wet mass production of algal bio-diesel

Wet Mass Production Of Algal Bio-Diesel

B.V.Bhoomaraddi College Of Engg & Tech -CTE Capstone Project

Table of Contents

1. Company profile…………………………………………....2

2. Acknowledgement………………………………………….3

3. Abstract…………………………………………………….4

4. Introduction………………………………………………...5

5. Algae Culture Systems……………………………………..8

6. Integrated Biodiesel production From Algae………………9

7. Algae Biodiesel Opportunities In India…………………….11

8. Executive Summary……………………………………… 12

9. Business Model…………………………………………….14

10. Funding…………………………………………….…17

11. Marketing…………………………………………….17

12. Rupee Analysis……………………………………….21

13. ROI Analysis…………………………………………22

14. Technology…………………………………………...24

15. Engine Testing……………………………………......34

16. Engine Testing Conclusions…………………………..39

17. Engine Testing Results………………………………..45

18. Calculation Of Parameters…………………………….45

19. Overall Conclusion……………………………………48

20. Human Resource………………………………………49

21. Future Work……………………………………………49

22. Photos…………………………………………………. 50

23. References……………………………………………...55



List Of Tables

1. Funding………………………………………………………………..17

2. Engine Specifications………………………………………………….34

3. Result & Comparision…………………………………………………40

4. Engine Testing Results………………………………………………...45

List Of Figures

1. Integrated Biodiesel Production From Algae………………………….9

2. Break Even Analysis Chart……………………………………………21

3. Process Flow Chart……………………………………………………26

4. Nano Particle Characterization………………………………………..32

5. Effect Of Catalysts…………………………………………………….33

6. Sensitivity Analysis Of Water…………………………………………34

7. Comparisons Graph……………………………………………………41

8. Data Acquisition……………………………………………………….46



GrnTech Fuels

pvt Ltd

NITISH KUMAR : Managing Director

SANDEEP SHANTHARAM : Scientist



ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This is to show our gratitude towards all those who helped and guided us for the

successful completion of our CTE capstone projectproject.

It has been our fortune to be associated with Prof.Nitin Kulkarni., Director of CTE.

As our project guide we express our sincere gratitude to Prof,V.S.Hombalimat for

his motivation, inspiration, guidance, constructive criticism and support during the

present work. His words of encouragement and unconditional dedication will

always be cherished.

We are thankful to our HOD L.R.Patil., who assisted us in handling the equipment

and leading our project to success.

We also are extremely thankful to our principal and vice principal for providing

such a wonderful CTE platform for a carving career.



Abstract

In context of climatic changes and soaring prices per barrel of petroleum,

renewable carbon neutral, transport fuels are needed to displace petroleum derived

transport fuel, which contribute to global warming and are of limited availability.

Biodiesel derived from oil crop is a potential renewable and carbon neutral

alternative to petroleum fuel. Unfortunately, biodiesel from oil crop, waste cooking

oil and animal fat cannot realistically satisfy even a small fraction of the existing

demand for transport fuel. As demonstrated here, biodiesel from microalgae seem

to be the most promising renewable biofuel that has the potential to completely

displace petroleum-derived transport fuel without adversely affecting supply of

food and other crops products. Like plants, microalgae use sunlight to produce oil

but they do so more efficiently than crop plants. Oil productivity of many

microalgae greatly exceeds the oil productivity of the best producing oil crops. The

present review covers the approach for making algal biodiesel more economically

and competitive with petrodiesel.



INTRODUCTION

Algae have recently received a lot of attention as a new biomass source for the

production of renewable energy. Some of the main characteristics which set algae

apart from other biomass sources are that algae (can) have a high biomass yield per

unit of light and area, can have a high oil or starch content, do not require

agricultural land, fresh water is not essential and nutrients can be supplied by

waste-water and CO2 by combustion gas.The first distinction that needs to be

made is between macroalgae (or seaweed) versus microalgae. Microalgae have

many different species with widely varying compositions and live as single cells or

colonies without any specialization. Although this makes their cultivation easier

and more controllable, their small size makes subsequent harvesting more

complicated. Macroalgae are less versatile, there are far fewer options of species to

cultivate and there is only one main viable technology for producing renewable

energy: anaerobic digestion to produce biogas. Both groups will be considered in

this report, but as there is more research, practical experience, culture and there are

more fuel options from microalgae, these will have a bigger share in the report.

First, existing biofuel sustainability standards are analysed for applicability,

followed by a thorough analysis of the opportunities and risks of ABB

sustainability. Secondly, sustainability is discussed in the context of potential and

threats for developing countries.Microalgae comprise a vast group of

photosynthetic, auto/heterotrophic organism which has an extraordinary potential

for cultivation as energy crops. These microscopic algae use photosynthetic

process similar to that of higher-developed plants. They are veritable miniature

biochemical factories, capable of regulating carbon dioxide(CO ), just like

terrestrial plants .In addition, these micro-organisms are useful in bioremediation

applications and as nitrogen fixing biofertilizers.This review article discusses the

potential of microalgae for sustainably providing biodiesel for the displacement of

petroleum derived transport fuels in India. The need of energy is increasing

continuously, because of increase in industrialization as well as human population.

The basic sources of this energy are petroleum, natural gas, coal, hydro and nuclear

.The major disadvantage of using petroleum based fuel is atmospheric pollution.

Petroleum diesel combustion is a major source of greenhouse gases (GHG). Apart

from these emissions, petroleum diesel combustion is also major source of other air



contaminants including NOx, SOx, CO, particulate matter and volatile organic

compounds which are adversely affecting the environment and causing air

pollution. These environmental problems can be eliminated by replacing the

petroleum diesel fuel with an efficient renewable and sustainable biofuel. Algal

biomass is one of the emerging sources of sustainable energy. The large-scale

introduction of biomass could contribute to sustainable development on several

fronts, environmentally, socially and economically .The biodiesel generated from

biomass is a mixture of mono-alkyl ester, which currently obtained from

transesterification of triglycerides and monohydric alcohols produced from various

plant and animal oils. But this trend is changing as several companies are

attempting to generate large scale algal biomass for commercial production of algal

biodiesel.

Biodiesel is non-toxic and biodegradable alternative fuel that is obtained from non-

renewable sources. In many countries, biodiesel is produced mainly from

soybeans. Other sources of commercial biodiesel include canola oil, animal fat,

palm oil, corn oil, waste cooking oil. But the recent research has proved that oil

production from microalgae is clearly superior to that of terrestrial plants such as

palm, rapeseed, soybeans or jatropha . Important advantage of microalgae is that,

unlike other oil crops, they can double their biomass within 24 hr. the biomass

doubling time for microalgae during exponential growth can be as short as 3 to 4

hr, which is significantly quicker than the doubling time for oil crops .It is for this

reason microalgae are capable of synthesizing more oil per acre than the terrestrial

plants which are currently used for the fabrication of biofuels. In the production of

energy from micro algal biomass, two basic approaches are employed depending

on the particular organism and the hydro-carbon which they produce. The first is

simply the biological conversion of nutrients into lipids or hydrocarbons. The

second procedure entails the thermo-chemical liquefaction of algal biomass into

lipid or hydrocarbons. Lipids and hydrocarbons can normally be found throughout

the micro algal biomass. They occur as membrane components, storage products,

metabolites and sources of energy for microalgae. Algal strains, diatoms, and

cyanobacteria (categorized collectively as microalgae) have been found to contain

proportionally high level of lipid (over 30%). These microalgal strains with high

lipid content are of great interest in search for sustainable feedstock for production

of biodiesel. The global economy literally runs on energy. An economic growth

combined with a rising population has led to a steady increase in the global energy

demands. If the governments around the world stick to current policies, the world



will need almost 60% more energy in 2030 than today, of this 45% will be

accounted by China and India together. Transportation is one of the fastest growing

sectors using 27% of the primary energy .The continued use of fossil fuels is not

sustainable, as they are finite resources , and their combustion will lead to

increased energy-related emissions of green house gases (GHG) viz., carbon

dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx). The future

reductions in the ecological footprint of energy generation will reside in a multi-

faceted approach that includes nuclear, solar, hydrogen, wind, and fossil fuels

(from which carbon is sequestered), and biofuels .Biofuel can be broadly defined

as solid, liquid, or gas fuel consisting of, or derived from biomass. Rudolph Diesel

first demonstrated the use of biodiesel from a variety of crops in 1900. However,

the widespread availability of inexpensive petroleum during the 20th century

determined otherwise. Generally, shifting society’s dependence away from

petroleum to renewable biomass contributes to the development of sustainable

industrial society and effective management of GHG . A major criticism often

leveled against biomass, particularly against large-scale fuel production, is that it

will consume vast swaths of farmland and native habitats, drive up food prices, and

result in little reduction in GHG emissions. However, this so-called “food versus

fuel” controversy appears to have been exaggerated in many cases. Credible

studies show that with plausible technology developments, biofuels could supply

some 30% of global demand in an environmentally responsible manner without

affecting food production. At the moment, only biodiesel and bioethanol are

produced on an industrial scale. They are the petroleum replacement for internal

combustion engines, and are derived from food crops such as sugarcane, sugar

beet, maize (corn), sorghum and wheat, although other forms of biomass can be

used, and may be preferable. The most significant concern is the inefficiency and

sustainability of these first generation biofuels. In contrast, the second generation

biofuels are derived from non-food feedstock. They are extracted from microalgae

and other microbial sources, ligno-cellulosic biomass, rice straw and bio-ethers,

and are a better option for addressing the food and energy security and

environmental concerns. Microalgae, use a photosynthetic process similar to higher

plants and can complete an entire growing cycle every few days. In fact, the

biomass doubling time for microalgae during exponential growth can be as short as

3.5h. Some microalgae grow heterotrophically on organic carbon source. However,

heterotrophic production is not efficient as using photosynthetic microalgae,

because the renewable organic carbon source required is ultimately produced by

photosynthetic crop plants. Microalgae are veritable miniature biochemical



factories, and appear more photosynthetically efficient than terrestrial plants and

are efficient CO2 fixers . The ability of algae to fix CO2 has been proposed as a

method of removing CO2 from flue gases from power plants, and thus can be

used to reduce emission of GHG. Many algae are exceedingly rich in oil, which

can be converted to biodiesel. The oil content of some microalgae exceeds 80% of

dry weight of algae biomass . The net annual harvest of algal biomass cultivated in

subtropical areas can be as high as 40 tons ha-1(dry matter), even higher if CO2 is

supplied . It is possible to produce about 100 g m-2 d-1 of algal dry matter in

simple cultivation systems .In theory, high oil content algae could produce almost

100 times of soybean per unit area of land [19]. The calculations made by Chisti

clearly demonstrate the strong scenario for microalgal biofuels. The use of algae as

energy crops has potential, due to their easy adaptability to growth conditions, the

possibility of growing either in fresh- or marine waters and avoiding the use of

land. Furthermore, two thirds of earth’s surface is covered with water, thus algae

would truly be renewable option of great potential for global energy needs. This

paper aims to analyze and promote integration approaches for sustainable

microalgal biodiesel production, with engine compatibility based on ASTM

standards.

Algae culture systems

Culture systems are very different between macroalgae (seaweed) and microalgae.

Because of their small (μm) size, microalgae have to be cultivated in a system

designed for that purpose (placed on land or floating on water), while seaweed can

be grown directly in the open sea. The first mention of seaweed culture dates back

to 1690, in Japan (Tamura in Buck and Buchholz, 2004). Japan and China are still

the main producers of cultured seaweed. Seaweed is mainly used as a food product,

either eaten directly, or used in many processed foods as stabilizers or emulsifiers.

Besides culturing seaweed, part of the current seaweed production comes from

harvesting natural populations or collecting beach-cast seaweed. Besides the

disturbance of the ecosystem by these practices, they are clearly unsustainable for

application on a very large scale. Therefore growing macroalgae in a dedicated

cultivation system is worth considering. For microalgae, the development of

dedicated culture systems only started in the 1950s when algae were investigated

as an alternative protein source for the increasing world population. Later, algae

were researched for the interesting compounds they produce, to convert CO2 to O2



during space travel and for remediation of wastewater. The energy crisis in the

1970s initiated the research on algae as a source of renewable energy. For algae to

grow, a few relatively simple conditions have to be met: light, carbon source,

water, nutrients and a suitably controlled temperature. Many different culture

systems that meet these requirements have been developed over the years,

however, meeting these conditions for scaled systems is difficult. One important

prerequisite to grow algae commercially for energy production is the need for

largescale systems which can range from very simple open air systems on- or

offshore which expose the algae to the environment, to highly controllable,

optimized but more expensive closed systems. The necessary technology for

developing profitable algae-based fuel generation is still in various states of

development and the final configuration is yet to be determined and demonstrated

at the industrial scale.

Integrated Biodiesel Production for Microalgae



The key for large scale production of biofuels is to grow suitable biomass species

in an integrated biomass production conversion system (IBPCS) at costs that

enable the overall system to be operated at a profit. The illustration in Figure 1 is a

conceptual model for integrated biomass production [17] that can be adopted for

microalgal biodiesel production. The design of an IBPCS requires the combination

and optimization of several factors such as biomass culture, growth management,

transport to conversion plants, drying, product separation, recycling, waste (liquid

and solid) management, transport of saleable products and marketing. These

factors can be simplified and reduced to three main groups; culturing of

microalgae, harvesting and processing of biomass. In the idealized case, the

conversion plants are located in or near the biomass growth areas to minimize the

cost of transporting biomass to the plants, of which all the non fuel effluents are

recycled to the growth areas as demonstrated in Figure. The growth can be

implemented in a microalgal farm. It would be equivalent to an isolated system

with inputs of sunlight, air, CO2, and water. Nutrients are replenished based on

their status in the growth media and the environmental controls and waste disposal

problems are minimized.

Approximately, half of the dry weight of microalgal biomass is carbon [21], which

is typically derived from CO2. Thus, producing 1 kg of algal biomass fixes 1.6 –

1.8 kg of CO2.The CO2 must be fed continuously during daylight hours. Thus, an

algae farm can be located adjacent to a power plant for utilizing CO2 from the

combustion process [17, 19, 22]. In such a circumstance, management of other

gaseous emissions and wastewater by algal culture is also possible. It is because

algae can remove effectively nitrogen, phosphorus, and heavy metals such as As,

Cd, and Cr from aqueous Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2008, 9 1191solutions [19, 23]. Since

emission control and wastewater management are costly and technically

demanding, the use of wastewater as a source of nutrients for algae production,

coupled with wastewater treatment are added environmental and economic

benefits. The algal biomass produced needs to be further processed to recover the

biomass. A problem associated with algal biomass is the relatively high water

content. It normally requires pre-treatments to reduce the water content and

increase the energy density. This requirement consequently increases the energy

cost. However, direct hydrothermal liquefaction in sub-critical water conditions

can be employed to convert the wet biomass to liquid fuel without reducing the

water content. Overall, by adopting integration approaches, such as wastewater

treatment, nutrients and heavy metals recovery by algae culture, whereby



additional economic benefits are created the obstacle of high cost of biodiesel

production from algae may be overcome.

Algal Biodiesel Opportunities In INDIA

India is a rapidly expanding country in terms of both its population and its

economy. According to CIA (Central intelligence agency) Fact book, India's

current population is about 1,166,079,217 (Till July 2009). Although India

occupies only 2.4% of the world's land area, it supports over 15% of the world's

population. Demographics indicate the population will grow because almost 40%

of Indians are younger than 15 years of age and are likely to produce offspring. By

2050, United Nations' demographer's project that India will have added another

530 million people for a total of more than 1.5 billion. If India continues on its

projected demographic path, it will overtake China by 2045, becoming the world's

most populous country. Economic growth in India, as in many developing and

developed countries, is currently correlated with increased energy consumption.

The environmental issues often discussed in public policy debates in India arise

because of two factors, the sectors responsible for energy use and where economic

development is happening.

Although a large proportion of Indians (approximately 70%) live in 550,000 rural

villages, urbanization levels have increased consistently since 1971. Many Indians

have began congregating in large cities as evidenced by the fact that cities with at

least a million people increased from 12 in 1981 to 23 in giant conglomerates

Mumbai (12.57 million), Calcutta (10.92 million), Delhi (8.38 million), Chennai

(5.36 million) and Bangalore (4.09 million) [56]. In Delhi this has increased the

number of registered vehicles to increase from 841,000 in 1985 to over 3.5 million

in 2001 [57]. As the consequence of India's rapid economic growth there is severe

increase in air and water pollution, deforestation, water shortages, and carbon

emissions. The country's carbon emission is also rising due to rapid

industrialization, transportation sector growth, and the wide-spread use of coal as a

fuel. Due to this large amount of urbanization and industrialization there is sudden

rise in utilization of nonrenewable energy sources, which can cause large amount

scarcity of these fuels in future. So to prevent such conditions there is an urgent

need for alternative sources of energy. According to current research, microalgae

seem to be the promising renewable source of energy for India.



Petroleum diesel fuel has been sold at government subsidized rates in India to keep

the transport costs low and increase GDP. Currently, a liter of gasoline normally

costs 2.5 times more than a liter of diesel fuel. Taking advantage of this cost

differential, Indian car manufacturers have been investing heavily in the production

of diesel vehicles. As such, there are a substantial number of vehicles on the road

that demand diesel and would not require the relatively expensive retrofits needed

to use Compressed Natural Gas (CNG). The final factor making biodiesel

production in India attractive is the potential to cultivate cheap feedstocks. India's

tropical climate is conducive to grow various species of micro-algae, which serves

as natural benefit over other countries for the production of algal biodiesel. The

micro-algae produced sufficient quantity of biodiesel to completely replace

petroleum. While traditional high oil crops, such palm can produce 2000 to 2500

liter of biodiesel per acre, algae can yield 19,000-57,000 liter per acre. So the

adoption of large-scale biodiesel production and consumption can potentially

lowers India's dependence on foreign countries for oil and helps improve air

quality in major cities like Delhi, Kolkatta, Bengaluru, Chennai, reclaims unusable

wastelands, employs unemployed Indians, and keeps the country's economy on

track for its planned 8 to 10% annual GDP growth according to 11 five year plan

of India.

Executive Summary

Biodiesel is a growing buzz word in the energy market. Discussion about the

current state of energy production and availability has led to government

restrictions and customer awareness of bad practices. Recent studies have shown

that acre for acre, algae is the most efficient source of lipids for the production of

biodiesel. Growing concern over CO2 emissions has led to an increase in

awareness of harmful greenhouse gases in plant effluent streams. Many solutions

have been devised to remedy this problem. However, many of these carbon capture

and sequestration methods are too expensive. Thus, we have developed a cost

effective and sustainable solution. Utilizing an algae photobioreactor, the carbon

dioxide can be captured and converted into oxygen and algal biomass. This

biomass can then be converted into a useful biodiesel using a process that we have

developed. Not only our photobioreactor eliminate the carbon dioxide , it can also

quickly pay for itself from the valuable biomass produced. Pending legislature for

more stringent regulation on CO2 emissions will bring about a strong demand for

cost effective carbon capture and sequestration techniques. We will be ready to



penetrate the market early and develop relationships with major chemical and

energy companies. Additionally, we will develop solutions for smaller companies

with diesel utility units. We will be able to adapt our design to nearly any

application and therefore service both large and small companies producing. We

will require initial startup capital. This will cover cost for research and

optimization of our biodiesel production process. Additionally, this capital will

allow us to begin several smaller scale installations at local power and energy

companies who are interested in reducing CO2 and reaping the rewards of

biodiesel production.

Need

In the near future, in or around 2020 the fossil fuels are going to be depleted, so we

are striving to provide an alternate solution to it.

International price hike

Fuel crisis

Environmental pollution

Power source for industry

Value Proposition

Our project aims at production of the good quality biodiesel from algae (as a

source). The process is as follows-

A. Cultivation

B. Harvesting

C. Oil extraction

D. Trans-esterification

Our product is Eco-friendly

Economic



It is accessible by all strata of the society

Business Model

Revenue is generated by direct selling of our product and the by-product

with minor modifications.

We price our product based on 20% margin of the manufacturing cost.

Sales Strategy



Advertising – a mass media approach to promotion

Outdoor

Business directories

Magazines / newspapers

TV / cinema

Radio

Newsagent windows

Public relations - using the press to your advantage

Press launches

PR events

Press releases

Direct marketing - taking the message directly to the consumer

Mail order catalogues

Bulk mail

Personalized letters

Email

Telemarketing

Point of sale displays

Packaging design

Digital marketing – new channels are emerging constantly

Company websites

Social media applications such as Face book or Twitter

Blogging

Mobile phone promotions using technology such as Bluetooth

YouTube



E-commerce

Funding requirements:

Serial

No. Item Amount (Rs)

01 Aquarium 6000/-

02 Accessories 2000/-

03 Pump 1000/-

04 Reagents and Contingency 3500/-

05 Miscellaneous 2500/-

TOTAL 15,000/-

Marketing:

Marketing collateral is considered as the collection of media used to support the

sales of product or service. In our case there is no marketing needed as we are

going to tie up with any of the fuel industry and it addresses the worldwide

problem of fuel crisis.

In case if marketing collateral is to be done it will be done as follows:

Sales brochures and other printed product information.

Visual aid used in sales presentation.

Web content.

Sales scripts.

Demonstration scripts.

Product datasheets.

Business cards.

Complimentary packing slips.

E-marketing.



Business Card



Competitors

Petroleum & Diesel units

Small scale biodiesel production units

Hybrid automotive sectors

Electric vehicle production units

Competitive Analysis

Despite having strong competitors, we still have great potential to be successful as

the market for this product is growing rapidly. It will be impossible for one single

organization to control the entire market because of its vast size. Besides that

Uniqueness

This product provides unique value due to the design for use. This directs the use

of algae based biodiesel production to a new market. Additional tailoring to the

individual customer provides a solution specific to the needs of specific power

generation facilities. This freedom provides a much broader range of applicability

and the ability to expand from just a single design to a design that is workable for a

variety of other sites and power plants.

Abundance of raw materials

Low price value

Eco-friendly

Renewability



Rupee Analysis:

Approximate breakeven point (calculated in INR):

For calculation using formula method

Sale prize per unit = Variable expenses + Fixed expenses + Profit

79(x) = 2.5(x) +2700000+0 [profit till breakeven point is taken as 0 INR]

x= 35295 units. [Where x*= Number (Quantity) of units sold.]

Total cost/ Revenue= 2788305

Total variable cost= 88237.5

Average cost per unit= 79

[Note: sample space is for 2000 ltrs in lab scale, hence during scale up the cost will

be reduced up to Rs.45]



Graph of Cost v/s sales

Calculation of return of investment (ROI) and payback period (PP)

The following formulas are used to calculated ROI and PP:

ROI =[Annual gross profit/Capital investment]x 100%

where

Annual gross profit = Annual production income -TAC

and



Payback period = Fixed capital investment/(Annual after-tax cash flow)

where

Annual after tax cash flow =Annual income-Annual operating cost- Tax

+Tax credit

Fixed Capital Investment = 3000000/-

Operating Cost = 88237/-

Break Even Point = 35295litres

Sales Target = 2000litres/month

After the end of two years

Profit = [48000-35295]x79

= 1003695rs

Tax to Biodiesel = 10%

Tax Credits = 0

1. Annual Gross Profit = 903325.5rs

2. ROI = 30.11%

3. Annual TAC = 724755.95rs

4. Pay Back Period = 4.13years



Technology

Strains used- Nanochloropsis Occulatta

Chlorella pyrenoidosa

Scenedesmus

Production of Microalgal Biomass

The production of microalgal biodiesel requires large quantities of algal biomass.

Most of algal species are obligate phototrophs and thus require light for their

growth. Several cultivation technologies that are used for production microalgal

biomass have been developed by researchers and commercial producers. The

phototropic microalgae are most commonly grown in open ponds and

photobioreactors. The open pond cultures are economically more favorable, but

raise the issues of land use cost, water availability, and appropriate climatic

conditions. Further, there is the problem of contamination by fungi, bacteria and

protozoa and competition by other microalgae. Photobioreactors offer a closed

culture environment, which is protected from direct fallout, relatively safe from

invading microorganisms, where temperatures are controlled with an enhanced

CO2 fixation that is bubbled through culture medium. This technology is relatively

expensive compared to the open ponds because of the infrastructure costs. An ideal

biomass production system should use the freely available sunlight. It is reported

the best annual averaged productivity of open ponds was about 24 g-1 dry weight

m-2 d-1. A productivity of 100 g-1 dry weight m-2 d-1 was achieved in simple 300

l culture systems. This level has been viewed as deriving from the light saturation

effect. The light requirement coupled with high extinction coefficient of

chlorophyll in algae has necessitated the design and development of novel system

for large scale growth. Experiments have also elucidated that algal biomass

production can be boosted by the flashing light effect, namely by better matching

photon input rate to the limiting steps of photosynthesis. Indeed, the best annual

averaged productivity has been achieved in closed bioreactors. Tridici has



reviewed mass production in photobioreactors. Many different designs of

photobioreactor have been developed, but a tubular photobioreactor seems to be

most satisfactory for producing algal biomass on the scale needed for biofuel

production. Closed, controlled, indoor algal photobioreactors driven by artificial

light are already economical for special high-value products such as

pharmaceuticals, which can be combined with production of biodiesel to reduce

the cost.

THE OVERALL PROCESS FLOW CHART



Direct Liquefaction of Algae for Biodiesel Production

The microalgal biomass has relatively high water content (80-90%) and this is

major bottleneck for usage in energy supply. As most other virgin biomass, the

high water content and inferior heat content Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2008, 9 1192

makes the microalgal biomass difficult to be used for heat and power generation.

Thus necessitating pre-treatments to reduce water content and increase the energy

density. As consequence the energy cost increases and makes the alternative less

economically attractive. Direct hydrothermal liquefaction in sub-critical water

conditions is a technology that can be employed to convert wet biomass material to

liquid fuel. This technology is believed to mimic the natural geological processes

thought to be involved in the formation of fossil fuel, but in the time scale of hours

or even minutes. A number of technical terminologies have been used in the

literature to refer to this technology, but it essentially utilize the high activity of

water in sub-critical conditions in order to decompose biomass materials down to

shorter and smaller molecular materials with a higher energy density or more

valuable chemicals. Goudriaan et al. [32] claim the thermal efficiency (defined as

the ratio of heating values of bio-crude products and feedstock plus external heat

input) for the hydrothermal upgrading process (HTU®) of biomass of a 10 kg dry

weight h-1 pilot plant is as high as 75%. The main product of the process is bio-

crude accounting for 45% wt. of the feedstock on dry ash free basis, with a lower

heating value of 30-35 MJ kg-1, which is compatible with fossil diesel and can be

upgraded further. As moist biomass can be easily heated by microwave power, a

process similar to the HTU® process using a novel microwave high-pressure

(MHP) reactor has been developed in order to further minimize the energy

consumption of the process. In addition, integrated utilization of high temperature

and high pressure conditions in the process of hydrothermal liquefaction of wet

biomass would significantly improve the overall thermal efficiency of the process.

Suitable systems for such utilization are an internal heat exchanger network, or a

combined heat and power (CHP) plant. A thermodynamic study, for example, has

been performed to calculate the energy efficiency of the HTU process on the basis

an integrated heat exchanger network. Past research in the use of hydrothermal

technology for direct liquefaction of biomass was very active. Only a few of them,

however, used algal biomass as feedstock for the technology. Minowa etal. [35]

report an oil yield of about 37% (organic basis) by direct hydrothermal liquefaction

at around 300°C and 10 MPa from Dunaliella tertiolecta with a moisture content

of 78.4 wt%. The oil obtained at a reaction temperature of 340°C and holding time



of 60 min had a viscosity of 150–330 mPas and a calorific value of 36 kJ g−1,

comparable to those of fuel oil. The liquefaction technique was concluded

to be a net energy producer from the energy balance. In a similar study on oil

recovery from Botryococcus braunii, a maximum yield 64% dry wt. basis of oil

was obtained by liquefaction at 300°C catalyzed by sodium carbonate [23]. Also,

Aresta et al. [36-37] have compared different conversion techniques viz.,

supercritical CO2, organic solvent extraction, pyrolysis, and hydrothermal

technology for production of microalgal biodiesel. The hydrothermal liquefaction

technique was more effective for extraction of microalgal biodiesel than using the

supercritical carbon dioxide. From these two studies, it is reasonable to believe

that, among the selected techniques, the hydrothermal liquefaction is the most

effective technological option for production of bio-diesel from algae.

Nevertheless, due to the level of limited information in the hydrothermal

liquefaction of algae, more research in this area would be needed.

Cultivation

Biodiesel is an attractive fuel for diesel engines that it can be made from any

vegetable oil (edible or non edible oils), used cooking oils, animal fats as well as

microalgae oils. It is a clean energy, renewable, non toxic and sustainable

alternative to petroleum based fuels, and it is able to reduce toxic emissions when

is burned in a diesel engine. The interest of this alternative energy resource is that

fatty ester acids, known as biodiesel, have similar characteristics of petro-diesel oil

which allows its use in compression motors without any engine modification.

We cultivated the algae in the shake flask as if it is under the submerged

fermentation phase. We used the F2 medium for the cultivation of these algae.



Methodology

We prepared 100ml of the F2 media and autoclaved it to avoid the

contamination.

We inoculated the pre-inoculum of the algae into two different flasks.

Further we kept it on the shaker @161rpm with the proper availability of

the sunlight.

The media with the culture was allowed to grow for the period of 15days .

Once the growth is dense we scaled it up to 500ml flask with the same

parameters.

The OD 0f 0.56 to 0.65 confirms the growth of algae.

Harvesting & Lipid Extraction

This is the very important step in the biodiesel production because it is the process

that help in obtaining the dense lipid content &it has to be done at right time. We

extracted the lipids from the biomass using the soxhlet extraction method.

Methodology

The sample was homogenized and weighed accurately.

Mix the sample with anhydrous sodium sulphate with a 4:1ratio.

Take 150ml of hexane in the erlynmeir flask.

Set up the apparatus.

Start boiling the mixture at the boiling point of hexane and use the boiling

chips.

Finally the excess water is evaporated and the lipid is obtained.

Lipid Analysis

Once the lipid was obtained we used the Folch protocol to estimate the lipid

content.

A 15-ml glass vial containing algal biomass, 2 ml methanol, and 1 ml chloroform

were added and kept for 24 h at 25°C. The mixture was agitated in a vortex for 2



min. One milliliter of chloroform was again added and the mixture was shaken

vigorously for 1 min. After, 1.8 ml of distilled water was added and the mixture

was mixed in a vortex again for 2 min. The layers were separated by centrifugation

for 10 min at 2,000 rpm. The lower layer was filtered through Whatman No. 1

filter paper into a previously weighed clean vial (W1). Evaporation was carried on

in a water bath and the residue was further dried at 104°C for 30 min. The weight

of the vial was again recorded (W2). Lipid content was calculated by subtracting

W1 from W2,and was expressed as % dcw. At the end of the experiment we got

the lipid content to be 6.3g/250ml which tallies with the standard i.e, 33g/ltr.

Oil Production

Trans-esterification refers to the reaction of an ester group with an alcohol that has

a structure different to that of the original alcohol moiety of the ester, such that a

new ester group is formed in which the original alcohol moiety is exchanged with

that of the reacting alcohol. In the case of the trans-esterification of triglycerides of

fatty acids (vegetable oils) with methanol (classical biodiesel production process),

the three ester groups of a triglyceride molecule in which three fatty acid moieties

are attached to a single alcohol moiety (i.e. that of glycerol) react with three

molecules of methanol to yield three molecules of esters each containing single

fatty acid and methanol moieties and one molecule of glycerol (Scheme 1).

Therefore, the general chemical name of biodiesel produced by the trans-

esterification of vegetable oils is fatty acid methyl esters (i.e. FAME biodiesel).

Methodology

Sodium /potassium methoxide is prepared freshly by pre-determining the

quantity of NaOH/KOH usually 1% of the weight.

The lipid and the alkoxide is mixed in a flask with the continuous stirring at

a temperature of 65-75degree celcius.

After the completion of the reaction it is carefully transferred to a separating

funnel to stand over-night.

Then the oil is drained and collected in flask for FA.



Nano-Particle Synthesis

Initialy 1M of Zinc chloride solution is prepared

Then 0.4M of NaOH solution is prepared

Next the Zinc chloride solution is poured into the burette and it is added

slowly to the NaOH solution in the beaker

As it is added slowly drop by drop the cloud thick cottony mass is formed

Separate the mass from the solution by simple filtration

Then dry the mass in Hot air owen for half an hour

It produces the white crystals

Then calcinate the crystals at 700 degree for 20minutes thus obtaining the

nano particles



NANO PARTICLE CHARACTERIZATION

Effect of Catalysts



Sensitivity Analysis Of Water Washing



In order to decrease the amount of NaOH and HCl in the product stream, water

washing is used along with adiabatic decantation. To determine the amount of

water to be used, a sensitivity analysis is needed to evaluate the impact of the

amount of water used on the remaining impurities. The result of the sensitivity

analysis is plotted for scenario as shown in Figure. In this figure, it can be seen that

the amount of NaOH and HCl in the biodiesel stream decreases significantly as the

amount of water used in the washing process increases. However, after it reaches

300 mol of water, the catalyst amount removed from the biodiesel stream becomes

less significant. Therefore, 300 mol ofwater is considered to be the practical

amount of waterneeded for the washing process.

ENGINE TESTING

Type TVL vertical 4 stroke cycle, single

cylinder, high speed, CI Engine

Serial Number 234/172

BHP 5.2

RPM 1500

Method of starting Manual crank start

Compression ratio 17.5:1

Coolant Water

Stroke 110mm

Bore 875mm

Governor type Mechanical Centrifugl type

Injection time 19/23/27

Injector 3hole of 0.3mm dia

Injection pressure 230bar/2601

Nozzle opening pressure 200-205bar

In IC engine, the thermal energy is released by burning the fuel in the engine

cylinder. The combustion of fuel in IC engine is quite fast but the time needed to

get a proper air/fuel mixture depends mainly on the nature of fuel and the method



of its introduction into the combustion chamber. The combustion process in the

cylinder should take as little time as possible with the release of maximum heat

energy during the period of operation. Longer operation results in the formation of

deposits which in combination with other combustion products may cause

excessive wear and corrosion of cylinder, piston and piston rings. The combustion

product should not be toxic when exhausted to the atmosphere. These requirements

can be satisfied using a number of liquid and gaseous fuels. The biodiesel from non

edible sources like Jatropha, Pongamia, Algae etc meets the above engine

performance requirement and therefore can offer perfect viable alternative to diesel

oil.

Test Plan

When this project was begun, the original plan was to be operational mid-way

through the second academic term so that long term reliability testing could be

done. Throughout the term, construction in and around CEME 1115D (the engine

lab) and scheduling difficulties with the MECH 302 engine testing laboratory

prevented operations. The Superflow 901 dynamometer has the ability to measure

many different performance evaluation criteria on an engine. The performance data

can either be read manually from the control console, or with a data acquisition

system and computer. Due to time constraints and problems with the data

acquisition system, readings were taken by hand using the control console.

Measurements taken in this experiment were engine speed, torque output, power

output and airflow. These can all be read off of the control console. Also, average

fuel consumption was measured by weighing the fuel on a digital readout scale

before and after extended tests.

Pre-Test Procedures

Before testing, a variety of checks and tasks must be carried out. The engine

should be inspected visually for any problems, and the dynamometer should be

thoroughly checked for proper operation. Additionally, the engine should be

properly warmed up prior to tests for two reasons.



First, the engine can be damaged if run under high loads before reaching

proper operating temperature.

Second, torque, power, fuel flow and many other types of readings tend to

fluctuate depending on engine temperature. Once the engine reaches

operating temperature, the readings will be reliable.

Performance Characterization

For any long-term engine testing, it is necessary to evaluate performance

characteristics before testing period to establish a good baseline. Following long

term testing, the performance tests can be carried out again to ascertain whether

there has been a significant degradation in the condition of the engine due to the

use of a different fuel.

The Kubota performance characterization was carried out to simulate actual

operating conditions. This particular engine is designed to run at or near peak RPM

for entire working days under full load. Therefore, performance testing was done at

wide open throttle at a variety of loading conditions. Loading was simulated by

setting the dynamometer to servo-mode on the control panel. The servo function

essentially applies the load required to maintain the engine at the desired speed.

The Kubota will run as low as 800 RPM, but under full throttle operation, the

engine struggles if it is loaded this much. Also, the internal engine speed governor

is set around 3100 RPM, at which point the fuel supply is limited. As a result, at

the governed speed, the engine torque output drops significantly and the engine

will not rev any higher. The speed was varied in 100 – 200 RPM increments from

1600 to 3100 then back down to 1600 using the servo control dial. The speed was

varied by ramping up and then back down again to eliminate hysteresis in the

measurements. Torque, power, and airflow were recorded for each speed

increment. Graphs in the following section show the results of the performance

characterization tests for the three different fuels.



Fuel Consumption Measurements

These tests are done to evaluate any differences in fuel consumption when the

engine is running on the three different fuels. The data can also be used to evaluate

the thermal efficiencies of the engine when running on each type of fuel. The

consumption tests were done by filling the fuel tank with the test fuel then

weighing it with a digital scale accurate to 1 gram. The engine was then started and

run at wide open throttle and loaded to 2800 RPM using the servo function. It was

run for 40-60 minutes while recording torque, power, airflow, ambient temperature

in the lab and relative humidity in the lab every 10 minutes. Once the engine was

stopped, the fuel reservoir was weighed again to determine the total mass of fuel

consumed in the test. The data is used to determine brake specific fuel

consumption and thermal efficiency.

Reliability Testing

Reliability testing with B20 fuel is the primary objective in this experiment. Since

there was not sufficient time to carry out extended tests, this will have to be done

in the future. In total, about 7 hours of testing was done using B20 fuel. Additional

tests with regular diesel and neat biodiesel increased the total running time of the

engine to almost 10 hours. This does not meet the original project objective of

200+ hours of B20 testing, but is a good start for future work. The reliability

testing was done under the same conditions as the fuel consumption tests. The fuel

injector in cylinder #1 was inspected before and after the test work in order to

evaluate whether any deposits had accumulated.

Post-test Procedures

After full-load testing, the engine should be idled-down for at least 3 minutes in

order to stabilize the internal engine temperature. This can not always be done

when testing fuel consumption because the dynamometer measurements fluctuate

at low RPM. However, it should be done whenever possible to prolong the life of

the engine.



Data Acquisition

The performance characteristics were read manually from the dynamometer

console, which proved time consuming. Automatic data acquisition would greatly

improve the speed and accuracy of tests. Measurement of fuel flow rate is

especially important. The flow rates taken during these tests involved weighing the

fuel reservoir before and after a constant speed run. This method is time

consuming and prone to error. It also prevents flow measurement during

performance tests where the operation conditions are changing in time. In the

future, it would be beneficial to acquire a signal from the scale and record the mass

over time. This would allow the fuel flow rate to be easily synchronized with the

instantaneous operating conditions. Exhaust gas temperature acquisition is also

desirable. As discussed in the following section, an in-cylinder pressure transducer

would allow measurement of the ignition advance and peak cylinder pressure. It is

important to determine how these values change with fuel properties and exhaust

emissions. A shaft position encoder will also be required for this measurement.

Engine oil dilution

Studies have noted that engine lubricating oil tends to become diluted with fuel

more quickly when running biodiesel instead of diesel. Most manufacturers

recommend doubling the oil change frequency when using biodiesel. It was

planned to periodically test the viscosity of the engine oil over the course extended

operation. Again, time constraints prevented these long runtimes, so this should be

done in future tests. It has been suggested that the reason for this is related to the

larger fuel droplet size and incomplete burning of biodiesel. Remaining fuel may

find its way past the piston rings and into the oil pan. Biodiesel is also a better

solvent than diesel, so this may also play a role in the oil dilution rate. Regardless

of the cause, the dilution rate should be quantified.

Following conclusions are made from the results and observations.

» The bio-diesel is more eco friendly compare to Diesel.

» Bio-diesel is the substitue of Diesel



» Without any modification in Diesel Engine the Bio-diesel can be used as

fuel.

» The wear and tear on components is under limit.

» Bio-diesel is more suitable fuel for slow speed Diesel Engine compare to

high-speed Diesel Engine.

» Exhaust temperature is higher compare to diesel operation.

» Lubricant oil get early deteriorate compare to diesel due to the glycerin as

composition in bio-diesel.

» Specific fuel consumption is Higher (8 to 15%) comparing to diesel without

modification in Diesel Engine.

» To have more details study it is suggested to undergo the test as per IS-

10000 & 10001 of 1981/11700 of 1985 which consist of 512 hours test (32

cycle-16 hours per day).

» Bio-diesel can be better fuel for future, which is made from agriculture

product (Renewable Energy).

» Bio-Oil is also one of the alternative fuel can be use along with Diesel up to

20% without refines.

Results and comparison

Here we compare the bio-diesel characteristics data with the ASTM standards and

normal diesel standards.

Parameters ASTM standards Diesel Algal bio-diesel

Density 0.86-0.91g/cm3 0.85g/cm3 0.889g/cm3

Viscosity 1.9-6mm2/sec 2.6mm2/sec 4.97mm2/sec

pH value 4.6-6.4 - 5.6

Acid value 2.8-9.16mg.KoH/g 0.4mg.KoH/g 3.97mg.KoH/g

Saponification

value

125-

244.8mg.KoH/g

- 189.3mg.KoH/g



Flash point 127-221°c 75-110°c 179°c

Fire point >=150°c - 201°c

Molecular weight - - 933.45g

Iodine value <=125mg - 120mg



ENGINE TESTING RESULTS

Parameters Diesel B20 B40

BP 5.15kw 4.97kw 4.9kw

Torque 9425NM 3629.8NM 7259.4NM

Fuel consumption 0.000335kg/s 0.0003426kg/s 0.0004852

Kg/s

BTE 38.5% 32.47% 28.58%

Volumetric

Efficiency

88% 78% 80%

IP 8.5kw 7.57kw 7.7kw

FP 3.2kw 2.6kw 2.8ke

Mechanical

Efficiency

77.5%

65.7%

63.6%

HC 29.92ppm 21.47ppm 19.8ppm

CO 0.119% 0.102% 0.09%

CO2 4.18% 4.12% 3.79%

NOx 22.5ppm 32.56ppm 39.8ppm

BSFC 0.286 0.328 0.356

CALCULATIONS

1. Brake Power=2πNT/60000

2. Torque=FxRadius

3. Fuel Consumption=0.025xConstant(0.889)/Time for 25cc fuel

4. Brake Thermal Efficiency=BP/(mfxCV)

5. Volumetric Efficiency=Va/Vs

6. Vs=(π/r)xstrokexBorexRadius

7. Va=Cdx

8. IP=pmLAN/60

9. Mech=Bp/IP

10. FP=IP-BP



Engine Testing Online Software Data Aquisition-80% Load



Engine Testing Online Software Data Aquisition-100% Load



Conclusion

From the comparison we can say that all the test done and results obtained are in

the range defined by the ASTM standards. Hence algal bio-diesel can be

considered as a fuel and can be used in automobiles with minor

modifications.Current efforts and business investment are driving attention and

marketing efforts on the promises of producing algal biodiesel and superior

production systems. A large number of companies are claiming that they are at the

forefront of the technology and will be producing algal biodiesel economically

within the next few years. However most of these companies have limited

technical expertise and few have actually made biodiesel from algae. Producing

algal biodiesel requires large-scale cultivation and harvesting systems, with the

challenging of reducing the cost per unit area. At a large scale, the algal growth

conditions need to be carefully controlled and optimum nurturing environment

have to be provided. Such processes are most economical when combined with

sequestration of CO2 from flue gas emissions, with wastewater remediation

processes, and/or with the extraction of high value compounds for application in

other process industries. Current limitations to a more widespread utilization of

this feedstock for biodiesel production concern the optimization of the microalgae

harvesting, oil extraction processes, and supply of CO2 for a high efficiency of

microalgae production. Also, light, nutrients, temperature, turbulence, CO2 and O2

levels need to be adjusted carefully to provide optimum conditions for oil content

and biomass yield. It is therefore clear that a considerable investment in

technological development and technical expertise is still needed before algal

biodiesel is economically viable and can become a reality. This should be

accomplished together with strategic planning and political and economic support.

Further efforts on microalgae production should concentrate in reducing costs in

small-scale and large-scale systems. This can be achieved for example by using

cheap sources of CO2 for culture enrichment (e.g. from a flue gas), use of nutrient-

rich wastewaters, or inexpensive fertilizers, use of cheaper design culture systems

with automated process control and with fewer manual labor, use of greenhouses

and heated effluents to increase algal yields. Apart from saving costs of raw-

materials (nutrients and fresh water use), these measures will help to reduce GHG

emissions,waste amount, and the feed cost by using of nitrogen fertilizers.



Also, will raise the availability of microalgae biomass for different applications

(e.g. food, agriculture, medicine, and biofuels, among others) and will contribute to

the sustainability and market competitiveness of the microalgae industry.

Accomplished work

Successfully completed the characterization of the biodiesel based on ASTM

Standards

Over came the difficulty of the corrosion by Zinc oxide nano particles

Large scale production of bio diesel done successfully

Filter clogging effect is normal and often due to fuel shifting and when it

gets persisted automatically the problem disappears

Engine testing

Human Resource

Initially when we came to know about the CTE we were really excited to be a part

this event and now we are really proud of being a part of the CTE team. The team

building was the difficult task because to match the people with similar mind

frequency is a bitter job. But as the work got progressed even we adapted to the

changing environment and got exposed to the huge learning atmosphere and as a

engineering students we got to learn about the market search, segment and

managing skills. Right now there is no team conflicts and we hope to manage the

same throughout the entire phase of the project and again thanks to CTE for this

wonderful platform.

FUTURE WORK

We want to blend the algae oil with the ethanol to make it as the power diesel

called “ALGAENOL” to make it a better fuel and to increase all its efficiency and

performance so that it get converted to 4th

generation fuel.



Photos

Scenedesmus algal culture



Nano-Chloropsis Occulatta



Algal culture grown at shake flask level



Soxhlet Extraction



ALGAL BIO-DIESEL

Team with product



Guide with product

References

1. . Halim R, Michael KD, Paul AW (2012) Extraction of Oil from Microalgae

for Biodiesel Production: A Review. Biotechnol Adv 30: 709-732.

2. Vlysidis A, Michael B, Webb C, Theodoropoulos C (2011) A Techno-

Economic Analysis of Biodiesel Biorefineries: Assessment of Integrated

Designs for the Co-Production of Fuels and Chemicals. Energy 36: 4671-

4683.

3. . Liu J, Huang J, Fan KW, Jiang Y et al. (2010) Production Potential of

Chlorella Zofingienesis as a Feedstock for Biodiesel. Bioresource Technol

101: 8658–8663.



4. . Demirbas MF (2011) Biofuels From Algae for Sustainable Development.

Appl Energ, 88: 3473–3480.

5. . Janaun J, Ellis N (2010) Perspectives on Biodiesel as a Sustainable Fuel.

Renew Sust Energ Rev 14: 1312–1320.

6. . Pinzi S, Garcia IL, Lopez-Gimenez FJ, Luque de Castro MD et al. (2009)

The Ideal Vegetable Oil-Based Biodiesel Composition: a Review of Social,

Economical and Technical Implications. Energy Fuels 23: 25–41.

7. B. Baiju, M.K. Naik, L.M. Das, A comparative evaluation of compression

ignition engine characteristics using methyl and ethyl esters of Karanja oil,

,Renewable Energy 34 (2009) 1616-1621

8. J .Siddarth, “Performance Evaluation Of IC Engine Using Biodiesel from

different fuel sources “ M.Tech Dessertation June 2008 ,IIT Roorkee

9. G.Dwivedi “Performance Evaluation of DieselEngine Using Biodiesel from

Karanja Oil “M.Tech Dessertation June 2011,IITRoorkee

10. Gaurav Dwivedi, M.P.Sharma, Siddarth Jain, “Impact of biodiesel and its

blends with diesel and methanol on engine performance”, International

Journal of Energy and Science IJES Vol.1 No.2 2011 PP.105-109

11. Gaurav Dwivedi, M.P.Sharma, Siddarth Jain,” Pongamia as a source of

Biodiesel in India-A review”, Smart grid and Renewable Energy, Paper

Published (Vol. 2 No. 3) 2011

12. Gaurav Dwivedi, M.P.Sharma, Siddarth Jain,” Impact Analysis Of Biodiesel

On Engine Performance- A Review”, Renewable and Sustainable Energy

Review, Volume 15, Issue 9, December 2011, Pages 4633-4641

13. Sanchez, Miron. A., Ceron, Garcia. M. C., Contreras, Gomez. A., Garcia,

Camacho. F., Molina, Grima. E. and Chisti, Y. (2003). Shear stress tolerance

and biochemical characterization of in quasi steady-state continuous culture

in outdoor photobioreactors. , 287-97.



14. Matthew, N. Campbell. (2008). Biodiesel: Algae as a Renewable Source for

Liquid Fuel. 1916-1107.

15. Pulz, O. (2007). Evaluation of GreenFuel's 3D Matrix Algal Growth

Engineering Scale Unit: APS Red Hawk Unit AZ, IGV. Institut Fur

Getreidevararbeitung GmbH.

16. Schneider, D. (2006). Grow your Own:Would theWide Spread Adoption of

Biomass-Derived Transportation Fuels Really Help the Environment. , 408-

409.

17. Scott, A. and Bryner, M. (2006). Alternative Fuels: Rolling out Next-

Generation Technologies. 20-27

18. Sharma, Y.C., Singh, B. and Upadhyay, S.N. (2008). Advancement in

development and characterization of biodiesel: A review.2355-2373.

19. Zhang, Z., Moo-Young, M. and Chisti,Y. (1996). Plasmid stability in

recombinant Saccharomyces cerevisiae. , 401-35.

20. Shay, E.G. (1993). Diesel fuel from vegetable oils: Status and opportunities.

, 227-242

21. Gavrilescu, M. and Chisti,Y. (2005). Biotechnology-a sustainable alternative

for chemical industry. , 471-99.

22. Lantz, M. . (2007). The prospects for an expansion of biogas systems in

Sweden-incentives, barriers and potentials. , 1830-1843.

23. Gokalp, I. and Lebas, E. (2004).Alternative fuels for industrial gas turbines

(AFTUR). , 1655-1663.

24. Alex, H. West., Dusko, Posarac. and Naoko, Ellis. (2008). Assesment of

four biodiesel production processes using HYSYS plant. , 6587-6601.

25. Fukuda, H., Kondo,A. and Noda H. (2001). Biodiesel fuel production by

transesterification of oils. , 405-16.

wet mass production of algal bio-diesel

Documents