource in the canonical books themselves . Yahweh is agod terrible and awe-inspiring ; and no man can see hisface without dying. He wreaks vengeance on his chil-dren unto the fourth generation for the sins of theirfathers, and his wrath when he is offended in person isterrible: "When one man sins against another, God isthe arbiter between them, but if it is against Yahwehthat a man sins, who can come between them as arbiter?"(I Sam. ii, 15-16) .

THE INEFFABLE NAME OF GODIt is dangerous to touch the ark, and a certain religious

fear forbids the writing and still more the uttering of thesacred name whereby God has revealed himself to

'Op. cit ., p . 81 ss.2Cf. a similar admission in Moore, Judaism . Vol. I, p. 423 .

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Moses. This name is entirely absent in Ecclesiastes andalmost completely in Daniel . In the second and thirdbook of Psalms, an editor has entirely replaced it bythat of Elohim . Was there at a given moment anyabsolute prohibition to pronounce the tetragrammaton?Moore (Judaism, I, 425) asserts that if the name ofYahweh thus fell into desuetude, it comes not fromany prohibition, but from the religious sentiment whichinsisted upon the avoidance of any abuse and anyprofane usage, and also from the fact that consequenton the triumph of monotheism, it was no longer neces-sary to say Yahweh-God, but simply to say God . Bethat as it may, it may simply be noted that the text ofLeviticus xxiv, 16, "And he that blasphemeth the nameof the Lord, dying let him die," is translated in the Sep-tuagint by: "He that shall pronounce the name of theLord, shall be punished with death ."'. Hence, at thatdate the prohibition was already in force . Josephussays explicitly (Antiq. Jud., II, 276) : God taught Mosesthe pronunciation of his name, which men do not nowknow. I have not the right to say it."

As a matter of fact, at the time of Our Saviour, the useof the name Yahweh was restricted to the official wor-ship of the Temple ; in the service of the synagogue,public reading or study-discussions, this name is re-placed by the magnificent titles which express theinaccessible grandeur and the incomparable sublimityof God. He is called the All-Highest, the Lord of Spirits,the King of Kings, the Lord of Heaven, the Holy One,the Blessed, the Eternal . Often indeed the divine nameis replaced by abstractions, Glory, Power, the Name, theWord, Heaven, etc., which tend still more to widen thedistance between God and earthly things. TannaiteJudaism was shocked by the anthropomorphic

"Ovoµatwv 8e rD 6voµa ,cvptov, Bavanp Bavarovo8w.

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characteristics given to God, and made an effort to doaway with them, and because it is read in Genesis vi,6, that God repented him, Philo wrote a whole treatiseentitled QuodDeus sit immutabilis .

Modern Judaism has inherited this negative traditionand out of respect for the ancestral custom, it refuses togive utterance to the unpronounceable . I

EVOLUTION OF THE CONCEPTION OF THE FEAR OFGOD

It is therefore not to be wondered at that this inacces-sible and unnameable God was at first surrounded by fearto such a pitch that this sentiment appears to sum up theentire religion . Fear, as the result of Genesis, iii, Io,Judges xiii, 22, and because it turns a man away fromevil, became the rule of relations with God (Proverbs 1, 7 ;Ps . cxi, I o) and Ecclesiastes sums up his commandmentas follows: "Fear God, and keep his commandments :for this is all man." The Jewish proselytes or evensimply the partisans of Judaism are "those who fearGod." 2 Even among the most perfect of the just, thisexaggerated fear of God is again found .

Modern Judaism has a better understanding of whatthis fear of God should be . Moore translates the Biblicalterm by "respect" 3 because he says that in this wordthere is something of fear, but a something which, at thesame time, is not incompatible with love. L. Stern4 usesthe word "veneration" (Ehefurcht) and gives this expla-

1J. Weill, Le Judaism, p. 99. This exaggerated scruple has, inmore than once instance, developed superstition and substituted forthe cult of a God from that moment inaccessible, the cult of inter-mediary powers . It has been a factor in changing the mysteriousname of Yahweh into a magical formula, the mere pronouncing ofwhich worked wonders . Cf. Lebreton, Histoire du dogme de la Trinitd,Vol . I, p . 549ss.

'Cf. 01 popouµevot Tou Be6v .

sOp. cit ., Vol. II, p . g6 .'Die Vorschriften der Thora, 6th Edition, 1929, p . 4! .

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nation : "It is not the servile fear which trembles beforepunishment, but rather the filial fear of offending God,which comes from knowledge of the sublimity of Godand the feeling of our own wretchedness ." This fear isobviously nothing more than perfect submission to God .It is necessarily accompanied by joy according to Psalmii, I I : "Serve ye the Lord with fear ; and rejoice untohim with trembling." The last words teach that joyconducts the service of God to its completion .

VENERATION AND LOVE OF GOD

How is this impossible union of fear and love to bemade real? By love, which is based upon attachment toGod and which must embrace all the spiritual faculties ofman and all his activity as well, according to the preceptwhich every Israelite recites twice a day: "Thou shaltlove the Lord thy God with thy whole heart, and withthy whole soul, and with thy whole strength" (Deutero-nomy vi, 5) : "This love manifests itself in the joyfulacceptance of the law : "Whosoever accepts the com-mandments through love is greater than he who acceptsthem through fear" (Sota 3 1 a), and he proves himself byhis filial faithfulness and abandonment in the hour oftrial : For ill as well as for good, he will bless the goodand beneficent God : for a piece of bad news, he willbless the judge of truth . . . . all the while with joy ;man must always sing of God . . . . and countevery thing he does well done (Berakoth 6o b) .

Finally, the height of love is for the truly faithful soul,not only to bless God in all things, but : "Before Him hewill make use neither of his hand nor his foot except forthe glory of his master, according as it is written : TheLord hath made all things for himself" (Proverbs xvi, 4) .Tos. Beraket. IV, i . This sentiment finds its classical

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expression in the consecrated formula : Everything mustbe done in order to "sanctify the name and to preventits profanation." "Profane not my holy name, that Imay be sanctified in the midst of the children of Israel"(Leviticus xxiii, 32) . Israel is therefore charged withsafeguarding the honour of its God . In order tofulfil this obligation, the faithful Israelite will bind him-self to keep all the prescriptions, even the most unimpor-tant. For this reason he will go as far as martyrdom :in times of persecution, he is allowed to transgress allthe laws, apart from committing idolatry, incest andmurder; but if a trifling violation is demanded with aview to the profanation of the name, it is better to die(Common Doctrine, Maimonides, Foundations II) : "Ifyou are bidden to give your life for the sanctificationof the name, answer : I give it" (PesigthaR . Kahana, 87 b) . 1

DECAY AND IMPOVERISHMENT OF THE JEWISHRELIGION

This doctrine is obviously very elevated, but it seemsto be the case that it must remain the apanage of thechosen people, to which the rest of humanity will not becalled. The doctrine of the love of God is in fact basedupon the strict bonds which unite Yahweh to his peopleof Israel . In many passages of Holy Writ, Israel is as ason to God: "Thus saith the Lord : Israel is my son, myfirstborn" (Exodus iv, 22), and no other expression isbetter able to render the love which God has conceivedfor his people, or persuade the latter to answer withentire confidence and affectionate submission to theseadvances on the part of God : "And now, 0 Lord, thouart our Father, and we are clay : and thou art our maker,

'Cf. Bonsirven, op. cit ., 85 ss ., summarizing the doctrine ex-pounded by Albo, Ikkarim, III, 31-37 .

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and we are all the works of thy hands . Be not veryangry, 0 Lord, and remember no longer our iniquity :Behold, see we are all thy people" (Isaias lxiv, 8 ss) .God is thus the father of the entire people ; but he is alsoin particular the father of all Israelites : this is the titleon which he demands their filial veneration, and whichhe recalls to them when they have sinned . On theirside, they address themselves to him as sons, and makeappeal to his paternal mercy.

At a later date, the faithlessness of many Israelites ledto a distinction in the very heart of the people who werethe sons of God, between the impious who no longerbelonged to God, and the just who could call him theirfather. This conception is chiefly obvious in Wisdom(II, 16-I8), but it is only in the Gospel that the dogmaof the divine paternity towards all the just, no matterwhat their race, was to reveal itself completely .'

In point of fact this doctrine of the divine paternitywas not to impose itself without a struggle, nor at a laterdate without some deviation . More often the seers of theapocalypses neglect it and the translators of the Targumsomit it in the Biblical texts. Nevertheless, starting fromthe end of the first century, the Rabbis became attachedto it and drew inspiration therefrom, but there is to befound in their expressions, as well as in their prayers, abarbarous exclusivism and at times an intolerable pride :"God belongs to Israel, as much as Israel belongs toGod." Eleazar ben Azaria interpreted in this sense thetext of Deuteronomy xxvi, I7-I8 ("Thou hast chosen theLord this day to be thy God, . . . and the Lord hathchosen thee") : In the same way, he made God say, "asyou recognized me as the one God in the world, so alsodo I recognize you as the one people upon earth ."Aqiba made the same commentary on Exodus xv, 2 : "I

'Lebreton, Histoire du dogme de la Trinitd, Vol . I, p . i to .

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wish to speak of the beauties and attractions of the HolyOne, blessed be his name, before all the peoples of theworld. For behold, the peoples of the world ask of theIsraelites (Canticle of Canticles v, 9) : "What manner ofone is thy beloved of the beloved, that thou hast soadjured us?" that thou shouldest set thyheartondying forhim, according as it is written (ib . I, 3) : "That is whythe young girls love thee," that is to say they love theeunto death;' and again (Ps. xliii, 22), "Because for thysake, we are killed all the day long ." See, you arebeautiful : see, you are heroes; come and mix with us!But the Israelites answer them : "Do you know him?We wish to tell you some of his graces. My beloved iswhite and ruddy" (Cant . v, Io) . When they hear thesepraises, they say to the Israelites : "We would go withyou, according as it is written (ib. vi, I) . "Whither isthy beloved gone, 0 thou most beautiful among women?Whither is thy beloved turned aside, and we will seekhim with thee?" But the Israelites answer them : "Youhave no part with him, but (ib . ii, 16) : "My beloved tome, and I to him" : and again (ib . vi, 3) : "I to mybeloved, and my beloved to me ."

The ardour of this religious faith cannot be mistaken,and the death of Aqiba says enough for its sincerity, butit is a waste of time to wish to conceal its exclusivism .This page which is so eloquent despite its subtleties, soimpassioned and savage, is worthy of him who was themaster and martyr of Judaism, but one is no less sur-prised that its author was the chief support of the falseMessias, the unhappy and cruel Bar-Kokebas . 3

lAgiba is here making a play on the words : 'almoth, the younggirls, and 'al moth, unto death .

2Mekilta, on Exodus xv, 2 (Translation of Winter-Wuensche,p . I22

3Many proofs of this exclusivism are to be found in : Strack-Billerbeck, Kommentar zum Neuen Testament aus Talmud and Midrasch,III Band ., p . 139, ss.

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Still less can it be denied that this narrow and jealousidea of God impoverished the religion of Israel . I

THE PLACE OF NONJEWS IN THE REVEALEDRELIGION

This religion whose prophets had opened to humanitysuch vast perspectives was indeed impoverished . WhenM. Aime Pallicres wished to embrace Judaism, andsought advice from the famous Rabbi, Benamozegh,the latter frankly dissuaded him, and simply inducedhim to practise Noachism, saying : "That is the religionpreserved by Israel for transmission to the Gentiles." 2Accordingly for those who do not belong to the Jewishrace, centuries of revelation of a splendid dogmatic andmoral wealth will remain a closed treasure . Israelalone, the priestly race, can enjoy it . For the others itremains to be proselytes at the door with that naturalreligion which consists in a strict minimum of moralobligations and the adoration of the one God, known byreason alone .

THE ANGELS

In addition to God, Jewish theology admits the exist-ence of angels.They are, like men, creatures of God, but creatures

who possess no body. The good angels are the messengersof the All-Highest, they constitute his court and are thebenefactors of mankind . There are wicked angels, andit was one of these, who, owing to jealousy, seducedAdam and Eve. Nevertheless in no passage of Scriptureis the devil conceived of as being an evil principle,independent of God . The Apocryphal Books, theMichnah and the Talmud, enlarged upon the very

'Cf., Lebreton, Histoire du dogme de la Trinitd, Vol. I, p . 1¢¢ ss.'Aime Pallieres, Le sanctuaire inconnu, p. 133 .

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sober data of the Bible in an amazing fashion, and upto the Middle Ages, the most fantastic legends on thesubject of good and bad angels found credence in theJewish world. They occupy a considerable place in thecabbalistic speculations, and they are again to be foundeven in the official prayers .

However, especially since Maimonides, the worship ofspirits and speculation about them have suffered aneclipse . Official conservative Judaism is content to say,on this topic, that the angels are messengers of God, thatall worship of latria in their regard is forbidden, andthat it is forbidden to pray to them . As for the wickedangels, they are not to be feared .' In his books onmodern Judaism, J . Weill does not speak of angels, andthe Israelite Catechism which is most commonly usedin Paris, 2 does not mention them at all .

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Lagrange, Le Judaisine avant Jesus-Christ. Bousset, DieReligion des Judentums im neutestamentlichen Zeitalter .Bonsirven, On the Ruins of the Temple . J. Weill,Lafoi d'Israel; Le Judaisme . J. Albo, Buch Ikkarim,Grand- and Glaubenslehren der mosaichen Religion . DasBuch Kusari des Jehuda ha-Levi, - von David Cassel,5th edition, Berlin, 1922 . A. Marmorstein, The OldRabbinic Doctrine of God, I ; The Names and Attributesof God. Friedlaender, Die Judische Religion . K.Kohler, Grundriss einer systematischen Theologie desJudentums. G. Foote Moore, Judaism in the FirstCenturies of the Christian Era . Judaism in the NewTestament Period, R. Travers Herford .

'Friedlaender, Die Judische Religion, p. 195 .'Catdchisme oz., Elements d'instruction religeuse et morale a 1'usage de

la jeunesse israelite, par S. Debrb, Grand Rabbin, Paris, Durlacher,1931 .

I

CHAPTER VI

THE VOCATION OF ISRAEL AND MESSIANISM

The Election of Israel.-Her special Alliance with God.-Her Vocation : Israel, the Priestly People. Her Claimsto be the Light and Salt of the World.- The Redemptionand Restoration of Israel by the Messias .-The PersonalMessias, the Saviour of Israel. Evolution of the JewishFaith on this Subject .-What the Jews think of Jesus .

I BELIEVE with a perfect faith in the coming of theMessias, although it may be deferred, and I hopeevery day that he will come . (Art . 12 .)

I believe that Israel has been chosen by God as hisanointed servant, to proclaim his truth among thefamilies of humanity, and although despised anddepreciated among men, to continue as his witness,until through him shall come the kingdom of peace,of moral perfection and of the fulness of the knowledgeof God, the true community of the children of theliving God. (Formulary of Margolis.)

Maimonides, who above all takes his stand on themetaphysical point of view, has not rendered explicit,at least in his credo, his belief in the special mission ofIsrael, but it is to be noted that, whether formulated ornot, this belief is again found everywhere at the basisof the Jewish religion, whether it is a question of con-servatives or liberals . These latter, even those who no

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longer believe in a personal God and who have entirelyrejected the burden of the Torah, profess the specialvocation of the Jewish people.' For some it is a questionof the mission of the Jewish people to make known tothe world, the One God: for the others to realise inhumanity a new religion which is reduced to the reignof truth, of justice and of peace .

THE ELECTION OF ISRAEL

It was with Abraham that God began to realize thisalliance . To this end God made Abraham leave hiscountry and his family in order to lead him into acountry which would be possessed by his descendants :"And I will make of thee a great nation, and I willbless thee and magnify thy name, and thou shalt beblessed" (Genesis xii, 2) . And in proportion as theevents occur, the promises become more precise .Palestine was to be the land of the children of Abrahamand his posterity was to be numbered like the dust ofthe earth . A solemn sacrifice similar to that whichconsecrated an important contract, sanctified thisalliance between the patriarch and God : "That dayYahweh made a covenant with Abram" (Genesis xv,18, ss) . This is why a son is given to Abraham (Genesisxvii, Ig ss) : "Thy wife shall bear thee a son and thoushalt call his name Isaac. And I will establish mycovenant with him for a perpetual covenant, and withhis seed after him ." Of this covenant, circumcision-aseal applied to the flesh and the Sabbath, a seal appliedto life-were the signs (Genesis xvii, 10-13 ; Exodus,xxxiv, 27-28) . The notion of a special vocation isaffirmed in Jacob . Second by birth, he became the

'P . Paraf. Israel, 1931, Ch. III ; Il namozegh, Israel et l'HumanitB,p. 281 SS .

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first by a providential choice, Israel, "the first-born ofnations."It was, however, especially on Sinai during this

period of forty years of a nomadic life in the desert,which was to be for Israel as it were the noviciate of hernational and religious life, that this alliance becameaccentuated and took its definite form . Exodus vi, 6 :"And I will take you to myself for my people ; I will beyour God"; Leviticus xxvi, I I-12 : "I will set my taber-nacle in the midst of you, and my soul shall not castyou off. I will walk among you and will be your God, andyou shall be my people ." God attached himself toIsrael by particularly close relations from which theother nations were excluded, and declared that Israelwas his property. Deuteronomy vii, 6 ss . : "Becausethou art a holy people to the Lord thy God . The Lordthy God hath chosen thee to be his peculiar people ofall peoples that are upon the earth ."Moreover, this covenant was renewed, and as in the

first instance, consecrated by a solemn sacrifice (Exodusxxvi, 1-8) . By virtue of this pact, Israel had faithfullyto observe the precepts of her God, give him the worshipwhich he himself had fixed, and which the nationsrefused him (Deuteronomy xxvi, 16-1g) . In return,God undertook to exercise a special providence inregard to Israel . He was their father, for it was he whocreated, fed and brought them up (Deuteronomy xxxii,6; Isaias i, 2) . He took them out of Egypt and broughtthem into a fertile land which He gave them as theirpossession (Exodus ii, 7-8 ; Leviticus xxvi, 3-13 ; Deuter-onomy xxxii, g-14) . Many a time during the courseof centuries was this covenant renewed (Deuteronomyxxix, 1, 12-14; Josue xxiv, 1-27 ; II Paralipomenon xv,2 ; xxiii, 16 ; xxix, 10 ; xxxiv, 31 ; I Esdras x, 3-4 ; IIEsdras ix, 38 ; x, 29 ; Isaias xliii, 6 ; xlix, 8) . This intimacy


1133

is like the tenderness of a shepherd for his sheep(Zacharias xi, 4) ; of a father for his child (Isaias i, 2 ss.) .

It is a veritable marriage between Israel and Yahweh(Osee i-iii; Jeremais ii, 2 ; iii, I) .1

ISRAEL'S SPECIAL COVENANT WITH GOD

The almost unanimous teaching of orthodox Jewishtradition saw this covenant between Israel and Goddescribed and symbolized in the Canticle of Canticles(cf. Albo, Ikkarim, p . 403) . If some teachers stress andinsist upon the virtues of Israel, her spiritual qualitiesand interior dispositions which predestined the nationto this choice, 2 if others, especially in the past, emphasizethe merit of the fathers (Jeremias, Sanhedrin, 27 d.), andalso that of the mothers (Siphra, 112 c.), most Jewishtheologians attribute this choice to a gratuitous act oflove on the part of God : "The word Kheched is usedwhen one gives one's love to another without any reason,

'If this book were a controversial work, which it has no intentionof being, this would obviously be the place to note the texts whichmark the abrogation of the ancient Covenant, while still maintain-ing the special mercy of God in regard to Israel . The chosen peoplehave violated the Covenant (Osee, vi, 7 ss ; Jeremias xi, 10 ; xxxi, 32) .The ancient Covenant shall be abolished (Isaias Ivi, 1-8 ; lix, i-2o) .There will be a new Covenant, the fruit of repentance, and anotherTestament (Isaias lxvi, 7-14; 18-24), and Yahweh will even choosepriests and Levites among the nations, jeremias viii, 8 ss ; xxxi, 34 .The ancient Covenant was merely transitory, the new will beeternal (Aggeus ii, 6 ss) . St . Paul has well stressed what belongs toIsrael : Romans ix, 3-5 : "For I wished myself to be an anathema fromChrist, for my brethren: who are my kinsmen according to the flesh :Who are Israelites : to whom belongeth the adoption as of childrenand the glory and the testament and the giving of the law and theservice of God and the promises. Whose are the fathers and of whomis Christ, according to the flesh," but in Hebrews, he shows the con-trast between the two covenants, the abrogation of the ancient andthe superiority of the new . (Hebrews iii, x, i8) .

'K. Kohler, Grundriss einer systematischen Theologie des Judentums,P. 247 .

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for example, when one loves a particular woman morethan another even though the former is more beautiful. . . so it is with the love of God for Israel, a pure loveof complacence, without any motive" (Ikkarim, p. 402) .His love is therefore gratuitous . In memory of thewords of Deuteronomy vii, 6 ss .: "If Yahweh is joinedunto you and hath chosen you . . . it is because Yahwehhath loved you," the official prayers of the Synagoguenever cease to repeat ; "0 Eternal, 0 God, Thou haltloved us with a great tenderness . . . . Be praised, 0Eternal, who in Thy love, hath made choice of Thypeople of Israel."'

This covenant was also to be perpetual, according tothe promise which God made thereanent to Abrahamwhen announcing to him the birth of Isaac: "And I willestablish my covenant between thee and me and betweenthy seed after thee in their generations, by a perpetualcovenant." The Jewish theologians also recall the textof Deuteronomy v, 3 : "He made not the covenantwith our fathers, but with us who are now present andliving." And again, Deuteronomy xxix, 13-14 : "Neitherwith you only do I make this covenant and confirmthese oaths, but with all that are present and that areabsent." Thenceforward, whatever might be the sinsof his people God was to maintain his covenant. "Heforgets the faults and retains only the merits" (PesiqthaRabbati, 146 a.) . Without doubt, Israel has sinned andwill sin again, and if her sins go beyond the limit, shewill be severely punished by God, but "in the propheticalportion of Deuteronomy and throughout all the dis-courses of the prophets this thought is once more found :no matter how guilty, misguided or faithless the 'stiff-necked' people may be, often rebellious and ungrateful,God will not, after the bitter punishments they have in-

'Rituel des prieres journahires, Edition Durlacher, p. 46.


1 35curred and suffered, complete their ruin and extinction ." IAlways there will remain a "residue," for the presenceof this residue in the world will be the proof that Godcontinues to support his people, and the dispersion ofIsrael over the earth will have for its purpose thesantification of the Gentiles and the expansion of theOne-God .

ISRAEL'S VOCATION :

ISRAEL, THE PRIESTLY PEOPLE

The fact is that Israel-the vine of the Eternal,capable of again bearing choice grapes-has a vocationwhich is not limited to its own destiny. It was chosen,according to the words of Isaias, in order to become "acovenant of the people, for a light of the Gentiles"(Isaias xlii, 5-9 ; cf. also xlix, 1-7) . By bringing togetherthese texts and many others which it would be too longto quote, on the one hand from the famous words ofthe introduction to the Decalogue : "And you shall beto me a priestly kingdom, and a holy nation," and onthe other hand, the no less famous text of Isaias liii, onthe servant of God, the man of sorrows, bearing the sinsof others (in which the rabbinic exegesis in general hasseen the personification of Israel), Jewish theology hasformulated the dogma of the special vocation and theuniversal mission of the Jewish people. 2

With this object, Israel is also by vocation the people-prophet, and the prophetic inspiration which governedthe ancient nabis, is found once more among thequalified master interpreters of the Torah . They "areconscious of doing nothing more than bringing to lightthe inexhaustible richness of the revelation, and they

1J. Weill, Le Judaism, p . 121 .2J . Weill, Le judaisme, p . 121 SS .

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feel profoundly that the spirit which formerly spoke tothe prophets, assists and supports them in their task .l

As a consequence of her mission, Israel is raised to aspecial dignity . Israel is the priestly people : "If thereforeyou will hear my voice and keep my covenant you shallbe my peculiar possession above all people, for all theearth is mine. And you shall be to me a priestly king-dom and a holy nation" (Exodus xix . 5-6) . Indeed inJudaism the rabbi is not a priest, he is a doctor, amaster who is charged with interpreting the law, withresolving certain moral and religious questions, but hedoes not enjoy sacerdotal powers, properly so called,like the sacrificing Aaronides of former days . It is, infact, every Jewish father of a family who is a priest,for "every pious household in Israel is like a templewhere the father, by means of the Kiddouch, the con-secration of the eve of the sabbath and feasts, by thebenediction of children, by the example which lie isbound to give, plays a quasi-sacerdotal role . 2

The people as a whole assume this priestly vocation,and it is sufficient to see the liturgical office of thesynagogue to become aware of the fact .

"It is part of our duty to praise the Master of theUniverse, to exalt the Creator of the world . He has nottreated us like other people ; he has not confused us withall the tribes of the earth . Our portion is not theirs, andour fate is not that of the nations, for we genuflect andwe prostrate ourselves before the King of kings, theHoly One, blessed be his name .' 13

1J . Weill, La foi d'Israel, p . 1 3 2-2J. Weill, op . cit., p. 135 .3Rituel des Prieres journaliares, Edition Durlacher, p . i 8o .

ISRAEL AND MESSIANISM 137

ISRAEL'S CLAIMS TO BE THE LIGHT ANT) THE SALT OFTHE WORLD

Israel is a priest and by that very fact is bound to amore saintly life . She constitutes "a saintly com-munity" (Mekilta, 35 a .) ; she is charged to sanctify thename, to bear witness to the eternal justice by martyr-dom if need be; she is, as it were, the sanctuary and thebearer of the divine sanctity, a sanctity which is toprove her fidelity, and which is to result in her separa-tion from other peoples, in order that she may preserve,in all its integrity, the deposit which has been entrustedto her. With this object God beings her not merely tothe natural law but in addition to a complete legislationwhich fixes her more entirely under the divine goodpleasure and which also isolates her in a jealous exclusiv-ism, in order to preserve her from all contamination . I

The Rabbi Benemozegh in his letter to Aime Pallierehas particularly insisted upon this point : "I will notcease repeating to you that the noachid is firmly setin the heart of the sole church which is truly universal,the faithful member alone of that religion, like the Jew,is the priest thereof, charged, do not forget it, withteaching humanity the religion of her laity, as he isbound, in what concerns him personally, to practise thereligion of the priests . . . . (p. 144) . You will be inerror, on your part, you will be taking a step backwards,if you become a convert to Judaism with the idea ofembracing the only true religion which is destined forthe whole of humanity. Such a conversion would bepossible-I do not say desirable-for you only if youtake Judaism for what it is, that is to say, by con-sidering it as a priesthood, which quite naturally pre-supposes another aspect of the same religion, another

'Bonsirven, op . cit ., p . 99 ss.

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law, if you prefer, call it christianity or noachism, asyou wish, on condition, be it understood, that it berevised and corrected by the Israelite priesthood . . . .(p. 146). I should not like to abandon the exposition ofthis point which is so important, of this vital doctrineof true Judaism: the possible and harmonious co-existence, let us say, the necessary interdependence ofthese two aspects, of these two elements of the Churchof God, the Israelite priesthood and the lay organizationor noachid which is that of the non Jews" (p. 14.6 ss.) . 1

THE REDEMPTION AND RESTORATION OF ISRAEL BY THEMESSIAS

But if Israel has really been chosen for a universalmission of truth and justice, when and how is she toarrive at the fulfilment of her vocation and the establish-ment of the kingdom of God? When and how are thepeople and individuals to receive the just reward of theirmerits and demerits, when is the era of justice proclaimedby the prophets to come to pass? 2 Here is the answerwhich Judaism gives to this question : "All that willcome to pass, by a redemption and restoration of Israel,which will be the work of a messias ."

'Aime Palliere, Le sanctuaire inconnu. Hyacinthe Loyson repliedon this point to Palli6re . "The point on which, I, for my part, amnot convinced, is the perpetuity of the priesthood of Israel and theethnic law of which she has the custody . It seems to me that thereis in this a sort of Jewish ultramontanism which jealously isolatesitself from the rest of men with the claim to render them subjectthereto . I should willingly say, with St. Paul : "There is neither Jewnor Greek," adding instead of "in Christ Jesus" in God and inhumanity. Israel always retains the glory of having kept for hu-manity and transmitted thereto the treasure which she did notappreciate : God, the moral law, and the future kingdom of justice .I would indeed be a proselyte of the Gate, but not the gate of anational temple, but of a universal temple into which the King ofglory is to enter" (13th January, igo8) . Op . cit ., p. z8 z .

'Bonsirven, op . cit ., p. 175 .


139In days of mourning and tribulation the Jews have

always had for their consolation and hope the promisesof the Old Testament. "In that day I will raise up thetabernacle of David that is fallen : and I will close upthe breaches of the walls thereof and repair what hasfallen : and I will rebuild it as in the days of old . . . .I will bring back the captivity of my people Israel: andthey shall build the abandoned cities and inhabit them ;and they shall plant vineyards and drink the wine ofthem: and shall make gardens and eat the fruits of them .And I will plant them upon their own land : and I willno more pluck them out of their land which I havegiven them saith the Lord thy God" (Amos ix, I I) .Similar texts are to be found again at every turn in thelater prophets, especially Zacharias, chapters i-viii . Forthe rabbis of the period which followed the taking ofJerusalem and the destruction of the Temple, thesetexts could signify only the re-establishment of thedynasty of David, the restoration of the holy city and ofthe sanctuary. The Chemone Esre gives substance to thesehopes and every day the devout Jew repeats : "Sounda great trumpet for our liberty and set up a standardto gather our dispersed brethren. Bring back ourjudges as in the beginning and our counsellors as ofyore and reign over us, thou alone ."

An episode in the life of Aqiba emphasizes the intensityof this faith and hope . Aqiba and some other rabbiswere going up together to Jerusalem . They saw ajackal emerge from the ruins of the Holy of Holies, andthey began to weep. But Aqiba laughed and when theyinquired the reason he answered : "Urias the priest said,'Sion shall be ploughed up as a field . Jerusalem shallbecome a heap of ruins and the mount of the Templea wooded height.' And Zacharias the son of Barachiashath said, `Old men and old women shall yet dwell

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in the streets of Jerusalem and every man with hisstaff in his hand through multitude of days. And thestreets of the city shall be full of boys and girls playingin the streets thereof.' As long as the prophecy ofUrias remained unfilled I could fear that the prophecyof Zacharias might not be fulfilled, but now that theprophecy of Urias is fulfilled, I hold it for certain thatthe prophecy of Zacharias shall be fulfilled to theletter . 'Aqiba, Aqiba,' cried the others, 'thou hastconsoled us, thou halt consoled us .' " (Makkoth, 24 . a.b .) 1

The Temple was thus to be rebuilt, and it may evenbe said that the solicitude of the Talmudists to preserveintact all the ritual tradition, presupposes the completereconstitution of the worship which could not existwithout the national sanctuary.

The prophet Isaias had said (ii, 3) : "For the lawshall come forth from Sion, and the word of the Lordfrom Jerusalem. And he shall judge the Gentiles andrebuke many people; and they shall turn their swordsinto ploughshares and their spears into sickles ." Rab-binic Judaism deduced from this that since arms wereto be changed into instruments of peace it was becauseIsrael, living in peace, was to reign over the subjectnations .

Lagrange has dealt severely with these flights offancy : 2 "Are these images to be taken in the symbolicsense, as if temporal happiness were there merely tomark a religious and moral transformation of mind?This was done by the Apostles, enlightened by theevidence of the spiritual realities of which they werewitnesses and partakers . . . . In the hypothesis that thetransfiguration of nature must be taken literally, it was,in the prophets, merely a consequence of regained

'Fleg, Anthologie juive, Vol . I, p . 206 ss.2Lagrange, Le Messianisme che ; les Juifs, p. 195 ss .


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innocence and an embellished renewal of the categoryinto which the first man had been placed. The inspiredbooks had therefore stressed the religious renovation ;the knowledge and service of God, his reign, with whichnature would be associated . It is not obvious that theRabbis grasped this point of view . Apart from one ortwo very remarkable exceptions . . . they gave free reinto their imagination, expanding at will such extra-ordinary descriptions that their very exaggeration is awarning not to take them literally . They are mentalextravagances without any charm of style. They aremeanderings on the island of pleasures, annoyingbecause they are serious, painful to the alien readerbecause this seriousness came from that immense pridewhich rendered plausible to Israel any extravagancedirected to her glorification ."The moderns, following Maimonides, believe in the

advent of a period of prosperity, of abundance, ofluxury, but within less marvellous limits ; they nolonger admit any modification in the natural order, asort of new creation, and they understand the oracle ofIsaias in a symbolic manner : "The wolf shall dwellwith the lamb, and the leopard shall lie down with thekid." (Isaias xi . 6 .) They keep to the opinion of the wisemen: "The sole difference between the days of theMessias and the present time consists in the independenceof Israel" (Berakoth, 34 b.) . 1 This is why the prayers ofIsrael repeat without ceasing this same hope : "May oureyes see thy return to Sion by means of thy mercy .Praise be to thee, 0 Eternal, who shalt establish thesojourn of thy glory in Sion ." 2

The religious community will also, itself, be restored .God, dwelling in the midst of his people, will sanctify

'Bonsirven, op . cit ., p. 183.'Rituel des prieres journalieres. Edition Durlacher, p. 230 .

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them and contract with them a new and eternal cove-nant which will never be violated . Moreover, thisreign of God will also be that of the Law, and the Lordhimself shall instruct his people. In the temple, splen-didly rebuilt, the sacrifices and liturgy will be resumedunder the direction of a new Aaron . The thought thatnauseating shambles of holocausts should ever be seenagain is repugnant to many of the moderns, but on thewhole the doctors rather rejoice in the thought that theworship of the Temple shall flourish again, augmentedby the practices of the synagogue .' No doubt, certaintheologians reject this hope of such a restoration ofIsrael, but Friedlander, one of the most prominentrepresentatives of conservative Judaism, reproachesthem with thus charging the teaching of the Bible andthe promises of the men of God with being false, orwith absolute ignorance of them. He does not, however,dare claim the reconstitution of the kingdom of Israelin Palestine: "Even were it to happen that a band ofadventurers should succeed by force of arms in recon-quering Palestine for the Jews, or in purchasing theHoly Land from its actual possessors, it is not in suchresults that we must see the realization of our hope ." 2He sees it, on the contrary, in the fact of promoting theprogress and the happiness of the nations in the midstof which Israel is called upon to live .J. Weill does not speak in a different strain : "The

redemption of Israel is, like the redemption of all humanfamilies, a prolonged work, in which everyone mustcollaborate on every day that God gives . Liberationthrough social justice of all the oppressed, and an ener-getic will for peace, such is the object of the culture whichis proper to Israel . The kingdom of God in this world,

'Bonsirven, op . cit ., p . 185 ss .'Die Judische Religion, p . 129 .


143if Israel fulfils its role, that is to say, if she maintainsherself by her own discipline and if she is on the watchto assist it by all means in her power and with all whichoccurs in the world in the direction of the plan sketchedout by the prophets.

"The social legislation of democracies, weekly rest,social insurance, protection of the weak, are certainlyand increasingly in accordance with the spirit of theseprecursors of ancient Judea . . . ."

We have, however, travelled far from the Phariseeswho had nothing but contempt for "the people of theearth," and from Tannaite and Amoraite rabbinism,the authentic representative of true Judaism .

EVOLUTION OF THE BELIEF IN THE MESSIAS

How is this restoration of Israel to be accomplished?In the primitive faith of Israel, in the faith of conserva-tive Judaism, by a personal Messias : "I believe with aperfect faith in the coming of the Messias, and althoughit may always be deferred, I count every day upon hiscoming (Maimonides, Art I2) . The Old Testament, infact, in various forms, leaves no doubt on this point .Israel and the world will owe their salvation and theirredemption, after God and through him, to a chosenperson, a divine messenger, a great prophet consecratedfor this office by an anointing similar to that which thekings and priests used, in a word, to a Messias (Mdchidh,Aramaic, Mechiah, Greek Xptorrog, Latin, unctus, anointedconsecrated) . It is to him that the eyes and hopes ofIsrael were raised in the hour of national trial, and inthe days when the courage of individuals flinched underthe burden of misery. This hope so widespread in thefirst century, that pagan authors, like Tacitus andSuetonius, in speaking of the Jews treat it as an accepted

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belief, assumed very different forms . In the writings inwhich the categories of Greek thought have crystallizedthe Jewish religion, like those of Philo and Josephus,where the necessity of humouring the Roman conqueroris felt, the image of the Messias is vague and nebulous .On the other hand, in the literature which is reallynational and popular, as in the heart of every faithfulIsraelite, the Messias occupies a considerable place,sometimes even preponderating, and the idea which ismade thereof dominates and even colours that of theKingdom of God. He is the great one who is awaitedand desired, who is to restore all things : in the bookswritten at the height of the Macchabean epoch, he isseen in the prolongation of the priestly and royal race"through whom salvation is arrived in Israel." He comes,to tell the truth, to complete the work of Judas Mac-chabeus, of his brother Simon, and of John Hyrcanus .While completing it, at the same time he brings it to itsultimate consequences, goes beyond and surpasses it incertain characteristics . These characteristics have con-tinued and become more emphatic in later writings, atthe same time as the human solution was waning .' He isa judge in the writings in which preoccupation with lastends plays a dominating part, a warrior-king in thosewherein the character of the temporal triumph is moremarked, he is always one or other, and as such, liberator,saviour, redresser of wrongs and restorer. As a matter offact, whether it be judge of men, liberator king ofIsrael, prophet who teaches the sacred laws of Yahweh,apart from these characteristics which are fairly con-stant, the image which is made of the Messias is varyingand different, pushed most frequently to what is fan-

'Cf. in particular in the xviith Psalm of Solomon, a very nobleexpression of this awaiting, which is a faithful echo of the ancientprophecies .


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tastic or to what is material. Everyone in the ancientprophecies chooses and interprets in accordance with hisdesires and the fulness of his heart . It should, however,be observed that in the second part of the book of theprophecies of Isaias and in other prophets there is a clearand well defined treatise which neither the most famousrabbis, nor the seers of the apocalypses nor the psalmistswere able or willing to discern. The austere figure of the"Servant of Yahweh," of the suffering Messias andredeemer, remained under a shadow, an enigma toimperfectly opened eyes, and a scandal to minds thatwere still fleshly . The sources of Jewish theology prior toChristianity appear to know nothing of a sufferingMessias . 1

It appears to be the case that rabbinic Judaism pre-ferred especially to consider the human and nationalside, and that after having explored all the avenues,Jewish thought came to a halt at the hope of a greatking, a descendant of David, devout and wise, endowedwith supernatural gifts and invested with extraordinarypower . The average opinion of Judaism, such as itbecame crystallized towards the beginning of the thirdcentury of our era, is perfectly reproduced in thePhilosophmena : "they say that he (the Messias) willspring from the race of David, not from a virgin and theHoly Ghost, but from a woman and a man, according tothe manner of all men, saying that he will be their king,a warlike man and a powerful : after having reunited allthe nation of the Jews, after having fought all nations,he will raise up once more Jerusalem, their capital,where he will assemble all the nation, and accordingto the ancient customs, he will restore it once more,reigning and exercising the priesthood and living insecurity for a long time : afterwards there will be an

'Cf., L. De Grandmaison, Jesus-Christ, Vol . I, p . 275 ss .x

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alliance for the purpose of making war against them :then the Messias will perish by the sword, then will takeplace the consummation and conflagration of all things,and there shall be accomplished what is held concerningthe resurrection, and the resurrection will be settled foreveryone according to his works ." 1

THE PERSONAL MESSIAS, THE SAVIOUR OF ISRAEL

On this point as on many others, the faith of Israelhas undergone some diminution. Maimonides still said(Kings xi, I) : "He who does not believe and hopeth notin him (the Messias), is an apostate," and in the twelftharticle of his credo, he inserted the belief in the Messias .Three centuries later, Albo refused to constitute thisarticle as one of the foundations of the Jewish faith,although, at the same time, recognising therein an addi-tional belief which everyone who is faithful to the law ofMoses, must admit as one of the consequences of the lawof retribution . Conservative Judaism still attempts, atthe present day, to maintain this faith in a personalMessias. 2 Stern proclaims a Messias who will rebuildJerusalem and the Temple, by whom the Torah willbecome obligatory on the world, and through whom allhumanity will confess the One God . s Friedlander speaksespecially of the restoration of Israel through the meansof a Messias, without however, insisting on this Messias .He concludes by saying that it is useless to search forknowledge of when the Messias will come and that theduty of every devout Israelite is to have confidence inGod, in his goodness and omnipotence . 4 The prayers of

'Philos. IX, 30 .2J. Bauer, Foi et Reveil, V, p. 203 .3Die Vorschriften der Thora, p. 34 .'Op. cit ., p . 125-130 .


147the synagogue are more explicit and in the ChemoneEsre the following is repeated every day: "Gladden us,0 Lord, our God, by the prophet Elias, thy servant, andby the reign of the house of David, thy Messias . May hecome soon, that our hearts may rejoice . That no strangermay be seated upon thy throne, and that no other maypossess thy glory. For, by thy holy name, thou hastsworn that thy torch shall never be extinguished, no,never. Blessed be thou, 0 Lord, the shield of David ." 1

The continuation of such invocations and of a hundredsimilar ones presupposes in the hearts of the Jews, thepreservation of faith in a personal Messias . It is taughtin the works of orthodox Judaism and every genuinebeliever professes that "as long as Israel shall live herfaith, God will raise up the Messias, a pure man whowill draw his strength from the divine life ." 2

What are the traditional data which are still retainedon this point? It is affirmed that the Messias will haveprecursors and in particular Elias . He is called in theprayers: horn of salvation, Messias of the justice of God,King-Messias, son of David ; all of which appellationssummarize definite conceptions on the lineage, qualityand activity of the hero who is awaited . If certainrabbis like to recall his pre-existence and his intimaterelations with God, the generality of doctors, on thecontrary, stress his care to affirm and prove that he willhave nothing of the superhuman, and Maimonidesrefuses even to the Messias the power to draw atten-tion to himself by miracles . All his activity will berestricted to gather together the dispersed of Israel, torestore the national life, Jerusalem, the Temple and its

'According to the Babylonian rescension, the text of which isstill used in the modern prayers .

'J. Bauer, Foi et Resell, p . 203, quoted by Bonsirven, op . cit .,p . 191 .

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liturgy, to lead the world to the worship of God, and torestore all its importance to the Torah . It is obviousthat these exact statements are directed against Christiandoctrine and in particular against the doctrine of Jesusthe Messias, the Son of God and man of sorrows, whoredeems the world by his death .'

EVOLUTION OF THE JEWISH FAITH ON THIS POINT

The reason for the diminution in modern Judaism ofthe belief in a personal messias must obviously be soughtin this deep-set opposition which has become almostinstinctive. In his Catechism 2 the chief rabbi, S . Debre,does not mention the Messias and he explains in this wayArticle 12 of the formulary of Maimonides : "When themessianic times come about, we shall recognize them,according to our prophets, by this sign : truth, justice andgoodness will reign throughout the whole universe, warand disputes will have disappeared . In a word, menwill recognize only one God, and will form only onesingle family." Like many of the moderns, he reducesall Messianism to the idea of the Kingdom of God, anddropping even the national point of view, he retainsonly the universal manifestation in justice and in peaceof the divine sovereignty. In his Esquisse d'une doctrinejuice, 3 Rabbi D. Berman does not even mention messia-nism. The opinion of J . Weill gives a fair account of theaverage thought of many Jews : "The modern epoch,from the emancipation up to our own day, has addedto, or substituted for, the traditional conceptions ofmessianism, aspects which are new . The religiousequality proclaimed by the nations which have adopted

1Bonsirven, op . cit., p. 192 .'Catechisme ou Elements d'instruction religieuse et morale a l'usage de

la jeunesse israelite, 6th Edition, 1931 .'Paris, 1924.


149the principles of the Revolution, has had a greatinfluence upon the eschatological beliefs of the Jewishfaith . . . . The traditionalists have retained the ancientprayers with their messianic formulas, but interpretthem with a certain breadth, stressing especially theuniversalistic sentiments which are expressed with suchamplitude in some of the pages of the prophets and insome of the essential New Year prayers ." 1

Hence it would appear that, for an authentic Jewishmind, either the Messias can be only a triumphant king,who by his conquests and the brilliance of his reign willexalt Israel by bringing her universal hegemony, or elsethe chosen people, Israel, will herself be her Messias,justice and peace will reign through her in the world,and she will have the benefit thereof. But if, after somany centuries, the prophecies are not realized, despitesuch formal promises, since God is incapable of deceiv-ing his people, it is because the people are deceivingthemselves in still awaiting the apparition of a Messiaswho has already come .

WHAT THE JEWS THINK OF JESUS

Judaism has witnessed the emergence from its bosomof a new religion which was to paralyze its own pro-paganda. It was called upon to make a pronouncementon the messianism of Jesus of Nazareth. What has beenits attitude to him who was to win souls under the nameof Christ, and to his disciples? How does it now con-sider him after the lapse of nineteen centuries?

Strange as it may seem, Judaism as such has no officialopinion on the Prophet of Nazareth, because it has noliving centre from which a common doctrine emanates,

'La Foi d'Israel, p . 170 . In his last work, Le Judaisme, this eminentrabbi supports still more and seeks increasingly to justify this widemessianism which is independent of a Davidic restoration .

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and in addition because no sufficiently powerful Israelitepersonality has been found to impose what he thinks .Every Jew, therefore, professes with regard to Jesus theopinion, if he has one, which he considers the result ofhis studies or personal meditations, when it does notarise from his prejudices, whether conscious or other-wise. It should also be noted, extraordinary as it mayseem to us, that many Jews have never heard of Jesus .'

It is certain that in the first centuries, the generalfeeling of most Jews towards Our Saviour was one ofbitter hatred, and the evidence preserved in the Talmudis a collection of odious fables which do not possess eventhe excuse of verisimilitude . Moreover the life of Jesus issometimes brought back to the time of AlexanderJanneus (104-78 B.C.) sometimes to the time of RabbiAqiba (d . A.D. 132) or even more recently. The sub-stance of this odious caricature, insulting to the BlessedVirgin, which treats Our Saviour as a magician, anidolator and a blasphemer, condemned to be hung onthe eve of the Pasch, were at first edited in Aramaic,possibly in the sixth century . At the beginning of themiddle ages, a pamphlet with the title Toledoth Jesuu

'David Baron, a converted Jew, who became a missionary amonghis former fellow Jews, relates a curious anecdote on this point .He was on the banks of the Vistula, meeting merchants who wereGalician hassidim, when he took from his pocket a copy of the NewTestament in Hebrew, and asked them if they had already had anyoccasion to see such a book, and if they knew what it dealt with .One of them, having read the name, Jeschua (Jesus), interpreted it asif it was a question of Josue, while another, after turning over thepages and seeing familiar and venerable Biblical names like Abra-ham, Moses, David, etc ., raised the book to his lips and respectfullykissed it . Another day, Baron had a long discussion with a Jew fromthe same country where Israelite piety has survived . The latter wasrich and well educated. Having read the New Testament, he wascharmed by it : "But, said he, I do not see what relation it has to theChristians who surround me. .

Quoted by P. Vulliaud, "Ce que les Juifs pensent de Jesus," in theMercure de France, 1st December, 1927, p . 313 ss .


1 5 1

(Generations (life) of Jesus) was in circulation . It goeswithout saying that no Israelite critic would still think ofusing these fabrications, but the Toledoth are still pub-lished in the ghettos of Poland and the Ukraine, and itcan be said that, up to the middle of the nineteenthcentury, this book has poisoned and dominated theJewish mind, steeling it in a hateful hostility .

To mark out the route which leads from the ancientlegends to modern Judaism, it is sufficient to recall theopinion of the two greatest and most independentthinkers that Israel has produced in the course of ten ortwelve centuries . Maimonides, towards 1175, in hisgreat work, Mischneh Torah, the second Law, expresseshimself on Jesus Christ in terms which are clear butmoderate . If the Judaizing philosophy sees in him adupe who is gravely culpable, he recognizes that themovement of ideas provoked by Christianity must beinterpreted as a providential preparation for the realMessias.' These views presage those of Baruch Spinoza .The latter, in his Theological-Political Treatises (1670) andin his letters, speaks of Jesus with honour, not indeed as aGod, but as a very great prophet, and even as one of thegreatest prophets . According to him, God has com-municated himself to men through the spirit of Jesus :"The voice of Christ can be called the voice of God, justas that which was formerly heard by Moses . And it canalso be said in this sense that the Wisdom of God, that isto say a superhuman wisdom, has assumed in Christ, ahuman nature. And that Christ is the way of salvation ."In a word, Jesus perceived so profoundly the things ofGod and expressed them so excellently, that he can becalled "not so much a prophet as the very mouth ofGod." We must not, however, be deceived in this .

'Mischneh Torah, xiv, 6, translated by E . Fleg in Anthologiejuice, II, p . 6s ss .

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Spinoza was not a Christian . He saw in Jesus thegreatest of men, but still a man, and he admits theresurrection only in a spiritual sense . It still remainsthat the author of "the Ethic," officially excommunicatedby the Synagogue, but having continued to exercise avery profound influence on the elite among his formerco-religionists, opened in a striking fashion the waywhich has been taken by liberal Judaism .

In his History of the Yews (1856) Graetz presents Jesusas an Essene, completely occupied with moral reform,and very far from wishing to change anything in thecontemporary Jewish religion, but at the same time, hedoes justice to the loftiness of his character and thepurity of his life. With more science, the contemporaryauthors who have traced the figure of the Saviour in theJewish Encyclopedia, exhibit more critical penetrationand a like respect . The cause of his violent and unjustdeath was not a messianic claim, which he did not makepublic, but the authority which he arrogated in theteeth of the representatives of the legalism of his time :"Jesus of Nazareth had a mission from God ; he musthave had the spiritual power and qualities compatiblewith this choice."The most important effort made hitherto by an

orthodox Israelite to appreciate the person and work ofJesus is that of Rabbi J. Klausner in the work, writtenin Hebrew, Jesus of Nazareth, His life, times and teaching. 1According to this writer, "Jesus was like a Pharisee or aScribe, a Galilean Rabbi, a wandering preacher, butdifferent in certain characteristics : the preaching of theKingdom as at hand, the emphasis laid upon the moral

1Jeshu ha-Notzri, translated under the title : Jesus of Nazareth, hislife, times and teaching, by Joseph Klausner, Ph.D. (Heidelberg),Jerusalem . Translated from the original Hebrew by HerbertDanby, D .D. (Oxford), Residentiary Canon St . George's CathedralChurch, Jerusalem, 1925 .


153precepts to the exclusion of formalism, the original anddirect character of his teaching . . . . As an exponentof morality and spirituality no one in Israel ever equalledhim. His mistake was to neglect the earth, the social andnational categories, the letter which is necessary to thespirit: this exclusivism was bound to bring about therupture with his own people . From the point of view ofhumanity in general, Jesus has nevertheless been,Klausner concludes, a light to the Gentiles . But regardedfrom the Jewish point of view, Jesus could not be theMessias. He cannot even be regarded as a prophet, atleast in the national and political sense of the term . Heremains, however, for the Israelites an unrivalledmoralist, and the moral teaching of the Gospel remains"one of the most magnificent jewels of the literature ofIsrael throughout all ages ." Klausner's opinion cor-responds in fact to that which might have been formedby a Pharisee contemporary of Christ .The broad Judaism of C . G. Montefiore, to which

corresponds, but with a more radical colour, that ofRabbi Germain Levy in France, goes still further in theway of respect and veneration for the person of Christ .For Montefiore, Jesus was a prophet, "an authenticsuccessor of the ancient prophets, especially the greatpre-exilic prophets, Amos, Osee, and Isaias ." I

In the first of his commentaries, The Synoptic Gospels(London i gog), the author insists on the necessity for hisco-religionists of becoming familiar with this literaturewhich they have hitherto hated or ignored . The Jewsneed to read the Gospels for their religious development ;the religion of the Old Testament is there, developedand enriched at least on many points, and rabbinicliterature cannot make up for this ; many characteristics

'Cf. L. De Grandmaison, ,Jesus Christ, Vol. I, p . 7 ss ; Vol . II,p. 144ss.

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JUDAISMare lacking which are found in the Gospel, and aboveall the impression as a whole which is produced by thelife and doctrine of Jesus . I

In 1921, Brunner devoted a work to Our Christ, andon 22nd December 1925, Dr . S. Wise delivered a stirringsermon in his Free Synagogue in New York, in thecourse of which he declared: "Jews must accept theteaching of Jesus, they must recognize it as Jewish, theymust study his life . . . . The teaching of Jesus, the Jew,is a phase of the spirit which leads the Jew to God ."C. J. Montefiore and the Jews who follow him are,

moreover, opposed by orthodox and conservativeJudaism. In the first number of the Jewish Review,London, 1910, Friedlander declared that he was sur-prised and pained by the affectionate respect displayedby Montefiore for the person of Jesus, since the founderof Christianity is one of the worst enemies of Judaism .

In general the conservative rabbis wish to havenothing in common with Jesus, they erect an impassablebarrier between his doctrine and Judaism, and many ofthem share the opinion of D. Goldstein, who replied toWise's sermon by expressing the fear that these opinionsfavourable to Jesus would lead many Jews to baptism . 2

The thought of J. Weill in his most recent work, LeJudaisme, is more definite and one feels that "despitesuch generous and beautiful expressions of charity andhumility which are so close to the spirit of the AncientHillel," he keeps himself on the defensive against Chris-tianity and the person of Jesus . He tends to makeSadduceism, that is to say the High Priesthood and notthe Pharisees, responsible for the condemnation ofChrist, but, at the same time, makes the most explicitreservations on the veracity of the Passion by rejecting

1J . Lebreton in Recherches de science religieuse, Vol . I, 1910 ; cf., alsoVol. XI, 1921, p . 247, n .3 . 'Bonsirven, Sur les ruins du Temple, p . 1o8.


155all responsibility for the Crucifixion which was a purelyRoman torture. Personally he adheres to "the opinionwhich makes Jesus a historical personage who, perhaps,believed himself prophet or messias, but would haveconsidered his divinization as a sacrilege, and who pro-fessed no other theology than that of his people, andbelieved in the very near realization of the kingdom ofGod upon earth" (p . 212) . He sees in the moral andspiritual teaching of the Gospels merely "the very flowerof ethical monotheism of the religion of Israel" (p . 215),and he protests that "what prevents a completelypeaceful reading of writings like the Gospels" . . . . "isthe whole theological system of which the crucifixionhas become the pivot, and all the tragedy of Israel'sdestiny of which the drama of Calvary was the startingpoint and the cause. For the Christian, the cross is thehighest symbol of sacrifice and redemption ; we respecthis conviction . But for the Israelite, the cross is themournful recollection of bloody persecutions : an apos-tate Jew who would kneel before it, could inspire onlyaversion or grief to his co-religionists, however free fromall fanaticism" (p. 215) . 1

How much more in the tradition of the true Judaismof the Hillels and the Gamaliels is the appreciation ofthe American Rabbi H. G. Enelow, an expert Talmudist,

'It must not, however, be forgotten that the destruction of theTemple and the ruin of the state of Palestine were the work of Titusand the Roman emperors and not of the Christians . As for the per-secutions of which the Jews have been the object, they are undoub-tedly regrettable from every point of view . but the martyrdom of S .Stephen is the proof that they were not begun by the Christians.B. Lazare, an Israelite writer, in his work, L'AntisEmitisme, sonhistoire et ses causes, admits that all the wrong has not been on theChristian side, and that in many cases, such persecutions are dueinfinitely more to racial and economic causes than to religious causes .In view of the regrettable and incomprehensible expressions ofWeill, we may be allowed simply to quote the passage in which S .Paul gives proof of a totally different spirit : "I speak the truth in

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who, without abandoning anything of his ancestral faith,renders magnificent homage to Christ : "Nothing inhuman history equals the love which he (Jesus) inspires,the consolation which he brought, the good which heproduced, the hope and joy which he enkindled . Inhim was concentrated what is best, most mysterious andcaptivating in Israel, in that eternal people whosechild he was . The Jew can only glorify himself thatJesus did this for the world, and nothing will keep himfrom hoping that when the teaching of the Master isbetter known, when incomprehension shall cease to veilhis words and his ideal, Jesus will serve, some day, as alink between Jews and Christians ." 1

BIBLIOGRAPHYLagrange, Le Messianisme chez les Juifs (150 B.C.-A.D . 200) .

Le Judaisme avant Jesus-Christ. Paraf, Israel, 1931 .Benamozegh, Israel et l'Humanite. A. Kohler,Grundriss einer systematischen Theologie des Judentums.J. Weill, La Foi d'Israel; Le Judaisme . Bonsirven,On the Ruins of the Temple . A . Palliere, Le Sanctuaireinconnu (English version, The Unknown Sanctuary,Bloch Publishing Co., New York, 1928) . Fried-laender, Die jitdische Religion . L. De Grandmaison,Jesus Christ (English version, Jesus Christ, Sheed andWard, London, 1930) . P. Vulliaud, Ce que lesJuifs pensent de Jesus, in Mercure de France, 1stDecember, 1927, p . 313 ss .

Christ : I lie not, my conscience bearing me witness in the HolyGhost: That I have great sadness and continual sorrow in my heart .For I wished myself to be an anathema from Christ, for my brethren :who are my kinsmen according to the flesh : Who are Israelites : towhom belongeth the adoption as of children and the glory and thetestament and the giving of the law and the service of God and thepromises : Whose are the fathers and of whom is Christ, according tothe flesh, who is over all things, God blessed for ever ." Romans ix, t ss .

'A Jewish View of Jesus, New York, 1920 .

CHAPTER VII

MAN AND HIS DESTINY

The principle of individual retribution in Judaism opposed to thesolidary conception of the Old Testament.-The immor-tality of the soul in the Old Testament .-Original weak-ness but not original sin .-The freedom of man .--.Neces-sity of divine Grace.-Means of sanctification .-Sin.-The remission of sin and penance.-Merit.-Retributionof merits .-The disinterested service of God.-The beliefin future retribution in the Old Testament . Beatitudein the presence of God.-The resurrection.-The belief ofrabbinic Judaism on this point.-The beliefs of modernJudaism.-The tendency no longer to see an immortalityof soul except one based merely on philosophy .

I BELIEVE with a perfect faith that the Creator, blessedbe his name, rewards those who keep his command-ments and punishes those who transgress his com-mandments (Art. II) .

I believe with a perfect faith that the vivification(resurrection) of the dead will take place at the timewhen it shall please the Creator (Art. I3) .

THE PRINCIPLE OF INDIVIDUAL RETRIBUTION INJUDAISM OPPOSED TO THE SOLIDARY CONCEPTION

OF THE OLD TESTAMENT

It is certain that, in the ancient Israelite religion, theindividual was to disappear behind the tribe and that

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relations were much more established between God andhis people than between God and any individual man inparticular. The personal and religious interests of eachindividual, at least in so far as they appear to us through-out the Sacred Books, are kept in the background. TheHebrews had a tendency to consider their salvation asdepending principally on that of the nation, and toreckon for the participation of the messianic benefitsless on individual sanctity than on their belonging to thechosen people (Amos v, I8) . This state of mind, more-over, has not entirely disappeared, and it is with thisthat the conception of Israel as the salt and light of theearth, by means of which humanity is to be saved, is inpart connected .

The great pre-exilic prophets began to fight againstthis solidary concept (Isaias iv, 3; x, 20-22), but it isespecially to the prophets of the captivity, Jeremias andEzechiel, that the establishment of individualism as aprinciple of religion is due. In opposition to the threatsmade of old by Yahweh on Sinai to punish the sins ofthe fathers in their children (Exodus xx, 5 ; xxxiv, 7),they taught that henceforward the children would nolonger expiate the iniquities of their parents . No longerwould it be said : "The fathers have eaten a sour grape,and the teeth of the children are set on edge, but every-one shall die for his own iniquity" (Jeremias XXXi, 29-30) .Ezechiel especially (Ch . xviii) inculcated systematicallyand with detailed casuistry this doctrine of individualretribution, as springing from the strict justice of God .In this way, therefore, the experience of exile and theteaching of the great prophets gave Judaism the con-viction that the religious value of the Israelite did notdepend so much on birth, which associated him withthe people of God, as on individual perfection which hesecured by faithful attachment to Yahweh . Moreover,

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159

this individualism was still something merely relative .As long as it was believed that in Cheol all distinctionceased among the dead, and that all, whether just orsinners, shared the same fate, the value of the individualwould be considered too transitory to evince entirelywhat flowed from the privilege of belonging to the chosenrace. This is why, in the Gospels, we see the Phariseesstill presuming on their quality of children of Abraham .(Matt. iii, 9 ; John viii, 33 .) 1

THE IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL IN THEOLD TESTAMENT

On the subject of the human being himself, Judaismlong held to the conceptions of the ancient Israelitereligion . In the epoch which precedes the Christianera, Judaism made a distinction in man simply betweenthe soul and body, but whereas the latest books ofIsraelite literature still saw souls leading a miserableexistence in Cheol, more asleep than awake and with nodifference between the just and the wicked (Eccle-siastes ix, 5, 6, Io; Ecclesiasticus xvii, 27-28), theAlexandrian schools stress the spiritual character of thesoul . The latter, after separation from the body, notmerely retained its entire life, but continued to developit: "For the corruptible body is a load upon the soul :and the earthly habitation presseth down the mind thatmuseth upon many things" (Wisdom ix, 15) . Thisdevelopment is closely connected with that of eschato-logical ideas upon individual retribution in the otherworld .Lastly late Judaism associated the body with the

eternal fate of the soul through the doctrine of theresurrection .

'Dennefield, Le Judaism bibilique, p . 90 ss; p . 94 ss.

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JUDAISM

ORIGINAL WEAKNESS BUT NOT ORIGINAL SIN

In different places in the Old Testament, allusionsmore or less clear are found to a fall of human nature, ageneral corruption of humanity . In man there is anevil tendency (Yeser ha ra) which urges him to what isbad . This evil tendency resides chiefly in the body,although the body is not essentially evil. It comes fromthe sin of Adam and Eve : "From the woman came thebeginning of sin, and by her we all die" (Ecclesiasticus,xxv, 33) ; and again Wisdom ii, 24 : "But by the envy ofthe devil, death came into the world ." But Judaismdoes not know original sin in the proper sense of theterm, and the Jewish writings at the time of Our Lordfurnish no evidence of this belief. If they agree mostoften that the first sin had an unhappy effect upon thephysical world, that thereby death entered the world,and even, on the evidence of the later apocalypses, thata diminution of moral energies resulted therefrom, theydo not let it be understood that man is constituted asinner by the sole fact that he is a son of Adam, or inother words that spiritual death is transmitted fromAdam to his posterity . The essential element in originalsin is not found in these writings. Hence it can be ex-plained, to a certain extent, why the rabbis never sawin the Messias spiritual redemption, the new Adamwho was, by his sufferings and expiatory death, torepair the moral wounds which the disobedience of thefirst Adam had inflicted on humanity .' ModernJudaism has still more emphasized this opposition to the

'In the morning prayer, the Jew declares : "My God, the soulwhich thou hast put into me is pure ." Rituel des prihres journalidres,Ed., Durlacher, p. 5 . Cf., also Frey, "L'€tat original et la chute de 1'homme d'apr8s les conceptions juives au temps de J€sus-Christ,"dans Revue des Sciences Philosophiques et ThEologiques, 191 1, p. 507 ss.

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161

original fall . Weill simply says : "It is weakness and notsin which is original ."'

THE FREEDOM OF MAN

But this weakness of man in no way affects his liberty,and all the theologians insist on the idea, that at thebase of its moral system Judaism places above allliberty. They demonstrate its existence, attempt toharmonize it with the divine omnipotence and omni-science, and explain how man remains free despite thesolicitation of his passions . In thus professing liberty,Judaism keeps in the line of scriptural teaching . If themost ancient Sacred Books have no terms in which toexpress free will, that is to say the faculty possessed byman to choose between good and evil, they everywhereassume its existence, since they attribute to man res-ponsibility for his acts: Deut. xxx, 15-20 : "Consider thatI have set before thee this day life and good, and on theother hand death and evil . . . . Choose therefore life,that . . . . thou may live ."

Moreover, at the very beginning of Genesis, the pro-hibition made to Adam to taste of the fruit of the tree ofknowledge postulates freedom to obey and disobey, andif the Mosaic commandments direct man's conscience,they reserve to him the right of answering yes or no inaccordance with his free will. The theologians repeatthe text of Ecclesiasticus xv, 14: "God made man fromthe beginning, and left him in the hand of his owncounsel. If thou wilt keep the commandments and per-form acceptable fidelity for ever, they shall preservethee."

'Le Judaisme, p . 104, but what he adds on the pessimistic con-ception which the Church must have of a body to be despised, showsthat he has understood nothing of the doctrine of original sin inChristianity.

L

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The Pharisees therefore in this matter representauthentic Judaism, and Josephus, the historian, wasright when he attributed to them an opinion which har-monizes belief in providence with human liberty, Ant .XVIII, i, 3: "They (the Pharisees) think that God hastempered the decisions of his fatality to the will of man,in order that the latter may direct himself to virtue orvice. They believed in the immortality of the soul and inrewards and punishments given under the earth to thosewho, during life, practised virtue or vice, the latterbeing destined to an eternal prison, while the formerhad the power of rising again."' Rabbi Aqiba, in thesecond century, is the author of a shorter but analogousformula: "Everything is determined, but freedom isgiven" (Aboth iii, 1g) . Or again: "At man's birth, Goddecides whether he will be weak or strong, wise orfoolish, rich or poor, but not whether he will be just orwicked." (Nidda 16b) . 2 Maimonides (Guide iii, 17)put liberty at the basis of the Torah, and orthodoxJudaism sees therein one of the chief blessings which manhas received from the hands of his creator .J. Weill adds : "It happens that God helps him (man)

by his grace, to acquire them (the virtues which con-stitute the fear of God), to fight against the instinct of eviland its dangerous seductions, but nothing takes theplace of personal effort . The son of Adam is capablethereof, but especially he who is endowed with theTorah." s

THE NECESSITY OF DIVINE GRACE

If Judaism thus recognizes freedom, it also proclaimsthe necessity of divine grace . The evidences of this in the

'Cf. also Bell. Jud II, viii, 14 .$Cf., in J . F. Moore, Judaism, p . 454 ss, the many rabbinic

texts which establish this doctrine.

9Op. cit., p . i o8.

MAN AND HIS DESTINY

163Old Testament are innumerable . A large number ofprayers implore the mercy of God : Ps . cxxiv ; Esdras ix, 6 ;Daniel ix, 18 ss; Tobias iii, I ss; Job xxii, I4. ; Psalm ofSolomon v, 13 ss, etc ., and in these, expressions whichsolicit the goodness of God are abundant . The formulaof Exodus xxxiv, 6 : "0 the Lord, the Lord God, mercifuland gracious, patient and of much compassion andtrue . . . . " occurs again and again . Nehemiah ix, 17 ;Joel ii, 13 ; Jonas iv, z ; Ps. cxliv, 8, etc. And the motiveof God's mercy is given, on the one hand, as his omni-potence and sublimity, and on the other, the wretchedcondition of man, Ps . cxxix, 3; Si iniquitates observaveris,Domine, Domine, quis sustinebit?

THE MEANS OF SANCTIFICATION

The Synagogue could not neglect such indications inthe Sacred Books, and many prayers beg of God theassistance of grace . Admirable examples of this are tobe found in the official prayer-books. God has estab-lished other means in addition to prayer, above all thestudy of the Torah and good works : "Blessed are theIsraelites . When they are engaged in the study of theTorah and in works of charity, instinct is subject tothem and not they to instinct" (Aboda ,Zara, 5 b) .

Some of them finally, among the moderns,' recom-mend asceticism and the exercise of penitential prac-tices. But the divine assistance is assured to him whotries to be just : "He who endeavours to walk in the wayof righteousness, secures the aid of heaven" (Sabbath,Io4 a) .

'Cf., Jean De Menasce, Quand Israel aime Dieu, p. 8 ss., and thetractate : Purgation de la Religion, translated by the same author,p. 182 ss .

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SIN

As a consequence of man's being free and his capacityto choose between good and evil, and granted that he isweak and that his evil propensities can drag him down, italso follows that sooner or later, he will allow himselfto fall into sin . But from the fact of his liberty, man isfully responsible .Judaism on this point registers an advance on the

ancient conceptions . Every infraction of the divine law,whether voluntary or not, which is the result of invincibleignorance or inadvertence, constituted a sin . By stressingmoral dispositions in opposition to the purely ceremonialaspect, the prophets did much to correct ideas whichwere too rigid. Henceforward justice and the disposi-tions of the heart were alone to count . Something ofthose old conceptions remained in rabbinic Judaismfrom the first centuries of the Christian era . 1 The rabbis,however, insisted upon the necessity of intention(Y'awana) : "Every inadvertence removes or lessens cul-pability" (Sanhedrin ix, 2) . Proportionately therefore,religious acts were valuable or were valid fulfilment ofthe law, only in the measure that they contained anactual intention (Cheqalim, iii, 7), principles formulatedin a phrase frequently repeated: "The Merciful Oneseeks the heart ." 2

Sin consequently is conceived as a fully conscious andvoluntary violation of the divine laws ; as such, it isessentially a revolt against God. It is spoken of as chasingthe Chekinah from the world, it corrupts creation, andrepresents a fall for man. All Judaism, following thelater books of the Old Testament, admits similarly thereality and culpability of purely internal sins ; the inten-tion to commit a sin is an injustice (Baba mefia, iii, 12),

ICE, Moore, Judaism, I, p. 462 SS . 'Bonsirven, op. cit ., p . 159 .

MAN AND HIS DESTINY

165impure desires, even an erroneous conviction that theact posited is evil (Kelim xxv, g), the very thought issufficient to sully the soul (Kelim xxvi, 8, 9) : but on theother hand, to resist an evil desire is meritorious (Q;ddu-chim, 39 b, 4o a) .

In opposition to sin and as a complement thereto, theMigwah signifies not only the accomplishment of adivine precept, but a good action which entails merit ; togive alms, to assist at a circumcision, to accompany thedead, to console those who mourn, all that is to do amifwah . 1

Is this an effect of the fundamental optimism ofJudaism? Be that as it may, it is to be noted that modernJewish theologians refrain from stressing the subject ofsin. It is not mentioned, or, if referred to, it is merely toaffirm its pardon or the possibility of release by merit .

THE REMISSION OF SIN AND PENANCE

Jewish theology does not in fact admit that there canbe such a thing as an unpardonable sin . Even thegravest offences, apostasy, heretical interpretation of theTorah and non-circumcision can, according to therabbi, be pardoned . Before the destruction of theTemple, sacrifice for sin and the solemnity of expiationwashed away sins . From that time on, the rabbis taughtthat the merit of good actions (Yoma 23 a), prayer, thestudy of the law and works of mercy were just as effica-cious as the offerings in the Temple (Baba batra 9 a) .Repentance remained, however, the chief means,especially at Yom Kippour and at the hour of death, theteschouva, that is to say, the passage from iniquity tojustice, in a word, conversion .

Confession consists in the recognition of one's offence'Bonsirven, op . cit ., p . i6o .

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and the admission thereof before one's heavenly judgeand before men . This is why the liturgy of the synagoguemultiplies general confessions of the sins which can becommitted. It goes without saying that this accusationmust be made in complete sincerity and with the firmpurpose of avoiding sin and its occasions, a sinceritywhich is evidenced by one's conduct, otherwise repent-ance is vain (Taanith 16 a) .

Prayer to obtain the divine pardon must be added toconfession, and it is also fitting that it should be followedup by alms-giving . To produce all its effects, repentancemust be inspired by love and not by fear .

But all these acts would be useless were they not pre-ceded by reparation of offences committed against ourneighbour. God pardons offences offered to him ; hedoes not dispense from repairing the wrong done to one'sbrother, and from appeasing him by begging his pardon(Toma viii, 9, 87 a) . The benefit of repentance wasgranted especially to the chosen race : "Blessed are you,O Israelites, who shall be purified by your Father who isin heaven (Toma viii, 9) . But this grace is not denied tothe Gentiles, and the reading of the Book of Jonas on theday of Expiation, shows that, if guilt is admitted, thedivine grace of pardon is granted even to the mostabandoned men .

The modern, and to some extent modernist, theoristsof Judaism insist no less on repentance, but in a quitehuman sense : it is not to await the divine pardon, but tochange one's conscience ; it is not God who must modifyhis conduct or plans in our regard, but man whobecomes reconciled to himself; to appease the wrath ofGod means to come closer to him, by a return to com-plete righteousness in sentiment and act .'

'Cf. Bonsirven, op . cit., p. 165 ss ., summarizing all the receiveddoctrine according to Maimonides, Penitence, and Albo, Iggarim,IV, ch. 25-28 .

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MERIT

The best means of redeeming one's sins is also toacquire merit. God reigns in justice . By reason of thegood done by man, of the merit acquired by him, Godpardons and rewards. The Torah and the prophets arefull of promises and threats . Prosperity or woe aredependent upon the fidelity of the people to the law,and the historical Books explain national calamities andmisfortunes on this principle . Jeremias and Ezechielinsist more on the individual side of reward, and thepost-exilic Books, Wisdom and Ecclesiastes teach in manyinstances (Wisdom i, 6-11 ; iii, 1-12 ; v, 15-23 ; Ecclesiastesxiv, 19; xvi, 1-23 ; xvii, 14-23) that man receives fromGod exactly what he merits by his deeds . The opinionsof the rabbis collected in the Pirke Aboth contain thesame doctrine. They show how the scribes meticulouslydeveloped the theory of retribution, measured and cal-culated exactly the merits and demerits correspondingto the different deeds of man (ii, 6 ; iii, I ; v, 8 ss) : "Forevery fulfilment of a commandment, we secure an advo-cate, for every transgression, an accuser" (iv, I I) . "Eachone, according to his measure, receives his measure(Sota i, 5) or still more briefly, the rule of the Middah :Measure for measure .Every good action produces a zekout, a word whose

primitive meaning is purity, but which has taken on thesense of merit . By it man acquires the right to a certainrecompense, a right which is put to the credit of theinterested party, either to secure him a recompenselater on, or to offset a demerit and remove the penaltyincurred (Sota iii, 4) . As Moore expresses it, recalling thewords of the Gospel, the just man thus builds up atreasure in heaven.' Besides this, Judaism thereby

'Judaism, II, p . go .

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approaches the Christian doctrine of the communion ofsaints, this treasure not being strictly personal . It maybe applied to brethren, whether by blood or by faith,and draw down upon them either the favour of heavenor a discharge of punishment. It may even in this wayshare in the salvation of the world, in accelerating by itsinitiative the advent of the messianic era ." But becausethis truth must not lead to relaxation in moral activity,the necessity of acquiring merit for oneself is recalled .

Conversely every sin produces, according to the termused by Maimonides (Repentance iii, I), Awonot, a cul-pability, a demerit, the imputation of a chastisementproportioned to the gravity of the offence, "measure formeasure."

Pressing the logic of the system to its conclusion, oneimagines a book in which are inscribed all the actions ofmen as well as their intentions, their debit and credit inthe chapter of recompenses . Moreover this idea haspassed into the official liturgy. It is especially recalled atthe New Year and on the Day of Expiation, on whichday the book of remembrance is sealed for a whole year,for life and for death (Haggigah, 15 a ; Rosch hachana, 16 b) .

THE RETRIBUTION OF MERITS

In what concerns retribution of merits, Judaism admitsthat it sometimes occurs here below under the form ofmaterial blessings, but most often in the future life :"There are certain good actions whose interest isreceived here below, and whose capital is reserved forthe world to come" (Pea I, i) : and Albo harmonizes allpoints of view: "There are three times , for the recom-pense of the just man; here below, the world to come,and the days of the Messias after the resurrection ." 2

'Le Judaism, p . 110 . 2Bonsirven, op . cit ., p . I6o (Iggarim IV, 3i) .

MAN AND HIS DESTINY

1 69

THE DISINTERESTED SERVICE OF GOD

If, however, the doctrine of retribution occupies animportant place in Jewish thought, it would be unjustnot to mention another view which comes as a correctiveand completion of the preceding . Antigone de Socco,who was considered a disciple of Simeon the just, said :"Be not like unto servants who serve their master withthe intention of drawing a salary, but be like servantswho do not serve a master with the intention of receivinga reward, and the fear of heaven will be upon you"(Aboth i, 3) . After him, rabbinic Judaism made a per-fect distinction between service from love and servicefrom fear, and decided that: "Greater is he who actsfrom love than he who acts from fear" (Simeon benEleazar in Sotah 3 1 a) .

This admirable principle is moreover carried toabsurdity: "The fear of the Lord is the beginning ofwisdom, a good understanding to all that do it ." (Ps .cx, io) : It is written : to all that do it, that is to say, allthat do it for its own sake : and it is not written : all thatdo it, that is to say : that do not do it for its own sake .And it were better for him who does it not for its ownsake that he had never been born (Berakoth 17 a) .Maimonides declares in the same strain : All the indica-tions on rewards and punishments, whether those herebelow or especially those of the world to come, arecommunicated to us only to bind us to keep the law : inthe same way as children are encouraged to study bybeing given sweets, and young men by money . . . . Itis not a question of reward or punishment . The solereward is that God helps him who observes some of thecommandments-and conversely-in order to help themto perfect observance, and thereby to lead him to theworld to come. This is why it is said (Aboth iv, 2) : The

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reward of the commandment is the commandment,and the penalty of the transgression is the transgres-sion." 1

The traditional Judaism of to-day still retains thesefundamental ideas, and Schechter, one of the mostnoted conservative theologians, writes : "The Jewishmoralists wished to unite the two aspects : when they arenot allowing themselves to detail the punishments whichawait the sinner, and the rewards reserved to the just,they warn us with great insistence that our acts mustnot be governed by unworthy considerations, and thatour sole motive must be love for God and submissionto his holy will ." a

The liberals, on the contrary, would tend to see initself and without any idea of reward the pure expressionof Kantian morality and the first expression of the cate-gorical imperative : "Man, who is free, has the task, whenfaced with duty to be done, of organizing not merely aneconomic and moral order, through the initiative ofintelligence, but a moral order by mastering himself anddisciplining his tendencies . . . he `helps' God insome fashion by setting his will in the divine direction .He acquires merit (,Zekhout), an expression which is some-times taken in a matter-of-fact sense, but also often in aquite disinterested signification : he shares in the sal-vation of the world, by hastening, through his initiative,the advent of the Messianic era ." aBonsirven adds : "There is also in this moral concep-

tion another characteristic which is very acceptable tothe moderns, intoxicated, as they are, with independence :it is the completely naturalistic and exclusively human

'Commentary on the Michnah, introduction to Chapter XI (X)of Sanhedrin : cf., also Repentance X, Quoted by Bonsirven, op. cit .,P . 571 .

2Schechter, Studies in Judaism, p . 281 .$J. Weill, Le judaisme, p . i io .

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171

character of this doctrine, which takes into accountfreedom alone and attributes to it all power and allfacility for good . Not having known or desired toexplore the data of the Old Testament on the originalfall and its consequences, they had to believe in thefundamental goodness of humanity, and in the integrityof its moral faculties . Not feeling the need or exigence fora help from on high, they did not retain the numeroussacred texts, which appeal for divine assistance, confessthe malice of man and his incapacity to keep himself inthe path of duty. These principles were bound to leadto a stoic attitude, which is not devoid of elevation, butwhich favours a natural pride and prepares for itselfcruel deceptions." 1

THE BELIEF IN FUTURE RETRIBUTION IN THEOLD TESTAMENT

The whole development in the belief in retribution inthe Old Testament reposes on an absolutely sound basis,the dominant faith, in Israel, in the justice of God, afaith which is exercised by means of another profoundconviction, that of the union of morality with religion . 2Yahweh is a just judge of good and evil, for those whoare faithful to him as well as for the others . Conse-quently when the notion of individual faults becameclear, that of justice was applied thereto with the samerigour. A nation has existence only here below, andcan hope only for earthly happiness or temporal punish-

'Bonsirven, op . cit., p . 172 .21t is my duty to recognize how much I owe to the admirable

book of Lagrange, Le Judaisme avant Jesus-Christ, for this section onretribution in the future life. The conclusions of the eminentdirector of the Ecole Biblique et Arch€ologique Frangaise in Jeru-salem are so well established that I have merely had to summarizethe chapter which he devotes to this topic, p . 343 - 363 .

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JUDAISMment. Transferred to the individual, the principleappeared to demand that God should punish trans-gressions of his law here below . But the spectacle ofhappy heretics was at hand to show that the necessaryretribution had not always to be sought on this earth,and the book Qoheleth closes with the conclusion that"All is vain save virtue, for God will reward it in histime."' If other post-exilic books have still merely verybrief and quite transitory views on this point, certainpsalms which date from the same epoch are illuminatedby it. Psalm xlix already shows how Yahweh takes thejust out of Cheol . Psalm xv, 8-I I clearly indicates thebliss of the future life in the presence of God :

I set the Lord always in my sight : for he is at myright hand that I be not moved .Therefore my heart hath been glad, and my tongue

hath rejoiced: moreover my flesh also shall rest inhope .Because thou wilt not leave my soul in hell ; nor

wilt thou give thy holy one to see corruption .Thou hast made known to me the ways of life ; thou

shalt fill me with joy with thy countenance : at thyright hand are delights even to the end .

And this effusion of love which contains a whole theology :"I am always with thee . Thou hast held me by my

right hand ; and by thy will thou hast conducted me :and with thy glory thou hast received me ." (Ps. lxxii,23 ss) .

In brief, here is the notion of the eternal life of thefriend of God in his presence, without any description ofa full life in the image of that here below. It will benoted that here it is a question simply of the just man .

'Podechard, Ecclesiastes, p . 199 .

MAN AND HIS DESTINY 173

THE RESURRECTION

It was only at a later date that the notion of theresurrection was to appear, and that moreover simplyas a consequence of the true nature of man which Godwas to deign to reconstitute in its entirety . The famoustext of job xix, 25-27, is well known :

For I know that my Redeemer liveth, and in thelast day I shall rise out of the earth . And I shall beclothed again with my skin : and in my flesh I shall seemy God. Whom I myself shall see, and my eyes shallbehold; and not another . This my hope is laid up inmy bosom .

At the time of the persecutions, the Machabeeanmartyrs had the hope of a resurrection which wouldcompensate them for the loss of this life (II Machabees,vii, 9, 11, 23; xii, 43 ss .; xiv, 46), but they were alreadyin possession of eternal life: "For my brethren, havingnow undergone a short pain, are under the covenant ofeternal life ." (II Machabees vii, 36 .)

Eternal life being thus assured, the resurrection waspostponed to a very distant future . In short it may besaid that there existed in the canonical books of theJews, at latest at the time of the Machabeean restoration,a very solid doctrine on retribution, but less precise thanfor Catholics of to-day, for the resurrection of all menwas not taught .

On the other hand, it does not appear that Judaismat the time of Jesus Christ, perfectly understood thesepoints of revelation. The Sadducees, who formed thehigh priesthood, did not admit the immortality of thesoul and a fortiori the resurrection, a fact which con-stituted a grave danger for the Jewish religion, for thiswas to destroy faith in a just God, and hope in a good

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God . The Pharisees on the contrary were attached tothe true notion indicated in Scripture, and they made acareful distinction between the retribution which followsdeath and which is a consequence of the justice of God,the messianic kingdom which they confidently awaited,and the resurrection which is supposed at an indefinitetime .

THE BELIEF OF RABBINIC JUDAISM ON THISSUBJECT

It was to this doctrine that the rabbis who were theirheirs adhered . Hillel already distinguished between thepresent world and the world to come, literally the worldwhich is coming "Ha 'olam habba" : "He who acquiresthe words of the Law, acquires the life of the world tocome" (Aboth ii, 7) . It is not the messianic period whichwas to bring the deliverance and the triumph of Israel,but the world of individual retribution . It was promisedto the just after death, whereas the messianic era was tobring the happiness of the generations which it foundalive. This world to come was distinct from the corrup-tible world, there could be no question of assigning aterm to it, and a haggada of the Amoraite period explainsit as follows : "The wise men call the reward Ha 'olamhabba, the world which is coming . It is not that it doesnot exist at the present time, and will exist only at afuture day of this world . No: it is called the world whichis coming because it is realized as soon as man has quittedthis world" (Tanhuma waiqra, 8) . It therefore began atthe death of each one, as soon as the soul has left thebody to return to God and thus to enter into sleep andrest. On the contrary Lagrange remarks with greatreligious sense that this joy of being with God is nolonger found in the rabbinic sentences which markedthe ancient fervour of Isaias and the Psalms .

MAN AND HIS DESTINY

1'75Rabbinism, however, understood and taught that beati-

tude for man consisted essentially in the vision of God .Strack and Billerbeck have collected the most probativetexts on this subject, 1 but they recognize that this beliefhas nowhere the clarity of the affirmation of Jesus :"Blessed are the clean of heart: for they shall see God"(Matthew v, 7) .Was the resurrection general? Billerbeck recognizes

that the ancient synagogue never arrived at a solidsolution of this point, and that the generality of thedoctors took a line which was fairly indefinite . Thejust Israelites were raised up again for eternal life .Some rabbis continued to maintain the doctrine of ageneral resurrection for all men, but without greatsuccess . The Pharisees, and on this point the witness ofJospheus, the historian, is positive, admitted the resur-rection only for the good.

In this way, therefore, Judaism, with the exception ofthe Sadducees, had arrived at a solid doctrine on thecapital point of retribution and remained united oneternal life, the reward of the just . They were lessagreed on the fact and the conditions of the resurrection .The most embarrassing point was to know in whatmeasure the Gentiles and Jews were to share in defini-tive salvation . They neither proclaimed the loss of allthe Gentiles nor the salvation of all in Israel, to such anextent had the primacy of morality prevailed . At a laterdate, as far as one can judge, the tendency was to admitto eternal life no Gentile who had not made professionof Judaism, and never to exclude any Israelite there-from. Lagrange concludes as follows: "Even by com-paring it only with the Old Testament, the Judaism ofthe Pharisees, the only kind that remained in the

'Kommentar zum Neuen Testament aus Talmud and Midrasch, I, p .206, ss.

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Tradition, does not allow us to envisage any progress indoctrine and still less a more interior religion . It must,on the contrary, be recognized that it has not come up tothe profound sentiment of the psalmists, and that what ithas claimed to add from its own resources as detail com-promises rather the sober gravity of the essential truth .It is especially on this point that the more accentuatedexclusivism of nationalism leaves a painful impressionon the mind .'

THE BELIEFS OF MODERN JUDAISM

Modern Judaism continues its evolution towards arationalization of religion which is more and morevisible : "The traditional liturgy expresses with insist-ence the conviction that the Author of Life will restorelife to the dead in a world to come, full of delights for thejust. Religious philosophy endeavours, even among themost orthodox, to justify, in the eyes of reason, a beliefwhich surpasses it . Rationalist theologians from thetime of Maimonides, stress above all the principle of thespirituality of the soul, which is not subject to destruc-tion: "I believe," says modern Jewish thought, 2 "thatgood men (whatever be their origin) who obey the lawof God (whether natural or revealed), and accomplishhis will with their whole heart, and those who havesincerely repented, participate as immortal souls ineternal life ." 3

Nowadays, eternal hell is no longer admitted by theJews : "For a hundred years, the words `hell' and `thepains of hell" are no longer uttered in any Jewishsermon or in any Jewish teaching . Even among the

'Lagrange, op. cit., p . 363 .'Cf., the creed of Margolis, quoted by J . H. Hertz, Jewish

Thoughts .'J . Weill, Le Judaisme, p. I I2 .

MAN AND HIS DESTINY

177people, one hears Gehenna mentioned solely to describeearthly sorrows ." 1 Moreover Rabbinic Judaism ad-mitted that the prayers of the just could obtain for thedead plunged in the abyss of purification, divine mercyand pardon for their sins. Hell has become a purgatory,a mere place of passage where souls who are still un-worthy of divine sanctity complete their purificationand prepare themselves for the joys of paradise .This paradise is not heaven, the dwelling-place of

God and the angels, but the Garden of Delights, GanEden, in which the first man was placed . The ancientrabbis formerly abounded in exact descriptions . Modernorthodox Judaism is more sober, and Friedlanderexpresses himself as follows : "Gan Eden or Paradise, Ge-Hinnom or Hell are only simple images to express ourideas on future retribution, but they must not be takenliterally to indicate the name of a determined place .The descriptions which may be made thereof are merelypure imaginations. As for the questions : How long willthe punishment of the wicked last? Will it be eternal? . . .Questions like these do not interest us, our duty is to dowhat the Lord commands, and to have confidence inhim." 2

But the belief in the future life, be it happy or unhappy,beginning immediately after death, does it not lead tothe rejection of a resurrection which is useless fromnow on? Most liberal Jews are content with this survival,with the immortality of the soul ; those who believe,continue to hold the resurrection as an essential articleof faith ; they distinguish between two states after death :a first, the world to come, spiritual existence in anEden or a Gehenna which are entirely spiritual ; a secondwhich begins at the resurrection, the time of definitive

'Lazarus, Die Ethik des gudentums, II, p . i 12 .2Friedlander, Die ,Judische Religion, p. 174.

M

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and perfect retribution, when the blessed resume alltheir bodily functions in order to enjoy it with all theirsenses (Albo, Iggarim, iv, 31, 35)Maimonides, hesitating between traditional belief

and the Greek doctrine of the immortality of the soul,declares on the one hand that immortality consists inliberation from one's senses by the knowledge of Godand a lofty morality;' on the other hand, he repeats thecurrent ideas on the resurrection and wrote a specialbook to establish his belief in this dogma . Albo nolonger admits the resurrection except as a tradition anda consequence of the principle of retribution, but herefuses to see therein an article of faith, and he declaresthat this dogma is not upheld before the judgment ofreason (Iqqarim, iv, 35 ; i, I5) .

THE TENDENCY NO LONGER TO SEE ANY IMMOR-TALITY OF THE SOUL, EXCEPT ONE BASED ON

PHILOSOPHY

This criticism enables us to foresee the position to beadopted by Jewish minds which are more or less eman-cipated with regard to this belief . The Philadelphia con-ference declares that the Resurrection has no foundationin Judaism and should be replaced by the notion of theimmortality of the soul. Similarly the liberals havedeleted from their prayer-books all the questions relativeto the vivification of the dead : in fact they consider thatthis conception has a double use with that of the immor-tality of the soul, and in their creed they substitutethis doctrine for the old formula. But the vast majorityof Israelites still hold to the accepted texts and to theideas which they presuppose : 2 "To sum up, Judaism

'Commentary on the Michnah, Sanhedrin, Chapter X (XI) .2Bonsirven, op. cit., p . 208.

MAN AND HIS DESTINY

1'79believes with a deep faith in the future of every beingwho has made good use of his liberty and has walked inthe `ways of God' and of every sincere penitent whohas made a `return' to the good . It professes that humanconduct has an incorruptible Witness and an equitableJudge, that justice must be accomplished, but that thesentence may be deferred. In any event, the wise manmay arrive, after this life, at that happy serenity which isproduced by both the accomplishment of duty and thereturn to the right path from which he has strayed . Inthis way, even with its anxieties and trials, life remains abenefit from the Creator, and the faithful observant ofthe divine will can calmly await his last hour certain thathis waiting will not end in deception and that there is ajoy and a light without end for him who has sanctifiedGod." 1

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Lagrange, Le Judaisme avant Jesus-Christ . Dennefeld,Le Judaisme biblique . Strack et Billerbeck, Kommentarzum Neuen Testament aus Talmud and Midrasch .G. F. Moore, Judaism in the First Centuries of theChristian Era . J . Albo, Buch Ikkarim, Grund- andGlaubenslehren der mosaichen Religion. A. Cohen,The Teachings of Maimonides . Friedlander, Diejudische Religion . Bonsirven, On the Ruins of the Temple .J. Weill, La foi d'Israel. Le Judaisme . M. Weill,La Morale du Judaisme . A. Kohler, Grundriss einersystematischen Theologie des Judentums .

'J . Weill, La foi d'Israel .

CHAPTER VIII

JEWISH MORALITY

The Decalogue.-No systematic Codification.-Religious andlegal Character of Jewish Morality . Its negative formand its principle of Strict Right . Interested service andservice through Love . Personal morality; its character ofthe just mean.-Opposition to Asceticism .-Self-respect.-Individual prayer.-Fasting.- Woman and marriage.-The family and children. Duties towards one's neigh-bour.-The determination of one's neighbour ; the nationa-list and universalist tendency.-The exercise of charity .-Works of mercy.-Jewish social life .-Duties towardsthe fatherland-Judaism and the revolutionary spirit .-Jews and their demands for a special status .

THE DECALOGUE

JEWISH morality is completely contained in the OldTestament and summarized in the Decalogue . Theprophets insisted in their teaching on the necessity ofuniting with worship a moral preoccupation whichrenders homage to the sanctity of God, and at the timeof the second Temple the daily recitation of the Deca-logue was obligatory in the same way as the Chema .Afterwards this obligation ceased and J . Weill informsus that "even in the liturgy the daily recitation of thedecalogue was abandoned in order not to make it appearthat these commandments had a special fate at the time

18o

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181

when Christianity in departing from the ceremoniallaw retained only the moral precepts of the Torah ." 1

No SYSTEMATIC CODIFICATION

It cannot, however, be denied that if Judaism pro-fesses in law the primacy of morality over ritual, it isthrough the latter that we go back to the former ; it is bytradition that the written law is known, tradition is itsauthentic interpreter, and this tradition is above all legal .

This is so true that Jewish post-exilic literature includesno exposition of the duties of man . The machal of Eccle-siasticus like those of Proverbs follow each other withoutany order. The author's thought runs from one to theother, returns to a particular detail already touchedupon, takes up a theme again in order to finish thestudy thereof, without one's being able to see the guidingthread . The learned men of later Judaism loved tosystematize, and they collected the ritual and juridicalprescriptions of the Pentateuch into complicated codes .They did not feel the need for doing the same work formorality, and it is only in passing that they discussedthe ethical prescriptions . The Michnah contains onesingle moral treatise, that of the Pirke Aboth, but evenin this there is no logical order ; the conversations of therabbis, which all manifest great elevation, are presentedin chronological order .

It is therefore in the Talmud that it is expedient tosearch for the morality of Israel, but perhaps even lessin the Talmud than in the codifications that were madeby illustrious rabbis for the needs of practical life, in thecourse of the centuries which succeeded its definitiveedition .

The last in date of these codifications, the Schoulhan'Le Judaisme, p. 128.

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Aroukh (Table drawn up), edited by Joseph Caro from1522-1554 on the basis of the four Tourim' of Jacobben Ascher, determined the traditional jurisprudenceand imposed itself since, for more than three centuries,on the Israelite world. The first part, Orah Haym (Wayof Life) contains the prescriptions concerning feasts andthe liturgy. The second, Yore Dea (Teaches knowledge)proclaims what is allowed and forbidden (alimentaryprescriptions) . The third Eben Haezer (Rock of help)contains the laws of the family (marriage, divorce,dowry, levirate). Lastly the Hoschen ha Mischpat (breast-plate of judgment) constitutes the civil and penal law.Caro has omitted matter which was no longer applicableduring the Diaspora and deals only with what wasappropriate to the needs of his time. But the true sumof complete Judaism, theoretical as well as practical,at least for his time, is the code which is much anteriorto Maimonides (finished towards II8o), namely, theMichneh Torah or Yad Hazaka (Strong hand) which afterhaving, as it were, filtered through the Talmud andthe traditional collections connected therewith, classifiedand expounded methodically all the matter of thewritten Torah, commencing with theology and ethics,without neglecting political laws and the rules of theJewish calendar .

THE RELIGIOUS AND LEGAL CHARACTER OF JEWISHMORALITY

Before dealing with the study of Jewish moralityproperly so-called, it may be well to stress certainobservations .

First of all morality is not for the Jew, at least for the'Word for word "arranged ." This is the title of a compilation of

Jacob ben Ascher (d. 1340) which ordered or arranged all religiousjurisprudence in four parts .

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183

Jew of the first centuries of our era, or for the strictlyconservative Jew of to-day, the expression of the naturallaw or of an ethical custom . It is above all the expres-sion of the revealed will of God and it assumes from thisfact a legal character .' It is presented in the sense of anobligation which is at the same time divine and canon-ical. Undoubtedly Philo, Maimonides and others madean effort to show that the ethics contained in the OldTestament were in agreement with the rules of wisdomestablished by the Greek philosophers . In the same wayto-day some Jewish theologians prove that Judaism isessentially a rational discipline and a section of civili-zation, that the morality proper to Israel is above all"the liberation through social justice of all the oppressedand the energetic will for peace ." 2 In these explanationsthere can be seen only attempts at apologetic and not aneffort at ethical theory .

ITS NEGATIVE FORM AND ITS PRINCIPLE OF STRICTRIGHT

Another important observation is that the Jewishmoral precept very often takes a negative form : "Thoushalt not." Opposite the precept of Leviticus : "Thoushalt love thy friend as thyself" (Lev. xix, 18), therabbis inscribed this commentary of Hillel : "What thouhatest to be done to thee do not to any other ; this is allthe Torah, the rest is merely commentary." (Sabbath31 a) . Bonsirven observes thereon with much justice :"It is vain to say that this principle is equivalent to thepositive principle given by Jesus Christ : `All thingstherefore whatsoever you would that men should do toyou, do you also to them' (Matt . vii, i I ), and to affirm

1M. Lazarus, Die Ethik des Judentums, I, Chapter v, says in amanner which is almost untranslatable : "Versittlichung ist Gesetzlich-keit ."

2J. Weill, op . cit., p . z66.

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that `the negative form is the more fundamental of thetwo, although the positive form is the more completeexpression of a practical morality."I Nevertheless,the following conclusions appear to impose themselves :the negative form for any law whatsoever is a sureindication that it springs from a morality of strict justice,binding above all not to infringe the rights of one'sequals ; on the other hand, the positive form appears asthe faithful translation of the great commandment offraternal charity ; to love others as one's self. Keepingto these two texts it may therefore be affirmed thatJewish morality is based primarily on a principle ofcommutative justice." 2Other indications confirm these conclusions : The

notion of din, judgment, right, strict justice, on which theJewish thinkers insist in their moral theories ; the juri-dical aspect which is taken by all the commentaries onthe law. In point of fact, the doctors have not left with-out defining and detailing in their smallest applicationsany one of the rights of the individual or society ; theytook all precautions to see that no person should beinjured even very slightly, and to collect all the claimsand aspirations of everyone : so much so that the Talmudand the codes derived therefrom, despite the complica-tion and subtility of their casuistry, remain a venerablemonument by reason of the great spirit of justice whichanimates them in every part . 3

INTERESTED SERVICE AND SERVICE THROUGH LOVE

Although it was not systematized and despite acasuistry which was often confused, Jewish morality is,however, to some extent unified by principles whichensure the cohesion of the whole .

'Abrahams, Studies, series I, p . 22 .$Bonsirven, op. cit., p. 308 ss .

3Op. cit ., p . 311 .

JEWISH MORALITY

185The great principle on which the Jewish authors rely

is that moral life brings its own reward . Virtue means,by that very fact, conformity to the law of God, whereassin is essentially disobedience to that same law and Godrewards virtue and punishes vice : "Who acts rightly,acts wisely; the wicked man, on the contrary, is a foolwho rushes to his ruin." Rewards and punishments are,moreover, the motives which the majority of humanityobey, and the ancient rabbis said that it was better tolead men to obey God for lower motives than to seethem disobey the divine Law.Undoubtedly God is not bound to reward him who,

after all, is simply doing his duty, but he has bound him-self to do so by his promise, and because of this meritis a right to the reward . Consequently, every goodaction will be rewarded, whereas every bad action willhave its punishment. Even here below, virtue gives mena life which is sweet and intimately joyful, for his yokeis sweet and light, but above all man thereby heaps upfor himself a treasure in heaven . This is what Our Lordrecalled to his hearers in the Sermon on the Mount(Matthew vi, I g) : "Lay not up to yourselves treasures onearth: where the rust and moth consume and wherethieves break through and steal. But lay up to your-selves treasures in heaven : where neither the rust normoth doth consume, and where thieves do not breakthrough nor steal ."

It would, however, be an error to believe that Judaismwith regard to moral obligation kept only to thisinterested principle of reward or punishment . For longit has known to distinguish between service throughlove and service through fear, and it very justly decidedthat he who acts from love is greater than he who actsfrom fear . 1

'Simeon ben Eleazarin Sotah, 3 I a .

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But the marked tendency of Judaism towards therationalization of the supernatural, which Lagrange hasso strongly stressed in his latest work," is seen again inthis. The ancient rabbis had admirable moral formulas,but instead of seeking to exhaust their content, to extracttherefrom all the spiritual essence, they worked with alltheir might at efforts to justify them, based on anexegesis which was often absurd, a formalistic wrappingwhich conceals all the exactitude and clearness of theprinciple . The moderns give proof of a like lack ofbalance, but in an opposite sense : "Stress is laid on thetexts," writes J. Weill, in speaking of Chapter xix ofLeviticus, "not on the sanctions, but on the beauty andexcellence of conduct in conformity with the divine will .In them are elements which are to become powerfulmotives for a virtuous life and to furnish not onlyeffective consolations for the ills of the fatherland,infinite reserves of optimism in time of trial, but also thetreasure of true felicity in the moral order independentof all contingencies . The idea of a sovereign goodaccessible to chosen souls and intellects is potentiallycontained therein." 2 This is no longer the moral lawbased on revelation, but the categorical imperative ofKant perceived and taught by Judaism before thephilosopher of Koenigsberg.

PERSONAL MORALITY; ITS CHARACTER OF THE JUSTMEAN; POSITION TO ASCETICISM

Given these principles and the general tendency ofthe Jewish mind, it follows that personal Jewish moralityis characterized by "the just mean ." The great rule to befollowed is that of moderation. Hence the insistence

1Le Judaisme aoant,Jesus Christ, p. 591 .2 J . Weill, La Foi d'Israel, p . 143 .

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with which the rabbis recommend above all the passivevirtues patience, mildness and resignation .'But from this there also arises the aversion which

Judaism has always displayed for an asceticism whichis a trifle exaggerated . The world is good, it thinks, theflesh is not stained by an original sin, and it is right toenjoy natural goods : they constitute an important part ofthe reward promised by God . The Jew therefore in noway imposes upon himself any obligation to torture hisbody and, by mortification, to combat his naturalpassions, as if they were depraved . This is why histeachers condemn all renouncing of pleasure, even withthe object of schooling himself in virtue :"And if anyone," says Maimonides, "certainly by

folly, succeeds in increasing these prohibitions, forexample adds to the articles of meat and drink whichhave been prohibited, or forbids himself conjugal inter-course beyond the prohibitions concerning sexualrelations . . . such a one unwittingly imitates theconduct of the wicked, goes to one of the two extremes,and completely departs from the just mean . . . . Itfollows therefore from all that has been mentioned inthis chapter, that one must aim at moderate actionsand not depart therefrom." 2

Hence no macerations ; on the contrary to care forone's body is a good work. Wise men like Maimonideswhose mind is directed to God, are able nevertheless to

1 Bousset, Die Religion des ,7udentums, im spathellenistichen Zeitalter,3rd Edition, p . 424, quotes many texts .

2Les huit chapitres de Maimonide, translated from the Arabic, Paris,1927, p. 41 ss . This opposition to all asceticism, and in particularChristian ascetism, is a common bond in Jewish literature, even thatof to-day : E. Benamozegh, Morale juive et Morale chrdtienne, p . 36 :"It can be admitted without fear of error, that from the mistrust ofthe body and the flesh, such as it was understood, there must neces-sarily emerge, a little earlier or later, the basest materialism, themost unrestrained licence, the most monstrous immorality . . . ."

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give their morality a real elevation . It is mens sana incorpore sano, but with the object of arriving more easilyat the knowledge of God ."'

SELF RESPECT

Among the vices which it is fitting to avoid, none is sooften condemned in the Old Testament as sensuality,and in all the moral treatises the prohibition of sins ofimpurity is a striking feature . The Siracide warns itsreaders against incontinence and seduction (xxiii, 16-27)and the book of Henoch makes all the ills of the worldspring from the sin committed by the angels with thedaughters of men .Modesty and chastity have continued to form part of

Judaism, and to prove this it is necessary only to recallthe restrictions imposed by the rabbis on their disciplesregarding their relations with women, or the rules to beobserved in one's room or in the house "of the chair" inorder not to offend God who sees all things and every-where (Berakoth 43 b; Maimonides, Deoth v, 6, Orahhaim, 2, 3) . Maimonides goes so far as to say : theLaw forbids us to look upon a woman with the objectof pleasure . . . to occupy the mind with the thought ofphysical love, or to excite concupiscence in any waywhatever (Guide iii, 49) .

The teaching of the moderns on sexual morality andthe sanctity of marriage agrees with Catholic teaching . 2

INDIVIDUAL PRAYER

Among the virtues, three are especially recommended :piety, fasting and charity (Tobias xii, 8) .

'Bonsirven, op. Cit ., p. 383.$A. Weill, La morale du Judaisme, Vol. II, p . 35 ss., p, 113 ss .

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The Torah undoubtedly nowhere prescribes the dutyof individual prayer, but it is deduced from the com-mand to love and serve God with all one's heart (Deut .X, 13 ; Maimonides, Prayer I, i) . Moreover, the recom-mendations of the rabbis relative to prayer as well as thecustom faithfully observed for generations have finishedby acquiring the force of obligation . But for prayer tohave the advantage over works of mercy and the sacri-fices, the doctors insist on a condition precedent theKawana, the direction of the intention : "A few suppli-cations with intention are worth more than manywithout intention" (Orah haim, i, 4) . Out of respect forGod, it is fitting beforehand to put one's self in a perfectstate of physical and ritual purity and to choose a pureplace. There are innumerable prescriptions on thispoint .

The pious Israelite's day fits in between the morningprayer, before which all work is forbidden, and eveningprayer. During the course of the day the Jew attends,as far as he can, the services of the Synagogue, and ifthat is impossible, he seizes the opportunities whicharise to pronounce the various benedictions . Amongthese formulas, many are very ancient and go back tothe first centuries of our era .

FASTING

Fasting was already practised in ancient Israel . Theprivate use thereof is found immediately after the exile :Esdras viii, z3 ; Nehemias i, 4 ; Esther iv, 16 ; Zachariasnames four days of official fasting, vii, 5 ; viii, Ig, whichwere added to the feast of Expiation, the fast day parexcellence. At the time of Jesus Christ, pious Jews fastedtwice a week, on Monday and Thursday, Michnah,Taanith ii, g; Matthew ix, 14, etc., and in the Diaspora

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frequent fasting became one of the distinctive charac-teristics of the Jews, Tacitus, Hist. v, 4 . 1

Apart from the days of ritual fast, this pious practicehas completely fallen into desuetude among modernJews. The same is true of the nazirate which was ofdivine institution, the conditions of which were regu-lated by a whole treatise of the Michnah . The rabbishave even come to the stage of no longer understanding,and condemning it. A similar attitude is noticed withregard to vows in general. The law treated it as apraiseworthy practice (Numbers xxx), but since,ordinarily, the renouncement of some particular satis-faction is vowed, the doctors show little favour to suchacts of renunciation (rare Dea, 203), when they do notpurely and simply condemn them (Nedarim 41 b; 42 a;77 b). Such slight regard for vows makes the facultywhich the rabbis had of annulling them understand-able.

WOMAN AND MARRIAGE

It appears that Judaism always regarded women witha certain suspicion . The Siracide represents woman asdangerous because of the seduction exercised by her(Ecclesiasticus ix, 3, etc.) . The Talmud asserts that ahundred women are worth only two men (Berakoth 45 b) .Like slaves and children a woman has no need to saythe Chema prayer (Michnah, Berakoth, iii, 3), and evento-day, the Jews recite the following morning prayer :"Be thou praised, 0 Eternal, Our God, king of theUniverse, who has not made me a woman ."2

Nevertheless in Judaism marriage has always beenregarded as a sacred institution . At the time of Jesus

1Dennefeld, Le Judaisme biblique, p . 125 .'Rituel des prieres journaliPres, Edition Durlacher, p . 6. Women

simply say humbly: "Who has made me according to thy will ."

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Christ, polygamy had not yet been abolished, and theMichnah presupposes the existence of wives of a secondgrade ('Eduioth iv, 8), but in practice, monogamy hadbecome the rule.' The school of Hillel admitted divorcefor trifling causes, but it would seem that this facilitywas more theoretical than practical .

THE FAMILY AND CHILDREN

Judaism never considered virginity or celibacy ashonourable, and in the words spoken by God in thebeginning: "Increase and multiply," the doctors saw anabsolute command. They repeated the axiom ; "theworld was created only for propagation" ('Eduioth i, 1 3),and Rabbi Eliezer declared that not to work for generationwas just as culpable as to shed innocent blood (Yebamoth63 b, repeated by Eben Ha-ezer I, i) .

Modern Judaism keeps to the same sentiments, andJ. Weill declares : "It is sinful for a man not to found afamily." 2The Michnah comments upon and develops a com-

plete and exact legislation on marriage in five treatises .Many of these prescriptions have obviously fallen intodesuetude, and in fact modern Jews conform to the civillaw of the country in which they are settled . Neverthe-less most of them consider that a union contractedsolely before a civil official is not a true marriage .Jewish families are, in general, very united . Where

they have retained religious habits, children are nume-rous, and in countries where the birth-rate is on thedecline, this scourge affects the Jews much less thantheir neighbours . Respect for one's parents remainsone of the most appreciated virtues .

"Felten Neutestamentliche Zeitgeschichte, Vol. I, p. 429 ss .2Le,Judaisme, p . 163 .

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If divorce is allowed by right, the conditions demandedfor the valid drafting of the letter of repudiation and bythe rights granted to the wife with regard to the restora-tion of the dowry, the opinion professed by the doctorswho declare that "he who dismisses the wife of his youth,the altar itself sheds tears over him" (Gettin, go b),result in this that among the families which practisetheir religion, the percentage of divorces among theJews is almost the same as among Catholics, that is tosay very small . The laws concerning the use of marriageare almost the same as those amongst Christians, withthe exception, however, of the special prescriptions ofthe Pentateuch laws of purity which Christianity con-siders abolished .

With regard to children, parents have a grave obliga-tion to give them secular as well as religious instruction .and to educate them for Jewish, religious and nationallife . On their side, children owe their parents love,respect and assistance in their needs .

DUTIES TOWARDS ONE'S NEIGHBOUR

"Thou shalt love thy friend as thyself" (Lev . xix, 18) ."Have we not all one father? Hath not one God createdus?" (Mal . ii, Io) . Judaism has based relations with one'sneighbour on these indications of the Law. But who isone's neighbour? Scripture had given it to be under-stood that one's neighbour was every Israelite descendedfrom Abraham, and also similar people who livedpeaceably among the Israelites . On the other hand, forall antiquity, the stranger was the enemy. Undoubtedlyfrom the time of the decadence of the Greek cities afterAlexander's conquests, and also under the influence ofthe Stoic philosophers, the old concept of the citizenof each state had become enlarged, and the world

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became the state of all mankind, and all men becamefellow-citizens. But in point of fact, wars began again,fiercer than ever, and slavery became more rife . Thenew principle, suspected in practice, did not in additionpenetrate among the Jews, and despite their efforts,modern Jewish scholars have been unable to discover inall their ancient literature anything which faintlyresembles the love of all men, without distinction ofcountry .

If Jesus Christ was not the first to proclaim the soli-darity of all men, he was certainly the first to understand,in this sense, the texts of the Law, and thus to give it itsperfection. More than this, he was certainly the first togive life and fecundity to this speculative principle,which remained a dead letter as long as the love of one'sneighbour was not attached in turn to the love of God,its true centre .' From this point of view, the parableof the good Samaritan marks a date in the history ofhumanity.

THE DETERMINATION OF ONE 'S NEIGHBOUR, THENATIONALIST AND UNIVERSALIST TENDENCY

If the Old Testament had in fact recommended lovefor one's neighbour and even for the stranger (Lev . xix,

34; Deut . x, Ig ; Is . lxiii, 6 ss etc.), these texts would nothave attracted the attention of the doctors . 2

By increasing still more the nationalistic exclusivismof the Pharisees, the rabbis of the first centuries of ourera promulgated a whole series of prohibitions directedto the safeguarding of those who were faithful to themfrom contact with the impure stranger. Thus it was

'Cf., Lagrange, L'Eaangile de Jesus-Christ, p. 317 .2Cf., the rare texts, which are not very conclusive which Perles

was able to find in order to reply to Bousset (Bousset's Religion desJudentwns im neut . ,Zeitalter kritisch untersucht, Berlin, 1903) .

N

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forbidden to eat his bread and to maintain friendlyrelations with him (Aboda Zara ii), and as far as he wasconcerned one was exempted from certain obligationsof justice or of charity. Some went even so far as to saythat the intention to kill a stranger or an apostate wasnot considered as gravely culpable and entailing cul-pability (Sanhedrin ix, 2) . These prescriptions are againfound in the codes of Maimonides and Joseph Caro andin the treatise Idolatry x, I ; Yore dea, 158, it is forbiddento have pity on infidels, to save them from death or tocare for them .

However, by the side of this extremely savage nationa-listic tendency, there is found in other rabbis the senti-ment of a more universalist charity, which under theprobable influence of Christian ideas, did not cease togrow. The words of Hillel are quoted : "Love creaturesand lead them to the Torah" (Aboth i, 12), or again :"What thou hatest to be done to thyself, do not to thyneighbour," but it seems to be the case that Hillel'sneighbour was the Jew, since he addressed these wordsto a proselyte and to exhort him to become a Jew. Inthe same way, Rabbi Aqiba was content to repeat thatthe most general principle of the Torah was : "Thoushalt love thy neighbour as thyself ."

But the practical instructions are more effective andmore significant than theological doctrines, and theformer more and more make the pagans enter into thesphere of the obligations of justice and charity : "Towrong a stranger is as though one wronged God Him-self" (Chagigah 5 a) . "A virtuous pagan has as muchmerit as a high-priest, descended from Aaron" (SifraSchemoth xiii) . "It is more serious to rob a Gentile thanto rob an Israelite by reason of the profanation of thename" (Tos . Baba qamma, x, 15) . For the good of peace,the works of mercy shall be done to the Gentiles : "Our

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masters teach : the poor of strangers are maintainedwith those of Israel ; their sick are visited like those ofIsrael; their dead are buried . . . . because of theways of peace" (Gittin 61 a) . 1

This tendency to put men on the same footing withoutdistinction of race or religion became stronger andspread in proportion as the Jews, emerging from theirisolation, received civil equality and mixed more com-pletely in the life of the nations among whom theysettled .

It may therefore be asserted that nowadays all Jewsprofess the principles formulated in the Declaration ofthe Great Sanhedrin (February 180* "The GreatSanhedrin declares that in virtue of the law given byMoses to the children of Israel, the latter are obliged toregard as their brothers the individuals of nations whichrecognize God as the creator of heaven and earth, andamong whom they enjoy the advantages of civil society.. . . It is the duty of all (Israelites) to help, protect andlove their fellow-citizens and to treat them, in all civil andmoral relations, as equal with their co-religionists .""The Great Sanhedrin . . . . declares that every

individual professing the religion of Moses, who doesnot practise justice and charity towards all men whoadore the Eternal, independent of their particularbelief, sins notoriously against his Law . . . ." 2

A similar declaration was promulgated by the Germanrabbis at the rabbinic Conference of Berlin, 4th and 5thJune, 1884 :

"The commandment to love our neighbour formu-lated in Leviticus (xix, 18) : 'Thou shalt love thy friendas thyself. I am the Lord,' and designated by Hillel,the great doctor, as the summary of all Jewish doctrine,

1Bonsirven, op . cit., p . 307, SS .

2Michel A . Weill, La morale du Judaisme, Vol . II, p . 316 ss .

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applies not only to members of the same race or the samefaith, but following the rule of justice proclaimed in thesame place: `But let him be among you as one of thesame country . . . . I am the Lord your God,' it is ageneral precept which includes all men ."'

In this way, therefore, the Israelite retains his pre-ferences and gives favourable treatment to his brothers byblood and by faith; that is easily understood and no onethinks of reproaching him, but he is bound by his veryreligion to exercise the same duties of charity and justicein regard to strangers and to his co-religionists .

THE EXERCISE OF CHARITY

Simon the just said : "The world is founded on threethings: on the Torah, on religion and the exercise ofcharity" (Aboth i, 2) . It is reported that Rabbi benZakkai came one day, followed by Rabbi Josue, to theplace where Jerusalem was . His companion, lookingat the ruins of the sanctuary, began to lament "Woe tous, for the place where the sins of Israel were expiatedis now destroyed ." Rabbi Jokhanan answered him :"My son, do not let that cast you down ; we have ameans of expiation equal to that, namely works ofcharity" (Aboth Rabbi Nathan, iv, 5) .These works of charity, which have thus become an

essential part of the religion, are called Vedagah, "justice,"because for him who practises them they are worthy of areward in strict justice from God . Although the assist-ance of the poor is the chief part thereof, at the sametime they include every act whereby the faithful soul

'In the Catechisme ou Elements d'instruction religieuse et morale al'usage de la jeunesse isradlite (Paris, 1931) the Chief Rabbi S. Debreexpresses himself as follows: "Every man, whoever he is, is our neigh-bour, and we have to fulfil towards him duties ofjustice and duties ofcharity."

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gives of himself in order to procure joy or relief to hisneighbour .

The prescriptions of the Pentateuch relative to therelief of the poor have always been liberally carried outby the Jews, and it may be said, with reason, that amongthem charity constitutes one of the pillars of the religiouslife . The rabbis organized public assistance in the com-munities (Michnah, Pea, viii, 2, Pesakhim x, I) . Regularcollections for the poor were made in the synagogues(Michnah, Demai, iii, I ; Qidduschim iv, 5; Matt . Vi, 2)and the Talmud includes many eulogies of charity (Tal-mud, Bab., Baba Bathra, Io a, I I a) . Maimonides andCaro codified under the title : Gifts to the poor, thepractice of almsgiving, and modern Jewish communitieshave their charitable organizations with a procedurewhich is discreet and often full of heart .'

THE WORKS OF MERCY

With almsgiving, properly so-called, is connected theGemilluth khesed, the works of mercy, visits to the agedand the sick, assistance to widows and orphans, help tostrangers, the education and instruction of poor chil-dren, the duty of comforting the afflicted, to make peacereign among men, to judge well of the actions of ourneighbour and finally to be kind to animals .

Under whatever form charity may be exercised, itmust be done with delicacy and discretion and accom-

1Bonsirven may be consulted (op . cit., p. 317 ss .) for an examina-tion of the points on which the accusations of anti-semites morereadily bear, the lack of frankness and honesty, and usury . TheReverend Author cites the most probative texts which demand fromthe faithful Jew strict honesty and even scrupulousness and exacti-tude in business . Moreover he shows how the legislation of ChristianEurope in the middle ages and up to the beginning of the nineteenthcentury placed the Jews under the necessity of confining themselvesto the money market.

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panied by good words, for the Talmud says : "Charity isworth only as much as the kindness that is mixed withit."

It is useless to deal at length with the duties of justicewhich Judaism imposes on its faithful adherents withregard to their neighbour, the obligation to respect himin his life, as well as his health, his goods, and his honour .From this point of view, the morality of a religious Jewis no different from that of a Christian .'

JEWISH SOCIAL LIFE. DUTIES TO ONE'S COUNTRY

The social life of the Jews, the determination of theirconduct with regard to a country which is no longer theland of Israel and in which they live dispersed, were fixedby an official document of the prophet Jeremias inwriting to the Mesopotamian exiles : "Thus saith theLord of Hosts, the God of Israel, to all that are carriedaway captives, whom I have caused to be carried awayfrom Jerusalem to Babylon : Build ye houses and dwellin them : and plant orchards and eat the fruit of them . . . .And seek the peace of the city to which I have causedyou to be carried away captives and pray to the Lord forit : for in the peace thereof shall be your peace" (Jer . xxix,4-7)-

The wisest of the rabbis have never ceased to repeatthis recommendation : "Always respect the higherauthority of your country" (Menakhoth 98 a) . TheStatutes of the Jewish Community of Avignon in 1538advised this same line of conduct," and in 1807, theGreat Sanhedrin assembled by order of Napoleon 1stsaid: "The Great Sanhedrin . . . . declares that it is areligious duty for every Israelite born and brought up

'Rabbi Maulde, "Les Juifs dans les Etats franrais du pape auMoyen-Age," in Revue des Etudes ,7uives, VII, p . 237 ss .

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199in a state, or who becomes a citizen thereof, to regardthe said state as his fatherland . . . he is bound toserve it religiously, to defend it and obey its laws andto conform in all his transactions to the civil code ; theSanhedrin further declares that all Israelites called upfor military service are dispensed by law, during theperiod of their service, from all the religious observanceswhich cannot be harmonized therewith.'

The catechism of Chief Rabbi S . Debre gives thefollowing summary of duties towards one's country :"We must show to our country our devotion and ourabnegation by contributing to its prosperity and great-ness through our loyal activity, by making sacrifices inits defence, even to the extent of giving up our lives forit . 2

It must be recognized, that in conformity with theseprinciples, the Jews, and French Jews in particular,have always manifested perfect loyalty towards theiradopted country, and especially during the recent war.

JUDAISM AND THE REVOLUTIONARY SPIRIT

Anti-semitism reproaches the Jews with being per-petual rebels and with causing revolt . The Jews them-selves admit as a fact that many revolutionaries arerecruited from their midst : "The revolutionary spirit,"as the Jew Eberlin assures us, "is the result of the strugglefor existence in every latitude." It is not surprising if theJews, who have been the victims of so many socialiniquities, penetrated as they are with the tendencies oftheir Scriptures, have taken part therein with ardour. s

But Israelite writers deny that their co-religionistshave ever provoked any revolution .

1Michel A. Weill, La morale du Judaisme, Vol . II, p . 318 ss.'Para 74, p. 76 .'Cf., Le Correspondant, loth April, 1918, p. 5 ss .

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Anti Jewish propaganda has often identified Judaismand Bolshevism, but it is a fact that, if notorious Jewslike Trotsky, Kamenef, Zinovieff, etc ., supported theRussian revolution, other no less remarkable Jews likeHessen, Grusenberg, Gotz, Kautsky, Gompers, etc .,were furiously opposed to it. Moreover it must not beforgotten that the Soviet has persecuted Judaism in thesame way as the other religions, and has destroyedsynagogues as well as churches and mosques.

THE JEWS AND THEIR DEMANDS FOR A SPECIALSTATUS

On the other hand, the Jews may more justly be re-proached with having always striven to secure, in thecountries which shelter them, a special status makingthem almost independent . They take their stand on theprinciple which Lagrange has formulated in terms whichare truly to the point : "Not to renounce the faith inorder not to lose the national character, nor to renouncetheir nationality in order not to lose their faith ." IThe fact is that for the Jew who wishes to be trulyreligious, his religion is essentially a "legalism," and itcannot renounce this character without being untrueto itself. "Accordingly, certain Israelites still say thatif we reflect on the nature of the conditions indispens-able for the exercise of practices so inherent in Judaismas the sabbatical rest for example, or the prohibitionswith regard to food, it will be understood to whatextent it is impossible for Judaism to dispense with acertain measure of ethnical or national autonomy, andwith a minimum of social independence." 2 Catholics,Mussulmans or Parsees, can say the same things, and in

1Baruch Hagani, L'Emancipation des Juifs, Paris, 1928, p. 262 .'Histoire du peuple d'Israel, Vol . V, p. 238 .

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face of the same claims we understand, on the one hand,the exasperation of those who, while not being anti-Semites, would like to believe in the assimilation of theJews and cannot, and on the other hand Renan's gibe :"The ordinary Jew wants at the same time the commonlaw and a law for himself." 1

Bonsirven has perfectly defined and summarizedJewish morality. "It is, in his words, a very lofty andpure expression of the natural law which it charac-terizes without lacunae or omissions, as is fitting for amorality based in the first place on revelation ; but itforbids itself any stretching out to an ideal of completepurification and detachment from the creature, directedtowards the penetration of the mystery . . . . It hasdeparted from the school and example of the prophets inorder to come near the portico of the philosophers ."

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bonsirven, On the Ruins of the Temple . E . Fleg, TheJewish Anthology, 1925 . Michel A. Weill, La Moraledu Judaisme . J. Weill, Le Judaisme. E. Benamozegh,Morale ,Juive et morale chretienne. L. Dennefeld,Le Judaisme Biblique. Lagrange, L'Evangile de ,Jesus-Christ . Le Judaisme avant Jesus-Christ . S . Debre,Catechisme ou elements d'instruction religieuse et morale al'usage de la jeunesse israelite. W. Bousset, Die Religiondes Judentums im spathellenistischen Zeitalter . J. Felten,Neutestamentliche Zeitgeschichte . M. Friedlaender,Die judische Religion . M. Lazarus, Die Ethik des,Judentums . G . F. Moore, Judaism in the First Cen-turies of the Christian Era .

'Op. cit ., P . 336 .

CHAPTER IX

THE MYSTICAL LIFE IN ISRAEL

Does Jewish mysticism exist?-Twofold meaning of this termin Judaism. Pharisaism and Rabbinism favoured lega-lism at the expense of the interior life .-Examination ofsome special points in which the Old Testament announcedthe beginnings of the mystical life and where Rabbinismminimized them.-The Holy Ghost.-The Presence ofGod.-The divine name.-The title of "Father."-Prayer.-The precept of the love of God.-The thesis ofAbelson and modern Judaism .-Jewish mysticism duringthe ages.-The mediaeval spiritual writers .-The Cabbalaand the Zohar. Lourianism . Hassidism . Its influenceon modern Jewish thought.-Zionism.-Martin Buberand his mystical conception of ethnical nationalism.

DOES JEWISH MYSTICISM EXIST?

Is there such a thing as Jewish mysticism? CertainIsraelites deny it, some in order to rejoice that theirfaith is essentially rationalist, others in order to deploreit. However, to examine the matter closely, preciselybecause Judaism is a religion which entails a rationaltheology, religious practices, a faith which appeals tothe spirit, but which also seizes the heart, which informsthe whole of life and includes pure love, it may be deniedthat there must be and that there was mysticism inJudaism .

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THE TWOFOLD MEANING OF THIS TERM IN JUDAISM

But what is understood in Judaism by mysticism?When it is a question of Jews, this term is always synony-mous with secret doctrines and purely intellectual specu-lations, which claim to be founded on Scripture, butwhich, in reality, derive from a tradition which has beenunceasingly swelled by the imagination and the ingenuityof the rabbis .

The existence of a reserved teaching is proved by theMichnah which posits the principle : "The masters donot explain themselves on the causes of incest beforethree individuals, nor on the work of creation before two,nor on the chariot before one, unless he is wise andunderstands the meaning ."' The first theme is avoidedonly for reasons of propriety . That of creation (ma'asehberechit) and that of the chariot (merkabah), that is tosay, the vision of Ezechiel, are sublime subjects, theexplanation of which is reserved for the disciples whogive the greatest hopes .

The principle of esoteric teaching is certainly veryancient. It is expressly evidenced in the case of theEssenes. Speculation on the chariot of Ezechiel, that isto say, on the four animals (khayyot), the living wheels(ofannim), was thought to go back to Jokhanan benZakkai of the first generation after the taking of Jeru-salem. Discussions on creation are prior to this . 2

In this sense, therefore, mysticism or secret theologyalready existed at the time of Our Lord . It was exer-

'Hagigag (Solemn Feasts), II, i .2Lagrange, in his book, Le Judaisme avant Jesus-Christ, has dealt

in his usual masterly way with the question of mysticism among theJews. I hasten to acknowledge my obligations to Chapter XVI,Les tendances du Judaisme daps ses rapports avec Dieu, which alreadymarks the minimization and departure from the Old Testament ofPharisaism and Talmudism.

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cised much more actively outside the schools of officialPharisaism than amongst the rabbis, but the principle ofa higher intelligence in the literal sense of Scripturewas recognized by all and examples are found even upto St. Paul .Only this is not what is generally understood by

mysticism. The mystic life is essentially interior religion .Every religion has, as its object, the maintenance ofrelations with God . These relations may be external andofficial, prayers, offerings, etc., but they may also bepersonal, since every soul must seek to be united withGod. Being of a spiritual nature it does not count onexceeding its powers by seeking to be united to God whois a spirit . For the Christian, this union is impossible, ifhuman nature, too feeble to raise itself so high, is notcompleted by a second nature, the gratuitous gift ofthe goodness of God, which, inserted in its propernature, tends, without ceasing, to bring it nearer to God,its principle. Has Judaism pursued this union by meansof that presence of God within us which we call grace?Has it understood the importance of this doctrine andhas it applied itself thereto? Has it consequently pursuedactual union with God by seeking it through the mindand the heart? Has Judaism encouraged and developedthis mystical life of which Pascal said that it was "Godfelt by the heart"?

PHARISAISM AND RABBINISM HAVE FAVOUREDLEGALISM AT THE EXPENSE OF THE INTERIOR LIFE

It must be admitted that certain foundations for thiswere already laid in the Old Testament .' But werethese first seeds developed by the rabbis or did they meet

1Cf. Lagrange, "Les preliminaires historiques de la mystiquecatholique," in La Vie Spirituelle, 1st May, 1931, p . 76 ss.


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with suspicion at their hands? In other words, did theytend to a more personal and more interior religion, byfollowing the way opened by Jeremias and Ezechiel, ordid they not rather bring their efforts to bear on a strictapplication of the law? To know this, one has only tosee the character which the Tannaites and Amoraitesimprinted on their religion, and briefly to peruse theprincipal ideas wherein the proof of a mystic life has beenbelieved to have been found among the rabbis . TheJudaism of the first centuries which followed the takingof Jerusalem is essentially a "legalism ." Its doctors anddirectors asked themselves what was allowed or for-bidden, and they claimed to determine it solely bymeans of the will of God known and expressed in theLaw. Hence their effort to regulate the whole of life,and hence also the predominance of jurisprudence . Butthis zeal, if it was to have as a consequence the directingof all intellectual efforts towards the knowledge of whatGod demands, was to leave under a cloud the relations offriendship which he deigns to maintain with us. It wasthe forgetting of the burning piety of the psalms whichwas sometimes so touching. There is nothing whichresembles the imitation of Jesus by the Christians . Booksof piety do not exist in primitive Judaism, for theHagadah is only exegesis which embroidered the ancientBiblical narratives in order to encourage observance ofthe law. The Jews themselves admit it . "The Pharisees,"declares I. Myer, "made Jewish religious life a life offormalism and ritual, and destroyed much of the interiorspiritual life of the religion of the Hebrews ."'

Undoubtedly a certain legalism agrees perfectly wellwith mysticism, and true Christian mystics have alwaysmade it a point of honour to show themselves the most

'Qabbalah, p . 174, quoted in English by Vulliaud, in La Kabbaleuive, Vol . I, p . 529, n . t .

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obedient children of the Church . But if any particularrabbi might have had a very affective personal pietyand an intense interior life, it still remains the fact thatin the Judaism of the first centuries, casuistry is every-thing. As Lagrange notes (op . cit ., p . 435) : "The spiritof the prophets was so thoroughly extinguished thatthey were convinced that God no longer inspired pro-phets. Intimacy had grown cold ."

There were in the Old Testament the seeds of amystical life already powerful and developed, which theGospel has cultivated into a mighty tree.

EXAMINATION OF SOME SPECIAL POINTS IN WHICHTHE OLD TESTAMENT SOWED THE SEEDS OF THEMYSTICAL LIFE AND WHERE RABBINISM MINIMIZED

IT: THE HOLY GHOST

The Old Testament contained the principle of thepresence of God in the soul through his Holy Spirit,literally his Spirit of sanctity. The rabbis interpretedthis as a spirit of sanctification which made man knowthe will of God, a purely illuminative role . From thefact of a spiritual principle which dwells within man,and which is the same in some way as the Spirit of God,they were able to draw only one consequence, the dutyof the soul to praise God. 1 We must come down to thethirteenth century to find an extension of this narrowdoctrine, 2 and in his book, Le JudaIsme,J . Weill expresseshimself as follows : "We have been able to note that thiscurrent of mysticism is expressed more in religiousliterature, and of course in the mystics properly so-called, than in the ritual itself, where the word Rouah,

'We read in Strack and Billerbeck, Vol. I, p . 347 : "In rabbinicliterature, we have not come across a single passage in which theHoly Spirit is included in the prayer of an Israelite ."

2 2'algout, on Genesis xlix .


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spirit, occurs less frequently than one would expect .Perhaps this reserve relates to the very part played bythe notion of the Holy Ghost, the third person of theBlessed Trinity, in Christian theology. This is not theonly example of a Jewish idea limited in its developmentby a reaction against the excessive extension of which ithas been the object elsewhere" (p. I8I) .

THE PRESENCE OF GOD

The Old Testament showed God as present anddwelling among his people . The rabbis called thispresence of God the Chekinah. In the psalms and in theprophets it was a presence of grace, the dwelling of Godamongst his children . In the rabbinism of the firstcenturies, the Chekinah was not God, nor an intermediaryhypostasis, but merely a traditional expression to desig-nate a favourable divine presence, and which tended topersonification in order not to utter the name of God .The scruples of the rabbis, if they prevented the placingof a sort of intermediary between God and man, resultedin complicated locutions, which are not of a nature tofavour a sentiment of intimacy and union in simple souls,precisely in the theme of God's approach to those whomhe loves . I

THE DIVINE NAME

In ancient times, the name of Yahweh was the com-mon heritage of all Israelites. Not only was it not for-bidden to them, but they uttered it lovingly in their

'Here again opposition to Christianity led Judaism to minimizethe traditional doctrine of the Old Testament . In the Jewish Encyclo-pedia Jacob Zallel Lauterbach admits that : "The polemical attitudewhich revealed the conception of the Chekinah in relation to thefounder and the ideal of Christianity is undeniable."

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effusions of piety : "I will love thee, 0 Yahweh . . . . Ihave said to Yahweh : Thou art my God, for thou hastno need of my goods .'

Through an exaggerated sentiment of respect, a kindof suspicion of too intimate relations between God andhis servants, not only was the proper name Yahweh for-bidden, but the very use of the common name God fellinto desuetude, and ended by being systematicallyavoided . Is this not an additional indication in itssentiment of some sort of rupture between Israel and itsGod, a sentiment which made heads bow with fear andmade love afraid?

THE TITLE OF "FATHER "

Among the names which thus replaced that of God,that of Father must be noted . It goes back to the mostancient times, and Isaias said magnificently :

For thou art our father : and Abraham hath notknown us, and Israel bath been ignorant of us . Thou,O Lord, art our father, our redeemer : from everlastingis thy name . . . . And now, 0 Lord, thou art ourfather, and we are clay : and thou art our maker, andwe all are the works of thy hands . 2

Rabbinic Judaism has retained this title and the use ofthe name Father is frequent in its prayers, but whenthere is nothing to supply the name of God, it remainsrestricted within the national spheres . The celebratedprayer of Rabbi Aqiba before the ark of the Torah :"Our Father, our King, We have sinned before thee .Our Father, our King, we have no other king but thee

. . ." shows that God is even more king than father .

"PS. xvii, 2 ; XV, 2 .'Isaias lxiii, 16 ; lxiv, 8 .


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PRAYER

The Old Testament contained a splendid collection ofprayers expressing all the sentiments which man mustfeel when he approaches God . Judaism could not forgetthem, but what direction did it take to develop andperfect the former teaching? In the official prayer, theChema is a confession of faith, preceded by two benedic-tions and followed by another (Deut . vi, 4-9; xi, 13-21 ;Numbers xv, 37-41) . At the beginning, Moses recallsto Israel the absolute unity of God and the command-ment to love him with all our heart, but the positiveprecepts which follow show that it is, above all, anundertaking to observe the law, an undertaking whichis still expressed by the external wearing of phylac-teries .The Chemone represents the voice of the nation, but

whereas the Our Father is at the same time universal,when it speaks of the sanctification of God and of theaccomplishment of the divine will, and particular sincethe gift implored answers to the individual needs of every-one, the eighteen benedictions are the cry of a peoplefor its deliverance and restoration . It cannot be deniedthat Judaism has not retained the true notion of prayerwhich must be made with fervour, as an appeal to themercy of God, but perhaps by dint of multiplying obliga-tions on the subject of prayer, it has exposed souls to thedanger of losing sight of its principal end . For example,it is impossible to find in all Judaism an expression likethat of Origen : "Every prayer has, as its object, theuniting of one's self to the will of God, but he who was aLord has changed into a friend ." 1 Lagrange concludeswith much justice : "It seems impossible to us to mis-understand that the religious sentiment, if it gained in

1P.G. xi, c . 416 .0

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respect, lost as far as regards intimacy ; regulation began,and was to be more complete, which is an advantagefor the majority. It was thought necessary to draw upthe terms of a prayer for all the Israelites : but it is in thenational interest, and the benediction of some is accom-panied by the malediction of others ."Did the taste for mental prayer develop? Perhaps

among chosen souls, but the spiritual leaders of thenation did not invite souls to partake thereof, and didnot encourage them in their progress towards the lightand towards love. They did not make them envisageunion with God as the end of prayer .'

THE PRECEPT OF THE LovE OF GOD

Judaism could not forget that the precept of the love ofGod is the first commandment of the law promulgatedon Sinai . The best proof is that it is put at the top of theconfession of faith which every Israelite must recitetwice a day. There are admirable expressions in theTalmud on the service of God through love and itssuperiority over service through fear . The martyrdomof Aqiba shows moreover to what extent this greatprecept of the love God dominated the minds of certaindoctors. But the scribe's question in Mark xii, 28, on thefirst commandment shows clearly that the bulk of Jewsat that period had not grasped its importance, and thewhole of the rabbinic doctrine is the proof that, in fact,the attention of the doctors was exclusively directed to aregulation which they zealously attempted to draw fromthe Torah. If the principle of the love of God cannot bedenied, how was its power of convincing not to beobscured by all this wrapping of casuistry? The lawand the prophets had nothing to gain from this pre-

10P . cit., P. 476 ss .


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tended commentary . The fact, moreover, is, that theyfound their perfection . In any event it is to be notedthat the tendency of Pharisaic Judaism and subsequentlyof Rabbinic Judaism was in no way towards a moreinterior, and if one may use the expression, a moremystical religion.

It is also to be observed that if Christian scholarshave thus reproached Judaism, which is much moreconscious of the spiritual nature of God than ancientIsrael, with having insisted especially upon its transcend-ence, with having relegated it to spheres of the highesttype and furthest from heaven, thereby losing contactwith this living God whose relations with the patriarchswere so familiar, Jewish scholars have not protested,just as though they were still imbued with that repug-nance for mysticism which was the characteristic of theancient rabbis.

THE THESIS OF ABELSON AND MODERN JUDAISM

Exception may however, be made for Abelson in hisadmirable work on l'Immanence de Dieu dens la litteraturerabbinique .l A sincere partisan of the mystical life, heunderstands it almost in the same sense as we do. Itsprinciple is a gift of God in the soul, the gift of the HolyGhost. Its object is the union of the soul with God, whois present everywhere by his activity without prejudiceto his supreme transcendence . Its exercise is prayerwhereby God is attained and which is, in itself, muchmore of an end than a means. Abelson claims to find allthis in the Judaism which preceded that of the Gaonsand which, he considers, derives directly from the Old

'The Immanence of God in Rabbinical Literature, by J. Abelson, M.A.,D. Litt . (Principal of Aria College, Portsmouth), Macmillan, London,1913 .

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Testament. But his thesis must have seemed exaggerated,because it does not appear to have been accepted ; itsinfluence is nowhere to be found, and in his life of Jesusof Nazareth, Klausner would like to remove miraclesand mysticism from the teaching of Jesus, by means ofwhich it would be one of the most beautiful treasures ofthe literature of Israel .'If we remember this positive understanding of the

Jews who despised "what is above and below, what wasand what shall ultimately be," this living legalism whichweighed too willingly on temporal rewards and con-demned asceticism, we shall see that a priori mysticismcould not find in Judaism a favourable soil for its deve-lopment. Undoubtedly in the course of its history, therewere privileged souls more specially attracted by tenderpiety and a life of intimacy with God, who attained ahigh degree of virtue . Judaism has given the world suchadmirable examples of virtue, that there can be nodoubt on this point .

But we are here dealing with official Judaism, thesuccessor of Pharisaism and Rabbinism . During thecenturies have this Judaism and its leaders possessed amystical doctrine, and did they really favour it as isobvious, for example, in Catholicism? We are forcedto reply that mysticism is not met with ordinarily inJudaism . On the contrary, mystical tendencies aremanifested only at certain periods of its existence, and soto speak, by reaction against an aridity which, by con-fining itself to certain practices which had become toomaterial and too absorbing, ran the risk of killing thereligion itself.

1P. 414 ss ., of the English edition .


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JEWISH MYSTICISM DURING THE AGES .

THE MEDIEVAL SPIRITUAL WRITERS

By the admission of Jewish historians themselves, notrace of mysticism is to be found in Judaism before theninth century." It is really only in the middle ages thatthe first mystical writers appeared . Bahiya Ibn Paqudahpublished his Duties of Hearts, Judah Halevi his Qusariand Salomon Ibn Gabirol (Avicebron) his Crown ofRoyalty (ICether Malkout) and his Fountain of Life . Canthis be called a real mystical literature? An elevatedreligious sense is to be found among these authors, attimes the influence of neo-platonism, a lively anti-intellectual reaction, but nothing which allows it to besupposed that there was intimacy with God and thedivine seizure on the soul . Maimonides was especially aphilosopher, and if his "Eight Chapters," directly inspiredby the Nichomachean Ethics, systematized a loftymorality, there is nothing in that which surpasses whatcan be expected from the morality which has its sourcein the Old Testament. These works were nevertheless tobecome the favourite books of spiritual Jews in thesixteenth and seventeenth centuries .

THE QABBALA AND THE ZOHAR

The true mystical renascence of Judaism dates in factfrom the publication of the Book of Splendour (Sepher haZohar), by Moses de Leon (1250-1305) and it is expedientto attach most often to this work the mystical movementswhich in the critical, quibbling and too often dry spiritof Talmudism opposed the dream, the love of the wonder-

'Die Mystik mag sick also erst um 82o Bahn gebrochen haben (Graetz,quoted by Oderberg, 3 Henoch, p . 28) .

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ful, the indefectible hope and also the religious sensewhich always remain alive in the depths of the Jewishsoul .

It is incontestable that, at the time of Our Lord and inthe first centuries of Judaism, there existed a theologicaldoctrine, philosophical and symbolic, whose revelationand study were reserved to the initiated alone . The textfrom the Michnah quoted above is the proof of this .Must there be seen in this the product of an exclusivelyJewish spirit? Is it not, on the contrary, more likely thatwe should rather recognize therein foreign influencesundergone during the Babylonian exile, which were toend in a "mixture of profound speculations and super-stitious beliefs of great wisdom and extravagance?"'Scholars discuss this point without being able to come toany agreement. There will however, be noted thereinthe rabbinic claim which seeks to find everything inScripture on condition that it is able to be understood .It is this esoteric teaching which is called the Qabbala . 2It presents a twofold point of view which it is well tostress immediately, theological and philosophical specu-lations and a mystical doctrine . s We shall deal especiallywith the latter .

Some rare indications in the Michnah, the SepherTefirah (Book of Creation), Sepher ha-Bahir (the book ofthe Splendour), Othiyoth of Rabbi Aqiba (the Alpha-bet of Rabbi Aqiba), Schiour Komah (Dimensions),Hechaloth Rabbathi (the Great Book of the Palaces), the

'Munk, Palestine, Paris, 1881, p . 5 1 9.2From the Hebrew qibbel, to receive instruction . The word

gabbdldh is used in the Michnah (Taanith, II, i ), in the sense of tradi-tion, a thing transmitted and received through tradition .

'We are not here touching on the question of the speculativedoctrines of the Qabbala, for in many cases, no possibility is seen ofattaching them to authentic Judaism . An excellent summary is tobe found in Bonsirven, op. cit ., p . 343 ss ., and especially in Vulliaud,La Kabbale juive.


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Pirke of Rabbi Eliezer, the dates of which are the matterof great controversy, are perhaps, during the first twelvecenturies of our era, the only points from which emergesthis esoteric thought which was to end in the Zohar.Moses de Leon, who published the work towards the endof the thirteenth century, presents it as the work ofSimon ben Yokhai and his disciples (second century A.D .)and he gravely narrates that the leaves of the book camedown to him only after many changes and in a mira-culous way. Fleg and many other Jews see in it "thesum of the cabbalistic doctrines and fables such as theyappeared in Jewish mediaeval thought ."'

Vulliaud admits, on the contrary, that there are in theZohar, "interpolations, suppressions and alterations,"that side by side with fragments of a venerable antiquity,other pieces of different ages are to be found," but, "what-ever may be the truth as to its late compilation, it seemsreasonable to accept the ,torah as the authentic expres-sion of the ancient wisdom of the Jews ." 2 In his lastwork, Traduction integrale du Siphra di-Tzeniutha, heassures us that "if the Kabbala has very remote origins,one portion-the fundamental part-of the documentswhich contain it, belongs to the school of Simeon benYochai" (p. 122) .

Taken as a whole, the doctrines of the Qabbala haveas their object the conciliation of the existence of thefinite with that of the infinite . They pre-suppose : (I)That God, the Supreme Being, unknowable andunlimited (En Soph), by an act of free will and love forthe creation not yet created withdrew, so to speak, intohimself (Zimzoum), in order to leave room for limitedbeing ; (2) That he at first gave birth to the World of

1Le lure du Tohar, pages traduites du chaldaique, par Jean dePauly, preface de E . Fleg.

2 P . Vulliaud, La Kabbale juive, Vol . I, p . 295 .

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emanation (Aziluth), composed of ten spheres or Sephi-roth, in which all his spiritual powers reside; (3) Thatbelow the Aziluth were born in succession to each otherthe worlds of Creation (Beria), of Formation (Yecira),and of Action (Assiya) ; (4) That these different worldshave a parallel structure in such a way that to the tenspiritual spheres of the Aziluth correspond intimately theten material Elements or Envelopes (Kelipoth) of theinferior world ; (5) That from this fact, the human soul,in which the fusion of all these worlds resides, finds invirtue and prayer, a magical force which allows it toact upon events and upon the Divinity itself . (6) Thatthis secret doctrine is contained in the text of the Bible,and that it can be discovered if one knows how to read,by giving not merely to the words, but also to the alpha-betical signs of which they are composed, their real anddivine signification (each letter being at the same timea letter and a number, and the entire sacred Scripturesbeing merely the constant repetition of the differentnames of the divinity). It is to be noted that while thetraditionalist rabbis of the Middle Ages strenuouslyattacked the Aristotelianism of Maimonides and hissuccessors, many of them were at the same time Tal-mudists and Qabbalists . From the fact that they gaveto prayer, virtue and free will a preponderating placein the economy of the divine and human world, theQabbala thus attached itself again through its ethic toone of the fundamental ideas of Judaism and became anintegral part thereof.'

On its appearance, the Zohar encountered but fewsceptics . Its partisans, the Qabbalists, became, on theother hand, more and more numerous, and they vene-rated the sacred Zohar in the same way as the Torah. Itwas studied, commented upon, and its influence pene-

'Cf., E. Fleg, Anthologie juive, Vol. II, p . 364 ss .


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trated into the most closed system of Talmudism . It isfelt in the legislative collections of Caro, and traces of itare again found in the conceptions of official theologyand in the prayers of the Synagogue . Despite the criti-cisms of certain late opponents like Leon of Modena(1571-1648), the Zohar invaded the Jewish communities,and Christian scholars like Pico Della Mirandola(1463-1494), and the humanist Reuchlin had themselvesinitiated into it, since they thought that they wouldfind therein arguments in favour of their faith .

LoURW.usMIt is, however, in the East that the Qabbala imposed

its doctrinal ideas and its mystical life. Moses Cordovero(1552-1570), in his Garden of Pomegranates developedabove all the speculative side . The school of Safed inUpper-Galilee with Isaac Louria (1534-1572) and hisdisciple Haim Vital (1546-1620) insists on the otherhand, on the practical side : works of penance, prolongedmeditations and prayers, intended to concentrate thepowers of the soul and raise them into ecstasy .

The moral and mystical doctrine of Louria may besummarized as follows : All possible souls were united inpre-existing man . The sin of Adam mixed good withevil; there is no inferior soul which does not includesome higher element, and the highest soul is not freefrom impurity . To be able to rise to the primitiveseparated world of God, to the perfect world of theMessianic period, souls must be purified from alluncleanness. This purification is accomplished, on theone, hand, by metempsychosis, the purest souls expiatingtheir imperfections by entering into less perfect bodies,and, on the other hand, by superimposition of the soul,when there is added to the soul received at birth, by

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means of incarnation, the former soul of a higher indi-vidual. The ascent must also be facilitated by means ofcertain practices and ceremonies .' With mysticalexercises Louria combined the use of amulets, conjuringof spirits, combinations of numbers and alphabeticalsigns, whereby he claimed to confer on the initiated asuperhuman power.The Lourianist Qabbala spread at first in the East .

By the intense expectation of the Messias into which itthrew the Jewish communities, it was in great part thecause of the lamentable and burlesque adventure ofSabbata Zevi (1626-1676) . He was a Jew from Smyrna .In 1665 he solemnly claimed to be the Messias, gainedpossession of the multitude and left behind him nothingbut ruin and disillusionment. He ended, moreover, byapostatizing and becoming a Mussulman .2 But it isespecially in Poland that the influence of Lourianismmade itself felt, where it caused a veritable revolution.

HASSIDISM

For more than a century, the Jewish communities ofthat country were sunk in ignorance and ritualisticformalism. Nevertheless here and there groups of humblefolk were formed who came together for prayer andmoral uplift . They were called the Hassidim, the pious

'No one can fail to see the many points of contact which couldeasily be made between this Lourianist qabbala and the speculationsof certain Christian Gnostics of the first centuries . Louria ended bybelieving and saying that he was the prophet Elias, the precursor ofthe Messias .

2The Judeo-mussulman sect of the Deumeh, who may be con-sidered the free-lances of Islam, are connected with Sabbatai Zevi .The 16th article of their faith, which allows them to conform to theusages of the Turks "for thereby their eyes are pierced," opened tosome of them the path to honours . Cf., on this point the curiousnote which Abraham Danon devoted to them in Actes du XIs Congsesdes Orientalistes, Paris, 1897, IIIe section .


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people, and the musings, speculations and mysticism ofthe Qabbala served as an offset to the miseries of theirdaily life . It was in one of these groups that Israel benEliezer, surnamed Baal Chem, the master of the name,Bescht for short, was to found the sect of the Hassidim,in opposition to the orthodox Talmudism which exag-gerated religious practices to the most minute degreeand the discussions of which led to the most arid sub-tilities .

Baal Chem, who voluntarily fled to the solitude of theforests, believed that God is very near to man, and thatintense prayer on the part of the latter allows him torid himself of his fleshly chains and to communicateheart to heart with the Divinity . Aescoly-Weintraubhas proved that it is not expedient to see in this person-age the true founder of Hassidism and that it was thename of A. Bescht around which the legends of theintroductory period were crystallized.' The organiza-tion of the sect is due especially to his disciples, RabbiBaer of Meseritz and Jacob Joseph Cohen, two qabba-lists of the school of Louria.

The Hassidists give to religious sentiment an infinitelygreater importance than the knowledge and practice ofthe Law; they insist on the omnipresence of God, andpractise, by means of prayer and a special psychologicaltraining, the ecstasy which allows a man to enter intodirect communication with the divinity. They borrowedfrom the Qabbala the belief according to which everyhuman act may have repercussions in the elevatedspheres of the divine world, the just and pure man, theSaddiq, being capable of acting upon the will of God,and thereby even of modifying the course of natural

'A-Z . Aescoly Weintraub, Introduction d 1'dtude des hdresies reli-gieuses parmi les Juifs . La Kabbale. Le Hassidisme. Essai critique .Paris, P . 33 ss .

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events (thaumaturgy) . Certain Hassidists practisefasts and rigorous macerations, but most of them insiston joy's being considered as one of the highest forms ofpious worship .The importance of the divine element in man,

already stressed to excess in the Qabbala has been exag-gerated in Hassidism beyond the limit of possibilityby the conception of the Saddiq, the man who by hissanctity realizes complete union between God andhumanity.

To sum up, all that is divine on earth is concentratedin the Saddiq . Not only does he represent God, but hisunion with the Eternal elevates him to the rank ofpower in creation. He is the link between the supremeworld and the world here below . Henceforward toplease the Saddiq, to love him, to accomplish his will,irrevocable as well as infallible, constitute acts of wor-ship, because this is to accomplish the will of God . Theabuses to which can lead a doctrine in which the headof the sect absorbs all the devotional activity of itsmembers will be noted . The excess of the power of thesaddiqim, the obligation which they have to performmiracles, must necessarily lead a certain number ofthem to sink into pride or moral disorders . Moreover,the degrading devotion of the faithful, the whole of theirsuperstitious beliefs, the cabbalistic prejudices of thesectaries for whom a book on arithmetic or geographyis a heretical work, led to a lamentable lowering ofmorality and finally to the complete failure of a mysticalmovement which gave fair hopes .'

It would, however, be an error to think that there was'Cf., Vulliaud . La Kabbale juice, Vol . II, p . 162 ss . The brothers

Tharaud in their book, Un royaume de Dieu, have given an exactpicture of the daily life of a Hassidist community. Arvbde Barine,"Un juif polonais," in Revue des De .x-moudes, 1889, p . 771 ss ., may alsobe read with interest .


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nothing but evil in this pietistic movement . In anadmirably informed book, Qjsand Israel aime Dieu, tJean de Menasce has shown how it is expedient not tostop at the external covering and how Hassidismrestored the Jewish mind to the profound sense of thedivine . If certain Saddiqim showed themselves inferior,some, on the other hand, like Rabbi Abraham, sur-named the Angel, Rabbi Levi Isaac, Rabbi de Berdit-chew, Rabbi Elimelek of Lisensk, and Rabbi Israelof Reizin have given an example of eminent sanctity .

The first half of the nineteenth century was the epochof most complete development for Hassidism . The halfof the Jewish population of Russia, Poland, Galicia andRoumania followed the practice of the sect and believedin the power of the Saddiqim .

The opposition of the orthodox and the legalists didnot wait for this moment to make itself felt . As early as1772, it had at its head Elyah ben Salomon, surnamedthe Gaon of Vilna, who saw in this mystical movement adanger for Judaism, and whose disciples took the nameof Mitnaggedirn (opponents) . In the nineteenth century,the partisans of modern culture who sought to introduceamong the Jews the teachings of science and letters,united with them to combat Hassidism . Their bitteropposition, the internal degeneracy of the sect, the abusewhich the Saddiqim had made of their power, led littleby little to the disappearance of the sect . It no longersurvives in Europe except in some houses whose headsare Saddiq from father to son .

ITS INFLUENCE ON MODERN JEWISH THOUGHT

One of the special features of Hassidism, whereby,moreover, it was directly connected with Lourianism,

'Paris, Plon, 1931 .

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was its devotion to the land of Israel. Israel is the centreof the world, but Palestine is the country where theirancestors lived their religious experience from Abrahamand Jacob to the last masters of the Zoharian tradition,and this is why, at the end of the eighteenth century,many Hassidists left the cold misery of Russia and cameto establish themselves in Galilee and in particular atSafed. Hassidism, at least such as it existed accordingto the will of its founders, has now disappeared, but theidealistic, pietistic and mystical movement whichanimated the Jewish peoples of the east of Europe, hasnot entirely perished . If it has often turned away fromGod, it is to direct itself towards an object which is moreimmediately tangible, the race, Jewish nationality,either because it feverishly attempts to rebuild for itselfa fatherland, the Erets Israel, or else in spiritualizingitself it attaches itself to the messianic conception thatIsrael is verily the salt and light which is to regeneratethe world .

ZIONISM

"A new mysticism," writes J . Weill, "the love of theHoly Land, like the love of the Torah and of Israel, towhich it is closely associated, belongs to the sentimentalbasis of Judaism, and has easily assumed a mysticalvalue, thanks to certain events."'- "In default of a pil-grimage, a satchet of earth from Palestine is the sweetestpillow for the devout man, the hassid, at the hour ofburial" (p . 187) . Undoubtedly fidelity to the land oftheir fathers is especially bound up with the belief inthe coming of the future Messias and the restoration ofthe City and the Temple. It is no less true that the EretsIsrael was loved for itself, and among the dispersed, whofrom afar yearned towards Zion ; its memory has main-

1Le Judaism, p. 186.


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tained a tenderness which excited to the pitch of passionpersecutions or widespread hostility and the deep senti-ment that a new destiny would soon perhaps open forthe "daughter of Zion ." Hence the Zionist movementand the establishment of the National Home for theJews in Palestine under the protection of Great Britain(1922) .The work accomplished by the haloutsim, the Jewish

pioneers, is obviously worthy of respect like the senti-ment which animates them, but can we speak of mysti-cism, in the true sense of the term, among men imbuedfor the most part with socialism and even communism"detached from religion properly so-called to the extentof incurring the severe reprobation of the scrupulousobservers of the Torah"? l Many of these pioneers,coming from surroundings strongly impregnated withthe mentality and vocabulary of the Hassidists, haveretained the mystical terms ; but what can be the mean-ing of the "potential mysticism" of this "lay neo-Hassi-dism which is sometimes anti-clerical, but whose sincereidealism and ardent mysticism perhaps reserves forfuture Judaism deep resources of spirituality?" (p . 191) .It is a respectable sentiment of patriotism, and a movingremembrance of their ancestors, before which it is wellto bow, but the complete absence of God does not allowit to be spoken of as mysticism strictly so-called .

MARTIN BUBER AND HIS MYSTICAL CONCEPTION OFETHNIC NATIONALISM

Besides, for many Jews, this foundation of a Jewishstate is an error. Ascher Guinzerb, better known underhis pseudonym of Ahad Ha`am (one of the people), 2

'Loc. cit ., p . 18g .'A writer bom in Russia in 1856 .

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rejects the political and practical Zionism of Herzl . Histhesis which is dubbed mystical-and this clearly showsthe abuse that is made of the term-is that Zionismconstitutes a movement which is less political than moral,Palestine having to become, above all, an intellectualcentre whose light should shine on all the Jews of thedispersion. Martin Buber, a descendant of Baal Chem,is himself also a partisan of Hassidism. The sight ofthese Galician communities where everybody submitsto the authority of a leader, not by constraint, butdeliberately and from love, made him understand thatthe deep soul ofJudaism was not attached to Talmudism,but to the Prophets and their true successors, the Hassi-dists . He therefore rejects political nationalism. If theJews have come to Palestine, it is only to find there acountry to which they are attached by a deep religioushomesickness, to rebuild there a country by agreementwith its inhabitants, and not to drive therefrom thenative Arabs .Judaism, according to him, is essentially made up of

right and justice among all peoples, and also of anethnic nationalism which is the voice of the blood . "Theman who has discovered the continuity of his Ego intime, feels himself lifted up by the breath of eternity ; hebecomes conscious of the continuity of generations, ofthe ancestral line of which he is the end ." "He feels inthe succession of imperishable generations the com-munity of blood, he feels it as a life prior to his ownexistence. He began by seeing in his own people theexternal world, therein he discovers at the present asoul. Henceforward, the people represent, in his eyes, acommunity of the dead, the living, and men to be born,forming one sole unity, and it is precisely this unitywhich he recognizes as the basis of his Ego, this Egowhich, in the immense chain, constitutes a necessary


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link whose place has been marked out from all eternity .What all men forming this chain have created, whatthey will create, he perceives it as the work of hisintimate essence ; in their experience past and future, hesees his personal destiny . The past of his people formsthe substance of his memory, his future constitutes hisown task. The way followed by his people teaches himto understand himself, to know his own wishes ."' Andwhat will be the vocation in the world of the Jew whohas thus taken cognizance of his Judaism and heard thevoice of the blood? Martin Buber answers the questionin his Discours sur le judaisme; 2 it will be to bring tohumanity an advance towards more unity and morelight by the teaching of moral monotheism .

These ideas obviously come close to' those of RomainRolland and Rabindranath Tagore, but it is only by avery slender thread that they can be connected withthe Old Testament . It is no longer the loving unionwith God, and no longer, in consequence, the truemystical life. Is it still even the religious sentiment?

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J. M. Lagrange, Le ,Judaisme avant Jesus-Christ . SepherHa-Zohar (The Book of Splendour), translated for thefirst time by jean De Pauly, published by E . Lafuma-Giraud, 6 Volumes, Paris, I9o6-1911 . Le Livre duZohar, pages traduites du chaldaique par Jean DePauly, Extraits et preface par E . Fleg . P. Vulliaud,Traduction intdgrale du Siphra di-Tzeniutha (TheSecret Book) . E. Fleg, Jewish Anthology. P . Vulliaud,La Kabbale juive. Essai et doctrine . S . Karppe, Etude

'Quoted by Hans Kohn in L'Humanisme juif, p . 252 ss .'Reden fiber das Judentum, 1909-1923 .

P

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sur les origines et la nature du Zohar . A. Z. Aescoly-Weintraub, Le Hassidisme, Essai critique . Bonsirven,On the Ruins of the Temple . Jean de Menasce, QuandIsrael aime Dieu. H . Kohn, L'Humanisme juif.Quinze essais sur le Juif, le Monde et Dieu . J. Weill,Le judaisme . Jerome et Jean Tharaud, PetiteHistoire des juifs; Un royaume de Dieu. J. Abelson,The Immanence of God in Rabbinical Literature .

CHAPTER X

PRIVATE AND PUBLIC WORSHIP

Private worship : Circumcision .-Religious initiation.-Mar-riage.-Death.-Prescriptions regarding clothing.-Tal-lith .-Tephillin.-Mezouza.-Prescriptions regardingfood. Laws of purity. Individual prayer. Familyliturgy.-The Sabbath.- The Pasch .

Public worship: The three Feasts of Pilgrimage : Pasch;Pentecost; the Feast of Tabernacles or Cabins.-TheHanoukka.-The Feast of Purim .-The rigorous Feasts :Rosch Ha-Chana. Yom Kippour.-Fasts.-The Syna-gogue.-The daily liturgy .-The Qaddich and the`Aleinou. Appendix. The Jewish calendar.-Conclusion .

PRIVATE WORSHIP : CIRCUMCISION

IT is by birth that the Israelite is attached to the race ofAbraham, but the law itself provided that a strangercould associate himself with the people of Israel on con-dition that he bore in his flesh the sign of the covenant,that is to say, circumcision. With the Sabbath, it is thesign of the union which exists between God and hispeople: "And you shall circumcise the flesh of yourforeskin : that it may be for a sign of the covenantbetween me and you" (Genesis xvii, I I) . Strangers whowished to be incorporated with the Jewish people had tohave themselves circumcised (Judith xiv, 6) . Accordingto an opinion which is still widespread, the circumcised

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person is assured of his eternal salvation and a traditionshows Abraham seated at the gate of Gehenna andsnatching from damnation all those who bear the signof his covenant (Genesis R. xviii, I) . It is obviously forthese reasons, the precision of the commandment, andthe blessing attached to the ritual observance, that theuniversality of Jews, despite certain exceptions, remainattached to this religious practice .

A father may circumcise his own son, but ordinarilythe operation is entrusted to the Mohel (Circumcisor) ofthe community. Circumcision may take place at homeor in the synagogue . For this purpose two seats arearranged, one for the sponsor who holds the child, theother for the prophet Elias, who is considered to bepresent at the ceremony.' After the operation themohel imposes a name on the child. Circumcision may bedone on the Sabbath-day, but in that case it is fitting toprepare everything required on the eve .

If a woman's first-born is a boy, he must be redeemedaccording to the precept of the Law (Exodus xiii, 1 5-1 7 ;xxxiv, 20) . Leon of Modena still speaks of it as a customobserved in the seventeenth2 century, but modernauthors make no reference to it .

RELIGIOUS INITIATION

At the age of thirteen years and one day, a childattains his religious majority . He becomes Bar-Mifwah(bound to the commandments) and may thenceforwardbe reckoned in the synagogue to form the minian (the

'A false Rabbinic interpretation of Micheas iii, i, together withIII Kings, xix, i o .

'Ceremonies et cou.tumes qui s'observent aujourd'huy parmy les Juifs,traduites de l'italien de Leon De Modene, rabbin de Venise, par leSieur De Simonville, Paris, Rieder, 1929, p . 173 ss .


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minimum number of the congregation present for thevalidity of the official prayer in the synagogue) .At the present time, in the bulk of French Jewish

communities, this coming-of-age is celebrated by a feastof religious initiation, often called confirmation or evencommunion, a term which reveals Christian influence .The small boys, arranged somewhat like Catholic firstcommunicants, go up the platform which is in front ofthe sanctuary and chant the portion of Scripture whichthey have learned and repeated for months . They thenutter a prayer and a profession of faith . The little girls,dressed in white, are admitted only to the professionof faith .

MARRIAGE

The rites of marriage appear to be of extreme anti-quity. The ceremony takes place most frequently in thesynagogue. The contracting parties are placed underthe Kouppah (baldachin) which is usually made of aTallith and a veil of the ark, the sacred shelter whichsymbolizes the sanctity of marriage . The celebrantbegins by blessing a beaker of wine ; he offers it to thebridegroom and bride who drink from it. Then thebridegroom contracts the union by putting a ring on thesecond finger of his bride's right hand, saying at thesame time : "Behold, by this ring thou art consecrated(united) to me according to the law of Moses and ofIsrael." The traditional formula of the Ketuba (contract)is then read in Aramaic or in the vernacular and sixbenedictions are pronounced . At the end the beaker isagain offered to the spouses and after the last drops have,been spilled on the ground, it is restored to the bride-groom who breaks it by throwing it on the ground .From that moment the bride becomes, according to a

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very expressive term, "the woman of the house of herhusband ."

DEATH

The last moments of a Jewish life are as much sur-rounded by religion as the first . The sick person is notleft to his own devices, but friends and visitors surroundhim to help him to pray and to trust himself to God . Hemust himself confess his sins, ask pardon for them andcommend himself to God . He frequently repeats theChema, and when the time has come, a kind of com-mendation of the soul is recited either at the synagogueor at the bedside.

After the last breath, the near relations who are boundto mourning, rend their clothes while murmuring theprayer: "The Lord has given, the Lord has takenagain; blessed be the name of the Lord . Blessed be thou,O Lord, our God, King of the world, true judge. . . ."The funeral confraternity then prepare the corpse,

which is clothed in white, console the relations and bringthem a meal, for the latter must remain seated on theground for eight whole days, alone with their sorrow .Conservative Jews condemn cremation as contrary tothe Law. The funeral is hallowed by the prayer entitled"Justification of the judgment," which is an abandon-ment to the will of the Almighty . Finally the sons of thedeceased, or failing them, his widow, go to the publicservices of the synagogue for eleven months to recitethe prayer Qaddich, for it is believed that it can save fromdamnation.'

PRESCRIPTIONS REGARDING CLOTHES

It is forbidden to Jews to wear a fabric woven ofdifferent textiles, for example, linen and wool, for it is

'These details are taken from Bonsirven, op. cit., p . 290, 292,295 ss .

written in Leviticus xix, Ig : "Thou shalt not wear agarment that is woven of two sorts." Even to-daytailors' advertisements can be seen which announcekacher clothing, that is to say, clothing in accordancewith the law. Orthodox Jews in the East have a predi-lection for long garments, and consider it respectable towear a girdle .

Since it was written in Leviticus xix, 27 : "Nor shallyou cut your hair roundwise: nor shave your beard,"many Jews make it their duty to wear a beard . It isbecause of the same text that the custom of Pyus, longcurls which hang down both sides of the face, wasintroduced among the Eastern Jews . Devout Jews keepthe head covered as much as possible, and do notremove their hats even in the synagogue . In the East,the women, after their wedding day, do not allow theirhair to be seen, and cover it with a wig .

TALLITH

It was written in the Book of Numbers (xv, 37-4 1 ) :"The Lord also said to Moses : Speak to the children ofIsrael, and thou shalt tell them to make to themselvesfringes in the corner of their garments, putting in themribands of blue. . . ." This prescription is obviouslyimpossible of observance, given the shape of modernclothes, but devout Jews wear beneath their garments apiece of material which covers the chest like a scapularand in every corner of which is the ritual tuft . This isthe small Tallith, the 'arba Kanphoth (four corners) .The large Tallith consists of a white woollen or silk

scarf, usually decorated towards the ends with bands ofblack or blue and having at the four corners the fringesprescribed by the law. These fringes are called tsitsith inHebrew.

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The Tallith is worn, after being respectfully kissed,during the morning service, at all the services of TomKippour, and at services when the Qaddich is recited ondays of mourning .

TEPHILLIN

It is repeated in the Torah : "Thou shalt bind thesecommandments as a sign on thy hand ; and they shallbe and shall move between thy eyes ." (Deut . vi, 8 ;xi, 18 ; Exodus xii, 9, I6) . This exhortation takenliterally has given rise to the tephillin (objects which areused during the prayer Tepillah) or phylacteries (whichprotect against the attacks of the devil) . They are littleleather boxes containing four Biblical texts (Exodusxiii, I-Io ; I I- 16 ; Deut. xi, 4-9 ; 13-20) written on a pieceof pure parchment. One of these boxes containing theverses written on a single piece of parchment is bound bya thong to the left arm in order to be able to rest on theheart which must adhere to the Torah. In the other box,the four Biblical passages are transcribed, each on aseparate parchment and placed in a distinct compart-ment; the box is marked with the initial of the wordChaddai (the Almighty), a letter which the powers ofevil must respect. This second phylactery is placed onthe brow . I The phylacteries are worn on non-feast daysduring morning prayer, except the fast day on 9 ab,when they are put on during afternoon prayer .

MEZOUZA

The use of the mezouza (lintel of the door) has a similarorigin and meaning. It is written in Deuteronomy (vi, g)"Thou shalt write these commandments on the entry andon the doors of thy house ." Hence the two first sections

'Bonsirven, op . cit ., p . 263


233of the Chema, that is to say, Deut . vi, 4-9 and xi, 13-20,are copied on to a parchment ; on the opposite side theword Chaddai and three magical words without anymeaning are written ; the parchment is enclosed in acase of reed, of metal or glass, but pierced by a littleopening which allows the name of the Almighty toappear. The mezouza is fixed on to the right lintel of themain doors, and every time the Jews enter they touchthe sacred name with their finger and afterwards kiss itin the Eastern fashion .'

S. Debre's Catechism adds (p. 50): "Care must betaken not to consider the Tefellin, Tsitsit or Mezouza astalismans or amulets . Our religion forbids us to expectprotection from the influence of amulets or talismans,for it teaches us that God alone directs all things ."

PRESCRIPTIONS REGARDING FOOD

Leviticus declared impure those who touched a corpse,a leper, a reptile, etc ., and by reason of this entry to theTemple was forbidden to those who were defiled bysuch contact. After the destruction of the Temple, theJews regard as abolished many of the precepts regardingunclean things, but a devout Israelite refrains from touch-ing all the objects and from all the acts which the Torahdeclares impure .In the first rank of the laws concerning purity (Kach-

rout), it is expedient to place those which determine theprescriptions with regard to food . The Catechism ofS. Debre summarizes them as follows (p. 67) :Judaism . . . forbids the following food :I . The flesh of quadrupeds which have not a cloven

hoof and do not ruminate .2 . The flesh of birds of which the Bible gives the'Op. cit ., p. 264.

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Hebrew names; but by reason of the difficulty of identi-fying all these birds, the rule is to refer to the traditionalusage observed by practising Jews in the country whereone is .3. The flesh of quadrupeds and game which have

died a natural death or have died as a result of a wound,or have been killed in contravention of the religiousprescriptions .4. The flesh of quadrupeds and game in which there

is found, after they have been killed, a disease whichmight have been mortal .

5. The flesh of creeping animals and of all insects .6. The flesh of animals which live in water and

have neither scales nor fins .7. Blood and suet .8. All foods in which meat and milk enter at the same

time .In order to comply with paragraphs 3 and 4, the

communities maintain a special minister, the sacrificer(Chohet), who must immolate all the animals, large andsmall, in the slaughter-house and family, according tothe meticulous rites of the chehita (ritual immolation),and must be able to recognize in their lungs and bowelsthe defects which prevent them from being eaten . Foodwhich is suitable for eating according to all the prescrip-tions of the law, is called kacher, and the meat which is tobe rejected is called therephah (carrion) .To comply with the precept : "Thou shalt not boil a

kid in the milk of his dam" (Exodus xxiii, 19), the doctorselaborating on the law prohibit any admixture of meatand milk . These prescriptions oblige housewives toprovide two sets of culinary utensils, one for milk and itsderivatives, the other for meat . 1J. Weill 2 laments that the food prohibitions of the'Bonsirven, op. cit ., p. 266 ss.

'Le,7udaisme, p. 268 .


235Mosaic law are still less obeyed than the positive com-mandments. Many Israelites who still eat unleavenedbread at the Pasch, no longer submit to the rules of theKachrouth . He nevertheless considers, as far as he isconcerned, that the preservation of Judaism depends ingreat measure upon their maintenance .

Certain bodily functions and accidents, contact withlepers, corpses and unclean beasts entail a legal impurity,from which one must be purified by baths and sacrifices .The Talmud and the Michnah devote whole treatisesto uncleannesses of women. It would be obviously toodelicate to give everything in detail . Here are somesuggestive points which will give an idea of the legis-lation :

As soon as a woman notices that she has her periods,she is obliged to inform her husband, who keeps awayfrom her and no longer touches her . . . . When thisill has ceased after five days, then the woman changesher linen, puts white sheets on the bed, and seven daysafter she is cleansed, she cuts her nails and cleans themvigorously. Then she washes herself combs her hair,and then takes a bath which must be prepared at once ofrunning water or rain-water which has not been carriedby any man. . . . No part of her body must remainuntouched by the water : even to this extent that if sheis wearing a ring and the water cannot pass between itand her finger, the bath will be useless and she mustremove the ring and take another bath . At the sametime as the woman is taking this bath, another womanis present to watch whether she is well covered withwater." 1

Men are not bound to such meticulous measures ofpurification; nevertheless the most devout purify them-selves from certain uncleanesses (Orah haim, 88) . Some

'Leon of Modena, op . cit., p. 157 .

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communities still keep up the ritual bathing-pools . AllIsraelites are exhorted to take a bath before the sabbath,and it is prescribed that the hands be often washed afterthe performance of every animal function, after touch-ing any part of the body and chiefly in the morning onrising, and before meals . 1

It will be observed how these minute prescriptionscondemn the Jews to be merely a race, exclusive andapart, and how their religion is itself the cause of theghetto .

INDIVIDUAL PRAYER

Individual prayer is nowhere laid down in the Torah,but the obligation thereof is derived from the precept tolove and serve God with all one's heart (Deut . xi, 13 ;Maimonides, Prayer I, i) . However, the recommenda-tions of the rabbis regarding the different prayers,received and faithfully observed customs, have finishedup by having these pious habits considered as realobligations .

The devout Jew must, in the morning, begin his daywith prayer, before which any undertaking is forbidden .

At night, before going to bed, he must likewise ask Godto watch over his sleep .Before and after every meal, Jews wash their hands

and recite a prayer . It is recommended that prayer bemade, as far as possible, in Hebrew, that one should bein a perfect state of physical and ritual purity, be stand-ing as a mark of respect, and direct one's attention(Kawwana) towards God. To these prayers which arenow, so to speak, of obligation, the faithful Jew addsinnumerable blessings which the hundred and one eventsof life afford him the opportunity for uttering .

'Bonsirven, op . cit., p . 269 ss .


FAMILY LITURGY

It has been rightly observed that Judaism, since thedestruction of the Temple, has no longer any priesthood .The rabbi is in fact not a priest (cohen), but a counsellorand jurist, and in the synagogue there is not necessarilya celebrant . In the private worship of the family circlethe head of the family, on the other hand, plays thepart of a real priest . This is noticed in particular in theservice of the Sabbath and the Pasch, which is familyworship .

THE SABBATH

"Remember that thou keep holy the sabbath day . . .Thou shalt do no work . . . ." (Exodus xx, 8-I I ; Deut .v, I4-I5) .

The mystical sense of that day was already stressed byIsaias lviii, 13, 14, who desired that this day be called"delightful," and if Jeremias xvii, 20-27, recalls theabstention from all servile work, he insists still more uponthe sanctification which must characterize this day . Fortrue Jews, the Sabbath to-day still remains the memoryof the election of Israel, the symbol of the nationalreligion, the day of interior joy, and that is the reasonwhy, despite certain liberal attempts, the varying ten-dencies of Judaism, from the Hassidist down to thereformers, all combine to operate for the safeguarding ofthis tradition.

While the men, on Friday evening, open the feast inthe synagogue, the mistress of the house lights the sabbathlamp, a lamp of oil with a cotton wick, and at the sametime blesses the Lord who has sanctified us by his com-mandments and has commanded us to light the sabbathlamp. Then she sets the table and puts two loaves on a

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napkin in memory of the double supply of manna whichtheir ancestors received for that day .When the head of the family arrives, the children

beg his blessing; then in honour of his wife, he recites theeulogy of the valiant woman (Proverbs xxxi, 10-3 I) . Hethen proceeds to the Qiddouch, the ceremony of thesanctification of the Sabbath, takes in his hand a beakerfull of wine and says : "It was the sixth day . And theheavens and the earth, and all that they contain werefinished . The seventh day, God had finished the workmade by him, and he rested on the seventh day fromall the works that he had made . God blessed the seventhday and sanctified it, because on that day the Lordrested from all the work which he had produced andorganized .

Blessed be thou, 0 Eternal one, our God, King of theUniverse, who has created the fruit of the vine .

Praised be thou, 0 Eternal one, our God, King of theUniverse, who has sanctified us by thy commandments,who hast accepted us for thy people, and who, in thylove, hast given us the holy day of the Sabbath inmemory of the Creation . . . .

"Praise be to thee, 0 Eternal one, who hast sanctifiedthe Sabbath."

Immediately afterwards, the head of the family pro-nounces the following blessing over the whole two loaves .

He breaks the one above, eats thereof and gives someto all present while saying : "Praise be to thee, 0 Eternalone, our God, King of the Universe, who znaketh breadto come from the earth ."After which they proceed with the meal in the ordi-

nary way, but this meal must be more delicate and gay,because it is the joy and the glorification of the sabbath .The obligation of the sabbatical repose begins on

Friday night . The rabbis have increased the legal pro-


239hibitions, and have gone so far as to forbid almost anyactivity . They distinguish thirty-nine kinds of forbiddenwork, from which new prescriptions are deduced . It isforbidden to build, hence to beat milk, for this would beto combine several parts in one ; to light fire, even acigarette; to carry a burden, hence no purse, no keys ;to prepare food to make a journey, hence to go morethan a mile beyond the outskirts of the city ; and it iseven prohibited to talk business . The day must beentirely consecrated to God and to rest . This is obviouslya very lofty ideal, but one which the minutiae of therabbis has made at times burdensome and heavy .

On the Saturday evening when night has fallen, andthree medium stars can be discerned, then the sabbathis ended and work can be resumed. The sabbath endswith the Habdalla, separation, a ceremony which is com-posed of ancient rites whose signification is lost.

THE PASCH

The Pasch is also celebrated in the home. It is thefeast of Spring, and at the same time it commemoratesthe exodus from Egypt. This solemnity falls on the 15Nisan and lasts for eight days, but only the two first andtwo last days are days of great celebration . It is stillcalled "Feast of the Azymes," because "Seven days shallyou eat unleavened bread . . . and seven days thereshall not be found any leaven in your houses" (Exodusxii, 15, 19) .

In the evening of the 13 nisan, the smallest crumbs ofleavened bread are removed from the house . On 14nisan, the unleavened bread is made, and the eldest sonmust fast in order to commemorate the exterminationof the first-born of Egypt and the preservation of thefirst-born of Israel . On the table of the Seder (the

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paschal meal in conformity with the traditional pre-scriptions) everything is arranged for the ceremony .Three unleavened loaves are placed on a large dish,together with a bone garnished with meat and roastedat a brazier to signify the paschal lamb, which has beenomitted since the destruction of the Temple, a boiledegg which represents the victim which was formerlyimmolated and eaten before the lamb. A plate of bitterherbs, lettuce or radish, recalls the sufferings enduredby their ancestors in the land of Egypt. Upon the tableare also placed a dish of cress, a sauce-boat containingvinegar or salted water, another with the Haroset, aconfection of apples with the addition sometimes ofalmonds, spice and a little wine, to recall the brickswhich were so painfully made by their fathers in Egypt .A glass is placed before each participant, for all mustdrink the four beakers of wine . Another glass, that ofElias, is prepared for the prophet who is considered topreside over the ceremony.The arrangement of the seder is lengthy and compli-

cated. Fourteen parts are distinguished :i . The sanctification : the president, ordinarily the

father of the family, blesses the first beaker of wine andpraises the Lord who has given these holy days ; all drinkthereof.

2. and 3. He washes his hands in silence ; he takes apinch of the cress, soaks it in the vinegar, blesses theLord who has created the fruits of the earth and eats it,then he gives some of it similarly to all present .4. The president takes one of the unleavened loaves,

the middle one, breaks it in two, puts one part on thedish and keeps the other for the end .5. The recitation . All present raise the dish on which

they have left only the unleavened bread, saying at thesame time : "This is the bread of wretchedness which our


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fathers ate in Egypt . Let him who is hungry come andeat with us ; let the poor come and celebrate the Paschwith us. This year we are here, next year we shall bein the land of Israel; this year, slaves ; next year, freemen."

Then a child asks : "Why is this night different fromother nights? Other nights we eat leavened bread andunleavened, but to-night it is only unleavened . . . ."

The father of the family answers by a long recitationin terms which are unchanging and traditional ; herecalls, glossing in the rabbinic manner, the sufferingsin Egypt and the deliverance . At the end, those presentchant Psalms cxiii and cxiv, and beg of God to restoreJerusalem and the Temple, in order that they may beable to resume the sacrifices and the paschal lamb .They all drink the second beaker lying or leaning ontheir left sides .

6. All wash their hands in the usual way, in order tobegin the meal .

7. The president breaks and distributes the two firstunleavened loaves : all eat thereof with the customaryblessings .

8. The bitter herbs: the president takes some of them,soaks them in the haroset, blesses God who has giventhis commandment and eats : he gives some to all, whobless and eat it .9. The covering : The head of the house takes a piece

of the third unleavened bread, covers a little of the bitterherbs therewith, in memory of Hillel who thus coveredthe paschal lamb and the bitter herbs in the unleavenedbread .

io. The dish of the seder is removed and the table isset in the usual way. Normally a plentiful meal is eaten,composed of meats which are dear to the Jews .

9

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I I . Once the meal is finished, the father of the familytakes the half loaf of unleavened bread which he had putaside, eats and distributes it, in order to finish with aritual food ; it is blessed and the third beaker is drunk .

12-13 . Long graces are then sung for this benefit andfor all the others which God has lavished on his people ;the Merciful one is begged to continue his favours andto rebuild quickly the Holy City . Imprecations areadded against idolators who do not recognize the Lord ;the fourth beaker is drunk, and an end is made withPsalms cxv-cxviii and cxxxvi and a final prayer of con-fidence and glorification . Then comes the last aspira-tion, summarizing in a word the intense national andmessianic spirit which has ruled all through the cere-mony. "Next year at Jerusalem, may we be able toeat in the restored Temple peaceful victims and thepaschal lamb whose blood has covered the surface ofthy altar to obtain thy favour ."i

Bonsirven adds with a sense of supernatural realitywhich cannot fail to strike souls which are in good faith :"But how many to-day really wish to see again the fartoo gross and primitive liturgy of the sacrifices?"The bleeding lamb has definitely disappeared ; no

one could or would bring it back . If this institution,the object of an eternal precept, has been suppressedfor ever, is it not a sign that the Paschal lamb and thelamb of the holocausts were but the figure of anotherlamb, immolated for a universal and definitive redemp-tion? 2

The Pasch is now celebrated at home, because it isimpossible for the Jews to immolate the traditional lamb .At the synagogue, however, this feast is marked byspecial prayers and by the reading of the Canticle of

1These details are taken from Bonsirven, op . cit., p. 281 ss .sop . Cit ., p. 281 .


243

Canticles, paraphrased in the sense of the union ofIsrael with her God .

PUBLIC WORSHIP : THE THREE FEASTS OF THEPILGRIMAGE

The feasts of the Pasch, Pentecost and Tabernacles(or Cabins) are usually combined under the designationthe three feasts of the Pilgrimage, because at the timewhen the Jews formed a nation, all able-bodied menhad to go to Jerusalem. These feasts have a seasonalcharacter in common: the Pasch recalls the Spring,because on 15 Nisan the first fruits of the barley werebrought to the Temple, Pentecost recalls the Summerand the feast of Cabins, the Autumn.

PENTECOST

After the second day of the Pasch, in order to accom-plish literally the prescription of Leviticus (xxiii, I5)"You shall count therefore from the morrow after theSabbath, wherein you offered the sheaf of the first-fruits,seven full weeks," begins the period called 'Omer. Itlasts seven weeks or forty-nine days, and the fiftiethday is Pentecost . The period of 'Omer is a closed time,during which it is forbidden to marry and to hold festival,except, however, on the thirty-third day which entailsgreat rejoicings .

This solemnity of Pentecost is also called the Feast ofthe Harvest or the First fruits, because it marks the endof the cereal harvest in Palestine . According to tradi-tion, it was also on this day that God gave the Law toMoses on Mount Sinai . At the synagogue, Pentecost ismarked by special singing and the reading of the Bookof Ruth which is appropriate to the harvest season . On

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that day the Israelites offered the first ripe fruits, andin memory of that ceremony the Jews of to-day decoratetheir houses with greenery .

THE FEAST OF TABERNACLES OR CABINS

The feast of Tabernacles or Cabins (Soukkoth) falls on15 tischri (towards the middle of October) and lastsseven days . The two first days are considered as days ofGreat Feast and entail the obligation of sabbaticalrepose and the other five days are days of semi-festivity .This solemnity recalls the sojourn of the Hebrews in thedesert under tents, but it is also the autumn feast of thecompleted harvest .

The ceremony of the Loulab and of the Cedrat more-over stresses its agricultural significance . In order tocomply with the precept of Leviticus, xxiii, 4o : "Andyou shall take to you on the first day the fruits of thefairest tree, and branches of palm trees, and boughs ofthick trees, and willows of the brook : and you shallrejoice before the Lord your God," every one takes in hisright hand a bundle consisting of a palm and somesprigs of willow and myrtle, which is the Loulab, and inthe left, the ethrog, a cedrat, the fruit of which recalls allthe sweetness of the East . The branches are raised andshaken towards the four cardinal points, while theHallel (Psalms. cxiii-cxviii) is sung. A procession isformed while they sing hosanna (help us) and shakethe loulab. The same thing is done during the firstsix days of the feast, except that on the sabbath thebundles are put aside in order not to violate the holy rest .On the seventh day they walk round the synagogueseven times, carrying all the rolls of the Torah, and sing-ing the great Hosanna; once everyone has returned,those present replace the loulab by willow branches, more


245urgent supplications are recited, and the advent ofDavid's seed who is to restore all their glory to the Jewishpeople is proclaimed . The solemnity of the Cabins iscontinued uninterruptedly on two more feast dayswhich are called Atseret or "feast of the closing" becauseit concludes the series of the three feasts of the pilgrim-age. The first day, they begin by asking God for rainin abundance as a provision for the approaching seed-time . The second day, Simhath Torah (the joy of theTorah) is devoted to the special celebration of the lawof Moses, the ritual reading of which is concluded in themidst of songs of joy and the solemn procession of therolls of the Law .

THE HANOUKKA

Fifty-three days after the close of the feasts of theSoukkoth, on 25 kislev (the end of December), the Jewscommemorate the Hanoukka, the feast of the inaugura-tion, in honour, of the purification and dedicationof the Temple which were accomplished by JudasMacchabeus after his victory over the troops of Antio-chus Epiphanus (24th December, 165 B.c.) . TheHanoukka lasts eight days, and its memory is celebratedby illuminations which recall the relighting of the per-petual fire in the Temple .

THE FEAST OF PURIM

Ten weeks later, the 14. Adar, or in leap years, the 14of second Adar, comes the feast of Lots (Purim) . It cele-brates the memory of Esther who prevented her peoplefrom being exterminated by the impious Aman . Itbears this name, because Aman had fixed by lot theday whereon the Jews were to be exterminated . At thesynagogue, this feast is marked by the reading of the

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book of Esther, written by hand on a roll of parchment(megillah) as books were formerly written . Externally,this solemnity is characterized by noisy rejoicings whichrecall our carnival .

THE STRICT FEASTS . Rosc HA-CHANA

Besides these "feasts of joy," there are others whichare termed strict feasts, because their common object isto direct the people to repentance and to implore thepardon of God for faults committed in the course ofthe year which is coming to an end, and his protectionfor the year which is about to open .

The ancient Israelites had, in fact, a religious yearwhich began with the Spring in the month of .Nisan, anda civil year which commenced in the Autumn with themonth of Tischri. The civil New Year fell on I Tischri,and the feast of Rosch Ha-Ghana lasted two days . It com-memorated the anniversary of the Creation of the world .It was a feast of comparatively recent institution, but itis based on Leviticus xxiii, 23-25 . It is also called theday of remembrance, because on this day God remembersall men in order to judge them .According to Jewish belief, this day is of primary

importance for eternal salvation : "They hold by tradi-tion that on this day God judges particularly the actionsof the past year, and arranges coming events, becausethat day being as it were the birth-day of the world, theyclaim that God goes over exactly what has happenedduring the past year."' Certain significant ceremoniesmark this solemnity : The blessing of Hamotzi; the headof the family takes an apple, dips a piece into honey andgives thereof to all present saying: "May it be an effectof thy holy will, 0 Eternal One, to grant us a pleasant

"Leon of Modena, op . cit., p . 123 .


247

and happy year." The prayer Abinou Malkenou (0 ourFather, 0 our King) which begs pardon for sins com-mitted, and the ceremony of the Chofar (trumpet madefrom a ram's horn) which, sounded thrice at the morn-ing service, recalls the appearance of God on Sinai andexcites to penance .

YOM KIPPOUR

The period of ten days which begins with the Rosch-Ha-Chana and ends with Yom Kippour is called "the ten daysof penance." During this time, the "supplications forpardon" (Selihoth) are recited at the morning services .These are days of penance when the devout Jewendeavours by his repentance, fasts, prayers and mortifi-cations, to obtain pardon on the day of Kippour whenthe judgment of God becomes fixed .

Kippour is based on Leviticus xvi, 7-3I . After describ-ing the ceremony of the emissary goat and the accom-panying sacrifices, the sacred text adds : "And this shallbe to you an everlasting ordinance : The seventh month,the tenth day of the month, you shall afflict your souls,and shall do no work, whether it be one of your owncountry, or a stranger that sojourneth among you .Upon this day shall be the expiation for you, and thecleansing from all your sins . You shall be cleansedbefore the Lord. For it is a sabbath of rest: and youshall afflict your souls by a perpetual religion ."' In theMosaic legislation, this ceremony had as its objectexpiation for the people and purification from theirsins. Was this pardon indissolubly linked with thesacrifices which accompanied the ceremony of theemissary goat? After the destruction of the Temple, theTannaites thought that prayers could replace the

'Cf., also Leviticus, xxiii, 26-32 .

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sacrifices, and that God's pardon could be obtained, ifit were accompanied by repentance for sins, reparationfor wrongs done to one's brethren and reconciliation withone's enemies . There is, however, nothing which allowsthe certainty of pardon to be attributed to this newKippour.

The first religious service of Yom Kippour takes placeon the evening' of the preceding day and opens with theceremony of Kol Nidrei which has given rise to manyunjust accusations . According to Bonsirven, 2 the pro-bable origin and meaning thereof are as follows . Asexcommunicated Israelites wished to have a part in theexpiation, the Sanhedrin declared that they would begranted admission to the assembly of the faithful, andraised the anathema . Similarly many Jews took advan-tage of this day to secure dispensation from vows andoaths which were capable of being annulled . For thisreason two of the notables come up on each side of thecelebrant and say: "By theyefhiba (school in the tribunal)above, and by the yefhiba below; with the knowledge ofGod, and with the knowledge of the assembly, we allowprayer with the impious." Then the celebrant declaresthree times :

"All the vows, prohibitions, anathemas, promises,undertakings, oaths, which we have sworn, vowed,anathematized, and forbidden, relative to ourselves,from this day of Kippour to the next day of Kippour, maythey be all annulled, dissolved, suppressed, irritated andrendered void . . . ." Then follow long prayers, andespecially confessions with lists of all possible sins . Allthe force of the prayer is directed to secure the remissionof sins and the grace of salvation: "May God seal the

'It must not be forgotten that, for the Jews, the day is reckonedfrom evening to evening and a feast therefore begins at sunset.

'Bonsirven, op . cit., p . 338.


249

book of the living. May the names of the sons of theCovenant appear therein at least for a year ."

The special office for this day is the Neila which takesplace in the evening at sunset, in memory of the prayersin the Temple which accompanied the closing (neila)of the doors . It is a long prayer' which is only a cry ofrepentance and hope in the mercy of God . It concludeswith the profession of faith which every good Israelitewishes to utter on his death-bed :

"Hear, 0 Israel, the Eternal is our God, the Eternalis one" (once) .

"Blessed be for ever the name of his glorious kingdom"(three times) ."The Eternal alone is God" (seven times) .A blow on the trumpet (chofar) marks the end of the

day, and everyone retires to his home, assured of thepardon of God .

FASTS

Besides Yom Kippour, Judaism prescribes the followingfasts : The fast of Io Tebet and 17 ammouz which recallthe taking of Jerusalem by Nabuchodonosor and Titus ;the fast on g Ab commemorates the destruction of thefirst and second Temple ; the fast on 3 Tischri recalls theassassination of Godolias (587 B.C.) whose death for longentailed the complete ruin of Jewish nationality ; the 13Adar or fast of Esther, and in leap-years the 13 Veadar,recall the plan which Aman had formed to exterminateall the Jews. These days must be devoted to prayer andcharity, although work is permitted .

THE SYNAGOGUE

Synagogues are of extreme antiquity in Judaism, andthe Jews assert that they go back to Moses himself. As a

'Rituel des prieres journalieres, p . 30! ss .

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matter of fact, no mention of them is found before theexile, and it would seem that the institution dateseither from the exilic period or from the time of Esdras .The synagogue is not essentially a house of prayer, butmuch more a meeting place for teaching, edifying orinstructive preaching, reading and prayer in common,which makes up for the distance from the Temple .

It was generally a simple hall, orientated towardsJerusalem, but antiquity knew many synagogues whichaffected the Basilica form of the Christian Churches .

At the end, in a kind of sanctuary, is the tebah, thechest which encloses the rolls of the Law . Nowadays it iscalled the Ark. A veil concenls it from the eyes of thecongregation, and a lighted lamp always burns beforeit.The Torah must not be printed, but written by hand

on rolls of parchment, according to meticulous rules, byspecialized scribes . The wooden cylinders round whichthey are rolled, are decorated with pomegranates, littlebells, and especially a crown, the "diadem of the Torah ."The volume itself is enveloped in a covering of silk orrichly embroidered velvet. In certain cases, on theoccasion, for example, of more intense prayer, the veil isremoved, and the ark is opened in order that prayermay be made directly in front of the Torah whichrepresents the will of God. In front of the ark there is apulpit from which extracts are read and sung, and in themiddle of the sanctuary there is a platform which servesfor the reading and preaching . All round the synagoguethere are benches and pews ; the galleries above arereserved for the women .

Every synagogue must have its khazzan, an officiatingminister who directs the prayers and chants the prin-cipal extracts and a chammas beadle, who preservesorder. The rabbi intervenes only for sermons and to


251

pronounce the more solemn invocations. The president,treasurer, and notables of the community have placesof honour.

For the prayers to be lawfully said in the synagogue,it is necessary to have a minimum of ten men or youths,the minian . Formerly, in certain large cities, the com-munity paid the ten men of leisure (`asarah batlanin) whoreceived a salary in order to attend all the meetings andto secure the liturgical minian .Every country, and often even every community, has

its particular usages and traditions . Two chief rites are,however, enumerated, the Sephardic, Hispano-Portu-guese and the Aschkenazi, German-Polish .The liturgical language is Hebrew . Nevertheless,

in many countries where the Jews no longer understandHebrew, and are no longer able even to read it, theLiberals and Reformers have introduced prayers andchants in the vulgar tongue . They have similarlyinaugurated the use of the organ and musical instru-ments .

In order to follow the service of the synagogue, thedevout Jew needs three liturgical books, the Tephillah(prayer) for the ordinary prayers, the Mahzor (cycle)for feasts and the Bible for the lessons .

THE DAILY LITURGY

The daily liturgy in the synagogue includes threeservices . The first, which may be celebrated fromsunrise up to nine o'clock, corresponds to the perpetualsacrifice offered every morning in the Temple . Thesecond, about three o'clock in the afternoon, corres-ponds to the sacrifice between the two evenings . It isordinarily combined with the third which begins atsunset .

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The morning service, chaharith, is the typical service,to which all the others conform. It includes five series ofprayers .

The first, intended to be said at home, after gettingup, was inserted in the public liturgy only in the thir-teenth century. It comprises various blessings and theAdon Olam which proclaims the royalty of God . Thesecond series, Zemiroth (psalmodic prayers) is based onPsalms cxlv-cl . Then comes the official prayer whichrequires the minian : it comprises the Chema ; the eighteenblessings ; Chemone Esre, which is also called Tephillah;the prayer par excellence or Amida, because all presentmust stand during its recitation .

Then follow the prayers which are termed suppli-catory. Formerly the people said them individually inthe Temple at the end of the service . They are nowinvested with a fixed and stereotyped form .The service ends with the Qaddich which has often

been compared with the Lord's Prayer and which hasdifferent forms .

The service finishes with the prayer Aleinou, which isobviously of very Jewish inspiration, wherein some peoplehave wished to detect, probably quite falsely, an attackon Jesus Christ and Christianity .

APPENDIX

THE JEWISH CALENDAR

The Jews, like many ancient peoples, reckoned a dayfrom one sunset to the next . Hence a day began atnight, and included a night, a morning and an after-noon .The week began with the sabbath .The months of the religious calendar are fixed, not by

the Sun, but by the moon's courses and begin with thenew moon.But the lunar months are alternately of 29 and 30

days, while the solar months are alternately of 3o and3 i days . It follows that the lunar year contains 354days, while the solar year has 365 .

In this computation, the religious months could notcoincide each year with the same seasons, hence theimpossibility of celebrating the religious feasts, whichmust, however, each take place in a particular season .To avoid this difficulty and to remove the differencewhich exists between the lunar and the solar year, thetwelfth month of the religious year is doubled seventimes in nineteen years .

The year of thirteen months is called intercalary orembolismic .The following are the names of the religious months .

They were brought back from Babylonia at the timeof the return from the Captivity :

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I . Nisan (the ancient 'Abib), 3o days, end of March andbeginning of April .

2 . Ziv or Iyar, 29 days, end of April and beginning ofMay.

3. Sivan, 3o days, end of May and beginning of June .4. Tammouz, 29 days, end of June and beginning of

July .5. Ab, 3o days, end of July and beginning of August .6. Elul, 29 days, end of August and beginning of

September.7. Tischri or Ethanim, 3o days, end of September and

beginning of October .8. Bul . or Marsheschvan or Hechvan, 29 days, end of

October and beginning of November.9 . Kislev, 3o days, end of November and beginning of

December .io. Tebeth, 29 days, end of December and beginning

of January .I I . Chebath, 3o days, end of January and beginning of

February .12 . Adar, 29 days, end of February and beginning of

March .The thirteenth month Ve-adar or additional Adar

comes between Adar and Nisan and consists of29 days .It will be seen that the year begins with the month of

Nisan . But, in reality, the Hebrews had two beginningsof the year: the religious year which began with theSpring in the month of Nisan, and the civil year whichbegan in the Autumn with Tischri.I

The beginning of the month is called Roch Khodech, thatis to say, "Head of the month" or Neomenia, i .e ., newmoon. From the religious and liturgical point of view,it is from one to two days . When it is two days, the first

'At the time when this civil year was adopted, it was an advan-tage to agree with the Seleucid era which began in October .

THE JEWISH CALENDAR

255belongs to the month which is ending, and the secondmerely marks the beginning of the new month. Theneomenia, without being a day of sabbatical rest, is how-ever, considered as a feast . At the synagogue it is markedby special prayers .Since the tenth century, the Jews have adopted the

era of Creation which is 3,760 years and three months inadvance of our Christian era .

BIBLIOGRAPHYjoannis Buxtorfi Patris Synagoga judaica de ,Judaeorum fide,

ritibus, ceremoniis, tam publicis et sacris quam privatisin domestica vivendi ratione . Tertia hac edition denovo restaurata et innumeris accessionibus inampliorem et augustiorem formam redacta aJoanne Buxtorfio Filio . Basileae apud J . J.Deckerum1661 . Ceremonies et coutumes qui s'observent aujourd'huyparmy les juifs, traduite de l'italien de Leon DeModcne . . . . par le Sieur De Simonville (RichardSimon), Paris, Rieder, 1929 . I. Elbogen, Diejudische Gottesdienst in seiner Geschichtlichen Entwick-lung, Leipzig, 1913 . J. Bauer, Notre livre de prieres,Paris, 1921 . Rituel de prieres journalieres, Semaine,Sabbat, et Fetes, Paris, Durlacher, 1931 . S. Debre,Catechisme ou Elements d'instruction religieuse et morale al'usage de la jeunesse israelite, Paris, 1931 . M. Fried-laender, Text-book of the Jewish Religion, London,1928. J. Weill, Le Judaisme, Paris, 1931 . J. Bon-sirven, On the Ruins of the Temple (Burns, Oates,London, 1931) .

CONCLUSION

In the concluding pages of his admirable book onJudaisme avant Jesus-Christ, Lagrange finishes his studyas follows: "With a pitiless secateur they (the Pharisees)cut away all the shoots which promised such fair fruit .

"And at the same time, they refused to conceive thatRevelation, when it flowered, would allow certainelements which had become decadent to fall away . Forthem, the observance of the Law entailed love of God,but they did not stop at the idea which the union withGod alone entailed, and that it could be attained by allmen, without their being obliged to practise a law madeto suit their nation and at a given period ."',And the reverend author summarizes in this way the

chief characteristics of the nationalistic Judaism whichprevailed at the time of Jesus Christ : "There was avery distinct tendency to remove supernatural elements,and to restrict them to formalities accessible to reason.

There was a clear resolution to constitute a nationfaithful to its religion, but to a religion made expresslyfor a single people .

"There was attachment to the Law by punctual andelaborate observance multiplying occasions for assiduousservice .

There was a conviction that the Messias was theirman, their teacher, their leader, constraining the Gentilesto bow down before them and before him ." 2

In accordance with this study of Modern Judaism, wemust admit with sorrow that if there are still in Israeladmirable virtues and a piety which moves us, the

'The italics are ours .

'Op. cit ., p. 591 .256

CONCLUSION

257conclusions which the eminent director of the &oleBiblique in Jerusalem came to with so much force forthe period of Jesus Christ, are equally valid for ourtime. Judaism has unfortunately continued in the pathwhich she has chosen, and the characteristics havebecome accentuated in a sense which is nationalisticand also too often rationalistic .

Despite the official prayers, no one any longer awaitsthe Messias-Saviour . It is Israel herself who is to be herown Messias and the Redeemer of the world . Adherenceto the Law is decreasing and the Torah is abrogated inprinciples which were affirmed as being perpetual .Slowly but surely, the supernatural element is diminish-ing, and revelation is becoming minimized and rationa-lized. Judaism is becoming the mere expression of amonotheism which observes the natural law, and apartfrom the ethnical obligations which maintain thenational link, one too often no longer sees what dis-tinguishes the faithful Jew from any other mere mono-theist. On the other hand, nationalism is more bitterthan ever, and in its prayers as well as in its publications,it loudly asserts that Israel is the chosen people and thatit is through Israel that the messianic times of truth,justice and peace will come into the world.

In a book which first appeared in English, The Legacyof Israel, which has recently been translated into Frenchunder the title of Le Legs d'Israel, C. G. Montefiore asksprecisely whether in the future Israel has anythingmore to give to the world . The author is not an un-believer and himself informs us that he is a religiousJew. After examining the question from every angle, heobserves that (p. 520) Jewish legalism, so far as it is abelief in a perfect and divine code identified with thePentateuch, must disappear: "If Judaism dependedupon," he adds, "and were inseparable from that belief,

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it could indeed have no gift to render, no function tofulfil ."

On the credit side of Judaism there remains, there-fore, the belief in one God and in a moral law of whichGod is the author . But Montefiore notes that side byside with this there exists a Christian theism and aChristian moral law which have imposed themselvesupon humanity .

Consequently, has Israel anything more to say and doin the attitude of the world towards that which occupiesthe first and last place in human thought, towards thatupon which every action and every character depend inthe last resort, the belief in God, and in his relationto righteousness and duty in man? (p. 52 I) . He answerssadly that it would be bold and presumptuous to affirmit, and concludes : "The old covenant and the newcovenant are not inconsistent opposites ; so far as man isconcerned he needs them both. Both are glorious andsublime . . . . Here Israel may surely have somethingto give, not as antagonist but as friend, and as a notquite insignificent ally ." (P-522)-

We cannot refrain from applauding these noble words .Judaism and Christianity have a common source, andChristianity which was born in Judea, professes that itis, at the same time, attached to the faith of the Jews inGod who is a creator and rewarder .But if modern Judaism desires to be an ally in the

fight for God, it is expedient that it should cease to beabsorbed in ethnical and national contemplation whichimpoverishes it, return to the universalist line of theprophets, those saintly souls who, fifty or sixty yearsbefore our era, wrote Psalm xvii, called the psalm ofSolomon, and that it should at length find in the Gospel andin Jesus Christ that fulness of life towards which it aspireswith such a noble ardour and for which it is fashioned .

INDEX

Abelson, J ., 211Aelia Capitolina, 27Ahad Ha'am, 223Albo, Joseph, g8'Aleinou, 37, 252Alfasi, 76Angels, 128Antoninus Pius, 28Amoraites, 38Amulets, 233Aqiba, Rabbi, 20Aqiba ben Joseph, 26Areka, Abba (Rab), 36Arsacides, 37Asceticism, Jewish opposition to,

186Aschi, 38Aurum coronarium, 24

Babylonian Judaism, 35Bar-Micwah, 228Baraithoth, 54Beth-din, 22Bonsirven quoted, 170, 201Buber, Martin, 223

Calendar, Jewish, 253Cedagah,196Chaharith, 252Chammai, School of 22Charity, exercise of, x96Chastity, 188Chekinah, 207Chema, togChemone-Esre, 90, 209Children, 191Circumcision, 227Clothing, prescriptions regarding, - name of, 121

230

- omnipresence of, 115259

Cohen, 195Conference, Rabbinic of Berlin,

195Crescas Hasdai, 97

Darmesteter, James, 81Death, 230Decalogue, 18oDecisions, Book of, 66Diaspora, the 15Din, 45Dissidents, writings of, 66Dogmas in Judaism, 86

Emet veyacit, goEmouna, 77, 95, 100Enelow, Rabbi H., quoted, 155Erets Israel, 222

Faith element in Judaism, 89Family, 1g1Fasting, 18gFasts, 249"Father," title of, 208Food, prescriptions regarding, 233Freedom of man, 161Freidlaender, David, zoo

Gamaliel the Younger, 23Gaonat, the, 39Geiger, Abraham, 8o, 101Gemara, 3 1 , 54Geonim, 39God, Creator and Almighty, 110- eternity of, 115- knowledge of, i o6- moral attributes of, 117

26o

God, omniscience of, 117presence of, 207unicity of, 1ogunity of, 1o8

Gola, 35Grace, necessity of, 162

Habdallah, 239Haggadah, 58Halakah, 44Halakoth, 52Hanoukka, 245Hassidism, 218Hillel, 20Historical works, 65Hokma, 77Holy Spirit, 206

Ibn Gabirol, 76Illai, Judah ben, 29Immortality, 159Initiation, religious, 228Israel, election of, 131

Jamnia, School of, tgSynod of, 23

Jesus, Jewish opinion of, 149Jokhai, Simon ben, 29Judaism, Liberal, 102Judaism, modem beliefs of, 176Judaism, post-exilic, 87Julian the Apostate, 34

Kacher, 231Karaites, 58 (note)Kawana, 164Ketuba, 229Klausner, Rabbi J, quoted, 152Kol Nidrei, 248Kozi Bar, revolt of, 24

Lagrange, quoted, 140, 256Lex Antonia de Civitate, 30Liturgy, daily, 251

family, 237Lourianism, 217

INDEX

Maimonides, 76, 107, 187Margolis, Max L ., formulary of, g9Marriage, i go

rites of, 229Massekthoth, 49Mazdeism, 37Megllah, 61Megillah Ta'anith, 4 8Meir Rabbi, 29, 11 IMendelssohn, 76, 1 ooMercy, works of, 197Merit, 167Merits, retribution of, 168Messias, 143, 146Mezouza, 232Michnah, 46Michnah of Juda the Holy,Micwah, 165Middoth, 46Midrasch, 43Minian, 228Miracles, 1 i iMohel, 228Monotheism, 105Montefiore, C . G., quoted, 153,

257Morality, Jewish, s8oMorality, sexual, 188Nasi, the, 24 . 31Neboua, 77Neighbour, duties towards, 193Omar, mosque of, 27'Omer, period of, 243Original weakness, s6o

Pallieres, Aime, 128, 1 37Pasch, 239Patriarchate, abolition of, in

Jerusalem, 32Pentecost, 243Pharisees, 20 (note)Philo, 49Phylacteries, 232Prayer, 209Prayer, individual, 236Purification, 235Purim, 245

48

INDEX

261

Qabbala, 213 Spinoza, 76, 151Qaddich, 230, 252 Synagogue, 249Qidduch, 238Rab (Abba Areka), 36

Tabernacles, Feast of, 244Rabbi, 43

Tallith, 231Rabbinic literature, 42

Talmud, 31Reinach, Salomon, 81, lot

Talmud of Babylonia, 37 . 39, 55Reinach, Theodore, 81

Talmud of Jerusalem, 54Renan, quoted, 201

Targums, 6o, 63Repentance, 166

Tephillim, 232Resurrection, 173

Teschouva, 165Revolutionary spirit, i gg

Theodosian Code, 33Rosch Galoutha, 36

Torah, 42, 70Rosch Ha-Chana, 246

Tosephta, 52

Sabbath, 237

Tradition, role of, 42

Saboraim, 39, 56

Vespasian, 13Sadducees, 20Salvador, J ., 10,Sanctification, means of, 163

Wailing Wall, 116 (note)Sanhedrin, Great, Declaration of, Weill, J ., quoted, 77, 82, 86, 112,

195

113, 142, 1 48, 154, 178, 206Schechter, quoted, 121, 170

Woman, 19oSedarim, 49 Worship, private, 227Seder Olam, 66 Worship, public, 243Seder Olan Zoutter, 66Self-respect, 188

Yahweh, 207Sin, 164

Yom Kippour, 247Sin, remission of, 165Social Life of the Jews, 198

Zekout, 167Soferim, 43

Zionism, 222Special status, Jewish demands Zohar, 213

for, 200

Zoroaster, 37