Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its ReceptionEd. by Allison, Jr., Dale C. / Helmer, Christine / Römer, Thomas Chr. / Seow, Choon-Leong / Walfish, Barry Dov / Ziolkowski, Eric

Encyclopedia of the Bible and its Reception

Genocide – Hamutal

Volume 10

Editor(s): Dale C. Allison, Jr., Christine Helmer, Volker Leppin, Choon-Leong Seow, Hermann Spieckermann, Barry Dov Walfish, Eric J. Ziolkowski

De Gruyter (Berlin, Boston) 2015

10.1515/ebr.graffiti

GraffitiI Introduction

The term “graffiti” is broad and the parameters for usage of the term in the field of epigraphy are not hard and fast. In terms of etymology, the term“graffito” is an Italian singular noun and the term “graffiti” is the plural. The Italian term is based on the Greek root γραφ-, meaning “write.” As far ascommon parlance is concerned, the term “graffiti” is often used for something scrawled upon a wall or object by a vulgar hand (i.e., a common hand),rather than by the trained hand of a scribe. Because graffiti are often written by someone without much (or any) formal training in writing, they frequentlyabound with problems, including partial or utter incoherence and anomalous or erroneous orthography.

Graffiti are not common in Hebrew during the First Temple period, but some epigraphic remains can be placed into this category (Naveh 2001). Forexample, Naveh published some inscriptional material from a burial cave at Khirbet Beit-Lei (near Lachish) and these do qualify as graffiti. Predictably,however, the readings of these inscriptions have been the subject of debate. Most have argued, though, that among the decipherable statements in thesetexts are prayers, curses, and declarations of faith (Naveh 1963; Cross; Lemaire). I would date these to the late 8th or early 7th centuries BCE. Bar-Adondiscovered and published graffiti in the region of En-Gedi , written inside a cave on a natural rock pillar. These inscriptions contain some blessings (probablyin the name of YHWH) and there is also a statement at the beginning of the inscription that pronounces a curse upon any who might erase it. Thisinscription can be dated comfortably to the early– to mid-8th century BCE (Bar-Adon). It should be noted that some of the inscriptions from the Judean siteof Khirbet el-Qom can be considered graffiti as well (Dever 1969), dating to the mid–8th century BCE. Finally, I should note that I am disinclined to classifythe Gibeon Inscribed Jar Handles (Pritchard 1959; 1960) as graffiti, though some have suggested this. Finally, it can be mentioned that graffiti become morecommon during the late Second Temple period and the early postbiblical period, but only a relatively small number of these are in Hebrew.

Bibliography

Bar-Adon, P., “An Early Hebrew Inscription in a Judean Desert Cave,” IEJ 25 (1975) 226–32.

Cross, F. M., “The Cave Inscriptions from Khirbet Beit Lei,” in Near Eastern Archaeology in the Twentieth Century (ed. J. A. Sanders; New York 1970)296–306.

Dever, W. G., “Iron Age Epigraphic Material from the Area of Khirbet el-Kom,” HUCA 40–41 (1969) 139–204.

Lemaire, A., “Priers en temps de crise: les inscriptions de Khirbet Beit Lei,” RB 83 (1976) 558–68.

Naveh, J., “Old Hebrew Inscriptions in a Burial Cave,” IEJ 13 (1963) 74–92.

Naveh, J., “Graffiti and Dedications,” BASOR 235 (1979) 27–30.

Naveh, J., “Hebrew Graffiti from the First Temple Period,” IEJ 51 (2001) 194–207.

Pritchard, J. B., Hebrew Inscriptions and Stamps from Gibeon (Philadelphia, Pa. 1959).

Pritchard, J. B., “More Inscribed Jar Handles from El- Jîb,” BASOR 160 (1960) 2–6.

II Archaeology

Graffiti retain important and otherwise unknown information about early Judaism and Christianity, yet receive little attention from textual specialists andhistorians. A review of the archaeology of ancient graffiti presents the historical importance of this neglected medium for the improved investigation ofJudaism in the Second Temple period and of Judaism and Christianity in Roman antiquity.

Modern graffiti are commonly associated with acts of vandalism or social delinquency, while some graffiti from ancient Pompeii, renowned for their

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bawdiness, might appear equally subversive. Ancient and modern creators, however, often apply graffiti to improve the environments they adorn.Accordingly, scholarship of ancient graffiti has burgeoned in recent years, particularly of non-monumental inscriptions and art from Pompeii and throughoutItaly, Greece, Asia Minor, Egypt, and Syria (Chaniotis; Milnor; Benefiel; Langner; Baird/Taylor; Bagnall; Baird). By contrast, graffiti associated with Jewish andChristian populations in the eastern Mediterranean are largely neglected. This overview draws attention to the significance of these materials to suggestthe benefits of their evaluation for the investigation of ancient life and culture among early Jews and Christians. Graffiti played valuable roles in theHellenistic and Roman east, for their authors and artists – pagans, Jews, and Christians alike – they constituted important media for their creators’ modesof self-expression, communication, veneration, and respect in overlapping religious, social, and mortuary settings.

1. Definition and Limitations

The operative definition of graffiti derives from the Greek word γράφω to indicate markings created by hand, including pictures and texts. “Graffito” (thesingular of graffiti) often designates something engraved on a surface, but here, it also encompasses painted markings. Graffiti are commonly rough-hewn,but they are best classified as non-monumental texts and pictures, drawn after the completion of surrounding decorations and inscriptions. Isolation ofmarkings as graffiti, then, responds less to their appearances than to distinctions of activity, agency, technique, placement, and chronology.

The present lemma addresses graffiti of the Second Temple period (ca. 6th cent. BCE to the late 1st cent. CE) to the middle of the 3rd century CE. Whilethis chronological scope predicts consideration of graffiti from Jewish and neighboring pagan populations in Judaea and surrounding regions, it also permitsthe evaluation of graffiti associated with earliest Christians. Markings associated with Christian, as well as Jewish populations proliferate in late antiquitythroughout Italy, Greece, North Africa, Asia Minor, and Malta.

In the majority of cases, it remains impossible to know who, precisely, wrote a particular ancient graffito: graffiti are often terse, anonymous and possessfew markings of cultural identification. Names, terminology, iconography, and scripts, as well as spatial contexts, however, can help determine the culturalassociations of some graffiti authors. Inclusion of biblical names in a graffito might suggest Jewish (and, in later periods, Christian) authorship, whilelanguage and script choice (use of Hebrew or Aramaic) and specific religious terminology in textual graffiti are equally indicative of Jewish association.Inclusion of the Greek word Ἰουδαῖος or its cognates (translated as Judean or Jew) in a graffito, similarly declares Jewish authorship. Pictorial carvings ofmenorahs or other appurtenances from the Jerusalem temple are also diagnostic. Spatial context is a final determining factor: some graffiti are found inbuildings in which Jews or Christians selectively assembled and prayed, including synagogues or house-churches. Markings of Christians are more difficult todistinguish in earlier antiquity, because only in later periods (ca. 3rd through 4th cent. CE and after) do more commonly Christians integrate distinctivenames, symbols, and vocabulary into their graffiti.

2. Graffiti in Devotional Contexts

Some of the earliest known examples of graffiti associated with Jewish populations are found in pagan contexts in Egypt. Greek textual graffiti, in whichauthors declared themselves to be Ιουδαῖοι, were discovered in a sanctuary dedicated to Pan in El-Kanais in the Egyptian eastern desert. The sanctuary,which flourished in the late Ptolemaic period, was surrounded by cliffs and served as a way-station for travelers. The Ἰουδαῖος graffiti in the sanctuaryinvoked passersby to praise “The God,” rather than the deity “Pan,” who is directly named in the majority of thanksgiving inscriptions written nearby.Scholars have expressed surprise at the presence of graffiti associated with Judean/Jewish travelers around a pagan shrine, but their authors exhibited nocompunction about writing them; instead, they appear to have engaged in activities similar to those of their neighbors by writing graffiti to offer divinethanks in the sanctuary (Stern 2013; Mairs).

Other graffiti associated with Jewish worship are directly connected to cult practices of the second Jerusalem temple. One example includes a plasterfragment (ca. 32 cm high), carved with three images depicting temple appurtenances. The fragment was discovered in an opulent ancient building, of theHerodian period (1st cent. BCE), which was found in the modern Jewish quarter of the Old City in Jerusalem (Avigad 1970). The section of plaster, presentlydisplayed in the Israel Museum in Jerusalem, includes a graffito of a menorah (ca. 20 cm high). Four of its arms are preserved, along with its shaft andtripod base, which are elaborated with ovoid forms; its shape resembles that of the menorah on the Arch of Titus in Rome. Portions of two graffiti to theright of the menorah suffered greater damage. Both are thought to represent additional features of the Jerusalem temple, including a showbread table andan incense altar (Avigad 1970). These graffiti constitute some of the only extant representations of temple vessels produced while the temple and itsassociated objects still stood. For this fact alone, the markings are of the utmost historical importance.

Graffiti connected to both Jewish and pagan worship also derive from Elijah’s cave – a grotto on Mount Carmel in modern Haifa, which continues to attractmodern Jewish pilgrims. Earliest datable elements in graffiti from the shrine suggest that the space was first dedicated to a pagan deity in the 1st centuryCE. Presence of Jewish names and menorah symbols among the ancient graffiti suggests that Jews might have shared or co-opted the shrine in subsequentperiods (Ilan/Pinkpank 2011).

Devotional graffiti associated with both Jews and Christians were identified in excavations of the Roman Syrian town of Dura Europos. Conditions of the city’sdemise ensured the unlikely survival of the walls of many local buildings and of the graffiti written upon them (Baird; Goldman). Over seventy examples ofgraffiti were preserved from the synagogue in Dura. Texts are written in Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek, and middle Persian; they include individuals’ names andrequests for remembrance, labels for narrative scenes in the murals, and records of Persian scribes, who visited the synagogue after its redecoration(Noy/Bloedhorn). Pictorial graffiti also include shrine-images, human busts, birds, horses, and vessels. Fewer graffiti are preserved from Dura’s Christianbuilding. The majority of them are written in Greek; one is carved in Syriac. These include five alphabet lists (perhaps inscribed for amuletic purposes) and atext that expresses a wish for Christ’s “humble” servant to be remembered. Appearances of non-monumental texts and pictures in religious buildings,such as the synagogue and Christian building, are conventional in Dura Europos, where similar types of graffiti also abound inside neighboring pagantemples and shrines (Stern 2012; Baird; Goldman).

Graffiti of Jews and Christians are also found elsewhere in the Levant and neighboring regions. Some, written by Nabataeans, Jews and, in later antiquity,Christians, appear along trade and pilgrimage routes throughout the deserts of northwest Arabia and the Sinai Peninsula (Hoyland), while still others arefound in caves once used for refuge by Jews hiding or fleeing from Roman soldiers during the first and second Jewish revolts. The precise functions of thesegraffiti may relate to acts of devotional expression, or of social and political identification.

3. Graffiti and Burial Contexts

Graffiti in the Levant are found in burial caves. Earliest examples of graffiti are identified in Iron Age burial caves in the Judean foothills, as well as in Egyptand southern Lebanon. From the Hellenistic through the late Roman periods, however, graffiti grow increasingly common in mortuary complexes from theJudean foothills, Jerusalem, Jericho, and the lower Galilee.

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Most mortuary graffiti appear on the walls and vestibules of burial complexes. While scholars commonly classify as graffiti the writing and decorationscrawled on ossuaries placed inside such caves, their markings fall outside the present category, because they serve as epitaphs and directional markingson prefabricated bone-boxes. More relevant are the pictorial and textual carvings scratched around catacombs and burial caves. Multiple graffiti were foundin tomb complexes of Jewish families in Jerusalem and Jericho, which date from the 2nd to 1st centuries BCE. In the vestibule of “Jason’s tomb” in theRechavia neighborhood of Jerusalem, multiple graffiti have been recorded – some scratched and some drawn in charcoal – including five representations ofthe menorah, a stag, and three large ships, one of which was manned by small human figures carrying weapons. Aramaic inscriptions were also found onthe vestibule walls (Rachmani). Pictorial graffiti were identified in a contemporaneous burial complex in Jericho, also associated with a wealthy Jewish family.Charcoal drawings of nefesh symbols (see “Nefesh”), or obelisk-like shapes, appeared on its walls; such iconography commonly marked mortuary spacesthroughout the region (Hachlili).

Mortuary graffiti are more ubiquitous in the Judean foothills near Hebron, inside small burial caves associated with Idumaean and Jewish populations. Graffitiof human figures brandishing weapons surround burial beds in one burial cave of Tell ‘Eitun (Tsaferis). Most graffiti, however, appear in cave vestibules andnot directly around individual tombs. Pictorial graffiti include nefesh symbols, grids or nets, concentric shapes, and configurations that resemble haystacks.Other caves include Greek or Aramaic writing. One Greek graffito engages an audience as it requests: “Remember the writer and the reader and me!” whileanother records the Greek word for god (θεός) in retrograde (Kloner; Zissu). Alphabet lists (abecedaries) commonly appear in Greek and Aramaic; theseinscriptions are thought to serve prophylactic functions. Pictorial and textual graffiti that follow similar patterns were also carved around tombs inBethphage, on the eastern edge of Jerusalem (Mark 11:1; Matt. 21:1; Luke 19:29); these tombs are of pagan, early Jewish, or Christian cultural provenance(Testa).

More extensive evidence for mortuary graffiti in Jewish contexts derives from Beth Shearim (see “Beth Sheʿarim”). The cemetery flourished after the 3rdcentury CE, though its earliest burials date to the 1st and 2nd centuries CE. This elaborate necropolis is the largest of its period and region and contains theremains of hundreds, if not thousands of individuals. The site remains a critical archaeological witness for scholars investigating the late Second Temple andearly rabbinic periods (Avigad 1976; Mazar). Its sarcophagi and epitaphs confer the title of “rabbi” to many of the dead, who bore personal names, whichalso appear in texts of the NT, Mishnah, and Talmud. Catacombs carved into the surrounding hills also include hundreds of textual and pictorial graffiti.Some anonymous texts are written inside cave entrances and proclaim messages, such as: “Good luck on your resurrection!” (Mazar; Avigad 1976)Adjacent caves include Greek and Aramaic curses promising divine punishment for potential tomb robbers; additional texts include alphabet lists and singlewords. Still other catacombs include scratched images of menorahs, birds, men with outstretched arms and weapons, nefesh symbols, and animals (Stern2013a). These figures resemble many found farther south in the Judean hills and demonstrate regional continuities in the practice of writing and drawinggraffiti in mortuary contexts.

Pseudepigraphical, apocryphal, rabbinic, and early Christian texts omit mention of acts of graffiti writing and drawing inside places of worship, refuge, orburial. Graffiti alone document such ancient behaviors. Consideration of the locations and contents of these markings thus illuminates unrecognizedfeatures of ancient life and modes of cultural continuity among regional pagan, early Jewish and Christian populations. Careful study of graffiti therebyenriches our understanding of religion and culture in the ancient Levant and elsewhere in the Mediterranean.

Bibliography

Avigad, N., “Excavations in the Jewish Quarter of the Old City in Jerusalem, 1969–1970,” IEJ 1/2 (1970) 1–8.

Avigad, N., Beth Shearim , vol. 3: Report on the Excavations during 1953–1958 (New Brunswick, N.J. 1976).

Bagnall, R., Writing and Everyday Life in the Roman East (Berkeley, Calif. 2011).

Baird, J. A., “The Graffiti of Dura-Europos: A Contextual Approach,” in Ancient Graffiti in Context (ed. J. A. Baird/C. Taylor; New York/Abingdon 2010) 49–68.

Baird, J. A./C. Taylor, Ancient Graffiti in Context (New York/Abingdon 2010).

Benefiel, R., “Dialogues of Ancient Graffiti in the House of Maius Castricius in Pompeii,” AJA 114 (2010) 59–101.

Chaniotis, A., “The Jews of Aphrodisias: New Evidence and Old Problems,” SCI 21 (2002) 209–42.

Goldman, B., “Pictorial Graffiti of Dura Europos,” Parthica 1 (1999) 19–106.

Hachlili, R., “The nefeš , the Jericho Column-Pyramid,” PEQ (1981) 33–38.

Hoyland, R., “The Jews of Hijaz and their Inscriptions,” in New Perspectives on the Qur’an: The Qur’an in its Historical Context vol. 2 (RoutledgeStudies in the Qur’an 12; ed. G. S. Reynolds; New York 2011) 91–116.

Ilan, T./O. Pinkpank, Lexicon of Jewish Names in Late Antiquity , vol. 2: Palestine 200–650 (Tübingen 2011) 499–584.

Kloner, A., “New Judean/Jewish Inscriptions from the ‘Darom,’” Qadmoniyot 71–72 (1985) 96–100. [Heb.]

Langner, M., Antike Graffitizeichnungen: Motive, Gestaltung und Bedeutung (Wiesbaden 2001).

Mairs, R., “Egyptian ‘Inscriptions’ and Greek ‘Graffiti’ at El Kanais,” in Ancient Graffiti in Context (ed. J. Baird/C. Taylor; New York/Abingdon 2010) 151-61.

Mazar, B., Beth She‘arim: Report on the Excavations during 1936–1940 – The Catacombs 1–4 (New Brunswick, N.J. 1973).

Milnor, K., Graffiti and the Literary Landscape in Roman Pompeii (Oxford 2014).

Noy, D./H. Bloedhorn, Inscriptiones Judaicae Orientis , vol. 3: Syria and Cyprus (Tübingen 2004).

Rachmani, L. Y., “Jason’s Tomb,” IEJ 17 (1976) 61–100.

Stern, K. B., “Tagging Sacred Space in the Dura Europos Synagogue,” JRAr 25/1 (2012) 171–94.

Stern, K. B., “Vandals or Pilgrims? Jews and the Temple of Pan in Egyptian El-Kanais,” in The One Who Sows Bountifully , FS S. K. Stowers (ed. C. J.Hodge et al.; Providence, R.I. 2013) 177–88.

Stern, K. B., “Graffiti as Gift,” in The Gift in Antiquity (ed. M. Satlow; New York 2013a) 137–57.

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Testa, E., “The Graffiti of Tomb 21 at Bethpage,” LASBF 11 (1960) 251–87.

Tsaferis, V., “A Monumental Roman Tomb on Tel ‘Eitun,” ‘Atiqot 8 (1982) 22–25. [Heb.]

Zissu, B., “Horbat Lavnin,” Hadashot Arkheologiyot-Excavations and Surveys in Israel 113 (2001) 104, 153–54.

III Visual Arts

Textual and pictorial graffiti appear inside devotional spaces and shrines, burial caves and desert byways, from the Mediterranean coasts to the British Isles,Arabia, and the Hijaz through North Africa. Many of these writings and pictures retain rare information about early Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, which isabsent from canonical texts of the Bible and rabbinic literature, Christian writings, and the Qurʾān.

1. Jewish Traditions

Graffiti associated with Jewish populations are attested throughout the ancient Mediterranean and Near East. Multiple features connect such markings withJews, including distinctive symbols (e.g., menorot), scripts (Hebrew or Aramaic), vocabulary (identifying words, such as Ἰουδαῖος), personal names (biblicalnames), or locations in synagogues or Jewish cemeteries.

Jews wrote graffiti inside civic spaces in Asia Minor (Chaniotis) and along Arabian trade routes (Hoyland), but more frequently, inside burial caves in Romanand Byzantine Palaestina, Rome, and North Africa (Stern 2013). Contents of markings vary according to region and include images of menorot (see fig. 25),alphabet lists, and well-wishes for the deceased. Consistent discoveries of graffiti around tombs and cemeteries suggest that by drawing graffiti Jewsidentified and commemorated their dead. Graffiti associated with Jews also appear in pagan shrines of Egypt and the Levant; still others are found inancient synagogues, such as one in Syrian Dura Europos (d. 255–57 CE). Jewish worshippers thus also drew graffiti to decorate and personalize spacesdesignated for prayer (Stern 2013).

2. Christian Traditions

Christians engaged in comparable practices of graffiti writing and drawing in mortuary and devotional contexts in Roman and Byzantine Palaestina,northwest Arabia, Egypt and North Africa, Britain, Spain, and Italy. Christian graffiti are identifiable through diagnostic iconography (Chi-Rho monograms andcrosses), names of Jesus, martyrs, or saints, sentiments (requests for salvation, expressions of prayer), or locations in churches or shrines. Christians, likeJews, wrote textual graffiti in multiple languages.

In earliest Christianity, tombs of saints and holy men served as places of devotion, commemoration, and pilgrimage. Graffiti of christograms and prayersabound in many venerated burial spaces including mortuary complexes in Roman and Byzantine Palaestina (Nazareth, Bethphage), Rome (catacombs ofSts. Sebastian, Callistus), and North Africa. Other Levantine examples (e.g., Ḥorvat Qaṣra) reflect the conversion of humbler mortuary spaces into centersfor Christian worship (Kloner). The presence of graffiti helps to identify otherwise unmarked locations where Christians assembled and prayed.

Applications of graffiti and dipinti also attest to Christian appropriations of pagan temples and tombs for retreat, study, and devotion. Ascetics, monks andnuns, who transformed Egyptian mortuary temples into monasteries and schools, painted crosses, portraits of saints, and Coptic writing over hieroglyphs(e.g, in Deir el-Bahri or Abydos; Bucking). Painted prayers, monograms and crosses around caves and cisterns in the Levant, identify neglected Christianhermitages (Gutfeld/Ecker).

From late antiquity through early modernity, Christian pilgrims wrote graffiti to document their travels in the Holy Land (Fleming). Graffiti, replete withcrosses and requests for God’s mercy, border pilgrimage routes of the Sinai peninsula near St. Catherine’s Monastery (Mayerson). Late ancient andmedieval churches throughout modern Israel and Egypt are filled with carvings of crosses, prayers, and inscriptions of pilgrims’ names and those of familymembers; countless examples of these appear in Nazareth (Church of the Annunciation), Jerusalem (Church of the Holy Sepulchre [see fig. 26]),Gethsemane (Monastery of the Cross), and Bethlehem (Church of the Nativity). Few are published; textual examples appear in Latin, Arabic, Syriac,Georgian, Armenian, and Greek (Tchekhanovets).

3. Muslim Traditions

Tens of thousands of Arabic and pictorial graffiti proliferate throughout modern Syria and Jordan, Israel, Arabia and the Hijaz, dating to periods of earliestIslam. The epigrapher Frédéric Imbert has argued that some of these graffiti document early versions of the Qurʾān, which are otherwise unrecorded(Imbert 2000; 2013).

Other genres of graffiti associated with medieval and early modern Muslim practice relate to religious obligations to make Hajj (see “Pilgrim, Pilgrimage”).Arabic devotional graffiti appear in Saudi Arabia along old pilgrimage routes to Mecca, while traditions of decorating domestic spaces of returning Hajjis,replicated in Jerusalem’s Old City and throughout Egypt (see → plate 13), may reflect older, undocumented customs (Parker/Neal).

4. Assessment

While graffiti are often neglected, their ubiquity in the archaeological record attests to their diachronic importance among Jewish, Christian, and Muslimpopulations as a means of religious expression and decoration. Their closer study promises greater insights into the practices, beliefs, and visual cultureassociated with the earliest phases of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.

Bibliography

Bucking, S., “Toward an Archaeology of Bilingualism: on the Study of Greek-Coptic Education in Late Antique Egypt,” in Multilingualism in the Graeco-Roman Worlds (ed. A. Mullen/P. James; Cambridge 2012) 225–64.

Chaniotis, A., “The Jews of Aphrodisias: New Evidence and Old Problems,” SCI 21 (2002) 209–42.

Fleming, J., Graffiti and the Writing Arts of Early Modern England (London 2001).

Gutfeld, O./A. Ecker, “‘Jesus is Here: An Ancient Greek Inscription from Khirbet Beit Loya,” in Christ is here! , FS M. Piccirillo (SBL Collectio Maior 52; ed.D. Chrupcala; Jerusalem 2013).

Hoyland, R., “The Jews of Hijaz and their Inscriptions,” in New Perspectives on the Qur’an: The Qur’an in its Historical Context vol. 2 (RoutledgeStudies in the Qur’an 12; ed. G. S. Reynolds; New York 2011) 91–116.

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Imbert, F., “Le Coran dans les graffiti des deux premiers siècles de l’Hégire,” Arabica 47 (2000) 384–90.

Imbert, F., “Le Coran des pierres: statistiques épigraphiques et premières analyses,” Le Coran, nouvelles approches (CNRS editions; ed. M. Azaies/S.Mervin; Paris 2013) 99–124.

Kloner, A., “The Cave Chapel of Ḥorvat Qaṣra,” ʿAtiqot (1990) 129–41. [Heb.]

Mayerson, P., “The Pilgrim Routes to Mount Sinai and the Armenians,” IEJ 32 (1982) 44–57.

Parker, A./A. Neal, Hajj Painting: Folk Art of the Great Pilgrimage (Cairo 1995).

Stern, K. B., “Tagging Sacred Space in the Dura Europos Synagogue,” JRAr 25/1 (2012) 171–94.

Stern, K. B., “Graffiti as Gift,” in The Gift in Antiquity (ed. M. Satlow; New York 2013) 137–57.

Tchekhanovets, Y., “Early Georgian Pilgrimage to the Holy Land,” LASBF 61 (2011) 453–71.

Figures

Fig. 25 Menorah graffito (n. d.): from the cemetery of Beth-Sheʿarim/Israel ©Ezra Gabbay.

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Fig. 26 Cross and name graffiti (n. d.): façade of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem/Israel ©Ezra Gabbay.

Plates

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Plate 13 Wall painting in Egpyt depicting Hajj (1981) ©akg-images/Elizabeth Disney.

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