elements the psychophysics-01-english-gustav theodor fechner

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ELEMENTS

THE

PSYCHOPHYSICSBYGustav Theodor Fechner.

SECOND EDITION UNCHANGED.

PART.

LEIPZIGPRINTING AND PUBLISHING OF Breitkopf & Hrtel

in 1889.

Content.

Editor's PrefaceAuthor's Preface

Introductory.

I. More general consideration of the relationship of body and soul

II concept and role of psychophysics.

III. A preliminary issue

IV Royal term on sensation and stimulus

Outer psychophysics.


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The psychophysical measurement gauge.

V. measure of physical activity. Living force.

VI. Maprinzip sensitivity.

VII Maprinzip of sensation.

VIII measurement methods of sensitivity.

1) measurement methods, the difference in sensitivity.

a) General view.b) General considerations and precautions.c) considerations in regard to the time and space conditions of theexperiments. Constant error.d) Special on the method of right and wrong cases.e) Special to the method of average error.

f) Mathematical relationship of the methods. 2) Methods of Measurement of absolute sensitivity.

Fundamental laws and facts.

IX. Weber's law.

The self-reported Weber

1) light.2) Sound3) weights.4) temperature.5) Extensive sizes. (Judgment and Tastma)6)Fortune physique et morale .

X. The fact of the threshold

1) Intensive threshold

a) Thresholdb) Difference threshold

2) Extensive threshold3) More general considerations regarding the threshold4) Consequences of the existence of threshold

XI. For more information about the size and dependency ratios of the thresholds inthe different sensory domains

1) Intensive threshold

a) Light color andb) sound intensity and pitch.

c) weightd) Temperature

2) Extensive threshold


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a) sight

Special provisions smallest detectable sizesspecial provisions smallest detectable distances.

) Two points distante

) Two threads distante) Stripped and wrflige figures

Behavior of the side parts of the retina in the detection of the smallest sizes anddistances

Distance differences (eye)

b) touchc) conception of time and motion

XII. Parallel to Weber's law laws.

1) Weight attempts2) experience in the areas of perception of light3) experiments in areas of extensive sensation

XIII. Laws of mixing phenomena

Author's Preface to the first edition.

Under psychophysics I understand according to the, on the 2nd Chapter detailgiven, a teaching statement that, although the extent of the task here is to ancient, butin regard to the collection and treatment of this task as a new that you might not findinappropriate and unnecessary for the new name, a short exact study of therelationships between body and soul.

As an exact theory has psychophysics as physics and mathematical shortcut toexperience experiential facts, which are based on a measure of the demands of theexperience is commanded, and, where such is not at command to look for it. Nowthat the dimension in terms of the physical quantities is already given, the first andmain task of this work will be the determination of the degree with respect to the

psychological variables, where it has been still missing, and the second, to considerthe applications and versions, which attach themselves to it .

It is shown that the determination of the mental dimension is not a mere matter ofphilosophical or Studiertisches apergus, but a broad experiential base calls. I thinkthis here by outside and internal investigations so far to have been adequately that the

principle of measurement is ensured by the applications but so much that even the useof this measure will be recognized. But need the experiential base for development of

psychophysical measurement gauge still great extension, and what is given by theapplications, only shows that no comparison will be more to give.

In short, the psychophysics is in the form in which it appears here, a lesson in thefirst state of becoming, so do you also the title of this document elements are notwrong, as if it is here to display of the most essential one already founded and formed


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teaching at an elementary textbook, acted, but rather representation of the beginningsof a theory, which still can be found in the elemental state. So imagine not claim thisscripture, which are to be placed on an elementary textbook. They are often studies,designs, compilations, that would be quite inappropriate in such, but can help to bringit about that once such a textbook would be. What was to require a holding together

the investigation on certain points and summarize the results in definite directions,you will, I think, do not miss.

Just as little from it as an elementary textbook, one has to look for here is acollection of all the material of psychophysics, but preferably only of that which

belongs to the creation of the psychophysical measurement gauge and theapplications thereof enters it. Myriad, which forms a subject of psychophysics, couldnot find a place here because it is not as advanced in order to find a record already inthe same can.

Like many things in this book already to be much, Much too little, one anyway hasreason to be lenient in this regard, after formally almost nothing, material only veryAirborne existed, which I are based and has called me, can a house But not buildwithout stones to bring down, and where the plan is to build the house before, thiscan not be all equal right and have the right balance in the first attempts. Everysubsequent attempt of this kind is of a certain page more complete, less of the other,and can be more precise.

No less certainly than in regard to the formal objections I have to take theindulgence due to errors in the outlying claim that may be left over in this document,including treatment with so many fine, new and difficult questions of how such morein the following to offer than this part. I went in the long course of these studies, withfixed and always fixed deputy general state principles by so many wrong turns andambiguities in detail - the whole area was but previously buried in obscurity - that Idare not hope they have at the present editors all to have behind me. But I wouldthese tests can not give if I wanted to wait for a complete guarantee in this respect,and cherish but the confidence that, after already so much has gradually corrected andclarified in this doctrine, the same also further progress in this direction would becapable.

Finally, it will only ask whether the what and how it is offered here, a durable andfruitful beginning is necessary. If you find it, so do not take it the missing and theerrors on high and it will be at least their merit to have caused the better.

And I am far from saying that what is in this book, is something absolutely new,and it would be a bad recommendation for when it would be so. Rather, to be fair

priority claims inside just from the front, and also show that the signature is subject tosomething more than a subjective idea, I touch equal in the preface briefly somehistorical points on which I past in its place and finally in a special eingehe chapter.

The experiential law, which forms the main base of the mental measurement gauge,

has already been long ago established by various researchers in different areas, andnotably pronounced in relative generality of EH Weber, I would like to even call thefather of psychophysics and proven experimentally. The mathematical function on the


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other hand, which is the most common and important case of application of ourMaprinzips is also already long ago by various mathematicians, physicists and

philosophers, such as Bernoulli (Laplace, Poisson), Euler (Herbart, Drobisch),Steinheil (Pogson) for special , psychophysics zuzueignende, founded cases on thelaw and reproduced by other researchers or accepted. Now all this happened not from

the point of view of psychological measurement, and to draw attention to themselveswithout so far, so it is after the principle of this measure folgends (Chapter 7) havespoken, without apparent difficulty that it already the, established by thoseresearchers who feature was present.

Thereafter, our mental level is in fact only one side of the generalization of theother side of the clear statement of what was already present in its importance as a

psychic level. The reference thereto should contribute something to lessen themistrust, which may bring inside the announcement of such a measure from thefront. The same problem is in fact not the problem of squaring the circle orperpetual

motion, even after the fact rather solved by researchers, whose name is a guarantee ofthe validity of this solution.

After I thought this merits previous researchers around the main subject of thisbook, I would miss a major requirement if I did not mention the equally essentialsupport as promotion, which I found myself in my study by Volkmann. The willingentering this perceptive and fine researcher to the interests of this study, which hasincidentally led him far beyond the first by established claims beyond his own tracks,and the growth that characterized the experiential material in this publication isgrown, commit myself in the Indeed, to biggest Thank you.

At the same time I venture to assert it as a favorable sign for the principle andcharacter of the teaching of this document that they exhibit not only a prop in precisestudies of the principal researchers, but also able to provide starting points forsuch. In fact, apart from those of theoretical and experimental studies on which it is

based, and which have already been linked to it, enough initiative has evolved overthis font often advised to refer to the future to alternate end or further continuingstudies, which partly for the further development of psychophysical measurementgauge are necessary, some in the same applications into contact, and, notwithstandingsome of them offer great interest, but would have without the aspect of this teaching

is not presented. The psychophysical experiment, so far only a casual place soonfinding in the physical, physiological experimentation room soon, now takes his ownroom, his own apparatus, its own methods to complete. It is also without question thatthe area of this investigation is expanding more and more, the more it iscultivated. And so I am looking for the main fruit of our investigation so far less inwhich it has been born, than that which they promise to wear once. What we havehere is a meager beginning of a beginning.

In regard to the way in which mathematics is introduced in this work and willengage in particular in the following parts of the same place, I wish mathematicianswant to keep writing these elements for non-mathematicians and non-mathematiciansfor mathematicians, by my endeavor was to the effect that to be a course and enough


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to do to others what was going on but not entirely without conflict. Especially like themathematicians so excuse some little broad and popular struggle in the interest of thenon-mathematician, and I had in mind, that this font is expected mainly interested

physiologists, while at the same time she wishes to interest philosophers. In both, butof course also be seen mathematician, is nowadays not so permitted, as it would

actually be required. Like the other, the non-mathematician derivatives, which theycan not follow - if even only those of very low demands on mathematicalunderstanding occur - as mathematical facts to accept, and here and there a chapter, a

parenthesis or execution overturn that engage in something too deep. If I am notmistaken, it is in gear and find any content of this document in whole intelligible whoonly know what is a mathematical equation, and knows the properties of logarithms,or to those given in the introduction of the next part, brief recapitulation the same willhold. Of others I do not wish that they took care of this writing, but the least that they

precipitated a judgment as to what could be a einsichtiges in any case.

With diligence I am not permitted to enter into this sort of writing on the contrary,the mathematical conception of psychological conditions will provide the sameagainst the Herbart'sche. Herbart will always be the merit of the possibility of amathematical conception of these conditions not only to have first expressed, but alsomade the astute first attempt to implement such a view, and each will remain afterhim only a second in this respect. In fact, however, the following experiments are asmuch under from his own different basic aspects that as little of a particularhighlighting the difference between the two needs, as it would be futile andinappropriate, here is a dispute between two to try, especially those without could

take place a dispute over fundamental philosophical questions, which here is to avoidat all costs. The decision between the two, which is at the same time be a decision forthese basic questions, I have to leave to the future.

Perhaps you expect here anticipate a declaration on the position, which will takethis scripture to materialism and idealism and the basic religious questions, so anystudy of the relationship of body and soul must necessarily come into contact. Whatis now the first is concerned, so this writing goes to the dispute about the basicrelationship of body and soul, which divides the materialists and idealists, not one;also their designs and consequences neither side in a still lie in the other direction by

the experiential relations between the two sides of the existence of a functionalrelationship is, which eliminates this bias by itself.

As to the second, they would all conclusions that we hereby but the consequencesof materialism as to the basic religious questions were forced to accept, be

premature. It is obvious that especially those in points Introductory short pronounced,though rather the background fine as a starting point of the development of thisspecification, basic view can undergo a one-sided materialistic interpretation andexploitation, and in regard to the question of immortality seems at first lead to thesame conclusion about need. But I want nothing more objected than that this whole

writing on the basis of and in connection a completely opposite view andinterpretation of that view adult that I have given the term in earlier writings, and onthis I must refer, if one that concerns will give a result, since this is not the place to


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go further into it.

The present volume of this document contains the records of the psychologicaldimension, ie the establishment of his principle and explanation of the methods, lawsand facts that belong to the experiential grounds of the same: the following is themental measurement function itself with its overarching from the exterior to the

interior , consequences develop. The present takes a more empirical hereafter, thefollowing more a mathematical and philosophical interest in the claim, amathematical, if the field of new applications, which opens up for the math in thisPart, is taken in following up to certain limits, a philosophical, provided that arisewith these applications belang rich aspects for the conception of the relationship

between body and soul.

Leipzig, 7 Dez. in 1889.

Preface by the editor. After the present work was sold out in bookstores for several years, the need for areprint of the same has always been urgent felt. Fechner himself could be as little asabout an unchanged reissue decide the same to a new edition of his major work. He

preferred, studies and critical discussions that would have in a new edition must findspace to publish in specific journals. He therefore, I believe, objectively chosen theright thing. A work which, like the elements of psychophysics, entirely new avenuesof research strikes, is always in the original form in which it exerted its effect, also

preferably remain significant. The more I was so ready to meet after the passing ofFechner's prompt action and the publisher to take over the publication of a newedition. It was to me as a matter of course that this could only be an unchangedreprint of the first. I just thought that the use of the later psychophysical Fechner'swork through at appropriate points in notes attached to facilitating evidence of thesame. These notes of the editor are provided to distinguish it from the author's notesindicated by asterisks with numbers. The principal scriptures were to be consideredhere are:

In terms of psychophysics. Leipzig in 1877. Abbreviated quotes: In matters.

Review of the main points of psychophysics. Leipzig in 1882. Abbreviatedrevision. Furthermore, the recent psychophysical Fechner's work:

On the psychological Maprinzipien and Weber's Law, in: Philosophical Studies,Edited. by W. Wundt, Vol IV p 161-230; Abbreviated: Mental Maprinzipien.

The other rare works cited are given each under its full title.

Of course, at the end of the second volume of the first edition as well as in otherplaces (in the annex to "Add stuff") noticed misprints and corrections have beentaken into account.Where, however, Fechner later was limited to general corrective or

additional comments, their introduction would require the same engaging a makeoverin the text, I thought I was in touch with an accompanying note on the subsequent


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correction must be content.

The correction of the sheet of the present edition has taken Dr. Oswald Klpe. Bothhave been examined by the same, the quotations given in the notes again, andcompleted more than once.

The worshipers of Fechner's will, I hope, the first volume of the attached list of hisnumerous writings be a welcome addition. I was through the kindness of the family inthe fortunate position of a production of this directory to 1880 and by then reachingalmost complete "Annuarium the works and papers of Professor G. Fechner" Mr.Surgeon Dr. Rudolph Mller in Dresden, which is the same Fechner had given to hiseightieth birthday, to put a basis. An absolute completeness, incidentally, was notachievable in this directory, as numerous smaller works, some anonymous, especiallyin literary journals, could not be determined with certainty.

Leipzig, July 31, 1888.

W. Wundt.

Nachdem das vorliegende Werkschon seit mehreren Jahren imBuchhandel vergriffen war, hat

sich das Bedrfnis nach einem Neudruck desselben immer dringender fhlbar gemacht.

Contribuu a millorar la traducciIntroductory.

I. More general consideration of the relationship of body and

soul.

However, the doctrine of the body, in the various branches of natural science hasprogressed to a great development, and sharp principles and methods delighted thatensure their successful progress, however, the doctrine of the spirit in psychology andlogic at least to a certain extent fixed fundamentals has won, the study of therelationships between body and mind or body and soul until now remained almost

just a Field philosophical dispute without solid foundation and without safe principlesand methods for the progress of the investigation.

The most obvious reason this ratio is less favorable to seek my opinion in thefollowing factual circumstances that can certainly ask again after his back lying

further reason. The ratios of the physical world itself, we can pursue directly and inconnection with experience, the ratios of the inner or spiritual world no less, thatalthough only go so far our senses and their reinforcing aids, these so far ofeveryone's soul is sufficient; but so that we are able to basic facts, basic laws, basicconditions to win in each of the two areas, which can serve as starting points forsecure documents and the conclusion and further progress. Not so, by only one occurswith the connexion of the physical and spiritual world of the two are directlyassociated factors of this relationship at a time into the immediate experience, whilethe other remains under the ceiling. Because, however, we our feelings and thoughts

are us immediately conscious, we can not see any of the movements in the brain,which are bound and to which they are in turn tied, the physical remains here underthe spiritual covering, and while we the bodies of other people , animals and all of

Text original


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nature can be subjected to the anatomical and physiological, physical and chemicalinvestigation immediately, we can do nothing directly of the souls to learn first, andthe God which the second listening, the spiritual remains here in the physicalceiling. And thus remains the hypotheses and the denial large margin.Is theresomething in the one and the other cover, and what is to be found among them?

The uncertainty, the hesitation, the argument on these questions of fact has so farhad no fixed starting point and point for a theory of the conditions to which facts arelargely's still arguing only allowed.

And what can be the reason of this peculiar relationship be that we are body andspirit for himself, but never both, as it belongs together immediately each; also canwatch together immediately, however, we had the usual, which is directly observeeasiest together? After the inviolability in which there is this relationship betweenmental and physical areas, we may assume that there is a fundamental, in their basicrelationship is justified itself. But there is no similar, giving us the same fact at leastexplain, if it can not lead to the bottom?

Probably can point to this and that. for example, if someone is inside a circle, theconvex side thereof is for it completely hidden below the concave ceiling and if it isoutside, vice versa, the concave side of the convex ceiling. Both sides belong togetherinseparably as well as the mental and physical side of man, and this can take uprelatively well as inner and outer side, but it is equally impossible to be seen from a

point of view in the plane of the circle both sides of the circle at the same time thanfrom a standpoint in the realm of human existence these two sides of man. Only aswe change our perspective, the side of the circle, we see the changes, and hiding

behind the saw. But the circle is just a picture, and it is the question of the cause.

Now is not the role and intent to enter into this written in lower or somehowdisruptive discussions on the basic question of the relationship of body and soul. FindAnyone see the puzzle, in that it appears to him as such, can resolve on its way. It willtherefore be without any binding consequences for the following if I only order not tolet a possible question as to the general view, which has formed the starting point forthis work and even the background of the same forms for me without any answer, andalso a clue in this field fluctuating ideas which perform, that such a search only rather

than to have already found believe, would meet with a few words on this view, isnothing but contain essential for the pursuance of Governing. For very large lure inthe introduction of a font like this to get lost in extensive and weitausholendediscussions in this regard, and no small difficulty to avoid it at all here, it is at leastthe short exposure of the view to which I limit myself folgends excuse.

Prior to a second illustrative example of the first. The solar system from the Sunoffers represent a very different sight than from Earth. There is the Copernican,Ptolemaic here. It is impossible to remain around the same time for observers toobserve both world systems together, despite both quite inseparably belong together,

and just like the concave and convex side of the circle are basically just two differentmanifestations of the same thing from different viewpoints. But every now again it isenough to change the view so effective for the other world, a world in which


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appearance.

The whole world consists of such examples that prove to us that what is one thing,appears from two points of view than two, and not one from a point of view can havethe same as the other. Anyone who does not admit that it is allwegs and so can not beotherwise. Only in Subject of the largest and durchschlagendsten example you do not

give it to expire or is not it. But this gives us the ratio of the mental and physicalworld.

What you think of as your views on inner spirit that you yourself are this spirit thatappears on outside positions, however as this mental physical surface. There is a

difference if you think with your brain, or see into the brain of the thinker. 1) Since allappears Different, but the view is quite different, where an inner, here is an external,unspeakably different even than in previous examples, and therefore give thedifference in the modes unspeakably greater. Because the dual publication of thecircle of the planetary system is, but only by two different external positions basicallywon, however, the middle of the circle on the sun remains the observers except the

part of the district, except the planet. But the self-manifestation of the spirit of a trueinner positions of the underlying system it against itself, the coincidence with itself,the appearance of the associated physicality of a real external point of view, however,won the non-coincidence of it.

1) with the equivalent of looking into it, is an adequate presentation ofconclusions, based on externally seen, summarize how the internal state wouldappear in clearing away the obstacles Into the vision.

This is now the same of course, what we first investigated the reason why no onemind and body together, as they are directly, also can immediately perceivetogether. It may just be outwardly and inwardly against the same thing at the sametime nobody.

Why not a spirit of another mind it immediately as the true mind, but regardlessyou should think he would perceive the easiest of the same nature, he has, if it doesnot coincide with it other than just the physical appearance of way. Why can not aghost at all perceive the other as with the help of its physicality, for what seems to theoutside of the spirit, whose physical appearance is just way.

Therefore, the publication of the mind is always, however, every body appears onlyonce on a different manifold, because there is only one internal point to the diversityagainst the outer positions and the diversity of the parties it.

Thus, the previous mode of representation covers the fundamental relationshipsbetween body and soul, which should seek to cover every base view it.

Still one: Body and soul go with each other, and the change in a corresponding

change in the other one. Why? Leibniz says, you can have different views aboutit. Two clocks mounted on the same Brette direct their course through the medium of


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a common attachment to each other (ie if they do not deviate too much from eachother), that is the ordinary dualistic view of the relation between body and soul. It canalso move the pointer Somebody both watches so that they will always harmoniously,which is the occasionalistische, according to which God creates the physical changesto the spiritual and vice versa in constant harmony. You can be completely set up

from the outset that they require, without the tuition, go by yourself exactly with eachother, that is the view of the same pre-established harmony. Leibniz has forgotten aview, and indeed the simplest. You can also go harmoniously with each other, so donot go out of each other because they are not two different clocks. Thus, the joint

board, the constant tuition, the artificiality of the first device is spared. What theoutside observer appears as the organic clock with an engine and wheels and levers ororganic way as their most important and most essential part, it appears even internallyquite different from their own mind with the passage of sensations, impulses andthoughts. It must not offend that man is here called a clock. If it is called in one

respect as he is not mentioned in any way. The diversity of an appearance but it depends on not only by the difference ofstandpoint, but also from the diversity of the parties it. A blind man sees with equallyfavorable external positions as a seeing nothing from the outside, and so does a deadclock despite equally favorable position of the coincidence with itself like a braininside of nothing, it is only the external appearance there.

The science is consistently on the outer point of view of things, the science of thespirit on the inside and the views of life are based on the exchange of views, thenatural philosophy on the identity of that which appears twice on double positions, a

doctrine of the relationship between mind and body, the relations between the twomodes of have to pursue a.

These are the basic points of view, with which I will not explain both the lastreason being of body and mind, as the same general factual relations seeking tocombine under a single view.

But it remains, as I said, each made freely through which others view it the sametrying to make, or whether he will try to make at all. What Everyone is mostappropriate in this regard will arrive on the context of his other views, and of course

even reverse the possibility or impossibility to justify an appropriate general contextto find the same. But here is a priori no matter whether he put heart and soul just astwo different manifestations of the same essence, or as two externally matchednature, or the soul as a point in a nexus of other points of substantially equal orunequal nature, or want to miss a single basic view at all, only to the extent Everyonerecognizes the experiential relationship between body and soul, and an experiential

pursuit allows the same, he may try the same gezwungenste representation. Becauseonly the experiential relationship between body and soul, we will be based in thefollowing, and us also serve to describe the factual of the most common expressionswhich are a dualistic held rather in the sense as our monistic view if already alloweasy translation into it.

This is not to say that the lesson will develop here will ever believe, the reason for


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context, apart consequence, the law of he-sham union is comprehensible; briefly onthe physical in the sense of physics and chemistry, on the psychic in the sense ofexperience psychology without the nature of the body is decreased the soul behindthe phenomenal world in terms of metaphysics somehow.

In general, we call this the psychological function of the physical, dependent and

vice versa, so far as such a constant or legal relationship between the two is that thecan be a guide to the others of the existence of and changes.

The fact of functional relationships between body and soul is generally undisputed,however, about the reasons, the interpretation and the extension of this fact, there is astill undecided dispute.

Without regard to the metaphysical aspects of this dispute, which relate rather tothe so-called nature as the phenomenon that psychophysics is trying to determine theactual functional relationship between the appearance of areas of the body and soul as

accurately as possible. What is quantitatively and qualitatively, far and near, in physical world and thespiritual world together, according to which laws to follow their changes from oneanother or go with each other? Poses these questions generally speaking,

psychophysics and seeks to answer them accurately.

Unlike spoken, but only said the same thing so, what belongs together in the innerand outer appearance of things and what laws exist for their relative changes have?

Respect, there is a functional relationship between body and soul, nothing would

prevent them from that same just as to express in the one than in the other direction inthe eye and keep track of what you can explain appropriate by the mathematicalfunction ratio between the variablesx andy is an equation where each variable can beregarded as a function of any other, and the same in their function of changeshas. One reason but for the psychophysics to favor the pursuit of the side of thedependence of the soul from the body of the opposite, is that only the physical is theextent directly accessible, while the degree of the mental can be obtained only as afunction of how will be shown later. This base is crucial and determines the directionof the Ganges below.

The materialistic reasons for such a preference come in psychophysics notdiscussed or validity, and the dispute between materialism and idealism than ondependency relationships of the One from the Other in essence going, you remain asmerely relating to appearance relations, foreign and indifferent.

One can distinguish direct and indirect relationships of dependence or direct andmediated functional relationships between body and soul. Sensual feelings are adirect function of certain activities in our brains, provided with a are set to the other,or those who in the immediate result, but which produce only indirect by externalstimuli, such activities only through the intermediary of a nerve conduction to our

brains . All our mental activity is an activity in our brains directly dependent on them,leads directly to such or such moves immediately after, but then move on to theeffects of the outside world through the medium of our nervous and musculoskeletal


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system.

The mediated functional relationships between body and soul, meet the definitionof functional relationship only insofar completely than you think in the relationshipwith the mediation of detail as in case of failure of mediation, the constancy orlegality omitted in the relation of body and soul, under the mediation consists of

access. As a stimulus triggers sensation of law only insofar as it does not lack theliving brains of living nerves, about which plants the effect of the stimulus to the

brain.

In this respect the psyche is seen as a direct function of the physical, the physicalcarrier of the base of the psyche may be called. Physical activities which support or

backing of psychic are, therefore, have a direct functional relationship to what we callpsycho-physical.

The question of the nature of the psycho-physical activities, ie on the substrate and

form thereof, is to be seen from the beginning in, and made no assumption aboutit. Namely, it initially be abstracted for two reasons, first because it is so bare act indetermining the general foundations of psychophysics expressing quantitativerelationships, as in physics, where the qualitative relationships are only made of thequantitative dependent and secondly because we are equal to the followingclassification of our teaching in the first part of the same will have to take on the

psycho-physical activities at all no special consideration.

The nature of the case is divided psychophysics into an outer and an inner,depending on the relationship of the spiritual to the physical external world or the

physical inner world with which the spiritual is in close relationship, is taken intoconsideration, or otherwise, in a doctrine of indirect and direct functional relationshipbetween soul and body.

The basic experience for the whole psychophysics can be sought only in the realmof outer psychophysics, provided only that this is the immediate experience available,and the output is therefore necessary to take from the outer psychophysics, but candevelop this to the inner without constant Mitrcksicht , in consideration of the factthat the physical operation outside world is linked only through the intermediary ofthe physical world with the inner soul.

Also, as long as we are still only in the consideration of the legal relationshipsbetween the external stimulus and sensation, we must not forget that the stimulus butnot directly feeling awakens in us, but by awakening any physical activities in us, inthe sense of more direct standing relationship. Their nature may not be entirelyunknown, the question of this nature are initially quite undecided how it shall be done

by us avowedly, but their fact must statuiert and often recurs to this fact, when itcomes to those legal relationships themselves to the it is for us to do in the outer

psychophysics first cogent to envisage and pursue. Just as we are, though the physicalactivities that are subject to our will work immediately and follow, yet are entirely

unknown, must not forget that what is wrought by the will in the outside world, yetonly by means of such activities by him wrought will. And so throughout thethoughts unknown middle phalanx have to turn what is necessary to complete the


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chain of effects.

Psychology and physics already used the name has to be based psychophysics onthe one hand, and psychology on the other hand promises to provide the samemathematical documents. From physics to outer psychophysics borrowed tools andmethods, and the inner leans rather to the physiology and anatomy, especially of the

nervous system, and puts forward some acquaintance with it. Unfortunately, however,is of the so laborious, accurate, and valuable research in this field, which has broughtthe newer term, as yet not an advantage for the inner psychophysics draw, which willundoubtedly one day to take it when those investigations and the of another attack

points fro investigations, to which this script is based, will be progressed to the pointof encounter where they are able to fertilize reciprocally. That this is so far little is thecase, only refers to the imperfect state in which our teaching is not.

The point from which we will take the attack on our teaching here is this.

Before us are given the means to determine the nature of the physical activitieswhich are directly related to our intellectual activities, but can leave the quantitativerelationships of dependence between the two is determined up to certainlimits. Sensation depends on the stimuli from, a stronger sensation depends on astronger stimuli, the stimulus acts only through the intermediary of an inner sensationof physical activity. In this respect, let legal relations between the sensation and thestimuli to locate, they must include legal relations between the stimuli and the inner

bodily activity, which in the general laws, such as physical activities cause apart, intocontact and thus justify general conclusions on conditions this inner activity .In fact,the result will show that in spite of our ignorance of the detailed nature of the psycho-

physical activities but the same that come on the conditions for the more importantconditions of general mental life into account, now up to certain limits, safe andzulngliche ideas on fundamental facts and laws that spread from the outer to theinner psychophysics, are justified.

But apart from this the importance of inner psychophysics have the legalrelationships that can be determined in the field of outer, their importance forthemselves. Due to the same results, as will be seen, the physical, the mentaldimension, and this dimension can be set up applications which are in turn of

importance and interest.

III. A preliminary issue. If all dark and disputed questions of internal psychophysics already - and almostthe whole inner psychophysics currently consists only of such questions - should be

postponed in their own souls, until the experiential program provides the means for

its decision, but one that is the same that the prospects throughout the psychophysicsis concerned, be vornweg to touch at least briefly, to answer them as far as they can

be answered from general considerations, and to refer for the rest of the episode.


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We call thinking, wanting the finer aesthetic feelings as a higher spiritual, sensualsensations and impulses than lower, so you can at any rate here below - the questionof the afterlife we can openly - the higher mental activities as little of Equip go thanthe lower, without carry physical activities, or to be bound by psychophysicalactivities. No man can think with a frozen brains. Just as little doubt that a certain

facial sensation, auditory sensation can only come into existence in accordance withheld as certain activities of our nervous system, and indeed it is not doubted, probablyfounded in the concept of sensual side of the soul on that they stand in exact nexuswith the physicality and go. The more but there is doubt whether any particularthought is tied to an equally specific movement in the brain, and not rather an active

brain in general hinreiche for the thinking and higher mental activities at all withoutsuch a specific nature and direction of physical activities in the brain need to go in acertain direction and type of Equip. Yes it is the essential difference from the lower tothe higher spiritual regions will probably (as distinguished from some, mind and soul

in the strict sense) just wanted herein. Suppose now that the higher mental activities were really relieved a specialrelationship to physical activities, but so would it actually is to be recognized as thegeneral relationship of the subject to the same consideration and investigation by theinner psychophysics. Because this general relationship will be in any case bound togeneral laws and include general conditions that will apply to determine it, yes thisshould ever always remain the most important task of the inner psychophysics. Andalready one of the next chapter (V) will lead us to such conditions.

I want to take a picture like the thought involved in the rivers of physical activity

itself and only by means of this activity really, or he likes the river only require, asthe rowers in the boat for added control over it, and thereby indifferent to the ruddershaft to beat, if both the conditions and laws of the river will be considered when itcomes to the flow or progress of thought, and both certainly very appropriate otheraspects. Even the freest shipping is subject to laws relating to the nature of theelement and the means which it uses to relate. So also in any case find the

psychophysics to do with the relationship of the higher spiritual to physical support,but from what aspects and to what limits they will have one day to decide on theirown territories.

Every now may the spirit and scope of the inner psychophysics limited so far andso long as the coercion and the band of the facts do not compel him to give up therestriction.According to my faith, which is but for now only made as faith claims inthis respect there is no limit.

Wenn schon alle dunklen undstreitigen Fragen der innerenPsychophysik und fast die

ganze innere Psychophysik besteht zur Zeit nur aus solchen Fragen mit ihr selbstzurckzustellen sind, bis der erfahrungsmige Gang die Mittel zu ihrer Entscheidung bietet, so

wird doch eine derselben, welche die Aussichten der ganzen Psychophysik angeht, vornwegwenigstens kurz zu berhren sein, um sie so weit zu beantworten, als sie sich aus allgemeinemGesichtspunkte beantworten lt, und im brigen auf die Folge zu verweisen.Contribuu a millorar la traducci

Text original


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In fact, I consider that the sensation of harmony and melody that carriesunquestionably a higher character than that of the individual tones, the ratios of thesame frequencies needed as a base, the subject individual to individual feelings, andthat only in close connection with the way that sound together in this and follow, canchange, so it seems to me this as a hint for a higher, but not a lack of special

relationship of dependence between higher spiritual and physical support to lie, andall comfortable with this, slightly more to run and to expanding hint to vote. Butneither the design nor even claim the same here in the entrance of our cause.

IV Royal term on sensation and irritation. When such a large yet incomplete previous psychophysical studies would anenumeration, definition and classification of all mental Zustndlichkeiten, the objectcan be the same again, have little benefit. First, and in the main we will deal with

sensual sensations in the ordinary sense of the word sensation, which I will use thefollowing distinctive nomenclature.

I will differentiate intensive and extensive sensations, according as it is thesensuous apprehension of something whose size is grasped as intensive or extensive,eg to the intense feelings the sensation of brightness to the extensive sensationsconsiders a spatial extent face expect or Getast, and will therefore also intensive andextensive quantity of a sensation differ. When an object appears brighter to us thanthe other, which we call the sensation which it grants, intense greater if it is largerthan the other seems to us more extensively. This is just a matter of definition, and isso generally understood, yet a certain degree of sensation advance.

In all sensations at all, such as extensive intensive, we can vary the size and shape,except that in the size of the intense strength and shape is often called the quality. Inthe notes, the amount, although comprehensible as a quality of sound, but also aquantitative side, if we can get a bigger and smaller height difference.

EH Weber distinguishes indisputably very cogent, assets or mind, which provide uswith extensive sensations after assumed here, use of language, or the sense of spaceas the general sense of the senses, which give us intense feelings when special senses,

where former sensations do not like latter already can emerge in several ofimpression on individual independent of each nerve fibers or their respectively

branching circles (circles of sensitivity), but only through a coordination ofimpressions, and not so much the strength and quality of impressions, as the numberand arrangement thereof or circuits of nerve branches happen in which the same, isessential for the size and shape of extensive sensation. His arguments here

about 1) are very likely to contribute to clarify the general conditions of the senses,where it may initially be sufficient to just noticed difference in the circumstances,which depend on intensive and extensive sensations, to have pointed, as in general

this short preliminary discussions are merely intended to initiate a discussion aboutthe legends of the sensitivity and sensation to dimensions, and therefore not includedin the doctrine of the sensations as it requires this purpose.


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1) reports the schs Soc. In 1853. P. 83, the extracts in Fechner's Zentralbl. In1853. No. 31,

In the different nature and different dependence relationships of extensive andintense sensations it requires a special study of their laws. One could imagine that thesize of extensive sensation or extensive quantity of sensation in a correspondingmanner, according to the same laws, irritated by the number of circles of sensitivitydepended, as the intense feeling of the intensity of their irritation, but neither can thisin from the front presuppose, nor is it proven until now. Our future investigations anddemgemen information is preferably, if not exclusively, related to the intensesensations, and those sensations under par to understand, if not to the contrary isevident from the accompanying epithets extensively or from the context of itself.

Next to distinguish the extensive and intensive sensations is the distinction ofobjective sensations and feelings of the community to commemorate the so-called

positive and negative feelings. Objective sensations, such as the sensations of lightand sound, are those which are based on the existence of the sense organs outsidesource of excitement, however, felt the modifications of the common feeling, such as

pain, pleasure, hunger, thirst, just as Zustndlichkeiten our own body itself are. Alsoon this ratio, the classic Weber's investigations are to look in his treatise on touch andsense of community.

As positive and negative feelings cultivates the sensations of heat and cold,

pleasure and pain oppose themselves, which have this in common, that the way of herarousal, or reference to what they aroused an opposition including by feeling the coldby withdrawal of heat, as the heat through increased uptake of heat, evolve and grow,the sensation of pleasure with a striving for the exciting cause they like the pain isrelated to a quest counter.

While you can leave those naming of positive and negative emotions areconsidered parlance, one has but not to be forgotten that the so-called negativefeelings in themselves have taken mentally nothing negative, not a defect, a less ofsensation, a distance of sensation represent, as they rather just be so hard, or even

harder than the so-called positive, and even express such strong positive physicaleffects or may carry such as the sensation of a chill shock of the whole body, the criesof pain and lively else other physical can induce expression.

The term stimulus is in the narrow sense to refer only to the physical resurrectionmeans stimulant intense sensations. Insofar as they belong to our physical worldoutside, it is external stimuli, and as such belong to our internal physical world, thereare internal stimuli. The term of the former is Aufzeigung by external stimuli such aslight, sound, mainly to explain the concept of the latter has yet to further clarify and

perhaps eventually to eliminate up to certain limits, be. A noise in the ears can be

caused by external action of the air vibrations that sends a waterfall in our ear. Asimilar noise can arise from causes in our body without any external influence. Theyare generally unknown, but insofar as they produce the equivalent effect of an


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external stimulus, they are also considered the equivalent of such be taken intoaccount, and from this point the expression of inner stimulus is often us to becomfortable, the unknown, but according to their effect to be recognized as a defacto, internal physical causes of sensations with the outer under common terms,aspects to consider formulas.

Should be moved by external and internal excitations only in accordance with thesoul than their effects reach up to a certain point of the body, all the sensations would,to the extent a function thereof is granted by the body, just be knock-on effects of

physical movements, and thereafter itself the physical conditions of the innermostfeelings occur within the concept of stimuli. Whereas in the case of the Bound One ofthe sensations of substantially responsive, functionally related to standing, physicalmovements, it would not be permissible, even with below to include suchsimultaneous conditions of sensation with which the sensation is immediately set, thestimuli, but only those which serve only themselves to their evocation, Miscellaneous

you do not want to mix. Meanwhile, we need between the two views is not yet todecide and it has then to different alternate end view internal stimuli to our factualconsiderations no effect as long as we, the existence and the size value of the internalstimuli just only by their equivalent effect with outer accept stimuli and take intoaccount. You are our first one their places and their quality of unknownx , which yet.having a certain, the external stimuli comparable, quantitative effect in theappearance circle occurs, and receives its name and value to this

Some of what one would hesitate in ordinary life, to understand under the namecharm with, but we should not hesitate with to put under it, as, for example, weights,

inasmuch as it oppressive sensation of pressure or elevated the sensation of causingserious. Other hand, had a transfer of the word stimulus on the causes, which causedextensive sensations in us, their Miliches, especially since this causes little clarityexists at all. Even without access to external causes, we have a full field of black withsome expansion, and even without contact with compass points or the like, we can infact directed attention to a certain extent be conscious of our body surface in theclosed eye. What entree externally, some marked limitations in this already-givennatural feeling field, it certainly forms part, there is some indication of relative sizeand distance estimates, but not to create the sensation of expansion itself only.This

seems active in the assembly order and organic linking nerves, respektiv their centralterminations to be innate as justified, although not yet come to nothing definite hasbeen decided. If you ever wanted to speak to this a prerequisite of another stimulus,only the coordination of the internal excitations of these nerves could well be to bringin attack. But since there are probably simultaneous conditions of sensation, theexpression would thus be inauthentic again. Also, after which put some weightinvolved, the experience with the help of movements to the extent estimation. But itwould not be at places here where it only applies linguistic rules to enter into this stillrather dark subject matter further.

Regardless of this darkness and to the question of how the word somehow stillfinds charm a job here, you can say that the size of the stimulus during intensesensations extent by the number of active sensory circles contained between given


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points is represented in extensive, as the perceived extension depending on andincreasing, so as to quantitative relationships of dependency, this number can betaken with the size of the stimulus under a common, albeit very general point of viewfor both sensations, but without it can be claimed that it is that the law of a similardependence was both necessary, or that it is not feeling the extensive size might be

co-dependent on circumstances other than those numbers yet, which rather points areonly a subject of important psychophysical investigation itself.

Exposure to the most external powers, which depends on sensation, the sensationrises, after it has become noticeably at all, with continuous reinforcement of the

power of acting in the same direction and decreases with the same weaknesscontinued into the imperceptible. In regard but some, such as heat and pressure on theskin, the body is set up so that rather arises only in accordance with the difference ofa given medium or habitual action, as the ordinary temperature, the ordinaryatmospheric pressures, sensation, and this just as well, but with different

characteristics, as sensation of heat or cold, pressure, or train, increases, depending onthe effect to increase a certain degree, or lowered below this level. In this case wewill match takes place as a stimulus rather than the absolute size of the caster, but its

positive or negative difference of the degrees, which separates the sensations ofopposite character, and in which no sensation, have to look at, and the first as

positive, the last can be described as negative stimulus.

In this respect the effect of relationships between stimulus and sensation areconsidered below, the stimuli are always assumed to be real and acting as thoughacting under similar circumstances, unless the contrary is expressly stated or evident

from the context of itself. However, the comparability as well be repealed by adifferent attachment method of the stimuli, as a different state of the subject or organin which the stimulus hits the same, making the term a different sensitivity is relatedmore closely by their concept and measurement in the sixth chapter will be discussed.

For brevity, we say of a stimulus which excites a sensation, as well as a stimulusdifferences, which carries a sensation difference, he was perceived, more or less,depending on the sensation of feeling the difference is more or less an expression,which we also to be able to get without misunderstandings can use.

Outer psychophysics.

The psychophysical measurement gauge.

_____________________

V. measure of physical activity. Living force.

No stimulus acts as a carrier, but rather are some stimuli, such as light and sound,immediately comprehensible as movements, and if this is not true of others, such as


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weights, smell and taste stimuli, we may still assume that they only elicit or producealteration of any activities in our body sensation or change those according to theirsize and therefore representative of the physical size, standing with sensation inrelationship, are activities which are related in some conditions of the dependency toit.

Without us here now to deal with the special dimensions of the different stimuli andthereby excitable physical activities, but, if such exists, such as known presupposingof physics and chemistry, but we want on the general level of physical activity insome of the following belang rich , enter into discussions.

Even in ordinary life puts you some scale to the size or intensity of physicalactivity, and looks for this part in the rapidity of the completed movements,sometimes the size of the continuous moving mass, but without having definite ideasabout it. First, now it appears most natural as a measure of the magnitude of anactivity. The product of the size of the continuously moving mass in the speed atwhich it is moved that is, the quantity of the movement, to take. In fact, the pokingand generally in the notice of motion is the speed, which assumes the initiated body,or the size of the mass, which a given speed can be informed of the quantity ofmotion of the initiating body proportion, and so they wanted this View as decisiveeffect on the size of the business, it would, however, in the quantity of movement canfind a measure of it. It is not disputed that comes to the definition of physicalactivity.Meanwhile, if you want to take such in the sense that they will be taken in theexact physics, mechanics, physiology and even in ordinary life, can not serve as ameasure of physical activity, the quantity of motion, but only the living force.

The living force of which is the question here is, in no way to be confused with thelife force of the philosophers, but a sharp Mabegriff of the following significance.

The kinetic energy of a material particle, whether or not atomistic atomistic taken isobtained by its mass is m with the squares of its velocity v multiplied so that theexpression of the kinetic energy of the particles in question mv is 1) . The livingforce of a whole system is then the sum of the living forces of its particles, ie in asystem of three or more particles with masses m , m ', m ".... and velocities v, v ', v".. ..

= mv + m 'v' + m 'v' .... ,what is short for any number of particles

mv

express maintains, with only eight is to have that sum characters not a summationof several identical products mv means, but so many kinds of products as there are

particles with different mass and velocity.

1)

Strictly speaking, only half in the mechanics of the product mv2 meant bykinetic energy of the particle, but some also apply the name to the wholeproduct, also what I'm doing for the sake of convenience by this different use


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this point living force make the demgeme representation by a reachable over thispoints level, without thereby coming into conflict with the first determination by themore and more diminishing living force also the above points in question stillachievable level, more and more reduced.

When upward-moving Litters or raising a load in empty space, it's just the opposite

effect of gravity, which continued gehends deprives the body of the speed onceproduced something, until finally all the speed is withdrawn upon reaching a certainheight, above which point, accordingly, the performance can not go. Instead of or incombination with the counteraction of the gravity, but can also be the resistance ofthe resiliency of friction, so-called resistance to the agents, or any other resistor - andapplies to any service to overcome a resistance - expressed the same success as thecounteraction of gravity, but precisely because each overcome a given resistance andconsequently the lift or throw any power level of a given load by means of a givenkinetic energy in empty space are comparable. Each performance is the same size, is

equal to their effecting a living force used and consumed. We thought a body in empty space without a medium resistance and counter-actionof a force is moving, he would have obtained by virtue of the speed once andtherefore kinetic energy into infinity to fly away without reduction of speed, and noliving power being consumed. Although this is called a movement, but no power,which always presupposes the overcoming of an opposite effect and consumptiondemgemen a living force. But there is still a living force of this body the amount of

power that he would bring his wealthy, and such a counter-effect handles space. Formany services, such as the uniform course of a carriage by the horse, is continuing

the same size of the living force, but only because is always just used so much by theresistors than the increment through the effort of the horse to the carriage, wherebythe kinetic energy of the car would continue to grow, if not just the resistors toincrease continuously consumed.

Living force can be in a systems develop through the interaction of its parts, as inplanetary systems, in any organism, - transmitted and propagated by communicationand propagation of the movement, so the litters of a stone, in the reproduction ofmovement by solid and liquid assets , - finally being generated internally modified byexternal influences, so the kinetic energy, the system generates each two world bodies

through their interaction, through the action of a third, so the internal kinetic energyof a living body by any external stimulus.

Finally, however, has, as far as we are able to pursue it, not only all creation, butalso transmission, reproduction, modification of living force in their basic interactionof the parts.Raises a hand to the stone, the result is the living force that is implantedin him, by organic interactions, and propagates itself over to the stone by aninteraction between its parts and those of the hand, and any reproduction of themovement is not based less on interaction of parts.

The whole of nature is a single, coherent contained system of interacting parts, butin the different partial systems produce the kinetic energy of various forms, use,transmit to each other, with due respect of general laws, which dominates the


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relationship and receive. In this respect the exact nature of teaching all physicalprocesses, activities, processes, whatever name they may cause the chemical, theimponderabeln, the organic excluded, on motions, it was larger masses or small

particles can be reduced, can all have a scale find their vitality or strength in theliving force, which, if not all directly, but basically everywhere for dependent effects,

if any, is measured. The uncertainty in which we find ourselves at the outset about the nature of

physical processes, at the conclusion of our perception depends, and go along withour thoughts, short of psychophysical activities, ie leads in any case no uncertaintyabout the degree of what we have to create it. If you ever find even among the

physical space, is also the measure by the living force behind this place and if they donot find place among them, they do not concern us here.

This is important for double points, even if it us a basis of clarity, secondly, if itprovides us with a basis of legality on which we can build.

Without the special nature of the psycho-physical activities to know, we know whatwe have below size to understand them, to the psychophysics of physics, physiology,mechanics, ordinary life, to get in a clear relationship, and may in the generalconditions and laws of the living force justify general conclusions. But insofar as mayarise a doubt, but if not, the psycho-physical activities beyond this generality, thestudy itself has to conform with this.

We therefore draw some of the most important general conditions and laws ofkinetic energy into consideration here, which provide an indication to this

investigation, or otherwise permit obvious applications in our area. A system may appear to be quiet, and yet develop a very large living force inimperceptibly small movements, by virtue of the transferability and applicability ofthe kinetic energy in various forms are often only the turnover of large powerfulmovements.

When a heavy bell is struck, so you can not see their little Erzitterungen. And yetthe living force of this Erzitterungen represented (including with heat generatedvibrations) the whole living force of the blow that fell on them; thereby thrown andtry to establish the reciprocating movements add up the same to the one direction, soit would be a good deal are.

Apparently a very minor or no, but in reality unquestionably a very large, vibrantforce is developed in the act of chemical compounds. We notice there no strikingmovements, but the light and heat phenomena that take place here, based onvibrations of the ether, can require us that the ponderable particles in the record ofthis compound fall into lively vibrations which announce the ether or of him becommunicated. How then can the living force of the blow seemingly disappear intothe invisible Erzitterungen the bell, it may turn out by appropriate mediations into

powerful visual movements reversed the living force imperceptibly smallErzitterungen.

Thus the whole living force of the then rolling steam car is just a form of sales of


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the living power of imperceptibly small Erzitterungen which the by the combustionprocess in the heating material (including the ether, which the same penetrating)caused by there on the parts of the machine, and from then on car have beentransferred. And what occurs here in the visible movements of living force to lightdisappears in the realm of the invisible movements of the heating material, which

continued non-stop entertainment and stirring up the heating process is required bynew material and constant train, he should even remain in motion. Even without theaddition of the engine and the car would this be necessary, by the vibrations weaken

by notice to the surroundings, radiating to the surrounding space, of themselves, butthe mounting of the engine and the car makes the kinetic energy that would otherwise

be useless would be lost for certain purposes subservient in a certain direction.

So too is the living force of the visible movements which man performs outsidewith arms and legs, nothing more than a sales or a resultant of the kinetic energy ofsmall internal movements, which are caused by the chemical composition of the diet

process. To any external power man consumes some of that internally developedliving force, for the living force, which take the set into motion the body, escapeshim, and even without any visible movement, he continually loses it by notice to theoutside world, excretions, charisma, Everything which makes necessary a continuousre-replacement by the diet process, the organic machine to remain in motion.

And the kinetic energy of imperceptibly small Erzitterungen must not be neglectedagainst the invisible movements, rather forms a major part of the living force in theworld, the living force of the movements in the realm of imponderables must not beneglected against the areas of the ponderable, but is in turn a main part of the living

force in the world, and has even a major portion of the operations and services whichwe perceive in the areas of ponderable, by virtue of the applicability andtransferability of kinetic energy from one domain to another.

For, although we have the mass of the ether particles than to assume almostvanishingly small, it is not nothing, and is compensated by a unspeakably great speedwe have enclosed her from the other side with their vibrations, to the extent that it agreat living developed force in these vibrations and in the transfer to the weighable asignificant performance can be achieved by.

The living force undergoes in the act of transfer from one body to another, fromone part of a system to the other, whether ponderable or not, by shock, friction,resistance of the medium, as very well as the form in which it occurs characterized ischanged, neither increase nor decrease.

Apparently though disappears at each poking, any friction, through each resistorliving force: the living force of all the stones that fall to the earth, seems to havedisappeared, and the kinetic energy of a vibrating string decreases continuouslygehends by the resistance of the air, one of in-aisle carriage would be able not to getunabated under the influence of friction on the ground its kinetic energy, if not the

beast of burden always inflicted new Zuwchse which itself must grow through theprogress of the nutrition process it.

But all living force, which would be dropped for the apparent motion is found in


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invisible Erzitterungen ponderable and imponderable parts. Latter corresponds to adegree of heat, so that the whole loss etc in the act of shock, friction is suffered toliving force the part of the ponderable part, by a certain precisely determinable andcertain equivalent of heat is covered by the fair use then just that quantity of livingforce in the territory of ponderable, the heat created by its disappearance, also able to

be generated again. Yes, it is this one of the reasons bindendsten to dissipate the heatphenomena of vibrations of a substrate that is not ponderable incomparable withsubstrates that a given heat equivalent for each missing quantity of living force

ponderable substances in the act of communication of motion occurs and vice versa.

One, disputed many a welcome and popular account of the principles of theimportant teachings of the mechanical equivalent of heat contains the followingdiscussion of Baumgartner. "The mechanical equivalent of heat and its importance inthe Sciences A paper presented at the ceremonial meeting of the imperial Akad. ofSciences. on May 30, 1856 "in Grunert's Arch Math f 1858 p. 261, from which I

borrow some points here. It is assumed as a working unit 1 foot pounds, ie theperformance, which is raised by 1 pound 1 foot, and as a unit of heat, the heatquantity that Pf is able to bring water to 1 0 to 1 C..

"Through consumption of a heat Quantum also a certain job size is generated andvice versa, and it is correct to the results of numerous, with all the precautions Staffexperiments in which some work into heat, some heat into work was implementedand where it with heat from the had to do most varied origins, the consumptions of athermal unit in 1367 work units and vice versa. Austrian These dimensions andweights are the basis. "

"Translated into the language of common life, is this: The tub that heats water 1 Pffrom 0 to 1 , exerts the same mechanical strength as a weight of 1367 pounds,falling 1 foot high."

"The conversion of heat into work and vice versa is not the whim and chance, butaccording to certain rules, which express the conditions under which the changetakes place has. Namely, it can heat be turned in only if in work than they supplied abody is. but this happens in guided heat only in the direction from the hot body to thecolder and only so far exist as temperature differences. the heat supplied is divided,

but in this case in two parts. One of them is to increase the temperature at a constantvolume, but the other performs work by hinschiebt eg a load before see. Where thereis no such, since no forces change takes place. This explains why an air mass coolswhen it expands and thereby overcomes a pressure as their temperature remainsunchanged if the expansion occurs without overcoming a resistance, as is the casewhen it flows over into an empty room. "

"Each Gran coal, completely burns the boiler of the steam engine or air machinedelivers a result of the chemical processes of combustion of 0,908 units of heat and1241 foot pounds work when all the heat for generation of steam or for increasing

the clamping force of the air used and complete work is reacted. " Meanwhile, it would be untriftig to say that the living force in the world was at all aconstant size. Only through the act, at the moment of release and propagation of


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motion changes is not the same if we take the equivalent of heat generated inconsideration, but by the continuous and in the course of the movement continuouslychanging effect of forces. When a body encounters in its course to the other, so isunder consideration for the shock of ponderable particles and allocation of generatedduring cold one equivalent of heat, the sum of kinetic energy in both after impact

even be as large as before, whereas we see the kinetic energy of each planet growaccording as he approaches the Sun, decrease according as he removed them, and aswinging pendulum in descending increase, decrease in upgrades. But if the vitalforce does not remain the same in these cases, it always turns out the same size backup so as the bodies of the system, the first case is made from sun and planet, thesecond case of the Sun and Earth, under the influence of internal forces take thesystem back to the same position each other. Now, in general is also used in manyother systems under the influence of their own indwelling forces a circular orreciprocating movement of the type held in that the parts return to a given location

after an interval repeatedly and in general for this case is sold under the name the lawof conservation of living force known law that the kinetic energy is produced in one,according to some antecedent lugs his inner forces surrendered systems always returnto the original size when parts of the system to return to its original position, bywhich internal may be mediations and the ways in which the decline occurs, whichcan not always take place in such a simple way to complicated systems, in fact, as inthe above simplest systems.

If we beat on a piece of steel, so the the steel particles implanted living force in theact of the shock is completely represent the kinetic energy that was lost the beating

body together with the generated heat, and the body is perfectly elastic, so theparticles are , from the moment of impact to under the influence of their own powersback and herschwingend, ever regain the passage through its initial equilibriumposition the same kinetic energy, but not to keep for the duration of the vibration, byleaving the original position, and we have a little piece of steel rather than leadelastic, so it will remain permanently pressed together, and the impact generated inthe act of living force with which the particles are removed from the equilibrium

position, can not be restored. Rather disappears under these circumstances reallyliving force, which, as you put it, used to produce a permanent change in position ofthe particles.

The law of conservation of kinetic energy so does not prevent that the kineticenergy of a system or part of the infinite world system to change temporarily,increase, diminish, nor that it is changing constantly, it notes only that restores themwhen the parts the system to return to any antecedent impulses under the influence ofinternal forces to the original location, but it can not vouch for these generally returnitself, and it does not take place in many cases. You will not even in the simplesystems of three after the laws of gravity instead of appealing body, except underspecial conditions. And known to take the planets of our solar system because of the

incommensurability of their orbital periods never exactly, but only approximately inlarger periods, again the same position to each other and to the Sun a, which thenindeed restores also the same living power of our planetary system nearly, but not


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exactly.

Common ground is now in the infinity of the world, the loss of kinetic energy thatsuch formative part of this infinite system temporarily or permanently learns, can becompensated with the increase experienced by another part at the same time, more orless, but it is not a principle before which continued to decrease in a and increase in

the other parts in such a relationship that would be expected in an accurate andconsistent compensation, and it is all the more reason why such a presupposed, asanother principle exists, which is a Another constant ratio of the kinetic energy states,

but this is not the insistence on the same registry.

Not the size of the newly available vital force, but the size of the available kineticenergy of the existing movement causes another to create is possible together with thesize of the living force, in virtue of what we just potential force (the more commonterm is clamping force) want to call, for each, foreign influences revoked, System,hereby also disputed for the world, a constant size.

Think swinging us to explain a string in empty space without resistance and nomovement of the documents over which it is stretched, tampering, as would be thecase if it were stretched between two fixed points easy to order one, foreign effectsrevoked to represent system of material particles. The kinetic energy of this string isvariable. It is zero at the boundaries of the field trip, but the potential was greatestforce at the same time. Because at every point, from there to the string passes throughthe equilibrium position, it creates a new quantity of kinetic energy, which adds to the

previous, until it has reached the maximum kinetic energy during passage through theposition of equilibrium. And when she was on the border of the excursion, these real,living force, was now their potential force, that is the living force, which was not

produced, but by virtue of the existing motion causes could not be created. Themotion of the boundary of the field trip to the middle position is all this potential

power is converted into kinetic energy, but so much came of vis viva, was lost in thepotential power: for what was already produced by living force, could not generateare to arrive at the center position all the potential strength was exhausted, and herebyno further increase in their cost of living force possible. From then on, but growsreversed by a corresponding way, the potential power at the expense of kinetic energyso on alternately until indefinitely, so that the sum of living and potential power of

the string always remains the same, except that now one and now the othermultiplies, at the expense of the other.

What is true here of the string is of the world. The living force can only grow at theexpense of potential and vice versa. Only that not all parts of the world take place in

parallel swing their exchange between rising and falling, living and potential power,as the parts of the string, but rather can find different parts of the world in this regardin quite different circumstances; also only wear solidarity for the fulfillment of thelaw, if any, that what a body to lose by giving notice to the other of vis viva, evendoes not grow in the potential power to him, and vice versa, which it receives throughcommunication, not gained at the expense of its potential strength of his is, only forthe whole system is the constant sum of the two forces. A string may indeed be tied to


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communicate their motion to the air every living force at the same time with all thepotential power by coming into the equilibrium position at rest; bordered make youfeel in connection with the air on, so is the sum of living and potential force for thesystem of string and air, remained the same.

This is the great principle of the so-called conservation of energy, connected with

the above, the conservation of living force, but of even more general meaning thanthis, a principle which, although rooted in long-known general principles ofmechanics, but first of Helmholtz with clarity has been developed, highlighted in itsfull meaning and explained in its most important applications. Since then, it hasfound the most extensive consideration and application in the areas of inorganic asorganic physics. It is generally only central forces that are not a function of time orspeed, but until now it has found no reason to doubt its general validity in the areas oforganic and inorganic nature.

This may initially appear conspicuous. In the field of electricity and magnetism, sofar, the same is attributable to electricity, there are forces that depend on W. Weber'sstudies of the velocity and acceleration. But it has every appearance that combinethese elemental forces so that the law in all natural effects remains valid. For themagnetic and electric flow effects substitutable for one of the lights itself, if it reallycan be described as effects of central forces, which are independent of velocity andacceleration, represent. I also Prof. W. Weber communicated orally to myquestioning, that he ever performed in all cases on its investigation, even beyond theborders of those effects beyond the law found in force, though its full generality forthis area forces nor the strict proof BOTH COMMUNITY.

According to this law can in its internal effects surrendered systems the kineticenergy generated by prior external stimuli or the previous internal force effect only atthe expense of its potential force further grow, and the assets of this growth isexhausted, therefore in accordance with, as the potential force by the continued solidgrowth of the living power exhausted, and increases inversely with the reduction ofkinetic energy, so that, although a change of kinetic energy between increase anddecrease, and a transfer of a part of the system to the other, but neither continuousgrowth up to unlimited height, nor a decrease until a permanent void in its internaleffects surrendered systems, and hereby is undisputed in world systems take place,

thereby maintaining the activity of the world is secured within certainOszillationsgrenzen from most general point of view.

By contrast, the living force grow in a part of a system without loss of potentialpower increase and decrease without them, inasmuch as they respektiv decreases atthe same time in another part of the system or increasing, by virtue of the transfer ofkinetic energy from one part to the other. In so far as each finite field is part of thegeneral world system, the law is definitely applicable only under this consideration,that it is the constant trade-off between potential and kinetic energy for him in

particular only in regard to its internal effects, in regard to the external but only inconnection with the larger systems to which he belongs, in the last instance the world.

You know quite well that the principle or law of conservation of energy tells us


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limits. Although after a healing device, the fact we only recognize, do not have toexplain that man is neither able to involuntary functions through the mind to steal somuch kinetic energy that is the normal response of the organic machine thus falterseven reverse the thinking of robbing by other wide functions as much force to put allthe same to a standstill.

Thinking is an example, but what is in this respect of the thinking applies to everyintellectual activity. Intense emotions, passions, sensible intuitions behave inspecified ways quite as as the intense thinking, except that the psychophysicalactivities of some of these mental processes through the organic system with certainexternal activities available in natural nexus, then to rise together with that and tendto fall, while they at the same time in antagonism to the other occurred. Prinzipe

physical activities of this association will be discussed further below.

The same ratio as between the psychophysical and not psycho-physical activitiesalso takes place between the different areas of psycho-physical activities. Becompletely absorbed in an outer intuition and at the same time think deeply, do notgo. See also attentive and hear not. To sharper reflect on something, we must abstractfrom others more, and how to share the attention, it weakens the individual. Here onecould, however, play a purely psychological laws to see if these facts aloneobjects. But they depend too much with the previous together at the same time not tosee it as an extension of the law of conservation of energy to the purely psycho-

physical game. The mind does not need the psycho-physical activities not towithdraw its living force to gain if it can evade those other on-going psycho-physicalactivities. Thus, the existence of psychological laws is not denied or those reduced to

physical, it is alleged, that the laws of the course of mental and physical activitiesrelated equally closely, as both relate themselves, and this has nothing strange, but theopposite would be disconcerting.

Depending on the Nexus, where are the parts, some can only in a certain connexionor a certain sequence at all, and some easier in this than come into operation in that,and some activities at all only, or light through a given context of parts are asaccomplished through individual, a principle that comes with the previous extent inconflict, as the distribution of kinetic energy between the cooperating to action partsthen from one side of the performance of individual weakens, which the connection

from the other side only possible makes or supports. Through the consideration ofthis principle, a lot of apparent contradictions explain

elements the psychophysics-01-english-gustav theodor fechner

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