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Caldwell, Lytton Ka; Siddigi;.Toutiq A.Science, Technology, and Public Policy. A Guide toAdvanced /Study.Indiana Univ., Bloomington. School of Public andn'Sronmental Affairs. i
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Sati6nal Science Foundation, -WashtAgton,rD.C.Apr 72487p.; For related documehts, see SE 023 093=094 allndED 045-366
NF-$1.00 ,HC-$26.11 Plus Postage.Bibliographies; Curriculum Guides; Policy Formation;*Public Policy; Science Education; *Sciences; SocialDevelopment; Study Guides; *Teaching Guides;*Technology
ABSTRACTFresented are study guides fcr selected aspects of
public poliCy for science and technolo0, and their impact uponsociety and public affairs. Each guide includes a topic outline,.bibliography, and leading questions. The topics include: (1) Scienceand Technology as Social Forces; (2) The Organization of Science andTechnolcgy; and (3) Policy Problems of Science and Technology.(SL)
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* Reproductj.on* supplied 4y EDRS are the best that can be made ** from the original documen't. **********************************41************************************
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5 6b 1D-- 0336aSCIENCETECHNOLOGY
AND PUBLIC POLICY
. PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THISMATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY
TO THE EDUCATIONAL (RESOURCES%P,1FORMATION CENTER (ERIC) ANDUSERS OF THE ERIC SYSTEM
7111111/
U.S DEPARTMENT.OF HEALTHEDUCATION & WELFARENATIONAL INSTITUTE OF
EDUCATION
A GUIDE, TO ADVANCED STUDY
PREPARED <BY L NTON K. CALDWELLAND TOUTP A. SIDDIQI
'SCHOOL OF PUBLIC ANDIENVIRONMENTAL AFFAIRS
THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPROD,CED EXACTLY AS RECEI ./ED FROMTHE PERSON OR ORGANZATON ORIGINAl NG IT POINTS OF .1E44 OR OPN'ONSsTArEp DO NOT NECE,SARrLY REPRESENT OF F iCiAL NA'T ONAL INSTITUTE OFEDUCATION POSITION OR POLCY
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SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND PUBLIC POKYA GUIDE TO ADVANCED STUDY
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Prepared by
Lyntan K. Caldwell
and
Toufiq A. Siddiqi
With l.he Assistance ofA Giant. atom the National
Science Foundation
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Indiana University.
Blooreirigt., Indiana 47401,
April, 1972
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THE STUDY OF PUBLIC POLICY FORSCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
A Prellminaty Statement
1 The following outlines of topics, quesilons, and readings are intended asguides to the study of selected aspects of public policy for science and technologykand their impactupon.society and public affairs. This material is organized as a-course appropriate to graduate or upper-division undergraduate instruction. Itsscope is comprehensive and implies a,high level of generality if the course wereoffered in a two - semester or three-quarter academic year. Rut each of the fifteenmain topics into'which the subject matter has been divided may be studied indepth-and detail, and contains sufficient material for intensive study .vherte desired.2 The study guide was developed over a two year period, with assistance fromthe, National Science Foundation, and has been revised following.three years ofexperience. The course of study which it represents initially warexperignental,the field of study being relatively new to universities in America or abroad.Outlines of similar or reloted courses offered in Other universities were examined,not necessarily for the purpose of borrowing from or improving upon theme butrather to re how other institutions were dealing with the instructional problemsof-the field. If ther% is a one best way,to study publicpolicy `for science andtechnology, the -authors and revisers of thi,s- study guids-have,not found it. There.'are many approaches to the field of study'. The advantages of some over othersappear to depend in large measure upon the chardeter of-the institution- 'Offeringthe instruction and upon theneeds and backgrounds of the students.3 The objective has therefore been to dev'elop this study guide ,as a basicinstructional facility rather than ds a model course. The fifteen topics are, in'effect, 'building blocks and can be put together in many different combidations.Individual topics can be taken apart and recombined, the keyed references pro-vidifeg reading lists for the new combinations. Th& study guide is 'easily adaptableto self-instruction; the topical abstracts, outlines, questions, and keyed referencesenable the student tolollow a systernatid course of learkrtg without the.dired-assistance of textbooks or instructors.4 An outgrowth of this development' in curriculfm construction has been aselective but comprehensive annotated bibliography in Sc ie'hce, Technology, andPublic Policy prepared under a contract with the National Scierice Foundation:This three - volume compilation ofjeferences, distributed by the Foundation, coversmaterial published' in English -between .and including the years 1945 and 1970.Its use can assist further specialization in the field of study.
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5 The field and focus of the study of public policy for science and technologyhave often been misconshved. Students in this field are cohcernedprirvily with .
publ is pol icy and Secondarily with the subject matter of sc ience and technol'ogy...They must, to the extent of their interest; become students of social or politicalscience even though ,Their prioutraining,rney*ave been in some other acadeinicfield. The study of public policy for science and technOlogy is not intendedasan answer to the need for an enlarged and improved public and rstanding of thesubstanbeand methods of the sciences. Efforts to bringunderst dingsof scienceto college undergradocites or tocitizens genercqly could- contri to to better'public policy for science and' technology. :BO this task involves a differentsubject matter and focus and, ideally should be undertaken by the scientiststhemselvei where the subject matter of their own ines is taught. In the fieldof policy ,studies, the scientists ore social scientists, fthough the .assistance of,profession011'-in the physital and biologic'al sciences, Medicine, and'engineeringis also required. As this volume indicates, scientjsts-have been extensively in-volved in' the shaping and criticism oif, science 'policy and in .the application -I
of science and technology. Scientists do, therefore, contribute tothe study ofpublicPpolicy for science and technology even though relatively few of them mayever. become actively involved in it as ,teachers or researchers.6 One may concede that the process through which public policy is formulatedand applied is an appropriate focus for study and yet question whether there isanything so distinctive about public pol icy for science and technology as to warrantspecial attention'. It might be argued ?hat the policy processmdy be studied bypolitical scientists, but that study of the substance- of policy belongs to thediscipline primarily concerned with the subjpct matter of policy.' For example,this reasoning would leave the study of-the substance of weather modification tometeorologists, and of water pollution control largely to'chemists. There can beno objection tothis approach, provided that the natural scientist is willing toiler.come a student of the social and political implications of his discipline. But the . )
highly specialized character of rpodem science makes this interdisciplinaryapproach difficu7 Understanding of the problems of public policy* in any substantive field requiresa synthesis of knowledge of both the substance and professes of policy. This syn-thesis cen be achieved in several ways. It ispossible to achieve it largely because
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there isiavailable to,the student extensive policy-oriented writings by scientiststhemselves and bynonscientists well-grounded in the scientific, aspects of policyissues. ,Synthesis may further result from the various forms of intellectual inter-change between students of the processes of public policy-making and admitvistra-tion, and students of the social implications of science and technology.
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. 8 The intrinsic importahce of science and technology as subjects for policystudies depends upon their significance in the shaping of human societies. The-
tremendous impact of science and scientific technology on the'modern world is'now generally tecognized. Buf, until recently, the effects have been widely
1, assumed to be beneficial and to require no special attention; Since 1945, how-ever, the hitherto small stream of critical comment on the uses and effects ofscience and technology has swollen to Amazonian proportions.. Science andtechnology have become majot topics for policy consideration in all industrial
%societies, in all modern governments, and in international affairs,- DpngersofThe overuse, uoderuse, and misuse of science are becoming patters of publicconcern. And_at long last, the universities have begun to recognize their own -
responsibilities not orily.for advancing understanding of science itself, but alsofor advancing publia-Understanding.of its impact upon society. It, is not easy to*fit the study of public policy for science and technology into the conventionaldisciplinary structure of universities. But the great importance of the,issues withwhich this aspect of policy study is concerned gives hope that this task, whichimplies new relationships among the disciplines, will somehow be accomplished.
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A NOTE ON THE REVISEDVOLUME
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1 Fol lowing the printinvf 500 copies of Volume I of Science, Technology, andPublic Policy in 1968', requests for copies rapidly reduced the supply. Approxi-mately 250 copies were distributed from Indiana University to colleges anduniversities, government agencies, and individu'als teaching or organizing boursesin sCierke,' technology, and publ io policy. An additional 100 copies were dis-tributed by the National Science Foundation, and tile baslanc. were used atIndiana University and Purdue University for instructional purposes. Wifhin two,yeah, the Volume was out of print, except for a small supply for classroom use.2 Three years' experience with Volume I suggested the following changes in itsargarlization and contient. A new Topic-13i Technological Forecasting and.
D9Assessment, has been added, and former Topics , _International TechnoscientificOrganization, and 12, International Technoscientific Cooperation, have beencombined under the latter heading. The fifteen 'togas are now equally divided'among the three principal sections. ffibii6graphical material has beer almostdoubled, and the selectjons for basic readings have been extensively revised.The wording of the title has been revised; study guide being substituted forsyllabus, as mare descriiveof the Volume. This volume is 1 revision andexpansion of the first of a two volume syllabus_ on Science, Technology andPublic-Policy prepared with the assistance of :a grant from the National ScienceFoundation. This publication, in its revised farm, will appear as two separate butrelated study guides with the volume numbers dropped. The original Volumes I
sand II were published by the Department of Politica Science at Indiana University:3 The authors gratefully, acknowledge the helpfyl suggestions of users in therevision of this work. Appreciation is also expressed to the National Science
. Foundation for a grant of funds to assist revision and repriptingi. The authors alsoexpress- their gratitude to Hal Xibbey, Jan Lundy, May Lee, Mary Celenko, andstaff 'of the 'Indiana University Liktraries and the Indiana UniVersity PHnting Plantfor their assistance in the project:
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PRELIMINARIES
TABLE OF CONTENTS
The Study of Public Policy, for Science andTechnology:' A Preliminary Statement
PACES
A Note on the Revised Volume .I Table of Content; . . .
SECTIONS
- tI. Science and Technology as Social Forces ... . . . . .
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01. The Meanings Of Science and Technology3
02. Science as an Aspect of Modern Culture ... ; 2703. Social Impact of Science and Technology . 4504. Scientific Work' in Technological Societies . .. . . 6705. Science, Technology, and Higher Education 10. I.
II. The Organizationof Science and Technology 139
06. Science and Gbvernment: t 11e United States. . . .. 141_ 07. Science and Government: the Soviet Union. 181
08. The Organization of Science in Western Europe 20509. international Technoscientifictooperation . 25110. Technoscience An the Developing Countries . 291
Policy Problems of Science and Jechnology 329
11. The Politics of Science and Technology 33112. , Management of Research and Development . . . .. 37513. Technological Forecastingand Assessment . . . 40514. Science,Humant ighti, and the Role of Law 45115. Govern ing the Technosc.ientif is Superculture . 479
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14.
5
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGYSSOCIAL FORCES
The five topics of this section introduce the student to thestudy of the effects of science and technology in modern societyand afford background for the remainder of the cousie. t is hardlyfeasible to consider publ ic policy for science and technblogyout some knowledge of what the terms "science" and "technology"mean, how they are related, and Now they are different.' Thisdefining or clarifying of concepts is the substance of Topic 01.Science is exploredsin Tocacdt as an historical aspect of Westernculture that hcss4volve.d into an autonomous universal culture d it6d'wn.. Topic 03 is concerned with the ways in which science-andscience-b ed-technology reshape traditional culture and give risetoproble s that society attempts to solve by bringing science andtechnology--under some form of publiAontrol, and by reshapingdomestic, economic, educatiOnp I, and legal institutions to conformto the impact of science and technology. Topic 04 describes scienceas tin 'occupation, examines the characteristics of science-basedfields, such cis englIneering anckmedicine, and analyzes the wayin which scientific skills are utilized for technological purposes.Topic 05 outlines the impact of science on general education. andon the preparation of scientific workers,' and considers means toenlarge the public understanding of science . The concept "publpolicy" isnot analized in this section. It may be sufficient to statehere that public policy in the context of this syllabus means thechoices that the public really makes thrbugh the action inactionof government. *Pub,lit policy as used in these topitt is whatgovernment does, not necessarily what the/law is presumed toimply, or what presifilents, legislators, or ci i generally assertto be public policy . Public policy is therefore,on imprecise con-cept and must receive a more rigorous assd penetrating'analysis
fore it can be given a clearer definition.
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TOPIC 01 THE MEANINGS OFISCIEl\a AND TECHNOLOGYGr
-This topic provides an examination of science as an intellectual and social en-
deavor. Science changes man's view of reality and enlarges.his ability to copewith this reality through, technology. It thus becomes a social force capable ofpermeating all, aspects of human [if:. Social institutions and formalized expres-sions of human experience in religion, art, philosophy, and law, have been unset-tled, modified, and sometimes destroyed by force of scientific knowledge*: Sci-ence as a way of thinking and of perceiving is therefore a continuing challenge toestablished beliefs, traditions, and authorities. It affects the conceptual and insti-tutional bases of society and government, and inevitably becomes a factor in poi-itics, notably in the shaping of public Ipw and administration.
Although technology is as old as the arts of tool-making, rituat, and warfare, ithas now become the major means for transferring scientific thought into social ac-tion. But technologys not merely a vehicle for science-based innoxation;.,it isalso a 'powerful force for the advancement of science 4instrumentationand refinedresearch techniques are essential to the development of modern sciences Radio
.tel escopes, d I e c tron microscopes, and gap chromatogra phy illustrate the dependenceof advances in science upon advances in technology. Although separable in prin-*ciple, science and technology in the more advanced industrial societies of themodern *orldare merged into a technoscientific complexof unprecedented power.Control of the' transforming power of science-based technologyfthus becomes theobject of competition among groupsand individuals representing differing interests, /values, and assumptions. The consequences of this political pr policy-shapingcompetition are of great.sociel importance, especially because of the destrUctivepotential of tethnoscientific power and the need for organized social effort tomaximize its beneficial effects.
The culture of advanced science and technology that is emerging in the late20th century require's, for its management widespread understanding of science andtechnology. Technoscientific society is structured by complex interdependent sys-tems. Informed and intelligent cooperation is necessary to make these systemswork. To direct and control the po'wers of science and technology it is necessaryto understand their natures, reqUirementst and relationships. To manage thesepowers for human welfare also requires uncrehtnding Of humanneeds and values./And so examination of the meanings of science and technology, and of the signif-icapce of these meanings for society is a logical point of departure for the studyof public policy for science and technology.
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toit4 Science and `technology as,Social Forces, ti
TOPIC-01.THE MEANINGS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Selected Basic Readings:
Brooks, Harvey: "Applied' Science and technological- PrOgress," Science, /I(June 30, 1967), 1706-1712.
Kranzberg, Melvin. "The Unity of Science-Technology," American Scientist, LV(March, 1967), 48-66.
McLachlan, Dan, Jr. "A Guess as to Wt at Is Science," Physics Today, XIV (June,1961), 22-27.
Morison, Robert S . "Science and Social Attitudes," Sc, .4Sciepce, ANV (July 11,19691507156.
Price, Derek J. de Solla . The Differences between Science and Technology.Detroit, Michigan: Thomas Alva Edison Foundation, 1968, 16.
Supplementary and Substitute Readings: . it
Caldwell, Lynton K., ed. Science and Public Policy in the American University.Bloomington: Indiana University Program in the Public Administration of Spi-
v Bence and Technology, 1969, 55.
9Conant, James B. "Scientific Principles and Moral Conduct," Aterican Scientist,
LV (September, 1967), bi 1-328 .
Impact of Science-on Society. "Non-Scientists Dissect. Science," Impact of Scienceon Society, XIX (October-December, 1949), 305-404.
Malik, Cliarfes H. "The Limitations of Natural Science," Impact of Science On So'cipty, XIX (October-December,1 969), 377-386.
Po1anyi, Michael ( "The Growth of Science jn Society," Minerva, V (Summer,,1967), 533-545.
. 11111
Z).man, John M. Public'Knowledge: The Social Dimension of Science. London:
Cambridge University Press, 1968, 154.
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,TOPIC 01 THE /1EANIK9S QF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY- -; :- ,
;TOPICALOUTC.J.NE ''
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The Meaning s cle.n.e*),
A Science as4uicwledge.,
1. What kno"Wledge.is scientific?2; efinitirs of "the sciencetv ,
a. Hard and soft science,b. Natural and social science,
, . ... . .
B.
c. -Physical and life science_d. Pure and applied sciencee. Theoretical and ;mental
sciencef. True and false science
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.REFE' EN KEY
A, 137, 149,163, 175, 176,,179
158, 1 63/ 176,
178
4 53, 171
13. Cultemil basis of definitions(cf. Topic 02)
,4. Changing.configurations , of sciencea. ConCept 61 the unity of science.b. Relationships among the sciencesc. Emergence of new sciences
Science as method of thought
1. Is therea scientific meth
a . Method as a general conceptb. Differences among methods,
theories, and tecipiquesc . Reductionism and synthesisd. "Strong inference" as a general
method
.'at. Limitations ofiscientific'ethod
a. Limits.of contemporary techAiqueb. Intrinsic limitations "of scieficec. Is,science fi,41Iy defined byeethod?
401.
129.48, 113
. :
11, 58, 64, 91,96, 107, 133.50, 166-21; 26; 129 ,
136..-97, 159- ---170
77°1*
. 32, .108, 109,169, 175,,178,179 -
7, 12, 86, 113157, 161, 16386, 104
-97I
167
106, 144, 164174,
7, 5 3, 95, 127
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.Sciende and Technology as Social 'Forces
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3. .Relationsp to. philosophya. Independence of science frbm
philosophical dogmab Science and.Ohiiosophical values
1,1: ihe Meanie of Technologye
A. Technology as knowledge of "how,'.1. Scope and varieties of technique2. Technique and skill3'. Pre-scientific 'technique4.: Limitations of technique without science
B. Technology as an operating system(cf. Topic 03)
1. Ev'elluation'of technologicalinterrelatedness
2. Technology and the economy3. Science as a generatarpf technology4. Advent of "the thnological society': '..
111.' Interrelations getweep.Science and Technologjk
74, 114-
t1.54
27, 34,129
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1.
136;1,63
49;43,
' 45,.
16,
141; 149".
59, 6254, 110
84, 148,177,
54, 671,1168, 99,
A . Conceptually distinct; but often )_practically related
011
145, .4-5°
1, 48, $6, 115,137
1. Relationships inncincient societiei.a. Moctrn definitiohs are not applicableb. ;Priestly "tlithnoscience of Egyptc. Science in' Greece and China
43,
4389
165
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drRoman science and technology2. Relationships in Vgestern Europe
a. ega&y of Aristotelianisminflu?nce. of alchemy
42, 136, 137
c. Scienceend technology in the41Slamic world
d. Renaissance and'Reformatione. Explosive fusion of science and
,fee'hnology- 66, 119, 154
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The Meanings of Science and Technology
:B. 41, Syrni)iotiC relationship of-modern scigceanaitechnoogy . . '42, 44, 48, 67,
68,140-I. Dependenceof science upon technology 46, 123or
a . Instrumentationb. Procedures of verificationc._Preparation of materials
Organization and recording ofinformation
e. StoFage and dissemination ofinformation ,
f. Stimulation of scientific research.2. Dependence of technology upon science
a. Knowledge of properties of materialsb. Knowledge of sources and properties
of energyc. PretliCting the behavior of natural forcesd. Opening the way to new technologies.e. Legitimizing technological innovationf`. 'Translating science into technology--
the of invention and innovation(cf . ciiirc- 15)
C. Relationships of science and technology to"engineering
IV. Public Understanding of Science and.Technology
A. Need for public understanding
7
-6, 21, 23,85
49, 124
i21
'31, 33, 57,
24, 53,
82, 90,100, 102, 17919,.81, 126, 128,131, 132
1. Fu articiption in modern society 25, NI"2. Intelligent exercise of citizenship * . 4, 83 t
. 3. Realism in personal and social decisions 734. Protection against organized irrationality 14, 555. Maximizing the benefits of science 23, 79
B. Distorted or erroneous opinions-] . Science and technology as magic
a. Undue reliance on science to co Jettrather than to 'prevent human errors
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18, 111,1512`41, 130
8- 'Science and Technolbgy as Social Forces
b. Ignorance of conditions needed foradvancement of science
c. Failure to respect the rationality of science2. Science as servant of technology
a . Science valuecnot es teacher, but asservant of desires
b. Bask research devaluedc. Emphasis on problerrf-solving, technological
applications . 124
d. Scientific creativity distorted3. Science as theology -- scientism 41, 156
a. Science as absolute truthb. Mystique of science and scientists 106
c.-Optimistic rejection of traditiond. Pessimistic acceptance-of diabolism r
C; Dangers of misunderstood 20, 75, 151, 1741. Ideological exploitation of popular naivete .151
a. Theological --Otionalizationsb. Moralist distortions.c. Political scientific myths 0d. Democratic biases 11,7
2. UnAtical acceptance of allegedly science-., based technology 84, 148, 174
a. Technological determinismb. Science used to rationalize techno-political
choice 71, 117c. Insufficient examination of consequences 118
d. Neglect of criteria for scientific andtechnological choicb 147, 151
e. Failure to provides safeguards for use ofscience and technology (cf. Topic 03)
Y'jD. Efforts toward public understanding -'-the United
States M2, 1521. Educational institutions (cf. Topic 05) 5, 10, 13, 35, 44
a. Science in the com n schoolsb: Understanding ofscillnceand technology as
tasks of higher educationc. Science policy as a field of study 28, 39, 70, 91, 98
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2. Mass niediaa. The role of the science writers
b, Opporlunities and limitationsc. Dangers of over-popularization.
3. Direct communication between the scientistand the Oblic ...a. Through' newspapers, popular journals,,,
. and books .
b. Lectures... , .
c. Use of radio and telvision. . ./ 4. Governmental agencies \ (cf. Topics 06 and H)-O. Lineare"misSion6-oriented role of most
government:information servicesb. rolicy'reAew as a function of the Congress.c. Fact finding and policy review ()fad hoc
executivkitommitlees and commissionsd. Roles of National Science Foundation
and the National Academies of Sciences andEngineering
5. Professional organizations (cf.: Topic 04)a. Public information as a secondary fUnctiOn
of scientific an professional societies:e-tg.,American.Chemical Society, AmericanMedical,Association A
b. Organizations for public information: eAtomic Scientists, Scien/isis_Institute forPublid information
16,. Associations of interested individuals for the,purpose of Filanning.or publicizing science -based remedies for such problems as overpop-ulation, radioactive fallout, wildlife collier.--vaticin; and disease prevention
AO
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22, 69, 125'29, 30, 51, 72,-116, 12040, 12237,87
6, 17, 80, 134
9, 52, 75, 94
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The Meanings of Science and Technology 11
General References: Articles
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Agassi, Joseph. "The Confusion between Science and Technology in theStandard Philosophies of Science," Technology and Culture, VII (Suns-mer,.1966), 348-366.
2. Albrecht-Carrie, Rene. "Of Science, Its History,and the Teaching There-of," Scientific Monthly, LXXIII (July, 1951), 16-24.
Almond, Gabriel . "Public Opinion and Space Technology,"*Public. 0-pirvionQuarterly, XXIV (Winter, 1960), 553-572.
Aron, Raymond. "The 'Education of the Citizen in Induitrial,Society,"Daedalus, XCI (Spring: 1962), ,249-263.
5. Ashby, Eric., "Dons or Crooners," Science, CXXXI (April 22, 1960),H65-H70.
6. Asimov, Isaac. "-View from a Height;" Chemical and Engineering News,XLIII (May 3, 1965), 90-93.
7 Auger, Pierre. "Limits to Scienc.e,"Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXI(November, 1965), 21-22.
8. Barnes, Carl E. "To Promote Invention," International Science.and Tech-nology, Number 60 (December, 1966), 67-73.
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9. Bates, Marston. "The Criticism of Scientific Books," Science, CXV (April18, 1952),-41111-409.
SA a
O. Baum, Werner A. "Education forthe Emerging Scientific Culture," Edu-.cational Record, XLIII (January, 1962), 44-47.
H . Beck, Lewis W. "The 'Natural Science Ideal' in the Social Sciences,"Scientific Monthly, LXVIII (June, 1949), 386-394.
12.' lenjamin, A. Cornelius. "On Defining 'Science'," SO tific Monthly,LXVIII (March, 1949), 192-198.
17
' 12' Science and Technology as Social Forces
13. Bertalanffy, Ludwig von. "Philosophy of Science iri Scientific Education,"Scientific Monthly, LXXVII (November, 1953), 23C-239.
14. Bibby, Cyril . "Science as an Instrument of Culture," Nature, CCII (April25, 1 964), 331-333 . ._
15. Born, Max. ."The Concept. of Reality in' Physics," Bulletin of the AtomicScientists, XIV (October, 1 958), 313-32.,
16: Boxer, L. W. "latraction of Technologies)" Nature, CCVII (September11, 1965), 1121-1125. , "1
17. Braggchawrence. "The Art of Talking about,Science," Science, CLIV(December 30, 1966), 161 ? -161 6.
-18. Brain, Walter R. "Sciende and Antiscience," Science, XLVIll (April 9,965), 1 92 -1 98 : '
19. Bronowski, Jacob: "The EducOtedMariin 1984, " Advancement of Science,XII (December, 1959, 301-306.
4
."'" . 'The Logic of Nature," -Political Quarterly, XXVI (July-September, 1 955), 258-266.
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21. Brooks, Harvey,.. "Applied Science and Technological Progress," Science,CLVI (June 30, 1967), 1706-171.2. - 7
22. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. "American Society of Newspaper Edi-tors Reports on Atomic Information Problem4" Bulletin of the AtomicScientists, IV (July,'1 949), 211-212; 217.,
Bunge, Mario ."TeehnoJogy as Applied Science;" Technology and Culture,VII (Summer, 1966), 329-347.
Cgioe; Sydney. "Education for.Develop;rientr Advancement of Science,XIV (December, 1:957), 191 -200.
,
25. Calder, Ritchie. "Common Undektanding of Science," Impact ofScience.on Society, XIV (Number, 1964), 179 -195:
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1116. \
CI TheMeanings-,of Science and Technology.13
iillo, 26. Caldin,Edwarif F. "Science in Society: The Fundamehtals,"Endeavour,.
.
V Word, 1 946), 70-73: , ,
27. , . "The Values of cience," Ehdeavour, V (October, 1946),160-163. 4
kynton. . .,
28. 'Caldwell, y. sK. "SAe. Problems ot Corilculuni Developthent,". in ;Science and PUblic,Policy in the, American Universify,.ed. by Lynton ,
. .K. Caldwell,- .Bloomihgton: iridiatia University Program tn.the NI:Mc
1. ' Administration of.Science a'nd Technology,-1969, 36-44.., -. ,
. , . 4 I ' '$
OA 29.: CareyFrank. '1Reportnig Sctene;" S'ci ce, CXV (APrtl .13, 1952); 409-...
A412,,,, ,
.
i, ).' 1 a , 1 II. .
, , '). a. .... .1 . ' ,
. . . J
30, Cohn, Victor. '''Ar-e Wei Reaj I, 'y fetjrtig the yeop,le about StlenCe?" SciLix eice, CXLVtil (May 7r1 9'654; 750-753. 7. , .., _ -. .,
< : ; ''31 ". . 'Conant, James lg. ',"Tlie.:
-,Siotitifilk Education'4 the' COy ' Yale Re-
4. view, XXX.Vr (5ppipmbOr, .1 94:6), 15-46,,. ' ,,
-- . ,
.. ' 0' .
,, t/ ': ' I ' . k: -
32. -.' "Scieritific'Prin'Cipletand Moral Condutt," Ameritan Saien-,.' t :ist,V (5.effAntbeit 1 967)'311r32W . ''. :,. 4
4 / . -, * it , ../. : .
' 7 I,
33. Coucierc,-,Patif.; :"An Antidr4e--fOi=,AntilScience,"1.MpaCt ,of Scie4e onSociety,,XX1 °(Apr11-Jun 971 ) 1173;3 79: id- 1
' .. . '.. . , . ,, '-.: -.:
. ,.0
V *.
i':, . .
34'. Critrian,.Paul . "COusation, Chance, r.l eterrhinism, -.4and'Freedam in Na-tvre;," SeifintifichikinVily '001 1,(Dee4ribir,-'1 p5y, 155-464.e. . . .
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'35.\ Dart, ,Francis't :' anct Pfirtria Lai- Prarthah. "CresseColti.tral Teaching of .
' Science," 'Skeience, ti..V (rebivary1"Q,1?67;, 649 -656,' ,
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"AlBS-Bul loin (BioSclerice); C/ 11 (November; 1955), 21-23.. ,
. . , ...,
37.. . . ..
Decker, 'fred W". "Saientific CommuniCptions Should Be Improved,".,
_ SCience,, CXXV (January 16,- 1 957) 1 01.=T 05. - .-,--...-.-6-...
6
i_ 38. Dedijer, Stevan.... "Tice/
Scietice .of Scrence: A Programme, and'o 'Plea,"Minerva, IV `(Surnmer_il 90),.46-5.041, .2 , . i,
41116 ' 1
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1 4 .Science and Technology a's Social Forcest
*
39. Dennyt, Brewster C . "Science and Pyblic.Policy: A literature in Searchofa Field," Public Administration Review, XXV (September, 1965),239248.
40. Dick,William E. "Science'and the Press," Impact. of S'cience on Society.,V (September, 1954), 143 -173.
41. Dooley, D. J. "Science as tlfche; Fable, and Faith," Bulletin of the A-f tomic Scientists, XV (Novembey, 1959, 372-375. .
42. kicker, Peter F. "The First Technological Volt;tion and Its Lessons,"Technology 'and Culture, VII (Spring, 196 , 143-151.
. "The Technological Revolution: Notes on the Relation-'ship of Techncr(logyeScience, and CksIture," Technology and Culture, II(Fall, 1961), 342-351.
)Dupree, A. Hunter. "Public Education for Science and Technol g y ,
Science, CXXXIV -(September 15, 1 961), 716-T8.
45. Ellul, Jacques. tlechnicitle, Institutions, and Aware,ness," American, Be-'havioral Scientist, XI (July-August, 1'968), 38-42.
46. FeibIeman, James.K. "Importance of Technology," Nature, CCIX (Janu-ary 8, 1966), 122,125.
,47. "The Philosophy of Tools;" Social Forces,4.XLV (March,
1967), 329 -337.
48. "Pure Science, Applied Science, Technology, Engineering:. An Attempt at Defnitions," Technology and Culture, II '(Fel I, 1961)
305-317..
49. litshlock, David. "The 'Fal I-Out.'.from the Space Race," ,New Scientist,.XVIII (May, 30, 1963), 480-481.
50; Fitzgerald, John'.1. "Physical 'Science .and the Objectives of the Scien-tist," Physics Today, V (October,*1 952), 17-22.
51. .Fraley, Pierre C. and fail Ubell . "Science Writing: A Growing" Prfession," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XVIII (June, 1962), 32 -33.
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The Meanings of Science bnd Technology . .15
, ..
.P. FriendlyiAlfred. "Scientists Meet the Press," Bulletin of the Atomic Sci-. entists, XII (November, 1456), 338-340:
43. Gerard, Ralph W. "The Scope of Science," Scientific Monthly,LXIV(Jupe, 1 947), 496 -512.0 ,
AllittlAhi.Gibbons, M.. and C. Johnson. "Relationship between Science and Tech-nology," .Nature, CCMVII (Jury 11., 1 970), 125-127.
55.7 Gomel-, Robert.. 'Vox Populi," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XVIIIi (June, 1962), 32-.33.
56. Hall, A. Rupert. "Historical Relations of Science and Technology,4 Na-ture, CC (December 21, 1963), 1141 -1145.
57. Handlin, Oxcar. "Science andeclinology in Popular Culture,",Daedal-us,XCIV (Winter, 1965),.156-170.
1-
58. Haring, Douglas G. "Science and Social Phenomena," American Scien-tist, XXXV (July, 1947), 349-363. .
59. Hearle, J. W. S "Internation of Technologies," Nature, CCVII (Septem- .ber 18, 1965), 1229-1232:
60. Hill, John W. and JamesE E. Payne. "SCientists Can Talk to the aymon,"Science, CXVII (April 17, 1953), 403405.
61. ',14inshelwood, Cyril. "The Internal and -the External' World1/4" 'Nature,CLX)41V (December 1 2, 1 95 9), 1834-1B38.. .
462. Holliday, L. "Interaction of Technologies'," Nature, CXCV.I1 (January
19, 1.963), 222-226.
-, 63. -Flughes, Donpld J. "Positive Aspects of the Release of 'Secret Information,"Bulletin of tile_ Atomic.Scientists, XII (May, 1 956), J69-172.
64. 'Plulf, Clark 'L. "A Primary Social Science Law," Scientific Monthly,LXXI (October, 195Q), 221-228. . .
e..,
65. Impact of Science on Society. "No.n-Scientists Disseci. Science," Impactof Science on Society, XIX (October-December, 1969), 305-404.
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66. Kantrowitz, Arthur. "The.Tesi: Meeting the Challenge of New Technol-ogy," Bulletin of tlieAtomic Scientists, XXV (November, 1969), 20-24.
67. Kranzberg, Melvin. "The 'Disunity of Science-Technology," AmericanScientist, LVI (Spring, 1968), 21,34.
/68. "The Unity of SCience-Technology," American Scientist, LV
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. 69. Krieghbaum,_Hillie4r. "Public Interest in Science News," Science, CXXIX(April 24, 1 95 9), T092-1 095.
70. Lasswel I, Harold D. "Must Science S4ve Political Power?" American Psy-chologist, XXV (February, 1970), 117-123.
71 . . "The Political Science of Science," American Political Sci-ence Review, L (December, 1956), 961-979.
72. Lessing, Lawrence. "The Three Ages of Science Writing," Chemical andEngineering News, Xti (May 6, 1963), 88-92.,
1, I73. Lilienthal, David E. "Science and Man," Chemical and Engineering
News, XXXVI (September 29, 1958), 114-124.
74. Lindsay, Robert B. "PhysicsTo What Extent Is It Deterministic?" Amer-ican Scientist, LVI (Summer, 1968), 93-111.
75. Lynch, Russell G. "Linguistic Barriers in Science Writing," Al Bulletin(BioScience), XVI (November, 1966), 802-804.
76. McCurdy, Richard C. "Public Must' Be Literate in Science," Chemicaland Engineering News, XXXVI (November 3, 1 958), 62-67; 99.
McLachlan, Dan, Jr. "A Guess as to What Is Science," Physics Today,XIV (June, 1961), 22 -27.
78. Malik, Charles H. "The Limitations of Natural Science," Impact of Sci-ence on Society, XIX (October-December, 1969), 377-386.
79. Mathewson, James H. "Science for the Cithen: An Educational Prob-. lem," Science, CXXXVIII
. (December 28, 1962), 1375 -1379.
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17.
. .80. Mead, Margaret. "Closing the Gap between the Scientists and the Oth-
ers,; Daedalus, LXXXVIII (Winter, 1959), 139-146.
81. Michael, Donald N. "The Space, Age and. American Public Opinion,"Public Opinion Quarterly, XXIV (Winter, 190), 573 -582. ,---
k ,,
82. Morison, Robert S. "Science and Social Attitudes," Science, CLXV (July1.1, 1969), 150-156.*
83. Muller, Hermann-J. "The Role of Biology in Genercfilducation," 'AIBS
Bulletin (BioScience), XIII (August, 1 963), 22-30..
84. Mumford, Lewis. "Technics and the Nature of Man," Nature, CCVIII(December 4, 1 965), '923-928 .
85. . 'Technics and Science,1! Impacrof Science on Society, II(January-March, 1 951), 10-11 .
86. Nagel, Ernest. "The Methods of Science: What Are They?" Can TheyBe Taught?" Scientific. Monthly, LXX ,(January, 1950), 19-23.
87. Nelson, Norman E. "Science and the Irresponsible Imagifiation," YaleReview, XLIII (September, 1 953); 71-88.
---ss
88. Novak, Alfred. "Scientific Inquiry," AIBS Bulletin (BioScience), XIV-: (October, 1964), 25-28.
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89. Oldham, C. H. G. "Science in China's Development7"7Advancement of' Science, XXIV (June, 1968), 481-487.
90. Oppenheimer, J. Robert. "The Age of Science: 1 900-1 950," ScientificAmerican, CLXXXIII (September, 1 95 0), 20-23.
91. Orlans, H. "Social Science Research Policies in the'Unitedates,"14-1'.nerva, IX (January, 1 971), 7-31.
92. Parsons, Talcott. "The Institutionalization of Scientific Investigation,"in The Sociology of Science, ed. by Bernard Barber-and Walter Hirsch.,New York: Free Press of Glencoe, 1962, 7-15.
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93. Piel, Ge4. "Need for PulOic Understanding of Science,' Science,CXXI (March 4, 1955), 317022. `,
94, Pigman, War.d. "Science at Bay," Chemical and Engineering News, XXXI(February 16, 1 953), 652-657. .
95. Planck, Max. "The Meaning and Limits of Exact-Science," Science CXr
(September 36, 1 949), 319 -327.
96. Polanyi, Michael. "The Growth of Science in.Society," Minerva, V (Sum-mer, 1967), 533-545.,.
97. . "Scientific Outlook: Its Sickness andCare, " Science, CXXV(March 15, 1957),480 -484.
98. Price, Derek J, de Sol la . Thq Diferenfes between Science and Technology .Detroit; Michigan: Thomas Alva Edison Foundation, 1968, 16.
'99. . "Educating for the Scientific Age," Bulletin of the AtomicScientists, XXIV (October, 1968), 26-32.
. "The Science of Science," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists,XXI (October, 1965), 2-8..
101. Reid, Robert W. "Television Producer and Scientist,' Nature, CCXXIII(August 2, 1969), 455-458.
102. de Reuck, Anthony V. S. "Popularizing Science," Nature, CCIII (July25, 1 964), 340-341..
103, Rickover, Hyman G. "A Humanisticechnology," Nature, CCVIII (No-vember 20, 1965), 721-726.
1 04. Robinson, Robert. "Science and the Scientists" Advanrent of Science,XII (September, 1955), 137-147.
105. Sarton, George. "Introductory Essays," in A Guide to the History of Sci-- ence.- Waltham, Massachusetts: Chronica Bontanica, 1952, 3-71.
106. Sayre, Anne. "The Scientific Method in Human Affairs," Bulletin of theAtomic Scientists, XI (October, 1955), 295-296.
24
The Meanings Of Science and Technokgys 19
1 07 . Scates, aDouglas E. "The Parallel Rotes of Physical and Social Science,''Scientific Monthly, LXIV (January, 1947), 14-20:
,108. 'Salmi t, Paul F. "Models of Scientific Thought,"American Scientist, XLV( 1 957), 1`37 -149.
L,
109. . "Some Merits and Misinterpretations of Scientific Method, "'Scientiott, Monthly, LXXXII (January, 1 956), 20-24.
110. Schon, Donald A. "The Fear.of Innovation," International Science andTechnology, Number 59 (November, 1 966), 70-78.
111. Seaborg, Glenn T. "The New Optimism," Futurist, III (December, 1 96 9),157-160.
112: Seeger, Raymond J. "On the History and Philosophy of Science," Ameri-can Scientist, LIV (April, 1956), 151 -157.
113. Sever, Raymond. "Science: Observational, Experimental, Historical,"American Scientist, LVI (Spring; 1968),,70 -79.
114. Simpson,`George G. "The Problem of Plan and Purpose in Najjre," Sci-entific Monthly, LXIV (June, 1947), 481495.
115. SkOlimowski, Henryk. "The Structure of thinking in Technology," Tech-bology ancrCulture, VII (Summer, 1966), 371-383. ' ,
116. Skrotsky, Nicolas. "The Role of Sciehtifidournalists in Intermediariesbetween Science and the Non-Specialist: The Task of the Press-in Pop-ularizing Sciehce in an Era of Rapid Scientific Growth," in Conferenceon the Comniunication of Scientific and Technical Knowledge to Indus
\ try, 1963. Paris: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Devel-opment, Directorate for Scientific Affairs, 1965, 16)-166.
"Smytg, Henry D. "From X-Rays to Nuclear Fission," American Scientist,XXXV (October, 1 947), 485-501.
118. Starr, Chauncey. "Social Benefit versus Technological Risk," Science,CLXV (September 19, 1969), 1232-1238.
119. Stevenson, Earl P. "Creative Technology," Scientific Monthly, ,LXXVI( (April, 1953), 203-206.
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120.
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Sullivan, Walter. 'Writing Science for the Public,".131zsics Today, XXIII(August, 1970), 51-53.
121. Swann, William F. G. "Engineering and Are Science," Physics Today,IV (June, 1951), 9-17.
)122. Thistle, M. W. "Popularizing Science," Science CXXVII (April 25,
1958), 951 -955.
123. Thompson, Peter. "Traces: Basic Research Links to Technology Appraised,'"Science, CLXIII (January 24, 1969), 374-375.
124. Townes,. Charles S. "Quantum Electronics, and Suprise in the Developmentof Technology," Science, CLIX (February 16, 1968), 699-703.
125. Libel, Earl. l'Covdring the News of Science," American Scientist, XLV(December, 1957), 330A-350A.
126. Weaver, \Wren. "The Imperfections of Science," American Scientist,XLIX (March, 1961), 99-,113.
127..
"Science and' the Citizen," Science, CXXVI-(December 13,1957); 1225-1229.
128. . "Why Is Science Important?" Chemical and EngineeringNews, XXXIX (February 13, 1961), 144-148.
129. Weinberg, Alvin M. "The A *iology of 'Science," American Scientist,LVIII (November-December, 1.970) 12-61 7.
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130. . "In Defense of Science;" Science, CLXVII (January 9,1970), 141-145.
131. Wolfle, Dael . "The Royal Science," $cience Journal, IV '(March, 1968),80-84.
132. . "Science anciPubliC Understanding," Science, CXXV (Feb-ruary 1, 1957), 179-1 82.
133. Working, Holbrook. "Research in the Social Sciences," Science, ay(August 30, 1946), 1 93-1 97.
.he Mesnings of Science ancrcechnology 21
134. Wylie, Philip. ."A Layman Looks at Biology," AIBS Bulletin (BioScience),
IX (June, 1959), 12-15,
135. Ziman, John. M. ."Informatiori, Communication,CCX)(IV (October 25, 1969), 318-324.
Knowledg" Nature,
General References: Bobks
136. Allen FranOis, Hornell- Hoei, Delbert4. Miller, William F. Ogburn; and
Meyer F. Nimkoff.' Techniibgyand Social Change. New York: Ap-pleton-Century-Crofts,.. 1957-, 529.
137. .,American Foundation for Continuing Education. Science and Public Pol-
ice. Dobbs' Ferry, New York: Oceana, 1970, 650.
138. Barber, Bernard. Science and the Social Order. Glencoe, Illinois: Free
Press, 1952, 288.
.139. Bernal, J. D. Science in History . Cambridge, Massachusetts: M. I, T.
Press, 1971, 362.
`1.40. Beveqdge, William I. B. Th,e Art of ScientifiF investigation. Rey. Ed.
York: Norton, 1957, 171.
141.0 Bond, Floyd A.., ed. Technological ,Change and .Economic Growth. Ann
Arbor: Graduate School,of Busihess Administration, University of Mich-.igan (Michigan Business Papers, Number 41), 1965, 59.
142 Bri,ckrtioni.Williarn H. and Stanley Lehrer, eds. Automation, Education,and Human Values. New York: School.and ebciety BoOks,ivision.of
"4 the Society for the Advancement of EilucOn'on, 1 966,.41
143.
1444k.
Science in, Our Lives. New York: New American Li-.beary,.1 9541 9 .
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n, EdWard F. The Power and Limits of "Scferice: A PhilosciphiCal,ud . London: e'hapmarf and HalfAtl 9491'196.
, ,
145. C mOton, Walter D., ed, The InteraAen of Science and Technology:-Urbana% University of Illinois Pres 969 137. .
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;V cm
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*22 Science and Technology as Social Forces'
146. Cornelius, Benjamin A. Science, Technology, grid HumbnValues. Colum-r
bia: University of MissOuri Press, 1965, 296.
147. DeGrazia, Alfred,,ecl. The Velikovsky Affair: The Warfare of Science andScientism. New Hyde Park, New York: University Books, 1966, 264.
148. Ellul, Jacques. The-Technological Society: Irons by John Wilkinson.New York: Knopf, 1964, 449. ".
M9. Encyclopedia Brtannica Conference on the Technological Order, SantaBarbara, California, 1962. The Technological Order: Proceedings.Ed. by Carl F. Stover. Detroit: Wayne State University Press,. 1963,280.
150. Fischer, R. B. Science, Man and Society. 'Philadelphia: W. B. Saun-ders, 1971,' 130.
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151. gardner, Martin. Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science. New York:.Dover, 1957, 363. ,
152. .bouldner;.Arvin W. and Richard A.the 'Moral Order. Indianapolis:
153. H4itlebrand; toe! H.. Science in thev.erky Piss, W57, 116.,
Peterson .,i Notes on Technology andBobbs-Merri I I, 1962, 96.
Making. New York: Columbia Uni-
154. Iltiriois Institute of Technology Research Institute. lechnology in Retro-Sped &nd Critical Events in Scienig. Vol. k *rider Contract NSF-
.'C535, for the National Science Foundation, December 15, 1968, 104.
155." Johnson, Martin C. Science and the Meaning of Truth. London: Faberand Faber, 1946, 179.
156. JUnge,r, Friedrich G. The Failure of Technology. Trans.. from German.Chicago: Henry Regnery, 1956, 204.
157. Kaiser, = Charles H. An Essay on Method. New Brunswick:New . tgley:Rutgers University Priss, 1952, 163. .
158. Kantor, Jacob R. The Lo is of Modern Science. Bloomington, Indiana:Principia Press, 1 953;159.
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159. Kohn, Thomas S. The Structire of Scient' c Revolutions. Chicago: Uni-versity of Chicago Press, 1962, 172
S160. Lachman, Sheldon J. 'The Fou6ndations of Science. Detroit: Hamilton
Press, 1956, 130.
161. Medawar, Peter B. The Art of the Soluble. London: Methuen, 1967, 160.
162. Meier, Richard L. Science and Economic Qevelopment: New Patterns ofLiving. CArolaidge_Massachusetts: M I. T. Press; 1956, 266.
163. Nagel, Ernest. The Structure of Science: Problems in the Logic of Sct-entific Explanation. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and World, 1961,_618. _
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164. Nash, Leonard K. The Nature of the Natural Sciences. Boston: Little,Brown, 1963, 406.
165. Needham, Joseph. The Grand Titration: Science artd Society in East anWest. London: Allen and 1.1 win, 1969, 350.
166. Pantin, Car-I F. A. The Relations between the-Sciences. London: Cam-bridge University Press, 1968, 206.
,,167. Platt, John R: Tli-e-.Step to Man. New York: Wiley, 1966, 216.
4.168. Pokrov'sky, Major Gen. G. Science and Technology in Contem aryWar. Translated by Raymond L. Garthoff. New York:. Praeger, 59,,180.
169: Rapport, Samuel and HelenWright. Science: Meth,od ancleaning. NewYork: Washington Square Press, 1963,.248..
170. Reiser, Oliver L. The Integration of Human Knowledge: A Study of theFormal Foundations and the Social Implications of Unified Science.Boston: Rorter Sargent, T958, 478.
171. Rickert, Heintich. Science ancl History: A Critique of Positivist Epistem-ology. Translated by Georg. Reisman. Ed. by Arthur Goddard. ,
Princeton, New Jersey: Van Nostrand, 1962, 161.
1 72 . Schon, Iiionald A. Technology and Change. New York: Dell, 1967, ,248.
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173, Spicer,, Edward H., ed. Human Problems in Technological Change. ACase Book. New York: Russell Stip FoundatiOn, 1952, 301.
174. Standen, Anthony. Science Is a Sacred Cow. 'New York: Dutton, 1950,221. (New edition 1950.
175. Toulmin, Stephen E. Foresight and Understanding: An Inquiry into theAims of Science. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1961, 115.
176. The Philosophy of Sctance: An Introduction. New York:Harper, 1960, 176.
177. Wal kerf Char,les, R ., assisted by Ade la ido G Wa I ker . Modern Technologyand Civilizatiqp: An' Introduction, to Human Problems in the MachineAge. , New York: McGrOw-Hill, 1962, 469.
178. Walker, Marshall 3. The. Nature of.Scientific Thought . Englewood Cliffs,New Jerseys,' Prentict-l-lall, 1963, 184.
179. Ziman, John M. Public Knowledge: The Social Dimension of Science.00. London: Cambridge University Press, 190, 154.
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LEADING QUESTIONS
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1. What is the meaning of "the scientific_method"? What criteria are used, andby whom, to determine what methods are "scientific"?-
Is advOnced technology synonyMous with "a lied science" or are there dif-ferences between these terms? If differences, what are their implications?
2.
3. What are, some of the more important instances of the dependence of "Ore"science upon technological innovation? (For example, in astronomy, physics, .
neurology, and microbiology.) . -, S.
4. Do you agree that the interaction between science and technology is more theexception than the rule, and that the achievertnerits of the last two centuriesowe more to the advance of technology than to the progress of .science?
5. Under present and prospective conditions of societies with highly developedtechnology, is there 'justification or utility in an intellectual attitude thatseparates ,scientific discovery fr,om technological application? Should thetwo processes be view 'as ci single continuum, or as interacting variable-s?,
,-, , . - .
6. What is meant by the "science of sciencV; 'by the "so ciology of science"; by .
the "political science of science? How do they, differ from the study of-the"history and philosophy of science"? How does.each of these fields differfrom the study of "science; technology, and public policy"?
7 If you could reorganize a 'university upon the basis of the present state ofknowledge would you change the present formal organization of the sciencesand technical studies? If so, upon ,what basis orcriteria would you act?
8. What are some of the more common popular misconceptions of science and
technology? Why may, these misconceptions pro;/e to be socially haimful?
9. Is the "mystique of science" sole a consequence of unsophisticated popularattitudes? Has it been cbltiva ed or resisted by scientists? . .
, .
10. Stephen Toulmin writes: "Our lives'arehanged by its (science's) handiwork,44 but the population of the West is as far from understanding thenoture of the
strange power as a remote peasant of the Middle Ages may.have-been 'fromundersta'ndingihrlheology of Thomas Aquinas:" Do you agree?
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TOPIC 02,SCIENCE-AS AN ASPECT OF 'MODERN CULTURE
Every major aspect of modern culture or technologyhas been influenced by sci-ence; the perceptions, assumptions, themes, and techniques of, the arts qnd humani,.:-ties have been profoundly affected. Science may be said to have crested a uni-versal culture of its own--the fechnostientific superculture--which overlays tradi-tional societies and to which individuals, regardless Orparticular nationcility;mayequally belong as.comrhon members.
4
There is, nevertheless, in all modern nations a substratu-rn'of 'pre-scieL.fn6unscientific attitude did belief that greatly complicates the shapi'ngiof4u Ficopol-
;4 for science and technology. Nonscientific attitudes tend to be's*trortdomestic, politicaland religious affairs. Where-strongly held, nonscientific valuesconflict with scientific judgment (as with family planning an population control),the task of Fwblic Policy forrhulation is complicated.
Unlike fraditiondl cultures, that may relate-to all aspects of an individual's ex-istence, We technoscipntific superculture is,incomplete. There are many aspectsof life' to which science and technology contribute only findirectly or not at all .
No person can.live wholly in the technoscientific suaerculture The greater num-ber of people in the world as yet live almost wholly in jiaditional or at least innonscientific cultures. But persons who belong to the superculture of science andtectinologyeeive in two culturesthe or in which they were born and reared, andthe one in which they work as scientisti, engineers,, or physicians, with attitudesand techniques shaped through advanced technoscientific education. Where thesetwo culturis are inconsistent with one another and are contradictory, conflict be-
and ithin groups grid individuals arises. A notable instance of this conflict-has been described by C. P. Snow in The Two Culture's.
.
Although it is possible to distinguish technoscientific culture from traditionalculture, they are not manifest as clear-cut distinctions in most individuals. In anyindividual -there may be g complex miXture of traditional attitudes and behavior
Alb' patterns With' beliefs and methods attributable to science. Modern science is, in-deed, an outgrowth of historical Western civilization and in one sense is more trulyan advanced phase of this traditional culture t(tan an alien overlay. In this od-vance, however, the ties of modern science to historical Western culture have be-
.
came increasingly attenuated and in non-Western societies to which it is alien,science has often been a disruptive force . The wise use of science and its recon-ciliation wjth elements of traditional culture have novt, become challenges to theeintegrity of all human societies. Thus public policy for science is linked to socialpolicy generally, and requires a high level of synthesis in conceptualizing,/ andalarming for society's fUture.
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TOPIC 02 SC1ENOE AS AN ASPECT OF MODERN CULTURE
Selected Basic Readings;
Ashmore, Jerome. "Some Reflections on 'Science and the Humanities," Physicstoday, XVI (November, 1963), 46-54.
.
. I,Boulding, Kenneth E. 'The Scientific Revelation," Bulletin of the Atomic Scien-
tists, XXVI (September, 1970), 13-18.,
. .-- - ,;* .. , rDubos, Rene. "Science and tAa n's Nature," in Science and Culture: A Study of/ Cohesive and Disjunctive Forces, ed. by Gerald J. 'Holton:-Boston: Houghton
Mifflin, 1965, 251-272.
Holub, Miroslav "Science in the Unity of Culture," Impact of Science on Soci-!ty, XX (Apr -June, 1970), 151 -158.
Toulmin, Ste en E. "The Evolutionary Development of Natural Science,"Amer-icon Scientist4,LV (December,.1 967), 456-471.
-Supplementary and Substitute Readings:
Bronowslei, Jacob. "Science as "a-Humanistic DisciOline,"'Bulletin of the AtomicScientists, XXV (April, 1969), 27-30.
BrOoks, Harvey. "Scientific concepts and Cultural Change,"in Science and Cul-ture: A Study.of Cohesive and Disjunctive 'Forces, ed. by Gerald J. Holton.
' Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1965, 70-87.
'Gillespie, Charles C.. "Remara'on Social Selection as a Factor in the Progress-ivism of Science," AmericariScientist, LVI (Winter, 1968), 439-450.
Snow, Charles P. The Two Cultures: Illnd_a Second Look. New York: CambridgeItiversity Press, 1963, 107.
Stegeman, Beatrice. "Science as Art," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientist's, XXIV(October, 1968), 33-38. .
334
L
t
,
.
Ma
b
TOPIC 02 SCIENCE AS AN ASPECT OF MODERN CULTURE.
TOPICAL OUTLINE ,I4.
I . Science as an Aspect of Western, Civilization
A. Historical and philosophical roots of modernscience in ancient Greece and Rome '
Scientific thought a distinguishing charaterisfic of Western civilization?
1. "Scientific epistemology: a dualprocess of arriving at and judging.knowledge. Application of such ,criteria, e.g., by Artistotle, to thttotality of4human knowledge
2. The concept of action, by the individualor the society, as ruled by reason, i.e.,denial of tradition or authority as'the.necessary guides to action. Consequencesin ethics, law, science, and technology-
3. The concept of man and the universe'cis"transparent" to the knowledge-seeker--epistemological' optimism versus episte-mological pessimism
4. Concepts of the value of knowleige for itsown sake
I/B. Development of intimate connections betweitri
science and technology (Review concepts' '
develeoped in Topic Cl)1. Ancient and oriental views'
a. Little or no connection betWeenscience and technology
,
'b. Early links of scientific thought,with religion, mysticism, medicine
2. Three current views .
a. Classical: emphasizes the ptirsuit ofknowledge)x its intellectual and enter-tainment values. The "pure science"argument: science can progress best byfollowing its own inner directions
34
.
29
/ REFERENCE KEY e.
59, 83go-
28, 43, 67, 88
21, 84
.
82, 85, 86
48, 96
I74
38, 42
28
87, 88
1
L.
r 4..
/. i t 4
30, Science and Technology as Social Forces
b. Proctier Baconian: whileadmitting its intellectual -values,science can be methodically di-rected toward goals having socialvalue, toward technology 52
c.. Technological: science is or shouldbe related to the unfolding of tech- .
nological evolution which, in thelong run, is self-augmenting; thedirection of scientific progress isshaped by technological as well asby historical and economic fortes 67
3. Contrast and change: importation ofmodern concepts of science, via tech-nology, into semi- or non-Westerncult`ures (See Topics 07, 09, 10) 4, 40, 44
e 7
B
, .
H. Pervasive Influences of Scientific Concepts on Man's
--\ Images of Himself and the World (See also Topics.03,16, and 0) 27, 58
A.' The increasing status of "scientificfi knowledge" ina technoscientifit culture, as contrasted with mysti-cism, revelation, and conventional wisdom1. Histofical relationships to the diminishing
hold of traditional philosophical and religiousbeliefsa. The destruction of the comprehensive
Aristotelian stem by such influencesas the new astronomy of Copernicusand Galilee; ,
b. Beginning of The age of epistemologicaloptimism been in the work of Descartes,Newton, and others--reaching its heightin the 19th century
c. The new geology of Lyell and theevolu-tionary biology of Darwin placed thehistory of life on earth, and man himself,in new perspectives
2. Extensions (sometimes naive) of scientificconcepts into other areasof thought (See alsoTopics 16, 21, 29, and 30)
35
1,.
3, 10, '23
47, 72
9, 88 .
13,
17,
16,
66
47,
76,
23,
77
50, 51,
/
,
4
1
Science as an Aspect of Modern Culture
a. The Copernican Revolution: a cosmo-logical' about-face s
b. Darwin's Theory of EvolutiOn; man'splace in nature; social Darwinism
c. Pavlov's psychology: "brainwashing";-the control of ciety;. concepts of
human natured. The new physics deriving from Einstein's
relativity, Planck's quantum theory,Heise berg's 'uncertainty theory: attemptsto extrapolate to the social sciences andthe humanities
B. ,Identification of "modernity" with scjentific andscience-derived progress1. Impingement of scientific and scietice-
4
derivedderived concepts on the Westernivorld-viewa. Develorerrt of the view of a historical,
evolving, noncyclical world which isopen to study by .the methodology of
scienceb. Growing identification of scientific
hought as the model for all kinds ofnvestigation
2. Histoiical linkages of the-concepts of socialand huinan progress with developing scien-tific thought (See Topic 25)
a. The utopian literature of progresstypified by the writings of Bacon,Owen, and Wells relied heavily onth5 rationality of science and on thefruits of science'-based technology
6:The literature of the Enlightenment,which greatly influenced futuredevelopments in politital structures,.ethics, and religionmade appeals toscientific rationality and independence
31 -
9
1,9
32, 37
66it
17, 23, 54; 6.1
6
24, 30, 31, 66,73, 96
58
of thought .c. Numerous socioeconomic theories e.g.,
Cameralism, Technocracyj, Marxism:haverelied on technoscientificingredients in the
social systems proposed 64, 65, 67
3G
.4
32 Science and Technology as Social For Ces
3. Factors aiding in the reinforcement ofthe connection of scientific with socialprogr'ess
a. Continuing success of the scientific- method as a tool for increasing know-
ledge of the physical world,b. The demonstrated power of science as a
generator of technologyc. The power of science-derived technology-
as an agent of social change (See Topic03)
46, 65, 86, 88
29,34
Ill . Emergence of a Universal Technoscientific Culture 8, 57, 65, 72,80, 90
0 A. Cultural self - consciousness and cultural conflictin modern society 3, 51. Science and technology create awareness of
cultural differences and cultural relativism 17
2. Culture becomes a tool of politics, e.g.,. German Kulturkampf, Pan-Slaivism,
Aniericanism ' 75
B. Emergence of a distinctively technoscientificaspecf or "layer" of Western culture, 1860-P960 9, 25, 52, 79,
85
1
Growth of technoscientific occupations2 Increasing prominence of science in uni-,
versities, displacing classics, humanities,.,end theZiogy
3. Transmission of technoscientific culture tonon-Western world, via religious missionaries,business enterprise, rgiiitary action) andphilanthropic, educational, and technicalassistance
4: Growth of an international technoscien tificintelligentsia, partially detached fromtraditional cultures
37
20, .66
4, 43, 44
5
Science as an Aspect of Modern Culture
C. The' "Two Cultures conflict (See alsoTopic 05)
1. C.P. Snow's thesis - -th4 English aspect ofthe general issue
2. Extent of separability of scientific fromWestern culture
3. The complementary aspects of scienceand the humanities
4. Bridging the "scientist- humanist gap".5. Is a "third" culture really feasible?
a. Would its bale be traditional or, scientific?
b. To what extent do we have evidence.of the ability of existing traditionalcultures to find an accomodationwith science?
6. Is a single universal culture the possibleoutcome of technoscientific influence?Would such a culture be'benefickal, harmful,preventable, or self-renewable? (See Topi920, 25, and 30)
33
33
14, 55, 60, 63,91, 92
18, 49, 56, 71
- 3, 5, 37, 62,90
9, 11, 22, 9512, 27, 41, -
2, 39, 61
53, 66,, 70, 73
a5, 36
.
-Science as an Asfect of-Modern Culture .
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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t,
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10.-,
'Brooks, Harvey. "Scientific Concepts and Cultural Change," in Scienceand Culture: to Study of Cohesive and Disjunctive Forces, ed. byGerald J. Holton. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1965, 70-87.
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3 9
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Science and Technology as Social Forces -o
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, .
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'Science as an Aspecf of MOdern Culture -37 %
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,
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Science and TAchnology as ial Forces
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38. Jones, R. V.* "Science, TechnolOgy, and Civilization," Nature, CXCIV(June 30, 19.52), 1211-1214.
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41,.. Malher, Kirtley F. "The Scientist4 Re'spon ty foe:the interpretation ofa Concepts to `Laymen," ',Main Currents in Modern Tho X (4iarc1 ,
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Technology and Culture {Winter, 1 959); 38-47. $
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44.` . "Science'' and, Soiety in EastAnclWes*ScIence.a`nd Soqi-' er , XXVIII (Fall; 1 964), 385-408._ ,. .7
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XV (Number. 2, 1965), 1,19-129'. . I
!'1.6\''':If
2 46, Perrot)) ! "Science as a liberal Study Advancement of Science, X'XVII ,
.. . h,J9X0), 233;238 . . , *W \e W%-', 111L 44.41. A .' Of
47. Popper, Karl R . "Humanism and Reason, " in his cowl cturesand Refuta-l
t.tions: The Growth of Scientific 'Knowledge. Ne 'YOrk: Basi,c, Books, .
11962, 377-384.
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. t
Gekeciures and Refutations: The Growth of Scie tific ,Knowledge.New York: Basic Books, 1962, 3-30.
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4
Science as an Aspect of Modern Culture 39
4
.49. Roberts, Catherine. "Nightingales, Hawks, and the Two Cultures," anti-.och Review,. XXV (Summer, 1965)i 221-238.
(50. Sargent, Frederick, II, anctiDemitri Shirrikin. "Biology, Society, and Cul-ture in Human Society," AIBS Bulletin (BioScience), XV (August,1965), 512-516.
Sayre, Anne. "The ScientificMethod in Human Affairs," Bulletin of theAtomic Scientists, XI (October, 1955), 295 -296.
51.
52. Seaborg, Glenn T. "Science and the Humanities: A Nei, Level of ym-biosis," Science, CXLIV (June 5, 1964), 1199 -1203.
., (s. .
53. .. "A 9c-lentific Society--The Beginnings,' Science, CXXXV(February) ¢x196622), 505-509.
54. Seitz,yrederict. ."Science and Modern Man," American Scientist, LIV(Septimber, 1966), 227-243. . * 4
55. Simon, Walter M. "The 'Two Cultures' in Nineteenth-Century France:' Victor Cousin and Auguste Comte," Journal of the History of Ideas,
XXVI (January-March, 1965), 45-58.
56. Stegeman, Beatrice -.- -"Science as Art," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists,XXIV. (Qc,tober, 1968), 33-38.
4
57. Stratton, Julius A. "Changing Role of Science and Technology," Nature,CCIII (August 1, 1964), 455-4571.
I
.5R_ Thomson, David. fScientific Thought and Revolutionary Movements,"Impactdof Science on Society, VI (March, 1i55), 3-29.
59. Toulmin; Stephen E. "The Evolutionary Development of Natural Science,"American Scientist;LV (December, 1 967), 456-471.
60. Walker, E. A. "A Call to Arms," ,Scientific Research, IV (MarCh 31,1969); 35 -36.
I61. Weil, fric "'Science in Modern Culture," in Science and Culture: A
Study of Cohesive and Disjunctive Forces, ed. by Gerald J. Holton.Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1965, 1 99-21 7:
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40 - Science andTechnology as SOCiOr-FOrCeS
62. Whitehead; Alfred N. -"Humanism in a Scientific Age," American Scien-tist, xtm (September, 1958), 309-322.
63. Violfle, Dael . "The Royal Science," Science Journal, ly (March, 1968),80-84.
64. Zvorikine, A. A. "Technology and the Laws of Its Development," Tech-nology and Culture, III (Fall, 1962), 433 -458.
General References: Books
65. Barber, Bernard.. S'tce and the Social, Order. Glencoe, Illinois: Free
Press, 1V2, 288.,
66. Barzu-n, Jacques, Sciena: The Glariaus, 'Entertainment . New York:Harper and RoW, 1964, xr 322.
y
67. Bernal, John D. Science in Histpry,., Mew YOrk: Hawthorn, 1965, 1039.
68. Boyko,' Hugo. eth Science and.,-th;e FuturPof Ma9kind.. Bloomington:Indiana University Press, 1964, viii 38.6,,, .
`069. Bronowski, Jacob. Science an0Humanyalues. Rev. Ed. geTry York:
. Harper and Row; 1965, H 9." , , -, .,
70. Bush, Douglas. 'Science and4ilialisFTPoetry; 4_1-listorical Ski:tch, 1 590-
1 950: New York: 6;tord University Press, 1950, vii, 166. .
/-- . i "
71. Cornelius, David K.tapd Edwin St. Vincent: Cultures in Conflict: Per-spectives on the Snow-Leavistontroversy. Chicag,i_Scatt, Foreman,1964, 179. , " :4
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72. Cournand, A. F.andH. A*. ZuSterinan. The c e 2f Science: Analysisand Reflectionslan Its Future. Niew York: Irtititute for the Study ofScience in H-Noot Affairs, Columbia University,-1970, 43.
.,-.'.. 73. Dillenberger, John. Protestdrit Thou ht and Natural Science: A'Histor-
ical-Inte4pretation. London: Coilins,T961, 320.- , lit leVIP;
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74. Dubos, Rene. The Cultural Roots and the Social Fruits of ScienceEugene:University of.Oregon Press, 1963, 38.
75. Gardner, Martin. Fads and Fallacies,in the Name of Science. New York:Dover, 1957, x, 363..
76. Gillispie, Charles C. Genesis and Geology: The Impact of Scientific'Discoveries upon RelVous Beliefs'in the Decades before Darwin. NeWYork: Harper, 19594. xiv, 306.
77. Greene, John Cit. The Death of Adam: Evolution and Its Impact on WesternThought. Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1961, 141.
78. Habgood, John S.' Religion and Science. Ed. by J. Goodier. London:Mills and Boon, 1964, viii, 159. Biblio.
(
79, Harrison, George R. The Rot# d Scie4ce in Our Modern World. NewYork: Morrow, 1956, 278.
80. Holton, Gerald J., ed. Science and Culture:. A Study of Coheskie andDisjunctive Forces. Bostort:.., Houghton Mifflin, 1965, xxxii, 348.
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./
.
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'Science and Technolog I Forcel
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4,
1(
6 k
Sience as an Aspect of Modern Culture
LEADING.QUESTIONS
4
_
43
1. ,eorge Sarton once observed that the properfrocus of history should be on thedevelopment of science and technology, rather than on diplomatic relationsand wars between nations. To what extent was his view valid?
2. .What is the "fit" of science in modern Western culture? Is it indeed,pn inte-gral part of this culture? Has its relationship to traditional culture changed?
'4.
3. Canliwe explain sit of the characteristic differences between past and pre,.,sent Western cultures as consequences of the roles played in the cultuysby
. science? If so, could,we 'extend this analysis to other cultures?Ilt
4. What explanations have been advanced for the growth Of scientific thoughtin the West, in contrast to its delayed or-arrested development in Chiha, In-
,dia, the Isfamic world, and Africa? ,
5. You may recall a conviction -- common a few yearsago--that science can onlydevelop in a "free"society. How would you evaluate this view? What kindsof societies do you think would be favorable or unfavorable to science?
6. Jacques Barzun argues that science has taken up a rale in this culture anal0,-gous in many ways to that of religion in medieval times. Does this analogyseem reasonable? In what ways might it be misleading?
7. Is there evidence that the amount of superstition in society (beliefs in thingsthat are not so)has remained relatively constant throughout historic time,andthat science has merely changed the things about which people are supersti-tious? Would the G.N.p.as indicator of economic health be a superstition?
8. Do the following statements illustrate "scientism"? (a) science is the likelysource of technological answers to all the prablynrof society; (b) science isthe model for all types of investigation or problem- solving. Are these viewsreasonable, or should tgly be qualified or denied?
r--9.. Science in the abstract has sometimes been *scribed as anti-cultufal . Why?
How does this view of science relate to'the "two cultures" controversy? .
10. i What significance do the following terms have in relation to science?a . Planned Parenthood c. Relativism e. Hurnah Engineering
. PsyChoanalySiS d. Technocraq f. aristian Science
4it
""S
4
A
TOPIC 03 SOCIAL t'OPAC...1 OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Unti1thelliPth century, the impact of science on society was largely distinguish-,able from the impact.of technology. Since prehistoric time, technologyi.ather thanscience has shard man's behavior and his institutions. Technological innovation,as illustrated by such events as the beginning of agliculture, the discovery of thewheel,and the working of metals, has repeat(dly revolutionized social conditions.But throughout most of historic time the influence of sciepce has been confined tothe beliefs of small numbers of highly literate or inquisitive individuals, and itseffects have been slow and accumulative.
During the latter half of the 19th century, scientific .discov and technologi-1'cal innovation increasingly became interdependent. Sin 1900, it has becomedifficult to distinguish precisely between scientific and 'technological forces forsocial change. The revolutionary developments of the present era, in atomic 'en-.ergy, ipcommunications, iritmedicine, in automation, are technoscientific. Theyare a licatidns of advanced scientific thought and sophisticated technologies.Al thou 'r impact uport.society may or may not be asdecisive as 'those eatliesttechrraogical innovations that enabled man to pass from prehistory into historictimes, their combined power'to change institutions, Irliefs, end practices is verygreat.
In the technoscientifit society of the 20th-century, technology appears to dom-inate science.. Explanatigo-lies in the direct applicability of technology to prac-tical affairs. Technology directly serves economic, military, and civic purposes.Science informs the mind, but ustfatly must be translated into, technology beforwitcan change the external characteristics of society.
The influence of technology on society, has been the subjest of an extensive andcritical literature. A major theme is the automatic and'se*augmenting characterof technology; dealt with most explicitly in The Technological Society by theFrench sociologist, Jacques Ellul . The inevitability of technological developmentunder favorable conditions is widely accepted and vigorously disputed. The issueis the extent to which societies of.men can control and direct their scientific andtechnological development. -A strong trend toward technowientific determinismcharacterizes contemporary thinking and is especially prominent in technologicalforecasting and irrscience fiction.
But reaction against the doctrine of technoscientific inevi tabi I ity has been grow-,ing, especially in advanced industrial societies. In its more constructive 'phase thismovement is towards more selective use of science and technology to shape a de-sired future instead of acquiescing in a future shaped by their uncritical applica-
dtions.
43
I
46 Science and Technology as Social Forcef
ITOPIC 03 SOCIAL IMPACT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
,
Selected Bask Readings:
Branscomb, Lewis M. "Taming Technology,". Science CLXXI (March 12, 1971),97.2-977.
.BroOks, Harvey. "Can Science Survive in the Modern Age?" Science, CLXXIV
(October 1, 1971), 21-30. 4
C
Carroll, James D. "Participatory Technology," Science, CLXXI (February 19,-- 1971), 647-658.
Mesthene, Emmanuel G. "How Technology.Will Shape the Future," Science,CLXI(July 12, 1968), 135-143.
' Weinberg, Alvin M..4In Defense of`Science," Science, CLXVII (January 9, 1970),I 141 -J45. . .*
Supplementary and Substitute Readings:
Daddario, Emilio Q. "Technology and the Democratic Process," Technology Re-view, LXXIII (July-August, 1971), 18 -23.
DuBridge, Lee A. "The Social Control of Science," Bulletin of the Atomic Scien-Lists, XXV (May, 1969), 26-28; 35.
ElluJ, Jacques. "Technique, Institutions, and Awareness," American Behavioralscientist, XI (JK: August, 1 968), 38-42.
.. tGlass, H . Bentley. "Science: Endless Horizons or Golden Age?" Science, CLXXI--(January 8; 1 971), 23-29. .
Hugh-Jones, Edward M. "The Impact of Iechnslogical Change," Advancementof Science, XXV (September, 1 968), 23-29.
Wolff, Harold. "The Impact of SOciety o%Sciencc," American Beflavioral Scien-tist
1X (May, 1 967), 2-7:--.
i
.
4940
...
4N
ailliK1
1.
TOPIC 03 SOCIAL IMPACT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 47
TOPICAL OUTLINE REFERENCE KEY
I Distinctions between the Effects of Science andTechnology, and Their Significance 16, 173, 182
A. Common effects 81. Initial effects not necessari,ly,same as
ultimcite effects 99, 182a. Darwinian evolutionb. Internal combustion enginec. Antibiotics in tropical countriesd. Outer-space exploration 134, 178
2. Individual effects: not always predictiveof synergistic effects 16,.139
3. TechnoscientificODovations frequentlyincur unforeseen Pacts owing to: 23, 44, 78, 138, ,
139a. Preoccupation of innovators with
the target to the neglect of sideeffects
b. Lack of adequate testing andanalysis of possible consequences(Cf . Topic 13)
4. Influence of science and technologymay be changed as readily by emergentforces in the environment (e. g.; com-peting forces, theories, or technologies) as
by intrinsic properties of scientific ideasor techniques themselves
B. Differences in the effects' f science andtechnology1. Science tends initially to affect the mind,
e .g., attitudes, beliefs, perceptions ofpeople; and afterward indirectly to in-fluence their behavior. Examples:
,Feeudiall psychology:paychiatry; ,
iMendelian genetics: plant breeding
28
173
37
48 Science and Technology as Social Forces
,21 Technology tends initially to influence be-havior, and later indirectly to affect theexplanations for the behavior through theory
a. Birth control devices: "new morality"b. Television: "the medium is the message"
II'. Emergence of a Technoscientific Society
A. Conditions conducive to the dominance oftechnique losociety (after J. Ellul)
1. Facilities for communication and transpor-tation 153
2. Widespread literacy and information .127°3. Development of artisan or mechanic skills4. Economic margin beyond subsistence5. Concentrations of wealth and population 1276. Innovative or entreprenurial motivation7. Growth of a middle class
3. Breakdown of social barliers and corn:moatintegrity
9. Social and intellectual fluidity10. Complex orgeoizational techniques11. Tolerance for cOmplexity and uncertainty12. Cooperattm for non-personal ends13 e om of inquiry
12, 34, 162, 76,87, 1398
34, 157
5, 81_,_82, 137,142, 155, 157,176
32, 43, 86, 118,155, 167
13689, 116, 127
B. The emergence of the technoscientific society asa ph menorkof "critical mass" or chain reaction 155
1. lui's concept of "technological"a .'Atiifomatisr ob. Self-augmentationa.. Monismd. Technical universa ism
2. Technology as an aspect of the explosion ofknowledge and a factor in the emergence ofa world society
3. Factors affecting the transfer of technology(Cf . Topic 13)
4A
10
58
Social Impact of Science and Technology
C. Effects of accelerated and unbalanced techno-logical change
. 49
57,114,115,153,155,180;182
1. "Unbalance" or "imbalance" in technologyand normative concepts 173a. Fact of imbalance does not necessarily
imply adVerse effectsb. Imbalance sometimes sought as a change
. agent, especially in developingcountries (cf. Topic 10) 158
c. Political institutions need t, be re-_structured to cope with technologicalchange 32, 52, 151
2. Adverse effects of technological imbalanceare frecitently 42, 145, 164,
173a. Environinental 41, 49, 54, 78,
150,154b. Esthetic 56, 182c. Psychologicald. Economic
3. PoVility of leveling-off of scientific growth
III. Implications of Technoscience for Society
/1'03, 131, 18227, 44, 56, 16340, 124
15, 16, 29, 77,79, 83, 125, 126,
A. Social trends iilduced by technoscienoe1. Power, wealth, and knowledge tend to
128, 160, 166,174, 176, 18139, 45, 72, 119
become inter-convertible 60, 107, 150,172
2. Physical means for communication increase,but specialization complicates mutualunderstanding 53, 149, 159
3. Acceleration of the giowth of knowledge: 169, 183a. Increase's obsolescence of knowledge-,
and skillb. Enlarges the frontiers of ignorancec. Necessitates continuing reeducation
4. Distribution of knowledge becomes morespecialized and uneven, necessitating cooper-ative or systems approach to problem solving
52
4, 120
r.
50 Science and Technology as Social Forces
'B.
5. Through government and research, means aresought to cope with the social instabilitiesinduced by technoscientific changea . Ccopensation for technological
displacement of workersb. Technologioal forecaiting to prepare
for technological change (Cf. Topic 13)
c. Biotechnology and human engineeringto accommodate technology to man andman to technology
Requisites for control of science and technologyin behalf of human welfare
1. High level of public rationality2. Acne in scientific literacy3. effective syntheses of knowledge4. Lifetime duration ofeducotion and training'5. Improved system for making policy choices
6. Clarification of ethical guidelines consistentwith scientific knowledge
7. Meani,of assessing and forecasting the effectsof technological change (cf. Topic 13)
C. Reasons for increasing disenchantment of the publicwith science and technology
.27, 44
18, 59, 62, 66,99, 113, 133
2, 68, 160,179, -184
10, 30, 71, 75,S. 85* 93, 101,
106, 1.33, 135,148, 17317, 108,132
171, 177177 --36, 66, 69, 91,96, 102, 109
145, 15.1"
38, 61, 79, 135.
3, 7, 9, 20, 26,63, 70, 7.3,80,90; 100, 1 ,110, 111, 121,2155, 156
1. Development of powerful nuclear, biological,and cheinical weapons based on the latestscience and technology 13
2. Apparent inability to solve social problemssuch as the plight of,the cities, crime, andthe use of hard drugs
3. .Pollution of theof
seen as a
necessary resultof the use of technology4. Feeling that the benefits of science and
and technology have not been commensurate withthe vast sums spent on them in the last two decodes 98, 130
21, 51, 67'
74, 95, 154
41,
53
sot
Social, Impact of Science and Technology
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tat ,
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51
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#
111
120. Stover, Carl F. _Indy:try, Technology, and Metropolitan Problems," Pubrlic Administration Review, XXVII (lune, 1967), 1.2 =117.
0-
121. Thackray,Arnold, "Reflections on the Decline of Science in America andon Some of Its Causes," Science, CLXXIII (July 2, 1971), 27-31.
r,
122. Thring, M. W a "The Next Thirty Years in Engineering," Alicement ofScience, XXIV (September, 1967), 99-106.
es.
sr
60 Science and Technologras Social Forces.
123. Topchiev,Alexander V`. "Interdependence of Science and Society," BO-letin of the Atqmic Scientists, XIX (March, 1963), 7; 9-11.
124. Toulmij Stephen E. "Is There a Limit to Scientific Growth?" ScienceJournal, If (August, 1966), 80-85.
125. Afribus, Myron: "Technology and Society - -The Real Issues," -aulletin of- 6
the Atomic Scientists, XXV cember,,1 971), 27-30.
126. , . ':Technology for Tomorrow vs. Profit for Today," Mechani-_
ca Engineerin9, XCIJI (May, 1971), 16 -19.
. 127. Weaver, Warren. "The Encouragement of Science," ScNntiicAmefican,CXCIX, (Septenlber, 1958),' 170-178.
128. -Wedgewood Benn, Anthony. "Techiligal Power and People - The Impactof Technology on the Structure of Government," Bulletinof thEAtomiaScientists, XXVII (DeceMber,1
V971), 23-26. .
129. Weinberg,.Alvin M. "Can Technology Replace Social Engineering?"Bulletin pf the Atenic-kiiatistsi.XXII (December, 1966), 4-8.
130. . "In Defense of Science," Science, 'CLXVI I (January 9, 1 970 ),141-145.
Whitney, Vincent H. "Resistance to Innoyation: The Case of AtomicPower," American Jo of Sociology, LVI (November, 1950), 247-254.
132. Wilson!' J. juzo. "Science Is Everybody's Business," American Scientist,LII (September, 1964), 266A-276A.
and133. Wohlstetter, Albert. "Technology, Prediction, and Disordei.," Bulletin ofthe Atomic Scientists, XX (October, 1964), 11-15.
134. Wolff, Harold. "The Irhpact of Society on Science;"Arnuican Behavioral
4 Scientist, X (May, 1967), 2-7.. : , II
Wormuth, Francis D. "Government and Science," Center Magazine, III(March-April, 1 970), 41-46. . .a-
136. Zilsel,Ecfgar. "The .Genesis of the Concept of Scientific Progress," Jour-nal of the History of Ideas, VI (June, 1945), 325-349.
Impact of Science and Technology.
General References: nooks'
e..
*
61
137. Armytage, Walter H. G. The.Rise date, Technocrats-4 Social History.London: Routel edge arkd Kegon 1'915 wit, 448..
. k. ..(138. Aron, Raymond, ed. ',Wcirld.Technology and Amon Destiny. Ann Arbor:
University of Michigan Presi, 1963, vi, 249.
t39. Bauer, Raymond A., et:al. Second -Omer Consequences: A Met hog-ical Essa on t e Im ct of Techndlo . Cambridge, Massachusetts:M. I . T. Press, 969, 40.
140. Bernal, John D. Marx. and Science'. New York: 'Inte'rnational, 1'952, 48.
141. Bo uslaw, Roberf. The New Utopians--A Study of S stem Desi n and So-cial Change. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice- a , 6viii, 213.
142.
143.
144.
Bounding, Kenneth E . The Meaning of the 20th. Century: The Great Iran-)sition. New York: -Harper and Row, 1964, 208.
- rBoykb, Hugo, ed. Science End the Future of Mankind. Bloomington:
diana. University Press, 1964, viii, 380.
Brezezinski ,ZbignieW.. Between Two Ages: America)s Role in the Tech-petroniAra. New York: Viking Press, 1970, 334.
4
In-
..145. Burke, Joiln G., ed. Th,e'New Technology and Human Values. Belmont,
.California: Wadsworth, 1966, 408.
146. Calder, Nigel . Technopolis: Social Control of the Uses of Science./Lon-.
don:..MacGibbon and Kee, 1969, 381. . f147. Calder,:Ritchie: Sciente in Our Lives. New York: . New American Li- \..../1
brary, 1954, 192.
48. Charlesworth, J. C. and A. J. Eggers, Jr ., edt. Harmonizing Technology;cal Developrnents.and Social Policy in America. Monograph II . Phil-adelphia, Pennsylvania: American Academy of Political and SocialScience, 1970, 247.
64
a.
4e.
. 62. Science and Technology as Social Forces
149. Clarke, Arthur C. Voices from the Sky: Previews of the Coming SpaceVie. New York: Pyramid Books, 1967, 205.
t150. Commoner, Barry. The 'Closing Circle: Nature, Man and Technology.
New York: Knopf, 1.971, 326.
151. Cornelius, Benjamin A. Science, Technology, and Human Values.Cal-umbia: University of Missouri Press, 1965, v, 296. 4
s.
152. Cotgrove, Stephen and Steven Box. Science, industry, and Society. ,Lon-don: Allen and Unwin; N2r York: 'Barnes and Noble, 1970, 211.
153. Darlington, Cyril D. TheConflictof Scienteadd Society. London: Watts, ,
1948, 51..
154. Dubos, Rene. Reason Awake: 'Science for Man. Ne,..w .""York: _Columbia
University Press, 1 97 0, 280.
155. EWuI, Jacques. The Technological Society. Trans. by John Wilkinson.New York: Knopf, 1964, xxxvi, 449.
eft
156. Feshback, Seymour and Robert D. Singer. Television and Aggression.San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1971, 186.
157. George, F. H. Science and the CrisisInter-science, 1970, 180..
158. Ginsberg, Eli. Technology and SocialUtiiversity Press, 1964, vii, 158.
159. Gould, Jay M. 'The Technical Elite.1,966, 17g.
in Society. New York: Wiley-,
Change. New York: Columbia
New Yqrk: Augustus M. Kelley,
160. Harvard University Program or Technology and Society. Implications of
Biomedical Technology. Cambridge, M6ssachusetts: Harvard Univer-
sity` Press, 1968, 53.
. Technology and the Individual. Cambridge, Massachusetts:Harvard University Press, 1970, 62.
162. technology aria Values. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Har-vard University Press, 1969, 55.
gr65
IP
1
I
Social Impact of Science and Technology 63
163. Mansfield, Edwin, ed. The Economics of Technological Change. NewYork: Norton, 1.968, 257. .
Marcuse,-Herbert. One - Dimensional Man. Boston: Beacon Press, 1964,xvi-i, 260.
164.
165. -Meier, Richard L. Science and Economic Development: New Patterns ofLiving. Second Ed.,$ev. Canibridge, Massachusetts: M. I . T. Press,1966, 320. 1 if
166. Mesthene, Emmanuel G. Technological Change: Its Impact on Man andSociety. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University`Press, 1970,1 7.
167. Meynoud, 4Lean. Technocracy. London: Faber, 1968, 315.
168. Moore, John A. Science for' ociety: A Biblio§raphy. Washingt D.C.: American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1 1, 76.
,
I
169.E Morison,,Elting E . Men', Machines, and.Modern Times. Cambridge, ss--
achusetts: M. I . T. Press, 1966, ix, 235.
170. Mumford; Lewis: The Mytk..of the Machine: Technics and Human Devel-opment. New YOrk: Harcourt, Broce, and World, 1967, 342.
.171. National Research Councils. Study Group onan Institute forApplied Sci-
ence and Social Change in 'a Rural Area, Division of Behavioral Sci-ences. A National Rural Center: Applying Science to Improve theQuali1ty of Rural Life. Washington, D.,.: National Research Coun-
Icil, 1970, 51. s
172# PiCcard, Paul J., ed. Science and policy issues: 'Lectures in GoVern-4 ment and Science.' Itasca, Illinois: F. E. Peacock, 1 96 9, 156. J
173. Platt, John R: The Step to Man. New York: Wi ley, 1966, 40,.1
,174. Reich, Charles.A. The Greening of America. New York: Random House,. 1970, 399.,
175. Rostand, Jean. 'Can Map Be Modified. Trans. by Janathanlpriffin.New York: BasiltBzoks,. 1 0,59, 105.
.N
41
4
64 Science and Technology as Social Forces
I
176. Stover, Carl F., ed. The Technological Order: Detroit: WayneaStateUnlversity.Press, 1963, xii, 280.
,177.. Stratton, Julius A. Science and the Educated Man. Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts: M. 1.3. Press, 1966; 186.-
178. Taubenfield, Howard J., ed . Space and Society. Dobbs Ferry, New-York:Oceana, 1964, 196.
X179. Tayl'or,Gordon R . The Biological Time Bomb,. London: Thames and Hud-son, 1968, 240.
180. Toffler, Alvin. Future Shock. Neel, York: Random House, 1970, *155.`
181. Vickers, G. Science and the Regulation of Society. NeW Vol*: Insti-tute for the Study of Science in Human Affairs, Columbia University,1970, 56.
182. Walker, Charles R., assisted by Adelaide G. Walker, eds. Modern Tech-nology and Civilization: An Introduction to Human Problems in theMachine Age. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1962, xi, 469. Biblio.
183. Warner, Aaron W., Dean Morse, and Alfred S. Eichner, eds. The Impactof Science onechnology. Edited for the Columbia University Semin-ar on Technology'and Social Change. New York: Columbia Univer-sity Press, 1945, 221.
184 71 Wiener, Norbert. The Human Ute of Human Beings =- Cybernetics and So-ciety. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1950, 24:1.
1-'67
.
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Social Impact of Science 'and Technology'
Gti
LRD1NG QUESTIONS
1., Must a "technological society" etechnology? Are there faptors comdemocratic centralism, and utilitarience of technology?
krge from:the uncontrolled advance ofonto modern induitrialism, collectivism,
cinism' that result primarilr from the influ-
2. "Tec Niue," says Jacques Ellul, "is opposed to nature ...technique as art iscreation of an artificial system." Is this an invincible thesis? Are there
.ofher interprItations of compardble validity?
3. Whaf factors determine the Course of technological innovation? Why ore sometechnological possibillties neglected and why have some been suppressed?
4. What is meant by "technocracy"? Who are its prophets? What are its prom-ises? What are its prospects? Who are the "tochnocrats"?
5: Do you think thairthe current disenchantment with science and technology isa temporary $henomenon, or does it represent a fundamental change in out-look? What could be the consequences for society of sucha change?
.Is "imbctlance",a meaningful concept in relation to science and technology? .17What would be the criteria for ascertaining a proper balance? 4 \
7. What are the principal social trends induced by science-based technology?Whtit are the implicatrons of\these trend for higher education, for scientificresearch, and for human social organization?
r S 116
8. Why do perceptive students of technolpgy (e.g., John Diebold, Cybernetica,V111,150-156; or Robert Boguslaw, The New Utopians) urge the need for socrial innovation to match the pace of technological innovation? If Ellul is
correct in asserting that technology shapis society, is it feasible to seek anon-technological countervailing force?
9. 15 it possik to introduce techrticil change/without desetroying cherished be-liefs and, patterns of life?
10. IsdellberCite and considered control over the direction of scientific and tech-nological growth possible or desirable? What would be the principal dan-gers? What would be the necessary conditions for effective sogial control?For control that is also socially beneficial?
ti
7 do
7'451P.'7
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rtIPIC 04 SCIENTIFIC WORK IN TECHNOLOGICAL SOiET1 E'S
4 s
it .. --.., -'4 , . .
In technological societies, *kork is increasingly planned'and directed by-
'' y. sons with - special' competerice in,science o;, technology. In these societies g -ing",numbers-of people are emploird in scientific and technical actiflities
. largebnumbes of new science- related occupations have arisen. ...
! . , ,4-
It is difficu cribe scientific work by elassifyingtot workers.. bistirictions,among the several typekof scientific workers are much cultyrat as functional ..
6 Historical. usage has differed among countries, so that we cannot use the Eoglishword "scientist", or its nearest counterparts in other languagewfo-classify a groupof'scientific workers that informed people' eyetywhere would recognize as an iden-tical occupational grouping. For example, the Russian nearest equivalent. to the 'word ;'scientist" is applied to a wide range of Scholars,.engineers., acid advancedbio edical d technical Personnel who are not customarily classified as scientists
. -- 0 the nite totes or WeSternEurbpe. The Americon teedency has been to restrict.
the des nation :!scientist" to the physicasciences and,to those fields of biologymost closely related to FT-wires aika cheMistrir Witlyhe. poss!ble exception ophys- -.ical anthropology, which-,uses exact measupements,,social and.behaviaral scienceprofessionakare classed as scient*s only in a lualified sense. But regardless of .
designation, fhe!ltnowted6e and competeope of technosilentifi'c manpower tras nowbecome a major economic resodtce for national governments. ,In millabrn national
.-' states;- *ills expehditures for education:and training isAience and technology.. ..
are iliveasingl y viewed as pu- bl is investments . lr'the tecbscierttific superculture,_. .....
wealili and power are inseparol;lefreirri knowledge and perfonence effectiveness. ., 9
..
Fro s very beginnings modernwience has 'been an enterprise of associationswell f individuals. ScientifieVi, cl"teChnical work is today highly organized,
faiods means for professional communication'In the Thousands of.scientific.andtechnical journals, coAgresses, symposia, and proCeedings of scholarly meetings.
./.. The dissemination, storagd, and retrieval of scientific and technical infoomiolion° .1-ids Necopie- One'of-bthe most distinCtive and essential tasks of modern society.-.1
"4 ir
.
%.
.1111
Aa
Scirentific .work is increasingly carried on throiighinstitutions fo,research and de-velopment
'..."and through lorgelCale'cooperative-Firobrams'. or we:detail _on iri-`-----...--'!
stitutional aspects,uf science t-ie Topics 09, 12, and 15.. -3. . ,
'As organised fortes-of, information and respected opinion, t)le scienfistmdeir related professional -essociates influence pfiblic policy'for science and,timh-,
. ology. Accustomed,e evaluating evidence on a basis otolemonstrable fact rather-than on the basis of popular preference; they sometimes find Themselves-in conflict4 ._.' .
with pojitical values. The proper role of scientists inthe politics of modern societies-,has-aroused special interest, for it seems dertaimiliat science will be involved in .
a
many ways with the politics of the future. -
(
G
t
1 r
68,
TOP!
'so s'44" Science and Technoloa dsSocial Forces
`2r
04 SCIENTIFIC WORK IN TECHNOLOGICAL SOCIETIES
-. Se 4iected Basic Readings: ° 1
Beer, John'J. and W. David Lewis. "Aspects of the Eft fessignalization of Sci-ence," Daedalus, YCII (Fall, 1963), 764-784.
9 111110
Cortter, Allan M. "Scientific X4anpower for 1 970-1 985," Science, CLXXII"pull 9, 1971), 132 -140.
... ,
Joseph. 'Politics and the Community of Sciere,"American BeKavioral .
. . . .
Scientist, X (May, r967), 10-12; 21-23.111
Polorini, Michael-. "The Republic of Science: Its Political and Economic Tteor;,"Minerva, I (Autumn, 1962)L 54-73.
man, John M. "Social Responsibility (I): The Impact orSocial Responsibilityon Science," Impact of Scienceon Society, XXI (April-June, 1971), 113 - 122,.E
Supplementarjf and Substitute Readings:
Aitison, D6vid. ."1;e Industrial Scientist," International Science and Technologx,NuMber 62 (February, 1 967)020-31. :, dr: ..N, .
4
. A
Florey4ard. "Role of the Scientiscin''Modern Society: The First Three Hundred/Years,": Perspectives in Biology and Medicine,, VIII (Spridag,) 965),. 279 -288.
.. '7.,..,
tt
Merton, Robert.K . Riehard Lewis. "The Competitive Pressurets(1): 'The Racefor Priority," Impact of on Society,'XXI (April-June, ,140/1), 15171 61
1.) Pigamiol, Pierre. "The COmpetitive Pressures (II): he Effects of Publish orei,J
ish;",Impatt,of Science on Society, XXI (April-June, 197.1), 163-171.. q.,it ..f
New York:' ColumbiaPrice, Derek de Solla . Little.Science, Big3eience.University Press, 1963+ 11 9.
I Jib
,
cu.
'A
4
1
,
TOfat 04 SCIENTIFIC WORK,IN TECHNOLOGICAL SOCIETIES 69
TOPICAL OUTLINE
I. Scientific and Technical Manpower in Modern Society
A. Growing number and importance of scientificand technical occupations1 Science-based technology supersedes art,licraft's and tradition
a. Industry, from the Industrial Revolution'b. Warfare and defensec. Agricultured. Transportatione. Consumer services and goocis
2. Increasing social and economic dependenceon new dad highly interdependent science=based technologies
411. Scientific and technical manpower as "capital"tasses ..
-. e.
.1. Increasing identification orscienci-derived
.. technology as. the basis of economic growth
1It
and "progress"
2: Problems of developing and maintainingscientific and technical rrsiotrpower
a: Identification of talent °IIb. Incentive a
.:.Special education( proyisionsid. The "Brain Drain"
e. Women in scientific professions
3. Unemployment among scientists'andcaused by
engineers
,
ia . Cut-back in aerospace and defense-related r4searcb'
b. Highly specialized trainingof thee. unemployed 5 ;. .
c. "Over - qualification" for rrictrlyA
jobs0 44 I.
6* j
, ,11164
714'
REFERENCE KEY
38, 68, 251,260, 277, 307
171; 200, 232,264, 265
Ai
41, 125,251,281
22, 23, 15$,196192, 193, 1975
20, 119, 1648, 54, 69, 86,132, 1.35145,- 148, 169,'254
38,14 191,210, 268, 269
A.
a.
It.
'
.
\
Science and Technology as Social Foy. o -44
Scienite andProfessionalirn*14
A. Characteriitics of a profession1. Example:, old idea of .the "Three Prafessions":',
theologyjawetafid medicine.
2.Stanciards of prepStion and work3. Professional ethics4. Contrast with amateurism
B. Science-based occupations,and professions- 1. Medit'ine and biomedical technologies
2; Engineering sriecializations3., Education and training (Cf. Topic 05)4. Social - psychological, specialization
c. ProfessiOnalici ists
1. Whatbissa scu ntist and who are sciaptists?
ir
2. Popular images of scientists,43.From adipteur to professiona4. Ode, profession or many?5.'Techniciansin the sciences
*
1
11, 15, 221;240, 247150, 166, 253
\
Ti 9223
0 :
151, -V, 168;240, 24110`
80,1 65, 177;201, 203, 30610, 1 34, 1 95181,286242200\
III Scientific and. Professional Societies - -OrganizedScientistsan:illustrative sqrvey
A. Societies of Scieritists aAd other Scholars --Protofypes: ,
1. Accademia SecietorumNatural--Naples, 156016" 2 Accademia dei Lincei-orne, 1 603.
3. Accadria del cimento--Florence, 1651.4, 4 ,Royal Society--London, 1662
5. Academie des Sciencesn-Paris, 16666. Russian Academy .of Scierces--St. Petersburg; .17247.. American Philosophical Society--1743
4r.
.
* 4, -B.- Typesvel-Cientific and Professional Societies
- . ,-,-. 1. Societies of science specialists-
.- ci. -Physical(1% American AstrAmical Society,
- ..
(2) American Chemicaill
l Society -.
72
J.41630, 56, 161,219, 240, 257
273
,
259 -2°T
1 I
Scientific Work in Technological Societies'.
(4-American Physical Society(4) Geo logioSI Society.of America.
b. Biological(1) AORLIfican Physioldgical Society(2) American Society for Microbiology(3) Arrierican Society of. Zoologists(4) Ecological Society of America
- a., Behavioral and social(1) AmeriCan Anthrsto6logica I Associatilm
t (2) American PsychologiCal Association(3).American Economic Association(4) Americana olitical Science Association(5) America Sociological Associdtio9
d. Science -te aped technical cind prOfetsional(1) American Association of Petroleum,
Geologist( .
(2) American Forestry Association(3) American. Medical Association(4) American Society of Civil Engineers(5) Institute of Electrical- wed Electronics
Engineers,2. Federations of scientific societies -
.
: a'. National 1-, -USA .i
,.. . - . ._., 11) American AsSoCiation for thetAdvarice 7
V . .,' MenT of;SOien ' . . . , 14, 142, 146\ : (2) Amel-ican Insti ute of BiologicalSciences 47, 212
(3) American Institute of Physili , 9, 109(4) Engineers Joint. Council #, 'bilinternati I unions and a iations '42, 289
. .' (1) Internat nal Council of Scientific .itUnions - . '. 7, 21, 27, 292, . ,
..- (2) Lnternational Union for'Conser- .;
,. vation of Nphire and Ndhltal Resources 12, 245. (3) Intei'rtationar Sooidi Science Council, .... s ,
3..Honoiary societies and academies . 1
a. National Academy of Science 43, 176-.4.-la. NatiOnal Academy of Engineering
* 4 141...J : t .
71
(*.
. t,
a Q.
,
-
Science cads Technology as Social Forces
4. Science )Srofess*als and occupationalunionism-r-Fedel-ation of American Scientists
5. Politically oriented societies--Scientists and Eiigineevs for Social andPolitical Action (SESPA)
IV. ;Scientific Pubpcations: Professional, Technical,Philosophical,,and Historical
anA. Prototypes: .Journal des SavantsI:Idris, 1665Philosophical Transactions of the Royal SOCiseti--London, 1665
'B. Purposes
1 , To disseminate information2. To establish priority in research ,
3. To establish communication betweenworkers in a particular specialty
4,e Sometimes to relatespecialties to largerfields of interest
C. Types of journal publications. 1. General professional publications, e.g.,
Science, Nature, Advancement of Science,Scientific American, American Scientist
.2. Specialized publications (various levels), e .gJournal of the AmericanChgmical Society,
' Analytic.Clkemistry, Chemical Revies,Chemical and.Engineering NeWs, ArriericanBehavioral Spientist, Bioscience, Ph mealReview
I
osophical and historical; e.g.; C berne-tical Isis, Minerva, Journal of the Philosophyof Science, Technology and Culture, Peospec-
tives 'n Biology and Medicine
0,
36, 8",179, 305159-
i 78
234:308
.152, 2r7
n 161
139
t
;I"
Scientific Work in Technological Societies
4. Palk issues ani policiei in science, e.g.,Science and Public Affairs: Bulletin of theAtomic Scientists, Impact of Science of: So-ciety, Minerva, Environment, New Scientist.and Science Journal
D., Other scientific. publicatioris1. Transactions of learned societies and of sci-
entific' meetings--symposia, colloquia, pro-s-\,ceedings2. 'Reports andoinvestigations by srofessional
scientific groups as individuals--including- government documents, e.g., repogivof panels
of the' President's Science Advisory Committee,National, Academy of Sciences, arrcl Congres-sional inquiriend hearings
'1'7 Abstracting and itation-systems and services,e.g., Biological Abstracts, Chemical Abstracts,Current Contents, Nuclear Science Abstracts,Science Citation Index
4 14
4 . Monographs and systematic ,worksSingle - author w'orks,
b. Multi -author, worksc; Textbooks,
Dissertations--published and uneUblished.54 Encyclopedic world, e.g., Encyclopedia of the
5°6-al Sciences, Handbook of Physiorogy'6. Manufacturers' technical publications
a. House orgQnsb. Brbchures and pamphlets
ti
73
37
49, 73, 140,144, 225
Some growing problems oilitcientific publicationa means of communication and,information 29, 115, 14,..
206, 208, 212,,I. 213, 258
1. The quantitative problem 128, 194, 266,.293
Increase in the numbers of specialtiesclad specializedb'publications
I/. Volume of researcrilieed publications
I.
:
75
1
'
4
--
74 -cience and Technology as Social Forces
V
2. Timeliness--the importance of correspondenceand word-of-rnbuth in rapidly develipping fields
3. The referee system4. Semantic difficulties growing out of specializa-
tion in research and in languages5. Information search, collation, and retrieval
systernse-aids in the management bf knowledge
'V. Institutionalization of Scientific,(See Topics under Section II - - "T Organization of
'cience and Technology'')
A. Typesof institutional structures (USA)1. Non:governmental institutions established
by scie.ntistsa. Institute of Ecology.b Salk Institute
.'Hudson Institutet-for-profit'research and developmentporations
tt
tit
.r'
'270
1,6;17,21, 27,37, 44, 57, 73,108,' 109, 110, -
143, 163, 184,291
234, 266
235' -
° 53, 187. Battdlle Memorial' Institute
b.,Rand Corporation. c: Brookings Institution3. Industrial laboratories
a. BekTeOphone Laboratories 'b. General Ele.ctric Knolls Laboratory
IBM Watson Research Center4. Government buredus and laboratories
(Cf. Topic 06) 261,,297, 301a. NationalBureau of Standardsb. National Oceanic 'and Atmospheric Ad-
40, 45, 795,294, 297, 299'
202
. ministration (NOAA)Ar
c. Argonne, Brookhaven, Los Alamos, and OakRidge National Laboratories
5. Ad hoc and cooperative programs(Cf TopiC 09).
a
4761
290
Sk
,4
a
t.
.
Scientific Work in Technological Socreties - 75
Problems of institutionalized work . .
(Cf Topics 11 and 12)1. Facilitating scientific creativity
25, 240. . 40
(cf. Topic 15), 300.
a. Fostering a climate for creativity ' 275b. Promoting multi - disciplinary synthesis 302
2. Protecting integrity and objectivity of.
science from 39, 87, 2264,241,79
a . Political interferenceb. Bias or kr sponsibility of scientists
3. Maintaining ontinuing viability of research' institutions
1. 290a. Pr rarrobsolescence in missions-oriented
itutions g 1 37, 164b. Personnel bsol,escence in scirtific work .
%,(Cf`. c 05) 524. Obtaining adequate financial support
a. Effects of government appropriationspo. licies On continuity and quality ofscientific work 256
b. Effects of recourse to private fundingt (1) Industrial
(2) Philanthropicc. Problems of e;dowed research
,,,....---
VI. Science Professionals in Technological Societies 19, 33, 60, 61,_68, 75, 91, 153,186, 218, 220,229,"230, 282,284, 307
A. The status of science professionals 70_1_94, 97, 101,V4,-263, 267
1. Elitism_ -recil problem or subjective phobia: 228a . The "New Priesthood"--concept and
criticism , 247, 249b. The technocratsc. Distinguishing characteristics of a
:r scientific elite groupd: The contrast; status of sci1sntists,
physici , engineers, an.d technicians
41.
240, 286
, 59, 62, 107, 13f,189, 231, 250
76
-to
Science and Technology,as Social Forces
2. Relation of science professionals toa.-Other occupational groupsb. Public.officials-legislators and judges
oc. The news media (Cf. Topic 01)
287
25, 51, 216, 239
I
d. The public at large (Cf. Topic 01) 14, 205Each other 32, 150, 243,
306B. Contrasts in organizational and professional ori-
entation and values (See also Topic 15) 13, 89, 113,
4m 1. 'Professional-managerial confVot in190, 231, 274, 275
44, '14 Q Government laboratories.1?
137, 244, 300,301
b. InduStriCilresearch and developmentc . Hospitdlsd. Military organizations
118, 248
2. Varied roles of the scientist in -'a . Academia 6 48, 77, 92,188
' b. Government 28, 127, 262,,,267
F . Industry 46, 100, 188
3. The scifintist as administrator 26, 76, 954. Scienckrofessionals in public affairs
(See also Topic H: The Politics ofand nd Technology) 31, 87, 120, 14,
a . The scientist as politician.
.(1`) In partisan affairs(24 As consultant and advisor
b. The social responsibility of scientists
(1) Role, in international' affairs(See, also Topic 09 t
(2) The "Pugwash" syndrome ,
. t
(3) Defense-oriented research
: .
411
204,226, 228,239, 241, 304116, 130, 147,
288 1
114 #r
2, 26, 24624, 39, 64, 79,93,98, 102, %112, 167, 182,.214, 22250, 70, 83, 84,103, 104, 106,123, 174, 185,
t,63, 67,126,156, 170, 172,f173, 180; 28016, 66, 71, 88,117,121;142,162, 279
,'. 4
Scientific Work in Technological Societies'
(4) Politically "sensitive" topics, e.g.,crime, intelligence, poverty, race
77
(Cf. Topic 14)(4Guidance for public dnd official
opinion provided by scientific. societies and institutions 159, 183, 219, -
(i) Center for Science in the241, 282
Public interest 99(ii) Institute of Society, Ethics and
the .Life. Sciences .354.
C. 5omt problems of science professionals in A . :\technoscientific societies 133, 149, 227
. o
1. Dependence for financial support on ae,
source (the state7 which is frequentlyJr \
changing its patterns of funding 90,"2992.'Excessive secrecy in many governmental
and industrial organizations 34 .
3. Prestige and remunerationln some fields, ),and not in others 250 /
4. Acceptability of political views of .
scientists for many top jobs in goC/ernment /_5. Conflicts of loyalty, and ethical problems
e .g., in "defense' - oriented research 131,1996:Race for priority in important fields of
research 74, 1337. The pressure of "Publish (*.Per ish" 188. Keeping up with new knowledge in
fields ofrintereit- 96 270'4
or'
a
Scientific Work in Jechnological Societies
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4V. AbreurJean<harles.` "Twenty Years in a Second," Ceres/ I ay-June, .
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289. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Di-. rectory of International Scientific Organizations. 'Second Edition..
Paris: UNESCO, 1953, 312.
290. 'U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. Universities, National Laboratories,and Man's Environment. Oak Ridge, Tennessee: Division of Techni-cal Information, U.S. At mic EnergiCommission, 1969, 1 68. -,(CONF-690705)
291'. U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Education and Labor.' GeneralSubcommirreeon Education. National Science Research Data Proces-sing and Information Retrieval System. HeaiTngs before the Subcom-,mittee to the 91st Congress, 1st Session, April,.1 969. Washington,D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969, 405.
.1292. . Committee on Foreign, Affairs. Subcommittee on Interns=tional Organizations and Movements. International Council of Scien-tific Unions. Hearing before the Subcommittee to the 89th Congress,1st Session, June 7,'1965. Washington, D. C.: .U.S. Government'Printing Office, 1965, 40.
293. . Committee on Science andAstronautics. The Management---;n7r--,°motion anirKnowledge. .Proceedings of the Eleventh Meeting
of the Panel on Saenee and Technology before the Committee to the91st Congress,.?n4tessiort, January, 1970. Washington, D.C.:. U.S..
*Government Printirti(Office, 1 970, 237. (No. 15,.27-29) .
#
102...1
102 Science andlTechnology as Social Forces, a.
Congress. Senate, Committee on Commerce, Subcommittee onOceanography. Federal QceanicandAtmospheric Organization. Hear-
, ings before the Subcommittee to the 91st Congress, 1st and 2nd Sessions,December 17, 1909 -Jay 4, 1970 (Two Parts. Washington, D.C.: U.S.Government Printing pffice, 1970, 1286.
295. . CommitteeonCommerce. Subcommittee onllOceanognaphy.Reorganization Plan flo.14 of 1 970 to Create a National Oceanic andAtmospheric Administration in the Department orCommerce. Hearingsbefore the Subcommittee to the 92nd Congress1 2nd Session, July 27, 1970.Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1970, 18.
296. . Committee on Government Operations .. Izoorganization PlanNo. 4 of 1970, Providing for the Establishment of a National Oceanicand Atm- osphericAdministration in the Department of Commerce . Senate 411k
Report 91-1242 to accompany Senate Resolution 433, 91st Congress,2nd Session, September 2:1970. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Goviern-'ment Printing Office, 1 97a, 15:
297. . Committee On Public Works. TheCase for-National Envi-ronmental Laboratories. R/eport prepared by, the Ad Hoc NEL ConceptCommittee, Oak Ridge National., Laboratory for the Committee. Wash-ington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1970, 40.
298. U:S. Department of Commerce. NOAA Photoessay No. 1: A New A-gency. Rockville, Maryland: Office of Public Information, NationalOceaniO and Atmospheric. Adniinistration, 1970, 8.
299. U .S : Department of Labor. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Federal Spendingand Scientists and Engineer Employment. Washington,- D.C.: U.S.Government Printing Qffide, 1970, 46.
300. U.S. Federal Cbuncil for Science, and Technology.. Proceedings--FirstSymposium: Current Problems in the Management of Scientific Personnel,October 17-18, 1963. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing,Office, 1964, 131.
301. . U.S. Civil Service CommissiOn. Proceedings--Third Sy;r1-' posium: The Environment of the Federal Laboratory, December 7-8,
1964. Washington, D.C.; -U.S. Governient Printing Office, 1965,,, I -2-57
1 0
6. ,
Ir
Scientific Work in Technological SociAties - 103
302. U.S. Library of Congress. Legislative Reference Service. SciencePolicyand Research Division'. Inter4ciplinary Research--An Exploration ofPublic Policy Issues. Prepared4for the Subccerimittee on Science, Re-search, and Development of fhe Committee on Science and Astronautics,U.S . House of Representatives, 91st Congress, 2nd Session, by GenevieveJ. Knezo. Washington; D .0 q.s. Government Printing Oftisce, 1970,106.
303. WaVelin, J. H., Jr. The National .Stake in 8etter Technical Information:.Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department' of Commerce, 1971, 9.
304. Wallia, C.S., ed. Toward Century 21: Technology, Society, and Human*Values. ,New York: Basic Books, 1 970, 318.
305. Walton, Richard E. The Impactof the Professional Engineering Unions- -A Study of Collective Bargaining among.Engineers and Scientists and ItsSignificance for Management. Cambridge,,Massachusetts: Harvard Uni-versity, Division of Research, Graduate -School of Business Admin raitian, 1,961, xiii, 419. Biblio.
10
306. Watson, James D. The Double ix: A Personal Account of the Discoveryof the Structure of DNA. Niew York: Atheneum, 1968, 266.
307. Wolfle, Dael . The Uses of Talent. Princeton, New Jersey; PrincetonUniversity Press, 1971, 204.
308. Ziman, John M. Public Knowledge: The Social Dimension of Science.Landon: Cambridge Univer.sity Press, 1966, 148.
t
1. Scientific Work in Technological Societies
LEADING QUESTIONS
1. Why is science as a profession soatimes compared to a priesthood? Is the,analogy" in any sense valid? What doe's it /neon?
'2. Are there discernible eleMents in ecientifiC work thait tend to cause.scientiststo reuct in predictable ways to social issues? -For example, are there partic-ular sOciefl attitudes or viewpoints associated *ith science or with particularsciences?
3. How do you explaip recurreffr surpluses and shortages among scientists andengieneets? WhOt policies would be required to avoid repetition oisuch
yoccUrrences?
4. What conse uences follow from the naivoe of certain prestigious scientistsregarding-mass.social behavior and a paralleling naivete im societygeneraltiregarding the charactgr and capacities of scientists?
5. My has the employmErt of scientists in government oocasioned so much study"and concern? What have been OA principal complaints of the;governmentscientist against his employers? Of public officials against some scientists?
6. What changes, if any, in the education of scientists and technicians wouldimprove the quality of their contributions to science and to society?. Ifchanges, are indicated, how might they most 'effectively be implemented?
7. If scientists who leave scientific work fog bdministrative ciadvisory responsi-bilitiessare still consid;red "scientists," *why are science-trained physiciansand' engineers not considered scientists, even x5en they are actively usjngscientific knowledge aced methods?
8. w important is the problem of commuhicatioriamong the science occupqtionsand etween them and other occupational groups? What, if anything,\ canbe done to alleviate the difficulties?
1
9. What problems has the information explosion caused in scientific and technfields? What have been some of/ip remedies, actual and proposed?
4F.10. What has been the role of scientists in'the orr:rt lotion of nationalgipolicy? .
Should their participation increase in the formation of goals and prioritiesWhat contributions are scientists making to international policies for sciencand technology?
105
t
)TOPIC 05 SCitNCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND HIGHkEDUCATION
, ,Man's knowledge of iealit(is both personal and social. The growth of civi-lization is measured by the accumulation and organization of knowledge. Con-temporary man may have no greater intellect than did the mon of Cro-Magnon.But he 'possesses an accumulating grid transmissible culture that extends his know-ledge far beyond direct pers.6nal experience. gt.
The organization of knowledge into academic disciplines, or bodies of informa-tion and method called sciences, is artificial . The sciences are convenient raysof.strOcturing knowledge, but the structures are constantly under stress as the %ub-stapce and significance of knowledge Change. A major task of higher edificationin the technOscientific age is the reorganization of knowledge. -Two contrastingprocesses'characte'rize the expansion 'of scientific knowledge. The first is special-ization. Sciences such as chemistry and microbiology have been subdivided intoever more specific fields ofspecialization. The secor1d is synthesis. Hybrid sci-ences, such as biophysics and geochemistry, form new specialties out of fusLons be-tween previously established icienees . And broadly inclusive synthesizing sciencesor scientific concepts, such as ecology )or general systems the *y, move toward the .integration of scientific knowHedge. and the systematic structuring of the unity ofscience&
The expansion and specializatiOn of scientific knowledge 'created difficultiesin the education of scientific workersand of citizens generally. For example, howmuch understanding of traditional culture; or of nonscientific cAcepts and values,is it desirable for scientific workers to possess? Particularly in a self-governingsociety, is it enough for scientists to know science--or should fhey4tnow more tobe effective as citizens or as fully developed human beings? And sin a technosci-entific society what'do citizens .need to know about science and technology?Can the great powers,, inherent in technoscientific knowledge be effectively con-trolled or responsibly used in a society in'which the mass, of the people does not
.comprehend-the nature and implications of science or technology?.
By the later half of the 17th century, the power of science and technology toserve themnterests of the state had beguntS4e4erceived in European governmehts.Official patronage of science and technology began with the establishment of a-.casmies and, in the 19th century, was expressed in the founding of advancedschools of technology (e.g., les Grandes Ecoles in'France)andbypublic!inancialsupport for faculties, institutes, and laboratories for scientific training and research.By mid-20th century, education for science and teehnology had become a majorcommitment in all technoscientifically advanced societies and was promoted andassisted by international agencies.
1.06
I
1 08 -
rt
( 4 4
Science'and Technology as Social- Forces. ,
/ ti/
TOPIC 05 SCIENCE, TECHNOLO9Y, AND HIGHER EDUCATION\ .
r
11.
A
il .
Selected Basic Readings:4
. _Ben-David, Joseph. "The Universities and the Grow* of Science in Germany and
the United States," Minerva, VII (Autumn and Winter, 1968), 1 -35. )Bevan, William. "Science in the Universities in the Decade Ahead'," American
Scientist, LIX (November-December, 197,1), 680-685.
. .
Seitz, Frederkk. "Science, the Universities, and Society," Americgn Scientist, .
LVI (Autumn, 1968), 288-297. 4
Weiss, Paul . "science in the Universityk " DaedalusXCI II (Fall, 1964), 1181218.tWilson, John T. ."A Dilemma orAmerican Science and Higher Educational Policy:
The Support of Individuals and Fields versus the Support of Universities," Min-erva, IX (April, 1971), 171 -196.
Supplementary and Substitute Readings:
Brown, Gordon S . "Can Universities Fulfill the Challenge of Relevance ?" Tech-nology Review, LXXIII (October-November, 1970), 25-31.
Ferdinand, Theodore- N.' "On the Obsolescence of Scientists and Engineers," A-merican Sc,ientist, LIV (March, 1 966), 46-56. ' 0,
. I .
Handler, Philip. "The Federal Government and the Scientific Community, "Science,CLXXI (January 15, 1971), 144-151.
,..Kash, Don E E. "Research and Development at the Uniyersity," 'Science, CLX
(June 21, 1968), 1313- 1318.' 1-
l .
,IP N t 0Todd, Alexande R. "A Time to Think," Advancement of Scierice, XXVII (Sep-
tember, 1970), 1-6.(
4,. .
..
...
'.,
107 ..
i4
4
1
A
--,
1
I
/
(1
r
. -ve .TPP1C 05-SCIE,NCETTEC*OLbGY, AND HIGHEMUCA1t6N
t ''
' . ,a ..-t s`.. - i.
TOPICAL OUTLINEN' q-
. - , ',P !\.';',. '46 '. '''.- . t''' ....,r
.. .
I , .,,, 4 y. .`e.",, ' .., , ..II. The Coiri-6ula sof.171i-gher tducation as Expressive 24 . .
. , of the State and Configuration.of Knowledge 2, )4;157, 175,. . 1.84, 186, )87;
, - ., ..,. _
. 204, 252 ",,
A. Th "Sciences" as fcrmalizedorganisationsof nowledge , -
, .
#109
RE R NCE KEY
1. Physical ,_.,2. Biological. ,
19, 190
a. Behafigral clod social 20, 63 .
4. Interface areas, the "border" sciences
1 B. Evolution of scientific Nechnical disci-plines ,. ...
.----- 1 . Fission and fusion in ihelthouse oflcience,""2. Emeetence of techooscientific profession61 .
education . , I.
4 a'. Biomedicine
b. AgricultUre 1 ".
c. Engineering .,-
d. Social worke. Law enfercement____f. Administrationg. Education and training
3. How interdisciplinary and ultidisciplinaryfields emerge
C. Need for general scientific "literacy" andefforts to meet the need in the university 4
,S. nor
: 4.0
430
-,.
96,084.24, 52, 59,
I.4
101, 1.08, 134,1461,
20'.5, 26, 834 89,125, 127, ,
31; 41
180, 231D. The social content of techerral education --
the .growirtg imperative for "s6cia.1.1iteracy"among scientists, physicians, and bngineers *id .39, 46,.237
0:; I
o ' 111
, tilk..
;Science and Te'clinologyas.Social Forces
IL.- Relation of Basic Scierfte,tci Applied Science andTechnology in Higher Education
A. SCience in, the academic tradition
1'. Humanist objections to science and`technology
2. Scientist's aysersionto tests of practiCality3. Role.of science in general education
B. Public roponse to the need for d'dvancedtechnoscientific education
1. A EUropean example- -the great technical,schools .of France
2. Some Amer'ican responses -
a. Morrill Land Actlo". Medical educationc. Sea Grant Programd. Intergovernmental Personnel Act
3. ,Technical 'Institutes
a. Massachusetts Institute 6f Technologyb. Califomialnstifute of Technology
.34, 186; 200
19,37,64,176, 198, 231
C. Pr'oblems of specialization; depth and breadthin scientific and technical education
1,, Rapid obsolescence of inforrn'atiorti2, fOver-speciatization
'lam Identification of reilfvanCe4. Educating the whole person
D. ;Application of science and technology toimproving the zedkational process
1. En1arqiig individu'alized conditions of. -learning2. Improving techniques and capabilities in:
the organization and management of highereducation
.1.0
78, 94,227, 253
21;
131
243
2,
205'
47, 62, S4,
110,20Q'
73, 82, 98,132, 161, 178,189
57, 107, 143, 14930, 46,.158, 160-
. 22, 898, 66,'69; 81,106, 135;152,16
9155, 191i 224,241, 248
11, 18, 97,224 .
133,',244, 245
if
0
44..41'
"*
Science, Technology.; and Higher Education
Overcoming technical and informa. tionalobso,lesceace; the growrh-of mid-career
.
education-Act third revel inhigher education;
4. Recording and retrieval of information(Cf. Topic 04)
Ill. Interaction among she Disciplines in HigherEducation.--An Aspect of the Changing Con-
% figuration of Knowledge
A. Influence of the "natural" sciences in thesocial and behavioral sciences t;
1. Underdeveloped study of the biologicalbasis,of human behavior--effects uponanthropology, economics, and' politicalscience
2., Influence of physical science conceptsand methods on biology and the socialscienci-ttie, relevance 9f quantification
3. Needlor integrative concepts find morefruitful approaches to the study of socialbehavior
4. Emergence of science policy and environ- .
mental studies as fields combining the naturaland social sciences
111
. 14, 57, 59,107, 149, 163,237
14, 25, 51, 56,80, 148, 198
3
79, 201
22, 157
I
37, 50, -65,
B. Scientific concepts and methods in the arts and'humanities (a continuation of Topic 03) .
1. Physics and music-theory-instrumentationaccoustics
2. Scientific technology ih the graphic andplastic arts
3. Scientific technology in archaeology and'history
110
102, 178
23, 32, 49, 53,55, 85, 100,128 138, 202,2,,,,,229, 236,252
119, 120, 235
142 c
4
112 , Science and Technology as $,ocial Forces
4. Scientific methods in literary an8-57(tualcriticism and inlinguistics
C. influence of the sciences in relationships amongprofessional disciplines- -their alaniff!staton in41v.teaching and research 184, 198, 234,
1. Law and medicine (forensic /medicine)._2; Physiology, psychology,/ and engineering
(human engineering, bio-instrumentation)3. Pharmacology, chemistry, and agriculture
(nutrition and toxicology)4. Crimiriology and justice (scientific analsis
in prevention and detection of crime)'
IV. Broader Impact of Noftenal Policies on Higher Educa-tion for Science and Technology
A a Effect of the growing relotionshrp betweenhighef'education and economic growth
1. Amount and substahtive allocation ofpublic funds
237
.201
17, 18, 31, 36,60, 97, 99, 121,150, 156, 165,166, 375, 4181,192, 196, 210,
_226, '256
12,77, 92, 103,111, 133, 193
58, 129, 171,177, 1 94, 208,209, 215, 217,218, 219, 228
2. Location of universitiessand researchcenters 6, 15, 44, 204
3. Closer ties between high-technologyindustries and academia r 105, 144, 256 .4
. Growing investment of national, governmentin higher education, especially through aidof scientific research 41, 68, 71,
86, 90, 94, 114, .
122, 123, 15.1,170, 206, 213,
111
220, 238
a
s1S
a
:4P
Science, Technology, and Higher EckicaVion 113
5. Incivasing, costof hilher education andthe changing basis of financial support ,1,0,,16, 40, 43,
88, 104, 111,- 112, 124, 141,
147, 179B. Science and technological education
relation #7 national programs and missions 29, 70, 199,203, 230
1. Effects of changes in government policyon the institutions of higher education7e.g., drag laws, research cut-backs,training grants, , 54, 75, 116,
2. Links between mission agencies, nationallaboratories, and universities
3. Defense-oriented research on campus- -a changing picture
0.
4. Problem-oriented research relating tonational needs--the RANN Program of
,the National Science Foundation5. Special problin% of "dangerous knowledge,"
e.g., in psychology, genetics, pharmacology,and physical science (developed extensivelyin Topics 16-20)
. I
112
t
117, 137, 145,-154, 159, 168,221, 223, 232,249
35, 87, 95, 139,174, .) 95, 212
45; 67, 130,146, 169, 173,182
118,126, 172
28, 38, 64, 182
.
r
1
Science, Technology, andli-ligher Education
General-References: Artibles
BIBLIOGRAPHY
115
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116 Science and,Technology as Sacral Forces
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4
WI
6".
r
41
ScienCe,t Technology, and Higher EgkiCation
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1
Science, Technology, and Higher.Education 1 33
231. Roucek, Joseph S., ed. The,Challenge of Science Education. New York:Phi losoMiree't Library, 1959, 491. Patio .
232. Scientific Manpower: ADilemma for Graduate Education. Summary ofdiscussions at a May, 1970, Symposium on The Supply, Need, and Util-i zation of Scientists and Engineers. Cambridge, Massachusetts: M.1 .T .
Press, 1971, 180.
233. Seaborg, Glenn T. and Daniel M. Wilkes. Education and the Atom.New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964, 150.
234. Skinner, B. F. The Technology of Teaching. New York: Appleton-Cen-tury-Crofts, 1968, 271.
235. Snow, Charles P. The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution. NewYork: Cambridge University Press, 1 95 9, 107.
236. Steinhart, John S. and Stacie Cherniack. The.Universities and Environ-mental Quality: Commitment to PrOblemFAused Education. A Reportto the President's Environmental Quality Council . Washington, D. COffice of Science and Technology, 196, 22.
237. Stratton, Julius A. Science'ond thl Educated Men.- Cambridge, Massa-chusetts; M.I.T. Press; 1966, 140.
238. Strickland, Stephen P., ed. Sponsored Research in American UniversitiesanciColleges. Washington, D. C.: American Council on Education,1968, 247.
239. Thompson, Walter P. Graduate Education in the Sciences in CanadianUniversities. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1963, xi i, 112.
240. U. S. Bureau of theBudget. The Administration of Government-SupportedResearch at Universities. '0. Washington, D.' C.: U. S..GovernmentPrinting Office, 1966, 141.
4 . U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Education and Labor. To ImproveLearning. A Report to the, President and the Congress by the Commis-sion on Instructional Technology, 91st Congress, 2nd Session, March,1970. Washington, D.C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1970,124.
131'
I
4
a
134 Science and Technology as Social Farces.
242. U. S. Congress. House. Committee'on Government Operations. Sub;committee on Research tend Technical Programs. Conflicts between Fed-eral Reseatch Programs and the Nation's Goals for Higher Education.'Hearings before-the Subcommittee tathe 89th Congress, 1st Session, June1 4;15, and 17, 1965. Washington', D.C.: U.S.. Government PrintingOffice, 1965, 202.
243. . Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries. Subcommitteeon Oceanography. Sea Grant College Program. Hearingi before the'Subcommittee to the 9gthCong"ress., 2nd Session, March 14, 1 968 . Wash-ington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1968, 37.
244. . Committee On Science andAstronautics. The Managementof Information and Knowledge. A Compilatiog of Rapers Prepared forthe Eleventh Meeting of the Panel on Science and Technology for the 91stCongress, 2nd Session, April 21, 1970. Washinglon, D.C.: U.S. Gov-ernment Printing Office, 1970, 130.
'245. . Committee on Science and Astronautics. The Management ofInfarmption and Knowledge. Proceedings of the Eleventh Meeting ofthe Panel on Science and Technology before the 91st Congress, 2nd Ses-sion, January 27-29, 1970. Washington, D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Offi , 1970, 237.
246. Commiftee on Science and Astronautics. SubcOmmittee onScience, Research and Development.. Institutional Grants Bill . Hear-i nas before the Subcommittee to the 91st Congress, 1st Session, Febru-.,ft, 1969. Washingtpn, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,1469, 351.
/...247. . Select Committee on Government Research. Study Number
V: Federal student, Assistance in Higher Education 4. Hearings beforethe Committee to'the 88th Congress, grid Session, 1964. Washington,D.C.: "U.S. Government. Printing Office, 1964; 100.
248. U .5 . Congress . Senate . Committee on Aeronautical and- Space Sciences .
The Impact of,the Space Age on Education in the United States, 1 957-1 96 9. A Selectee), 'Annotated Bibliography Prepared for the Committeeand wanted to the 91st Congress, lstSession, September, 1969. Wash-ington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969, 21.
....- . .249. U.S. Department of Labor. Bureau of Statistics. _Federal. Spending and
Scientist and Engineer Employment. Washington, D.C.: U.S.. Gov-. ernment Printing Office,1970, 46.. . .
132,
...
4 t
% i
250.
t
rScience, Technology, and Higher'Education 135
...... .
U. S. Federal Council for ScienCe and Technology. Interagency Com-mittee on Oceanography. University Curricula in Qceanography: Ac-ademic Year 1965 -1966. Washington, "D.C.: U.S. Atomic EnergyCOmmission, 1965, 116. (Interagency COrnmittee on,.Oceanography,
- pamphlet No. 23)
251. U. S. Office of Science and Technology. Committee on Federal Labora-tories. Catalog of Federal Laboratory-University Programs and Rela-tionships.. Report to the Federal Council for Science and Technology.Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969, 76.
. .252. U. S. President'sScience Advisory Committee: Education for the Age of
Science. Washington, D.C.: U .$. Government Printing Office, 1959,'36.
.
253. . Meeting Manpower Needs in Science and Technology: Re- v
0 port Number One, Graduate Training in Engineering, Mathematics, andPhysical Sciences. Washington, D.C.:t: U.S. Government PrintingOffice, 1962, 45.
254. . Scientific Progress, the Universities, and the Federal Gov-ernment: A Statement . (The Seaborg Report).Washington, D.0 .: U .S .
Government Printing Office, 1960, 33.
255. University of Virginia . Center for the Study of Science, Technology, and/ `Public Policy. Second Annual Report, Charlottesville: University of
256.
'Virginia, 1970, 24. 's ,
Van Tassel, David D. and Michael G. Hall, eds./ Science and Society inthe United Statei-. HomeWooei Illinois: Dorsey Press, 1966, c360.
../. ..-le
6, .
lb
/
Or.
*
133
a,
- _.-- L_
r
m
4
Science, Technology, and Higher Education
LEADING QI TIONS.
137
1. What are the distinctions usuallyidrawn between scientific and technical ed-. ucation? Are these distinctions vali'd?"Can or should scientific and techni-
cal education be kept separate?
2. What has been the history of government support for education in science andfor technology? In the U .S .A . ? In other7countries? What seems to be the ex-planation of these pattrns of support?
3. In what ways have science and technology contributed to the organization andmethods of higher education? 'Can. you cite specific exdmples of scientificinstrumentation, information handling, teaching Methods, and tests and measure-ments?
4. Why has scientific and technical education come to be described as theknowledge business"? What is the exploration of the growing relationshipbetween advanced scientific and technical education and economic growth?
5.., What changes in fundamental education would be necessary to produce a"Third Culture "society? What would be necessary to achieve these changes?
6. What evidence,° if any, indicates impending changes in science' education inthe United States? Wharappears to be the nature and direction of the trends?To 'what eite_nt, is specific governmental action involved? ,
7. It has often been claimed that the importance given terelarch on the cam-puses has led to the neglect of teaching by faculty members! Do you think itwould be in the interests of the students if faculty research were telegated toa secondary position?
8. If you were compiling, a list of science experts to be consulted in thitcourseof an archaeological "dig" in a city occupied mor,e than 5,000 years ago,what specific fields of scientific expertise would_be included?
9. Does application of scientific.methods to the arts and humanities destroy theirspecial character and value? E.g., has textual criticism undermined thescriptural basis of religion? .1110-
1.0'. How would you answer the question posed by Kenneth Boulding: "Dare we
take the social sciences seriously?"
134
(
'NW
THE ORGANIZATION OFSCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
41,
The five topics in,this.s,ection examine the way in which thetechnoscieotific enterprise of modem society ;At together. Butbecause the context within which this section is placed is one ofpublic policy (rather than of industrial or economic development,for example), ifs -emphasis is upon the machinery of government-science relationships. In other contets, the relationship of scienceand technology to manufactudng, commerce, or agriculture mightbe given comparable emphasis. Organization of tet,hnosc ie..ntificenterprise is best described where it has been most deliberately andelaborately developed. And astite Topics are designed to assist.'understanding of the problems and processes involved in public .
policy for science and technology,andnot to describe all possiblegovernment-science relationships, attention has been focused onfive major but contrasting national systems -those of the UnitedStates, the Soviet Un ion, the United Kingdom, France, and WesternGermany. Several other national technoscientific systems mighthave been added, but their study would have contributed relativelyless toward the objectives sought in this section. The structure ofinternational scientific cooperation is described, and it is in'this.global context that !be future of ppblic policy for science andtechnology will inevitably, in lar.ge measure, be pladed. A.special aspect of the international character of science and tech-nology is the concluding topic in this section--Technoscienc inthe-Developing Countries.
135
A
TOPIC 06 SCIENCE AND GOVERNMENT: THE UNITED STATES
Scilient characteristics of the organizatiokof science in. the Unite States havebeen (1) autonomy, (2) diversified foci of decision on public policyfor scienceand technology, and (3) growing interrelationships with goVernment.and industry.
Extensive governmental involvement and leadership in public policy for scienceanclerechnology dates from World War II. Although thee had been continuingsponsorship-of science by the federal government since the admMstrations ofWashington and Jefferson, the Cdngress and the states remained largely' apathetic:The scientific activities of government in the United Stateswere directed primarilytoward practical ends such as aids.to navigation, the exploration of the west, and
.the setting of scientific and technical standards:"
D,urisng the Civil War, however, the federal governmentassumed a more positive'posture toward applied science. In 1862 the first Morrill Act set aside publiclands for the support of higher education in agriculture and mechanic arts. -Aodin 1863 the National Academy of Sciences was established asan advisory body tothe government. By 1884/the growth of scientific(dgencies had reached a'pointwhere their relationships and organization became' the object of "study by a 16-intcommission of the Congress.
.
WorldWar I brouett about increased governmental concern for sicience and ledto the establishment of the NationalResearch Council . In agriculture, conserva-tion, public health, and technicarstandords, government, was already engaged in-scientific work. The new field of aeronautics had been entered. By 1116 thegeneral stnicture.of science that was to pre fil untirWotld War II wa,c`coiRlete,.
}
World War II and its aftermath led to a jot: expansion of government's role.
in science. Nuclear energy and expleratio of outer space brought totafty newfunctions to government. Establishment of the NationalScience Foundation arts
*
expansion of ;the research srie.rt activrties of thlt National Institutes of Health,in addition to largeexpendiffites toridefen.se-related reseciwh dnd development,made the United States government the major national force in science and tech-nology. An advisory 'apparatus in the execiltiv'e branch as created (President'sScienCe Advisory Committee and ederal Council on Sci en and Technology) andnew committees for scientific weee created in theCongress. The Depart-ment of Science idea, propose .as early as 1885, was again consider:Id, but notadopted. As a technoscientific society took shape in America there was growingpublic concern with the interrelationships between goVernment, industry, and theuniversities, particularly in the allocation of funds for research and developmeh'tand in public policy toward technological innovation.
13r It
g.
142 The Organization of Science and Technplogy
TOPIC 06 SCIENCE AND GOVERNMENT: THE UNITED STATES.#
41.- is-.0 Sefectied Irc Reading's:
Daddario, Emil0 Q. "Needs for a Nationfil Policy," Physics Today, XXII (0c-. tober, 190),
Handler, Philip. "Toward ONational Science Policy," AIBS (BioScierice),XX (September 1, 1970), 971-977.
',L 0 . i. Nif .Peril Martin L.,. -"The Scientific Altvisory` System:: Some Observations," Scienceby
CLXXIII (Septernbei24, 1 971), r2 1 1 .-- V 2 1 5, . .v.ii 4'.
"r
Robaa,'-Herbert. "Congress and the Scien6e Budget," Settnce, CLX (May 31,1 968), 9647971., .
.Sapolsky, Harvey M. . "Science Policy in Americsin' State Goiernreient," Minerva,
IX (July, 971); 322-348.
supplementary and Substitute ReadYgs:rChapman, Richard L.. -"Congress and Science POlicy: TheOrganIzational Dilem-
ma," bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXV (Mfir'ch, 1 96 9), 28.
t
4°Dupree, A. Hunts*. ral Scientific Orgenization"Pn the United'States Gor
emment," 'MlWerv,o4 umrrier, 1963), 453;469.
tHarni4g, Donald F.: "U.S. Science Policy: Its -ktealtlitnd Fisture Sirection,"
Science, CLXIII (February 7, 1969),.,523 - 528.' .op
4Natur%. "Does theU.S. Have a Science, Policy?" Nature, CCXVH (January 20,
'°"--1968), 225-231. 4 r
Reagan, Michael -:[5. Congress Meets 'Sci'ence: The Appropriations Process,"Science,'CLXIV (Ma 23c 1%9), 926-901.
a'
137
a.
a
414\...
or
TOPIC 06 SCIENCE A4,4ID GOVE ENT:- THE UNITED STATES.
TOPICAL OUTLINE
*I . Science and Pt4blic Affairs in the 18th Century
A: Sciehce in the colonies and confederation1 nf I uence. of 'European scienceIcArnerican Phiosciphtical Society,,j743
(Fraillin,' and Rittenhousp)3. American Academy of Arts and Sc nces,.,
1780,
B. Science under thefederalicanstitu* " 1. Federalist concepts of governme
encouragementfor science and tec logy2. Jefferionton animadversions` and
practical Compromises,
er.
, II.,, Science and Government, the 1 9th Century. :.,. . 4s
i..
A'. Exploration and mapping of the tontine ril . i .
,143
REFERENCE KEY
153, 184, 1 93, .
299, 210, 238,251, 299
, 1134, 1.92/ 193,WO, 1 97, 218, .
238, 244, 253,- *:271, 299
1. The Smithsonian Instituti.
1:U.S. Military,Academy and Corps of,
: Engineers,. 1802° -- ,
01 '`2. Theteiis and Clark Expedition, 1P4-1 806. V
' 3. The Coast Survey, 1807-L, . 1 .
AZ
4. Department of the' Interior, 1E149. ;5. The Geological Survey, 1879 '1 30, 215, 252.
.< .
.
.eitientifit, inititutionson>, 1 846
2. The American Association for theAdvancement of Science, 1848 ; , 10,41,J2
3. The National Academy of Science), 1 863 145,,1514. Agniculture and Merric Arts 20
a: Morrill Act of 1862--land grant Collegesb. Hatch Act of 1887--agricultural expei-r1
ment stationsc. Cabinet status for agriculture, 1889 ,
13s
AL.
,
144 The Organization of Science and Technology
5. The growth of the universities--higher ed-h. cation and scientific research.
6/The Allison Commission and a proposed. Department of Science, 1884-1886
Science and ?overnment in World Wars I and-6 184, 185, 193s. 1 97, 200, 293,
238, 244, 249,250, 314
A: New directions in government science(in the
prewar period ,
1. National Bureau of ,Standatds, 1 901
2. Pure Food anl Drug Act, 1 II3 . Public Health, Service" 1 9124. National Advisbcy Committee for
.Aeronautics, 1 915
1 96
23, 128, 189,252
13. Science and technology in World War I 1971. Naval Consulting Board, 1 915
4 . 2. The National Research-Council, 1 918 168, 169
C. Science and the GrealDepression 197. 1. Hoover Committee on Recent Social
Trends, 1 929, (cf.- Report of the
.-4 Committee, F932)2. National InVtitutes of Health, 1 930 143, 148, 158,
171
3. Science Advisory4oard, 1(334. National Resources Committee (cf. s4
Research--A national Resource, 1 937)
Di Science and technology in World War IIandpost-war period/
.38, 51, 92,115,185, 1 90, 212
1. Office of ScIentific Research and Devel-opment
2.Office of Naval Research 31, 1 122
3.: the ls.4=;nhattan Protect 1004. The Bush (Science,ttht Endless Frontier, 1 945)
and Steelman (Science and Public Policy,947) reports 186,268
6 3 j
,Science and Government: Tie United States
5. The Atomic Energy Commission, 1 947
145
54, 80, 112,116, 208,-21.1
6: The Notional Science Foundation, 1 950 2, 35, 81,89; 252
7. Science and the Cold War-loyalty andsecurity
Nt61, 201, 207'
a. The atomic scientists 264b. The Oppenheimer case 270
IV ..Contemporary Functions of Governn ient in Re-lotion to Scienc and TeChnology
A. Scientific and technological activities!.inside governthent1. Measurement and standarjf2. Civil engineering3. Military technology
4. Agricultuge,
5. Natural resources management
6. Healthnd safety! 416
7. Atomic- erlergy4
8. Outer space explgration
4
; *419. Environwental surveillancp
a
10.' Marine and atmospheric sciences
rc
SI
83, 84, 87, 113,123, 124, 125,126, 12 9, 146,149, 153, 160,176; 182, 183,,191, 222, 229,235,.,247, 252,261, 281, 312
50, 30523, 1 95; 303155
31, 92, 122,.20867, 97, 25257,117.9, 257,
. 266'...1S--"77 8, 13, 86, k-
93, 102, 313133, A4, 63, 112,259, 274, 27736; 44.94, 109,
I% 1147 -204 -
256, 300, 3101 9, '30, 57, 79,175, 257, 283,317 .
4,40, 107, 245,267, 278, 280,284, 241F, 288,304, 306, 307,M I
1,0
146 The Organizationof Science and Technology
i
_or
o.71. Federal research laboratories 60, 71, 104,
106, 305B. Formulation of policies affecting science
and technology generally 110, 182, 191,229, 265, 274, -
.293, 309, 310 51.'In connection ,with federal scientific and
fechnical° programs, e.g., via contractwith DOD,. NASA, AEC 4,
**2. Through the science advisory structure,e.g., Office of Science and Technology,Federal Couritil for Science and Technol-ogy, President's Science Advisory CommitteeNational Aeronautics and Space CotOcil,Council on Environmental Quality, NationalAcademy of Sciences, i` National Academy ofEngineering, Smithsonian Institution 1, 3, 16, 22, 28,
37, 48, 64, 73,82,121,82,i21,124134, 151, 152,164, 285, 286,290, 308, 309,312
36, 58, 77, 91,96, 127, 141,142, 208, 226,277, 304
3, Throug the administratiOn of researchgrants, llowships, and other. assistance tosc ic research, and education, e.g.,fhrOugh the U.S. Public 'Health Serviceand National Institutes of Health, U.S.Office of Education, National Science
tionF
4. T ugh coopeption with internationale is in science and technology
0
2,-35, 42, 46,
I.
59, 90,.99, 118, 1119, 137,- 156,
.1633 167, 170,
124, 177, 217,222, 224, 288,289 -
56, 255, 281,282
,
..e
1.
. t
,
0 . .,
Sciencend Government: i he United St9tes
b C. Review and assessment of the statusand direct of public policy and admin-istration affectinissietyce and technology i'
.
,..
7
.
4.4
147
17, 34, 47, 45,64, 66, 74, 88,157, 166, 179,182, 229, 276,1'299, 313
1. The COngress of the United States, e.g.,House of Representatives: Committee on ..Science and Astronautics; Committee on .7
Agriculture; Committee on Armed Services;Committee on Interstate and Foreign Corn- .merce; Senate: Coramittee'on Aeronauticaland Space Sciences; Committee on Agri-
. cultuo and Forestry; Committee on Appro-priations; Committee on Armed Services;Committee.on Commerce; and ,Library ofCongress, Science and TechnolOgy Division 5, 26, 29, 43, 52,
79, 85, 94, 132,4 , .135, 165, 180;
181, 221, 2 91,
293, 295, 297,. . . 298, 299, 302
2. Executive Committees or Commtions, e.g.,Steelman and Bush reports, EnvironmentalPollution Panel of the Presidents Science
IIII1
Advisory Committee, National C9uncil on.Marine Resources and Engineering Develop--.ment 124, 267, 285,
309, 3123,,.. Analysis-and criticism of United States
science policy structure (see also Topic 11). 120, 160, 178-
de
1,27,45,66,101,
it
a. Centralization of federal science respon-0
disibil itiesI. The Department of Science idea,
1 884:1971
2. Proposal for4National Institutes ofResearch and Advanced Studies
b. Over-emphasis on mission oriented tech-t norogical 'programs, e.g. Apollo, SST,
Atomic Energy, etc.
1
t
...
292
39, 49; 76, 103,136, 138, 182
294
36, 5458, 77,111, 116, 221
4It 1
OM
148
.-a
The Organization of Science and Technology
/-1/ .
c. lupport of basic research by the DOD--,the Mansfield propesal
d. Intermittent nature of funding fOr scienceprograms
e. Insufficient attention to social and be-.havioral science--proposal for a NationalSocial Science Foundation
V. Science and the States
N
Role of State governments in the promotion of"science and technology in the 19th century andup to World War.11 . Involvement proportionatelygreater than it is today, and as extensive as thatof the federal government,at the time. Initiationof programs in1. Agricultural eiperimentation2. Geological mapping3. Higher education4. Public health
B. Decrease in relative support byState governmentsfor technoscientific research & development afterWorld War II due to vastly larger federal outlays('contribution of state agenties to total nationalR & D is about 0.5 percent, compared to 'about 66percent for federal agencies).Stateiappocted R & D heavily concentrated in:1. Health care (more than 40 percent of .total
states R & D).2. Natural resources (25 percent)3. Highways (15 percent) rE
acC. Lack of support by states of basic research at
colleges and universities (except for agricuktural research), due to1. Qeneral lack of interest among State govern-
"rents in science,or se or in academic re-- seorich; teaching function of the university
empholPae4L
143
24, 99, 111,142
17, 21, 25,98,133, 144, 159,172, 178
117, 180
139, 140, 219,227
254
4
Nis
4
4
A
Science and*Goveroment: The.United Stati's 149
2. %ate priority assigned to projects which;how tangible results in a comparativelyshod time .
3. Results of successful research financedby one state will be quickly tiiallabreto other who did not pay for it.
D. Recent Federal support of state technoscientificactivities; some examples :1. State Technical Services (STS) Roogram,
1 965-1 969
2. Intergovernmental Cooptration Act of 1 9683. Maritime states helped by the Sea Grant
College Act of i0966\ 4. The Anadrornous Fish Concentration Act of the ,
89th Congressc 5, National Science Foundation Grant to COuncil
of State GovernMents IE. Institutional Structure for technoscientific advice
toState goVernments1. Functions
a . Acceleration of economic developmentb. Anticipation and s'abtion of social problemsc. Examination of natural resource and environ-...
mental problems' .
d. Injecting benefits of science and technologtinto State government planning and rnanagenint
e. Setting of goals and appraising of progress inareas requiring the use of science and technology
2; Type of structurea . Science Advisor Governorb. Science Advisory Councilc. State Science Foundations
, d. Academies of Sciencee..Combinations of some of the above
49, 223, 254
62, 150
69
55, 97, 187, 232
1 99
236
3. Stati technoscientific development programs, e.g., 154,220,,231,246,275'
198,228,233,254,
205,230,237,272,
a .Information technology
144
1
,/
150 The Organization of Science andechnology
Environmental research. 68, 95, 266Systems analysis
d. Natural areas for researche. State museumsf. Cooperative programs between several states 214, 234, 248
4. Ineffectiveness of most state science policystructures due toa . Absence of clear indication of correlation
between investment in technoscipnce andeconomic gain
b. Lack of recognition of role of scienceadvisers in the formulation of public policy
c. Impermanence of advisers, who seldom survivea change in administration
d. Lack of effective institutionalization ofscience policy in the regular structure ofthe legislative anctexecutive branches
I
. 14'5
9.0
Science and Government: The United States
General References: Articles
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Abelson, Philip H. "The President's SCience Advisers," Minerva, III(Winter, 1965), 149-158.
2. Allison, David. "The National S'cience Foundation,".International Sci-ence and Technology, Number 52 ( April, 1966), 76:-86.
3. . "The Science Brain Trust," International Science and Tech-nology, Number 37 (January, 1965), 61-68.
4. #nastasion, Steven N. "Oceanography and Government," in OceanSciences, ed,by Eciwqrd.J. Long. Annapolis, Maryland: U.S. NavalInstitute, 1964, 185-V.
5. Anderson, Clinton P. "Scientific Advice for Congress," Science,'CXLIV(April 3, 1964), 29-32.
6. Anderson, Clinton P. and James T. Ramey. uCongressandResearch: Ex-,
peri-ence in Atomic Research and Development," Annals of the Ameri-can Academy of Political and Social Science, CCCXXVII (January,1960), 85 -94.
7. Bazell,'Robert "Food and DrugAdministration: Is PropctingLives thePriority?" Science, CLXXII (April 2, 1971), 41-43:
8. Bernhard, Robert. "Cyclamate - Contradictions and Loose Ends," Scien-tific Research, IV (November 24, 1969), 18-21.
9. Bertin, L. "Science Policy in Canada," Technology Review, LXXIII(February, 1971), 35; 37-39.
10. Boffey, Philip M. "AAAS (I): Facing the.Questions--of What It Should Beand Do," Science, CLXXII (April 30, 1971), 453-458.
11. "AAAS (II): What It Is and What It Tries to Do," Science,CLXXII (May 7, 1971); 542-547.
12. ."AAAS (III): Is Order-of-Magnitude Expansion a Reason-/ able Goal?" Science, CLXXII (May 14, 1971), 656-658.
1461
152 The Organization of Science and Technology
13. Boffey, Philip M. "Nader's Raiders on the FDA: Science and ScientistMisused," Sitience, CLXVIII (April 17, 1 970), 349-352.
14. . "NSF'Budget: House 'Group Reacts to Data on Plight of
15.
16.
Science," Science, CLXVIII (April 3, 1 970), 95-97.
. "NSF: McElroy Seeks to Impart Political Headway_to A-gency," Science, CLXVI (October 24, 1 96 9), 481-485.
. "Science Policy: An Insider's View of LBJ, DuBridge, andthe Budget," Science, CLXVI (March, 1971), 874-876.
17. . "Technology and World Trade: Is There Cause for Alarm?"Science, CL101. (April 2, 1971), 37-41.
.18. Borfey, Philip M., Luther J. Carter, and Andrew Hamilton., "Nixon Bud-get: Science Funding Remains Tight," Science, CLXVII (February 6,1 970),.845-848.
'1 9 . Bowers, Raymond, Paul Hohenberg, Gene Likens, Walter Lynn, DorothyNelkin, and Mark Nelkin. "A Program to Coordinate EnvironmentalResearch," American Scientist, LIX (March-April, l 971), 183 -187.
20. Brcdford,Richard. "The Sciences; Pure, and Appltd, inthe First Centuryof the Land Grant Institutions," Science Education, XLVI.(April, 1 962),240-247.
21. Brode, W. R. "The Handwritingon the Wall," American Scientist, LVI(Summer, `1968),1119A-120A; 122A-123A .
22. Brown, H. "Some Thoughts on the National Academy of Sciences and theRole of Non o ernmentcil Institutions," Congressional Record, CXVII(May 20, ), E4751-E4755.
23. Bulletin of t e Atomic tcientists. "Functions and Operations of the .
Bureau of Standards," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, IX (December,195), 376-377-. A summer sf_the,Kel ly Report. See also ScienceCXIX ( February 12, 1 954), 1 95-200, and Nature, CCIV (Decem17;71i,
1
964), 1039 -1040.
24. "Mi,44:on Agency Support of Basic ReseaTEW,'Bul letin of theAtomic Scientists, XXVI (September, 1 970),'35-37.
14'i4A
0.0
Science and Government: The United StatesC._
153
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312. U.S. President's Task Forder}on Scie ce Policy. Science and Technology:Tools for Progress. Washington, .C.: U.S. Gover.oent Printing Of-fice, 1970; 48.
313. Van Tassel, David D. and Michael G. Hall. Science and Society in theU.S. Homewood; Illinois: Dorsey Press, 1966, .290.
314. Weaver, Warren. Science of Change: A Lifetime in American Science..New York: Scrilmer's, 1970, 226.
315. Wells, 17 G., et al. Contract Research and Development Adjuncts ofFederal Agencies: An Exploratory4Study of-Forty .Organizations. Den..ver, Colorado: Denver Research Institute, University of Denver, 1969,400. (P8 187 945)
316. Wengert, Norman, ed'. Perspectives in Governmentand Science. Philo-d?lphia: AMerican,Academy of Political and Social Science, 1960,204.
31.7. Whitnah, David R. A History of the United States Weather Bureau. Ur-bana: University of Illinois Prdss, 1961, 267.
Wolfle, Ddel. Science and Public Policy. Lincoln: University of Ne-.braslca Press, 1959,-81.
S
3 173
Science and Government: The United States
LEADING QUESTIONS
179
1. How has science been involved in American politics? In foreign policy?In domestic policy?
2. What are the principal prganizational components for scientific and techno-logical decision-making in the Federal government? What are their statu-, tory and functional relationships? Are advisory and decision-making func--1*
ct bons realistically separable?°Ate . * ,
3. What were the frincipal observations of the 0EdD examination of sciencepolicy 1;in t e iUnted States (1968)? What response has been made to the ob-servations-of the examiners?
4. What difficulties has the American politician encountered in attempts todeal with issues having science content?" How could these difficulties bealleviated?
5. What difficulties complicate, the role of the Congress in the fcxmulatibn andreviev.tf science policy? What methods, propbsed or in effect, have beenadvanc to assist the Congress in- decisions relating to science policy?
6. What hOsbeen the role of the National Academy of Sciences-National.Re-.search Council in the administration of federal science policy? What cir-cumstances led to ihe establishment of the National Academyof Engineering?Whrare the social sciences largely excluded from the AS?
I
,7. Whor are the arguments forOnd against a national departmenrof science andtechnology? Is there a parallel in the proposals for a national university?t
8; How did establishment of the natiohal system of land grant colleges mark a- chan9e in the functions of universitiesand, the beginning of a new erpin re-
lOtionships between government, higher education, and industry?
9. What has been the role o privately owned industry in the organization anddevelopment of American science? What appears to be its. probable future?HO* do not-for-profit .R&D organizations differ,, ill/addition to financial
, status, frOm other private industri9l entei'prises?.
fir10. What, role 'have State governmenti silayed in the development of science andtechnology? Is there any correlation between the quality, of State govern-
. merit generally and its role in science and technology?
174 ,
411
TOPIC 07 SCIENCE AND GOVERNMENT: THE SOVIET UNION
The distinguishing Characteriitic of Russian science has been its centralizedand governmentolized character. From the time of its introduction from WesternEurope by Czar Peter t, until given its present structure under the Sovi.Aregi me,science.in Russia has been almost exclusively a governmental function. The struc-tureof Soviet science, although not monolithic, is nevertheless subject to overallpolitical and fiscal control . Soviet science is thusamenalale to integrated and pro-gramed direction: It may, however, lack the_ flexibility and creativity of lesshighly structured Western science.
ThAcademy of Sciencewas planned by Peter I and established in 1725.membership of the Academy (16) was foreign. Nearly a Antury was required
for it to becOme a truly Russian institution. In 1847,' university functions were re-moved from the Academy, estafilishing the practice of separating reseatch, whichthe Academy retained,, from instruction, which was the principle function of theuniversities.
The autocratic and ideologically dominated governments of the Czarsond the it
Soviets favored science insofar as it served their purposes. They had little intetestin the freedom ofocience and did not hesitate to punish scientists for political .heresies. The safest sciences in Russia were the most abstract. Ft is not suprisingtherefore that Russian scientists dist17iguished themselves especially in the physicalsciences and mathymatics.
,Politcal domination of Soviet science reached its greatest extent Under the dil-tatorship of Joseph Stalin. The most notorious political-sciertic controversy ofthe Stalin era arose- over the theories of genetics associated with the biologistLysenko. His views, although rejected by masMpiologists, were favored by thepqlitical authorities,. Lysenk-o's academic oppOnents suffered political reprisals.The-episade.gave the-name "Lysenkoism" te.efforts to make scientific theory con-form to politcal ideology.
Coordination of Soviet science policy takes place intommittees, of theitouncilof Ministers of the U.S.S.R., notably in the State Committee for CSordination ofResearci, and Development . Principal components of the Sqviet syttem for sciencepolicy are the Academies of Science (of the U.S and Union Republics), theMinistry of Higheand Secondary Spectalized*Education, and ministerial and in-.,dustrial committees for -research and development plartaing..
. . ,Science and technology have been accorded high priority in the allocation of
public resources.' Scientistsand engineers are among the more prominent member;of anew Soviet professional class, which Marxist ideologyopposes but which prac-tical considerationsabet. It remains tgi be seen whether the strength of Sovietence cah be channeled indefinitely along ideological lines. As social and bellav -ioral science advancesin other parts of the world, the Soviet commitment to a
social ideology beyond challenge by science- may be severely strained.
,175 ,A
182
A
-The Organization Of. Science and Technology
TOPIC 07 SCIENCE. AND GOVERNMENT: THE SOVIET UNION
-IP
Selected Basic4eadings:
Amann, R. The Soviet Research anctDevelopment System: The Pressures of Ac-ademic Tradition aril Rapid Industrialisation," Minerva, VIII (April, 1970),217 -241.
Gill, Richard R. "Decision-making in Soviet Science Policy," Bulletin of theAtomic Scientists, XXIV (April, 1968), 1571 9.
Jordan, Lloyd F. "Scientific and Technical Relations among Eastern CommunistCountries," Minerva, VIII (July, 1970), 376-395. L.
Kapitza, Peter L. "Problems of Soviet Scientific Policy," Minerva, IV (Spring,1966), 391-397.
OECD Observer. "Science Policy in the U.S.S.R.," OECD.Observer; Number -
\ 38 (February, 1 9A, 10-14.
Supplementary and Substitute Recidings:
\.....Jomvsity, David. "The Lysenko Affair," Scientific American;CCVII (November,
1963), 41-49.1,
.
Mecivedet, fhores A. "The Closed CircuitA Record of Soviet Scientific Life,"'Nature, CCXXVII (Serifekier 19, 1970), 11 97-1202.. bi
SakharA Andrei De. Progress; .Coexistence, and\
Intellectual 'Freedom. New ,
York: Norietn,-1968., 158. ,Z..,
4 1
Vuchinich, Alexandir A. "Science and Morality: A Soviet Dilemma," Science,CLIX (March 15, 1.968), 1208-1212.
Zaleski, E. - "Soviet R & D: Finance.andAllocation," Science and Technology,Number 84 (May,'1 969), 8-15.
.4Zvorriiirjn, A. A. "The Organization,of 'Scientific Work in the t.1.S.S.R.," Im-
pact* Science on Society, XV (Number 2, 1 965), 67118. -rr-
I
176
5. 4
TOPIC 07 SCIENCE AND GOVERNMENT: THE SOVIET UNION 183
.
REFERENCE .KEYTOPICAL OUTLINE
Science jn Czarist Russia
A. Influence of Wdstern thought in the17th century1: Receptivity of Czars and court officers2. Opposition of Orthodox clergy3. Developmenrof non-theoretical technical
knowledge
B. Peter/4, 1682-1725, and the beginning ofRussian science1. (ale of'fkreign scientists and ddvisers
a . Leibnizscience counselor" to Peterthe Great
b. Henry FarquhCrson and the School ofMathematics ail*Nav_igation, 1701
kr
(after 1715, NOvd1 Academy)InfluenCe 8f the European academies:,..common characteristics of voluntaryCssemblagessof scholars for thi advance-ment of knowledge (not teaching); contrdrsin concepts of the relation of scientificacadeMies nip" the statqunationalist'sciencein France and Prussia
2. The St. Petersburg Ac&deiv ofSciences,1725 48..
a . Initial membership--foreign scholars-.(13 German; 2 Swiss, I-French)
: unctictris indicated in plan appeved in e
1724 by Peter I; Academicians were to:,(1) engage in independentresearch in
4.`
154, 153
!, their discipline!'(2) prepare extracts from foreign scierr'
.tific publications(3) collectively eJaluate inventions Sub-* _
miffed -to them for appraisal(4) provide expert answers to questions pro-. pounded by governmental authorities
YID
A
111
184 The Organization of Science and Technology
(5) prepare Latin and Russian textbooks intheir fields
c. Abfence of universities a handicap,d. Charter of 1847 separates Academy from
.univerdly functions and excludes thehumanities from the Academy
e. Confentions.beteen:(1) Academiciar and bureaucratic
- control(2) Russians and West Europeans
f . Influence and accomplishments of theearly Academy
3,University of Moscow founded, 1755
21I
C. Russian science in the 1.9th and early 20thcenturies .21, 154, 1551. Flowering of an it digenous Russian
science after 1860: Butlerow, Sichenov,Mendeleev, Pavlov, Tsiolittivske-' 6
A2. Shifting attitudes in the Russian government
toward science and higher education--indi-rectly encouraging the already traditionalemphasis on mathematics, physical science,and ,technology and disCouraginglocialscience, law, and evolutionary aspects ofbiology
.
4
It. ScienCe, Marxism, and the Russian Revolution. of 1918 107, H 0, 116,
y 121, 129A. Marxismos q "scientific theory" of social wi
evolution 101
B. Incompatibility of open-ended science and,closed-system dogma- -the inevitability ofconflict between Marxist ideology and bio-logic.al and sac-kJ) science
7 a
10, 65, 75, 131,133, 151,161-
C-)
Ir
4
t'
.,, I-. '41' Science and Government: The- S6viet Union 185
,. ..
C.. Otilitarian 'tendency of-Soviet sciencepolicy with resulting:1 Centralized directior; of scientific
work2. Erphasis on tectmology,
'<f62, 98, 112
D. Politicization-of Soviet science under_Stalin. °
1. Tolalitarian irrfrtAt of Sovlet science..
2. Lysenkoism
_
41:$ ,
13,651, 72, 99,104 106 lb()7,22, 27, 32,38, 63'31, 35, 36, 17,
66, 118,0
E. De-Stalinization of Soviet scitnce-- r- limlts on political feasibility in an 49
- iv s , . 441e ;ilk ideological .state.
ik. ..
kg,949, 94,155, --Th
F, Comparison Of'Sovietangkiczarist sciencepolicies--similaritieOand apparent contrasts- ' 98
132, 161
,16 411P.
450., Ill. The institutional Structure of Contemporary
'Soviet Science_ ,
Ir. , .
A. The. Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S. R..%
-
1.%)le and status of Soviet science. .
Q. Acaderjaiesin the Union Republics3. The ScienCe City at Ncho Sibirsk
., (Akademgorodok)..
B. Admini§trative apparatus- for _science and ''technology P..
. 1. Council of Miriiiters of the\ U .S .S. ii .a State Plannig Committee (GospItni,b. State EConomii Council of thf' -council of Ministers Is.
,
17
It I
.1
, 1, 2, 3, 14, 15,19, 25, 44, 52,-71, g9, 100,105, 119.1,22;4'136, 40, 15029, '48, 76,. 120,151, 1,56104
79 *
-, 8, 40,54, 7'9,. 81
_
1, 83, 96,1126,135; 140
, ,
t.
-
'186 The Organization of Science and Technology
.
,P
State 4ommittel on the Coordinationof Research and Development, Council
44'a of Ministers . sMinistry of Higher and Secondary SpecializedEclusidtion of the li.S.S.R'..(and Un on Re p4Alic%inistries, and Committees of 111rSecOndary SplpHalized Pucafion) J 113
3. Ministries andodministrations with spefialscientificr techn"mal functions:Ministry of ilealttAcademy of Medical kSciences; Ministry of Geology and MineralResources, Administration of Hydrotneteorological-.Sorvices . . ,
* 4. State committees with research and developmentFunctions; e.g., Automation and 1%M.aihineoiluilding,Atomic Energy', Radio-Electr nios a "24, 45,103, 123,
1
C. 'The roe oflomitotionsof higher educatioy
D. Re a i between the U.S.S.R. a the EastEuropean ocialist countrie4 in the fields, ofscience and technology, e.g. COMECON.
Trends and Prospects' fclr Scienc4and Technologyin the Soviet. Technpld'gical Society '
OP'
. A. Rise of a new class -- scientific and technicalprofessions in the U.S.S.R.41111,-----;')0.,_
4111P
Dilemma of Soyietscience policy--risksof deviation arstulti'ficatiOn ,
Soviet policy in rela'tion to internationalscientific cooperation -- problems of out-flanking the ideological barrier;
4
.1b0
4
t.
1,27
108, 109, 113
4
4, 28, 39, 40, 55,67, 68, 77, 82; °
144, 145, 150
5, 6, 18, 58,59,64, 69,.74, 88,,1'03, 114, 415,11'7,-124 123, 128,130, 1,36, 143,146, 149, 157
12, 38, 42, 47;86-, 93, 95, 106,
'1.09, 111, 138, 147 <4,3
13,60,99,1-01,102, 119, 129, 137
11, 142"
fi
a
r
I
I
ItS.eience and Govern4lt: The Soviet Union
.. I. 1.:Exchangeprograms and tisitations'2: Cooperative international efforts, e.g.,
Antarctioe, outer sod-coq . .
D. prengohs.and weaknesses in Sovier policytowa5d science and technology .4. 13, 23,:41, 70, 'NI
. 80, 91, 119,140.1:'Emphasis on research rat than. development 174.2., Long "lead times" between `innovation
and production 4" "173. Orientation of economic planning towards ,
achievement of maximum production, t'often neglecting experimentation .
4. Existence of organizatignal barriersbetween different phases,of theresearch- .-production cycle:
. .a. between fundamental and ether types
........... ...
of research .4
t. Between Oilion and military R&D: -*itrong barriers due to secrecy as- wellas,organizational distinctivenes/
c'..Befween industries: individual .
ministries have their Own indtistry- .related R&D pcligram
6ad. Between industrial.resear and the, prodecing enterprise: ne*Vork of
specialist establishment's sepbroted ,geographically and oi.anizationally s' - ,
5. Experimentation with new organizational b4
forms: . . .
a-. Factory center in which research instil:-tution,-clesign bureaus and. production ,
entetprises are brought together in a . /single unit: ... ., a
. etearch complexes closely associated .
wit industry, e.g., LeningrOd PO1Y-- '. .
-*"'_,, technical Institute , .
c. Selfi-supporting research corporationswhich, work for industry '`
4.1..d . Science cities 8, 26,.43,4,,s 57, 73, 85
4
9; 53, 61
152, 150_
1$7
ly
; , -
.0
,,,
5.
4
F
- Science and Government: The Soviet Un ion;
0.. Oenerol References: Articles
1'
I
. 2.
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..W ... .
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issw.
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c
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. .,
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0
Minervo "Scientific Pblicy in the U.S.S..R.," Minerva, IV (Wier,.1T67)), 215-236.
1 SCr n 0
4(
.
t
'
,6194 The Organization of Science dnd-Technology
.t.-
65. Moore, Barrington, Jr. "Recent DeyielOpmenti in the Social Sciences inthe So,tiet Union," American Sociological Review, XII (June, 1947),34 9-351%
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t
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$
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1111%- *f; a
1 I
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Science and Government:* The Soviet Union
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Grah6m, Loren. The'SovietAcademy of Sciences and tKeepmmunist Party,1 927-1 932. Princet6n, New Jersey: Princeton University Preis, 1967,,255.
117. Heymann, Hans. The U.S .S.R . in the TecKnological Race. Santa Monica,,California: RAND Corporation, 1 95 9, 15.
118. Huxley, Julian. Heredity,_ East' and West: Lysenko and World Science.1\11w York: Henry Schuman, 1949, 246.
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Washington, D.C.: U0S'., Government Printing Office, 1969, 171(.., 1 5
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375.
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Science and Qoverriment: the Soviet Onion 199' ,
.. ,
1°27. Kramish,Arnold. Atomic Energy in the Soviet Union. Starlford, Califor-nia: Stanford University Press, 1959, x, 232. Biblio. -- ,
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126.
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1-37. Parry, A1beo.Communisir
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130. McKinney,4Robert.% The Red Challenge to Technological Renewal. in t. West. Santa Fe, New Mexico: New Mexico Press, 1960, 24.
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131,. Medvedev, Zhores A . The Medvedev Papers: The Plight of Soviet.Science, -
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. New York: )olumbia University Press, 1969, 284.gir)
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134. National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council -. Office of theroreign Secretary. The Eastern Europeanr-Academilkof Sciences: A .Directory. Washingtone 15.C.: National Academy of SAkences-Na-tional Regedrch Council, 1 963,'148. (Pub. 1090)
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138.. . Peter Kcipitsa on Life and Sciente. New York: 'Macmillan,1 968 271..
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139. Penkovs19y, Oleg. The Penkovskiy Papers, ..,Gerclben City,, New York:Doubheday, 1965, 411.
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140. Ploss, Sidney], Cbnflistsind Decision-Making in Soviet Russia: A Case-Study of Agricultural Policy., 3 953-1 963. Princeton, New Jeriey:Princeton University Press, 1965, 312.
141, . PikrovskycyG. I. Science and Teehnolopy in ContemporaryWar. Trans.by Raymbnd- L. Garthoff.' Islekyork: Praeger, 1959, 180.
142. Sakharov, Andrei D. Progress, Coexistence, ond Intellectual Freedom:New York: Norton, 1968, 158,
143. Shelton, -Wi liam. Soviet Space Exploration: The First Decade. NewYork: ashington Square Press,. 1968, 339.4f
144. Sramecka, Vladimir. Science in Czechoslovakia . New York: Columbia -University Press, 1963, 175.
145. . Science in East Germany. Newit'ork:' Columbia Universi-ty Press, 1963, .124.
146. Survey: A Journal of Soviet and East European Studies, the Editors of TheState of Soviet Science. Cambridge, Massachusetts: M:I.T. Press,1965, 209.
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. vakian Socialist Republic. Paris: UNESCO, , 88.
149. . Science Policy and the Organizatio f Sciintific Researchin the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia . Paris: UNESCO, 1968,124.* (Science Policy Studies and Documents, No. 9)
150. . Icience Policy and Organization of Research in the U.S .S .RParis: UNESCO, 1967, 116.
151.' . The Social Science Activities of Some Eastern European A-cademies of Sciences. Paris: UNESCO, 1963, 61 .
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Science and Government: The Soviet Union
,
152. "U.S. Congress. Senate. Aeronautical and Space Sciences Committee.Soviet Space Programs, 1 962-1 965; t oa Is cind Purposes, Achievements,Plans, and International Staff Rpfort. Review by Glen P. Wilson forthe Committee to the 89th ConVess, 2nd Session, December3 0, 1 966.Washington, D.C.: U,S. Goverhment Printing Office, 1967, 920.
153. . Cominittee on Government Operations. Subcommittee onNatibnal Security Staffing and Operations. Staffing Procedures andProblems in the Soviet Union. A Study Submitted by the Subcommitteesto the 88th Crgress, 1st Session, May 15, 1963. Washington, D.C..:U.S. Government Printing Office, 1963, 62.
154. Vuchinich, Alexander A. Science in Russian Culture--A History to 1860.Stanford, California:' Stanford University Press, 1963, 463.
155. . Science in.Russian Culturd, 1861 - 1917.' Stanford, Cal i for-nia: Stanford University Presl, 1970, 576.
156,. . The Soviet Academy of Science., Stanford, California:-4tanford University Press, 1956,157.
157. White, Sarah, ed. Guide to Science and Technology in fhe U.S.S.R.Guernsey, British Channel.Islands: Francis Hodg.son, 1971, 500.
158. Wukelic, George E., ed. Handbook of Soviet Space- Science Research.'s)
New York: Gordon and Breach, 1 968, 505.
159. Zaleski, Eugene, et al . Science Policy in the U.S.S.R. Paris: Organ-ization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 1969, 615.
*6
160. Zirkle, Conway. Evolution, Marxian Biology, and \the Social Scene.Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1959, 527.
161. Zirkle, Conway, ed. Death of .a Science in Russia: The' Fame of Geneticsas Described in Pravda and Elsewhere. Philadelphia: Urilversity ofPennsylvania Press, 1949, 319.
AddenduM:
162. .Gol Idanskry, V .1 ., V .A . Kiri I lint et al . "Future of Science, U.S.S.R.,"The Future of Science, (October, 1 971).
.194A
I
4
202 The Organitation ,Science and,TechnologyI ,
163. Greenberg, Linda Lwbrano. "Soviet Science Policy and the Scientific'Establishment," Survey, Number 4.(Autumn, 1971), 51-63:
4
164. Gurvich, .G. "Symposium on Reseaki Planning and Management,U.S. S. .1'Economids and Mathematical' Wethods, V (Novemiper,1971).
165. Keldysh, M. V. "Research Plans of- U. S. S.R! Academy of Sciences,"Science and Life, VIII (December, 1971). I
166. Lomov, B., V.' Rubakhin, and G. Sukhodoliskiy. "Problem of Man andTechnology, U: S. S. R., " Socialist Labor, V (October, 1971).
167. Science and Life. "Scientific Management of Society, U.,S.S.R.,"Science and Life, iy (November; .1971).
16W. Vucinich, Alexdider. Science in Russian Culture, 1861-1917. Stanford,California: tanford University Press, 1970, 575.
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Science and Government: The Soviet Union 2p3
LEADING QUESTIONS
What are the principal organizational differences between American and°Russian education and research in scienTic and technical fields?
. To what extent were technological and scientific ideas influential in pre-"revolutionary Rupia? What effect, for instance, did the work of D.I. Men-deleev, K.E.Tsfo lkoysky, I . P. Pavlov, and Count Witte have upon the char-acter of Russian science and technology?
Towhat extent did a "two-culture" circumstance prevail in pre-ievolution-ary Russian intellectual life?
4
4. What were the historical origins of the distinctions between the-Russiart,uni-versifies, the technological institutes, and the academies? What is the role
' of the Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R.?
5. What Is "Lysenkoism"? What was its history? Have there'been paralleldevelopments_ in the,pnited StOtes? In other cauntries?-
What has been the evidence of a dectralization of scientific and techno-logical work in the US.S.R. since World War 41? Has the decentfaliiationbeen general or selective?
9;
.7. How does public regard for scientists and engineers differ as between theU .S .A. and U.S .S .R .? What factors appear to account for the. differences ?'
8: Haw has theU.S.S.R . used science as an i str/onent of foreign policy? Howwould you appraise the effectiveness of t s effort?
-9. Why have such observers as James Burn in and Jacques Ellul pointed to theSoviet Union as the most advanced fortn of technological society? Are na-tional industrial systems generally moving toward or away from the Sovietmodel? What is the evidence?
10. Do the ideological parameters-that circumscribe Sovief science seem likelyultimately to force it into.an intellectual cul -de -sac? Will the scientifictechnology upon.which Communist leaders have set such store ultimatelycontribute to the dissolution °Lithe Marxist-Leninist regime?' (Note opinionsexpressed by Stevan Dedijer--referente)
1
1
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/
*
I.
TOPIC 08 THE ORGANIZATION OF SCIENCE IN WESTERNJUROPE
The historical development of gOvernnient-science relationships in WesternEurope has followed two corittasting patterns. Prototypes for these general patternsare found in England, where a laissez faire attitude toward science long prevailed,and ill France, where government has been the principal patron and organizer ofscience. These pdtternsare no longer clear y defined, and there are many varia-tions and intermediate stages in other Euio an nations. But the tendency arrron9the civil law states of continental Europe hailbeen to follow the French systerntofcentral ized, governtnent-sponsored,science; wherea's in the United Kingdom and thesmaller maritime states of northwest Europe the reldtionships between governmentand science Were similar to those also prevailing ip the United States. The basisfor these differences has lain not so much in attitudes toward Science as in preyail-,ing orcepts of jurisprudence and public administration . Similar contrasts may befound with regard to governmental Alsponsibility for education, economic affairs,04' the fine arts. . 1
'. The chartering of the Royal Society in London in 1662 marks the beginning oforganized science in England. During the 18th .and 19th centuries a modifiedlaissez fake prevailed with respect to science and technological innovation. Eng- ....
1c7rTaTvara leader in.4 industrial revolution and it was industrial technology,encouraged by the inducements of a market economy, that flourished. blot untilmid-twentieth century did the British 'government become seriously involved it,science policy. In the post-World War )1 era, science became a political issue,and major innovations occurred in government organiiation.
In France, government sponsorship of science may be said to have begun withthe establis'hment of L'Academlie des Sciences in 1666. Advancement of 'sdienceand technology, at least in theory, became a continuing function of French govern- iment. In the.years between World Wars I and II the vigor Of French .'science ap-peared to decline, and in 1958 a major reorganization of the machinery of govern-ment foithe advancement of science and technology occurred. An effort has beenmade to preserve the advantages of centraliied support and coordination and togainflexibility and diversity, involving the industrial sectorand the research lab-
.)oratoriesand university faculties in partnership. in planning. \-)
the period since World War .1Ihas been marked by a resurgence of science inGermany,which had 'suffered heavy losses during the Hitler regime 'and the woe.years. European regional 'cooperation for science and technology has greatly in-creased. Adding to the. informal collaboration of indiv dual scholars and scholsocieties, new organizations have been established for cooperation in atomic energy (CERN, EUROCHEM IC, EURATOM) and space research (ESRO and ELDO)tThe high cost. of advandedscientific research 'and technological innovation makesinternbfiooal cOoperation a practical necessity in many fields of inquiry for mostEuropean stdtes. I
/19.7 .
-. t. ,
,../
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. 206 . The Organisation of Science and Technology.
.1 TOPIC 08 THE ORGANIZATION OF SCIENCE IN WESTERN EUROPE
Selected Bask Readings:
Flowers, Brian. "Science and the Common Market," Nature, CCXXXIII (Sep-,tember 17, 1971), 173-176.
Nature . :'France: At the Crossroads, ' Nature, CCXXXI (May 28,101), 229-230.
OECD Observer. "Technological Gaps: Their Nature, Causes,andEffects," OECDObserver, Number 33 (April, 1968), 18-28.
Valery, N. "Germany's Science Boom Gets Underway," New 6cientisfand ScienceJournal, L (May 20, 1971), 471-472.
,WedgewoodBenn, Anthony. "Science, Europe, and a New World," New Scientistand Science Journal, XLIX (February 18, 1971), 348-350.
Supplementaryand Substituic Readings:
Huntley, J.R. "Gaps in the Future: The American Challenge and the EuropeanChallenge," Futures, II: (March, 1970), 5-14.
Industrial Research. "Special Report on R & D in Europe," Industrial Research,. rXIV (January, 1:972), 28:49.
,...
Nature. 'Survey of Science in'Europe," Nature, CCXXXI, (May 28, 197)), 221-2-F6-. .
.
. . .1
OECD'Observer. "Science Policy in ,Germany and the United Kingdom," OECDC)bserver, Number. 24 (October, 1966);30-34.
Piganoil, Pierre'. "Scientific Policy and e European Commonify," Minerva, VI(Spring, 1968), 354-365. . .
..
Quinn, James B. 's ';National Planning of 5pience and Technology in France,"Science, CL (Is\,ovember 19, 1965)i 993-1003.
°
me,
TOPIC 08 THE ORGANIZATION OF SCIENCE IN WESTERN EUROPE 207o
"APICAL OUTLINE s REFERENCE KEY
I. Historical Roots of Science in the West(cf.,Topic 02)
A. Science in the Middle Ages -- legacyof antiquity
B. Birth of modern science in the Renaissance4. Pattoncige of science2. Science in the universities
C. Emergence of organized science (Cf.Topic 04) 296.1. Indespendent scientific societies,
e.g., The Royal Sipciety of London,1662 289,302
2, Government-sponsored academies,e.g., L'Acaderriies des Sciences 1666;The Royal Observatory at Greenwich,1675; academies established in Prussia,
6, 117, 130
1700; Sweden, 1739; Denmark, 1742;(Netherlands, 1808; Austria, 1 847
D. Science and technology as instruments ofnth ional policy1.. The place of science and technology
in political economy: mercantilistsstatisticians, cameralists, physiocrats,
2. Establishment of institutions for highereducation in science and technology,e.g., Ecole Polytechnique in France,1794; and the Federal Institute of Tech-nology in Zurich, 1854
II. Science and Government in the United 'Kingdom
.
_19;J
204, 266, 34
220, 274
306
130, 354.
.1,13, 130, 139, 159,
174, 1 97, 1 99, 207,.210, 276, 279, 300,301, 304, 320
lo
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e
\
208 The Organization of Science and Technology
A. Historical relations of %overnment to science.modified laissez faire'
1. The Baconian tradition--The New Atlantis,1626
2. the Royal Societys
:3. The British Association for the Advancementof Science, 1832 .
4. The National Physical Laboratory, 1 900
B. Science and technology in the IndustrialRevolution1 . The role of invention2. Interrelations between science and industry3. Influence of the relations among science,
technology, and industry in shaping popularconcepts of science in English-speakingcountries
C. S-cience during World War I and between theWorld Wars . .
1. Realization during the first World War ofthe unity of scientific knowledge which-sup-ports both the military and the Industrial effortRecognition of need to put state support of
.science on something more than an ad hoc'basis
2. Establishment of science advisory committeesand the beginning of an integrated sciencepolicy
3. The Haldane Committee of the privy Council(1915), which became the Department ofScientific and Industrial Research (1916)
4: The 'Million Fund' and the Research Asso-ciations set up to support scientific research
5, The Report of the Haldane Committee on theMachinery of Government (1 918)zeSulted inthe creation of g..Ministry of Health, and aMedical Research Council (1920). An Agri-cultural Research Council was established in1931
I
)
2 ...) 0
r
213, 233, 283,289, 302 .
III.
296141,1 72,1 73, 188,195, 216, 273 / .
N.
150, 194, 235155, 202
175, 275286286
it
268, 269
to
203, 261
187
r.
307, 312-s,
I
S
The Organizdtion of Science in.Western EuropeI
.(209
1
6. A professional organization- -the NOfiariallUnion of Scientific Workers was establishedin 1 91 8, which became the Association ofScientific Workers in 1 927 /'
7. The Tizafd Committee for the S'cientificStudy of Air Defense (1 934) led to the development of radar
D. Science daring and after World Wat: II , 130, 140, 1 53, 179,219, 228, 253,281,288, 293, 301, 314,320, 321i
1 . Mobilization of British science during.World War Cooperation with the U.S.
4 in the de lopment of the atomic bomb, andthe large cale manufactUre of penicillin 280
2 .,Attempf to apply methodology of the naturalsciences to improverent of efficiency of warled to a new branch of applied sciente--
40peiations 'Research3. Science as a posfwar political iue 131, 1611215, 229,
241, 247, 251, 3194. Science as an intellect`ual issue
a . The Two Cultures controversy (Cf. Topic 05)114, 130, 162, 303
b. Reform in higherieducation-(1) The Robbins Commission(2) The Open University I" 148, 160, 163,
146, 167, 169, 181,205, 222, 230, 237,249, 257, 264
5. Restructuring of government for sciencepolicy 131,. 143, 158
64cientific manpower and the effects of the'"train Drain" 149, 168, 176;1 83,
204, 226,'240, 245,252, 234, 271, 298,115, 316
7. The British atomic energy and Noce progroms 159, 192, 196, 200,209, 221, 250, 267,272 %
8. Research and development in industry 152, 243, 260, 308,320
201
ti
I
s
210 The Organization of Science and Technology
E . The structure for the administration of scienceand technology in the United Kingdom
1, Higher education
2. Research councils and institutes
. 3, Parliament (The Parliamentary andScientific Committee, 1 939)
4. The ministerial structure.a. The Scientific Civil Service, 1949b. TheyScienceand Technology Act of
1 964
c. Department of Education and Scienced. Ministry of Technology, 1964,1970
e. Council for Scientific. Policyf. Committee on*ManpowerResources for
Science and Technologyg. Department of the Environment
5. National Research and DevelopmentCorporation
III. Science and Government in France
A. Science and rationalism during the era ofLouis XIV: emergkce of a pattern of state- sciencerelationships--etatism
B. Science and the French Revolution
2C. Science-government relationships in the
19th and 20th centuries to 1945
D. Rejuvenation of French science and tech-. nology after 1945
t
146, 1 84, 225; 236,248, 253, 263, 277,290,297,319144, 147, 156, 201,211, 242, 259, 278,287, 309, 3.1 1, 318164; 165, 178, 255,265, 282, 310, 317
139,151,208,238,270123, 197, 258, 373
1
154, 157, 17f, 1 85,
191,224
25k, 317
186, 227, 313
323, 330, 346, 348,351
337
324, 326, 354
323, 335, 355
327, 344, 353
r
I,
'The Organization of Science in We'stern Europe1
1.
L. Role of science in thy' "modernization"of post-war France -'-
2: Commissariat arl'Energie Atomique(CEA), 1945 s 1
3. Landucci Report, .1-9574. Decree of 28 November 19585. The ,space program6. Research and development in.industry,
E. The structure ,of administration for scienceand technology in France1 . The educational system--teaching and
researcha. New role for universitiesb. Engineering schools: The Grands EcoleriV
. Ecole Polytechnique, 1794)c. National Center for Scientific Research,
CNRSd. The Institute of Science-and Technology
at Lyons .
2. The ministerial structurea. Minister-Delegate, ScientifiC Research
and Atomic and Space Questionsb. Interminister(al Committee for Scientific
Y . and Technical Researchc. Consultative Committee on'Scientific
Technical
4
4 and Researchd. General Delegation for Scientific and
Technical Research, DGRSTe. Commissariat du Plan . .
3. Science and technology in the pdst-Ide Gaulleera
211
331, 336;338, 339,349, 350
322329.1352
340,
4,333,
342
328345
345;
352
.
346, 34a
343
325, 332
356, 370, 372, 373,383
,.., .
a: Ministry for Industrial and ScientificDevelopment , 0- '
b. Ministry for the Protection of Natyre andthe environment ,--
IV Science and Government in Germany
"203
A
I
21.2 Thee
Organizcition,af 5eie6ccalid Technology
, r .."4"
A. E,a r 1 y develbpment oTgov,ernrkentpatroscience .
7- --.. 4 ). '1 . Berl in,Academy-df Science **---1,2.,Statistics ,
4
B. Preeminence of German science in the 19thand early 20th c turies7-The Kai.ser WilhernSociety
C. Decline of German science after World War I,, and the debacle of Nazism argi Workl. War II
D. Reorganization of science in the Fede public of Germany .. V
....--------
Council-
4 .
1. Scienceu-Absenshaftsrati 1 9572. Joilit Federal- Lander (State) Committee
. for science . '3. Federal Ministry of NuclearEnergy, 1955,
which became the Federal Ministry for.Scientific Research in 1962, and the Ministryof Science and Education in 1 969
4. Cabinet and Interminiiterial Committees-forScientific Research /
5. Committees for Scientific-end CulturalAf irsin both houses of the federal legislature
6. Structure of research encf,developaienta . German Research Aesociation (DFG)b. Max Planck Societj, (MPG) ,
c. University Research Institutes : 4
of-
4
.7". 14
374
1.16, 358, 359,364, 365, 375
123,4369, 371, ...- I
d. Independent and state-supported research'.institutesi such as the Volkswagen Faun-
-4. dation, the Fritz Thyssen Fount-Irian, the,DonorUkssociatiori for Prq,moting Ap,and
3721 383362 ,
,-,
367, 383
361-, J80,. 386*361, 363, 381
.,
Sciences, Berlin Science Center ,F
7. The Federationdf Industrial Research Asso-ciations , . '383...,
4 .ikE. Re-emergeote of a stroll fechnoscientific,enterprise in Germany--emphasis on
1:Th atomic energy program
204
366, 368, 376,384, 385382
-to
to
/ The Osgcmization of Science in Western Europe
.
'2. The*German Research Organization. for Airand SpaCe Travel , . - 360IN
- 3. Data processing and information technology 360--, . 1..
a
V. Science 'and -Government in the Other Notions4' of Weitern Europe
-213
(,/j.VI. European Scientific Enterprise, International
Regional Organi,zation'(see also Topic 09) 8, 15, 24, 35,36,66,,67, 68,86, 91, 1 07, 121,,134;135, 136
A. The trans-national character of Europeanscience
.,,
B. The establishment' of international institutesand organizations for scientific investigatibn1. International Ciingresses.after18472. Internationilassociations and bukpus
a . Universal Society of Ophthalmology-Twit, 1861European Association of Geotsr-Berlin; 1 866
c. Zoplogical Station:ofINaples, 1870d. International Bureau of Weights and ,
Measuies--Parls, 1 875e . Jungfraujoch Scieniffic -Station, 1930
C. The'e ffectste cold war and atomic, and.space science on European cooperation
-,
1, General structures for cooperationa. Organization for Economic Cooperation
tnct,Development, OECD, T948, 1 966b .CouRci I of .Europe; 1 949 ,c.,North,Atiantic Treaty Organization,NATli, 1949 -= Committee on Challenges
. of Modern Society
1, 6
.1, 54, 55, 84,137 '
41, 66, 74*.
0
25,70,71;72,106
e
4.
A
214 ,; The Organization of Science and TechnOlogy
.40 European Coal and Steql Community,ECSC, 1951
e. Nordirc,Council, NordfoA, and NORDOK 416, 41 4222. Nuclear energy 30, 65, 80, 81,
87, 125a . uropean Organization for Nuclear Research,
CERN; 1 953b. European Company for the Chemical Processing
of irradiated Fuel, EUROCHEMIC, 195,c . European Nuclear energy Agency, ENEA,
1 957
d. Holden Reactor, HALDEN, 1 958 (boilingwater reactor, Norway)
e. Dragon Reactor, DRAGON, 1 95 9 (gas-cooled reactor, U.K.)
.f. European Atomic Eneegy Committee,'EURATOM, 1 959
g. Uranium centrifuge3
sSpace research'a . European S'Poce ReSearch Organization,
ESRO, 1 962 .
b. Europeari Launcher bevelopment, ELDO,1 962
D. Other European cooperative institutions for-science and technology
1. Western European Unfon, WELD, 1 9482. European Organization for Experimental
"Photogrammetric Research, OERPE, 1 9513"4.,European AtomiNAtrgy Society, EAES, 1 954.
44. European OrganizatiOn for Research onFlourine and Dental Caries, ORCA, 1 953
5. European Federation of Chemical Engineering,1 953
2,'48, 102
73
1,04
1.04
"3, 23, 33, 66275, 11, 13, 51
...
12, 50, 62, 98fir
10, 14, 52, 62
6. EurOpean Molecular Biology Organization, EMBO 9, 18, 39, 65,108
7. European Cell Biology Organization 63
978. European Physical Society
IP
V
I
p
The Organization of, science in Western Europe.
Naturiand -causes of the "Technology Gap" be-tween Europe and the NY.S.A.--extent of the "gap"in, for example, the electroni=cs, computer, andpharmaceutical industries
Mir
I
115
1 9, 20, 21, 34,37, 40, 44, 56,38, 75,/76) 77,78, n, 99, 103,1 09, 110, 122,l'30, 136
F. Problems of multi-national science coop-eration in Western Europe -- proposals. fornew ways of collaborating
1. European Research Council2. International institulvior the Manage-
--\82, 1 01, 118,120, 12732
r,nent-af Technology 7, 26, 38, 663. European Science Foundation 794. Individad projects, such as the British-
French supersonic transport 22, 95, 111
.
r
4
20
ti
°et
I
C A
The Organization of Science in Western Europe 217i
1. }C , , .
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-313. . Ministry of Technology. National Research DevelopmentCorporation. _21st Annual Report. London: Her Majesty's StationeryOffice, 1970, 84.
314. . Ministry of Technology. The Survey of Professional Engi-neers 1968. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1968, 68.
315. . Ministry of Technology. The Survey of Professional Scien-tistf 1968. London: tier Majesty's Stationery Office, 1968, 48.
316. . Ministry of Technology, and the Department of EducationondScience. Statistics of ,Science and Technology 1970. London: HerMajesty's Stationery Office, 1970, 136.
317. . Natural Environment Research.Council . Rep6r.tiof the Coun-cil for the Period April 1, 1969 -March 31, 1970. London: Her Majesty'sStationery Office, 1970, 116.
318r Walker, R. Mi Ines . Medical Education in Britain. London: NuffieldProvincial Hospitals Trust, 1965, 1 01.
319. Vig, Norman J. Science and *technology British Politics.Pergamon Press, 1968, 190.
New York:.
320. Zuckerman, Solly. Beyond the Ivory Tower: The Frontiers of Public and-Private Science. New York: Taplinger, 1971, 243.
321. . Scientists and War: The Impact of Science on Military and,Civil Affairs. London: Hamish Hamilton, 1966, 177.
231
The Organization of Science.in Western Europe 24r
France: Articles and Books
322. Auger, Pierre. "Space Research for Sma lier Countries-*-I: The FrenchProgramme," New Scientist, XVI (Decen;ber 20, 1962),, 674-676.-\
323. Ben-David, Joseph. The Rise and Decline of France as a ScientificC.ntre," Minerva, VIII (April, 1970), 160-179.
324. Bugge, Thomas. Science in France in -the Revolutionary. Era. P. byMaurice P. Crosland. Cambridge, Massachusetts: M.I.T. Press, 1 970,239.
325. Chodkiewicz, M. "French Science Goes rhaigh a scienceJournal, V (December, 1969), 11; 13.
326. CombrIsson, Jean. "Physics in France," Physics Today, XX ,(November,1 967), 55-61.
327. The Delegate General and the Consultative Comrttee on Scientific andTechnological Research of France. "Scientific and Technological Re-.
seatIch: Fourth.Plan -1 962-1 965," Minerva, I (Summer/ 1963), 470 -492.
328. Finch, D. 1. "How France Is Speeding Up Technical Edt.Icion," NewScientist., V (April 9, 1959), 805807.
329. Gikiello, Henri . "Research and Development Activities in France," Re=search Management, V (November, 1962 ,
330.' GiliAn, Robert. France in the Age of the Scientific State. Princeton,New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1968, 474.
331. Goldschmidt, Bertrand. "Tip French Atomic Eby Pr6gram," Bulletinof the Atomic SCientists,1111/11 pciokker, 1962), '39-42; "fartji," Ibid.XVII (September, 1962), 46-48.
332. Greenberg, Daniel S . "France: Profit Rather than PrestiA Is New Pol icyfor Research," Science, CLXV (September 26, 1969), 1334-1337.
MI
333. Grignon, C. and J. C. Passeron. Case Studies on innovation in Higher.'Education. French Experience before 1968. Park: Organization forEconomic Cooperation and Development, 1970, 140.
232 .
0. -
it
40
The Organization of Science and Technology
334. Hahn, Roger._, TheXhotomy of a Scientific Institutionve The porisAtademyof Sci enc-es;-1663-:1803. 'Berkeley: Universityilrf Caljfdonia Press, 1 971,
335. Impact of Science on Society . "Science and Society: French Bibliography,1 900:1930," ct of Science on Society, I-1 (July-December, 1951),65/112..
.
336. Kelly, George A. "The Political Background of the French A-Bomb,".-Orbis, IV (Fall, 1960), 24-306. * ,`-a
337. King, James E.(--,Sciencea.r4rifitationalismiin the Governmlit of Louis XIV,1661-1683. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1949, 337-.1-(Johns Hop-
*- kinsStudies in Historical and Poli'tic'al Science, Seeletri.XVI, Number 2)
338.
339.
340.
341.
Kowarsky, L. "Mon* Energy Developmerits in France," Bulleffirr-ef theAtomic Scientists, IV (May, 1 948), 139:..)140; 154-155.
'Atomic Research in France," Bullerm of fre Atomic Scien-,tisti, If. October 1, 1 946), 7-8; 25.. . .
e .
Low, Ian. 'Trench Plan foricience,"'New Scientist, XXX (May 19, 1 966),463
McKie,,poUglas. "The Early,Years of the Academie detentes" En=deavou 4,(c\y, 1966), 1 04-1 .Q3
ar
. it*,,Morel, Pierre .t. Engipeering Schools in France : New York: Cultural Cen-
ter of the FrenCh Embassy, 1959, 84. (Frenchltliogiaphiccia Digest,Series 11, Number 28)
,
343. `Nature. "France: Ai 'The Crossroads,' Nature, CCXXXI May 28, 1 971),229-230.
44. New Scierrirs "DeGaulle's echn-6-Piplomacy,?' New Scientist, XXXI(JtsFy 7, 1966 1e, 12. .
6-, a. , '
345. OECD Observer. "French Science PoliCy," OECD Observer,_NuMber-'43.' (August, 1966), 10-14<
346. Organr Econarnic Cooperation am!,National Science Policy--France, Paris:
2
Development. Review of. 'OECD, 1966, 13g.
')
S
.
4
The CkganizatiOn of Scie c in Western Europe 243
347: Perrin, ;Francois. "Atomic Energy in France," Bul-let4of the Atomic' Scientists, IX (March, 1 955), 92-93.,
1
348. Quinn., James T.' " National Planning of Science and TechnOlogy inFrance," Science CL (November 1 941 965), '993 -1003,
349. Renou, J n M. "Atomic Energy in France," New Scientist IV (October9; 1 90),, 1011-1 04. r .
,/#350 . Scheinman, Lawrence. Atomic Energy Poll y In France under the Fourth
. . .
Republic. Princeton, New Jersey: P' eton University Press, 1965,259. '' .1 '
*.351.. `Seience Policy News. ',France: Teen() of Expenditure_p63-1 975,,
Science Polict(lews', III. (Septemller, 1971), 25.
352. Trehirr, Robert "Links withlndtistry at the UniJitsity'-of Grenoble," 1.3c
rt
.poitof Science.on Society, XV (Number), 1965), 21
363. Walsh, John... :France: First the Bomb -Then th .? Ian CalcuP, "'-t sience,et
CLVI (May 1 2, 1 967), 767-770..i . ...-.. : -
354. Wi !Warns, L. Pearce . "Science; Education,. ah theirencit-Revolution,-°.fr Isis, L
c1 953) p11-330X.IV (December , p11 -330. . 3 44'
, ..
. .,,
355'. "sc-. . %uScienCe, Education', and Napoleon I," Isis, XLV11116 (15e- ----,...s T6' --tier, 1957), 369-382. .
4 I
Germany: Articles and BooksAI -,-. .." .
. cis
illt.,356. .skodri&f Ludwillf F,:and HermOn I. cgtnn . The Organization of ScienceirWermciny. Washington, D.C:: National Scienceloundation, 1963,gr.
. 121. ., ,-
, . .L, . . .
.,
357.. Curt1_
ts, Roger-W. "The Max Planck Institutes," Inter tiOncirScience and, Technologx, Number 19 (.114, 1 963),42-47.
358. Edelstein,. Julius C..C. "Science' as Reparations,' Physics Todqy,(December, 1948), 7-14.
4.-
:359. Goudstit, Samuel A. ALSOS: The Search for the German atom Bomb.London:' Sigma, 1947, 259.
11
41.
4
O
244* The OrganizcItion of Science, and Technology
. . , .360. Greenberg, Danier S. "Germany: Booming Research Effort Turning jte
", '' Spacf and Computers," Science/ CLXIV (April 18, 1969), 281-283.;1
361 .. HOmmOnd, B. "Universities Encroaching on the Max Plancks," ScienceJournal, V (February, 1969), 6-7.
362. Horner J. "The Council for Science and Technology of Western Germany,"Nature, LXXX-1-ftlebruaty 21, 1959), 512 -5"13.
. "The Technische HochschUlen of Western Germany," Nature,CLXXX (December 28, 1.957),,1445-1448
364. Irving, David .. The German Atomic Bomb.' New York: Simon a nd Schuster,,1968, 329. Reviews oItI book* Eugene Rabinowitch, Werner Hei-sinberg, and Hansl. Seuss'oppear In thelkilletin of the Atomic Scien-tists, XXIV (June, 1168), 32-39.
. 363.
365. Kenyon,-Richard L. "The FIAT Review of German Science;" Chemicaldnd Engineecing News, XXV (April 7,1 947), 962-963.
366. Luscher, Edgaf. "Physics in West Germany," PhysicsToday, XIX (August,1966), 46-54.
367, McElheny, Victor. "Wist Germany Debates a Cultural Crisis," Science,.tXLV I I (ebruary 5, 1965), 5i19-591; "West German Research Spending:Plans for 1 966-1 968," Ibid., CXLVII (April 2, 11965), 59-60.
368. Marks, D. "West German Science Expands," Science Journal; Vo (Octo-ber, 1969), 11.
369. Michaelis, Anthony R. 'The Restoration of SciXce in Germany," New,Scientist, XVII {March 21, 1963), 64-649.
370. National Science Foundation. International Science Reports, No. 2;The Organization 6f Science in Germany. Washington, D.C.:- U.S
I' Government Printing Office; 1963, viil, 121.
371. Nature. "Science and Technol ogy in Western Gerinany," Nature, CLXXV I IFebryory 18, 1 956), 316-318.
372. OECD'Oberver. "Science,Policy in Germany and the United Kingdom,"
Observer, Number 24 (October, 1966), 30-34.
e
The Oripnizat)on of Science in Western Europe 245
373. Organization for "Economic Cooperation and Development. Reviews ofNational science Policy: United Kingdom and Germany. Paris: OECD,1967, 259.
374. Pfetsch, Frank. "Scientific Organization and Science Policy in ImpirialGermany, 18711-1 914: The Foundation of the linperial Institute ofPhysics and Technology," Minerva, VIII (October, 1970),35' -580.
375. Ringer, F. K. The' Decline of the German° Mandarins: The German Ac-ademic Community, 1890 -1933: ,Cambridge, Massachusetts: HarvardUniversity Press' 1969, 528.
376. Roberg, Norman B4 "Medical Reform in West Germany," Journal of theAmerican Medic , Association, CC Way 15,1 967), 603-498.
et
377. Science tuncil of';West Germciny. "Recommendation's of the ScienceCouncil for the DevePopment of Scientific Institutions in Western Ger.-many. Part Ii. Colleges and Univeclities;" Minerva, I (Autumn; 1962),87-105.
O4
378. . "Suggestions of theniercce Council on'the Pattern of NewUniversities in Western Germany0-MinerVa, I Minter, 1963), 217-225.:*
Ro379. Science Policy News. "Higher Education 9nd Research in a Divided
Germany," Science PalicyllienwsiT(January, 1970), 81-83:
386. -Shoemaker, T.' i"Backbone of Geirman. Science," Science Newt; XCV
-,, . Vec. ;
1
(April 19, 1.969); 386-387.
381. Stein, B. R. "AcadefilicRes4arth irGermpny: A New Support Program,"Science, CLXV (September 12, r969),, 1'096-1100.
. .
382. Stubbs, Peter. "Impressicthrof/Aucle& Germany," New Scientist, xxxyidt(October 26, 1.967), 228-230. . ...
. . , .383. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cuttural Organization. Sci-
ence Policifuui Organization of Research io the Federal Republic ofGermany. Paris: UNESCO, 1 969, 95.
-384. Valery, N'. "Germany's Science Boom Gets Wnder ," New Scie.gistancticience Journal, L (Mt, 20, 1971), 47)&472.
I
.t
246 The Organization of Science and -Technology
385. Valery, N.- "The Re-Birth of German Science," Science Journal, V(March; 1 969), 82-87.
386. Walsh, J. "Max Planck Society; Filling a Gap in*German Research,".Science, CLX (June 14, 1968), 1209-1210,:
4,Other Countries: Articlesdnd Books
387. Albareda, J. M. "Organizoion and Trends of Scientific Research inSpain: Consjo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas," impact of
it cience on Society, XV (Number 1, 1965), 41-55.
8$011 Bonnier, J:H . "Z .1ek(;''.0 ., the Netherlands Science Foundation," Science,CX III (February 23, 1951), 197 -201. ,
A
389. Blount, B. K. "Consejo Superior de Investigotiones Cientificas, Spain,'Nature; CCV (January 23, 1 965), 3407341.:
'390. Greenberg, Daniel S. "Denmark: A Late bet Hurrying Entry irl SciencePolicy Planning," Science, CLXVI,-(Otatoer 31, 1969), 586-588.
, \391.* 4111 "Science in.lialy: Reform Effort Takes a Strip Turn Left-
ward," Science, CLXV11. (March 27;1 970), '1.704-1706.
.t392. Halsey, A.. H. 'Stienceand,Government in Swealen: Impressions from an
- OECD Confe ncepg Minerva, II (Autumn, 1.96 ), 54-60.
.393. r Jamison, A. . "Swedish Science7 Saying What Sh Id Be Done," Tech-nolegy Review, LXXIII (April1 971), 12-13.,
394. Julius, H.691-: "Scientific Policy in the Netherlands,`" Minerva, V (Sum-mer, 1967), 507 -519.
395, Luck, James M. Science in Switzerland. New ork: Columbia Univer-sityfress, 1967, 419.
396. Lundbergh, Holger, ."Swtderi's, Atomic Enerjy Program," Bulletin Of theAtomi cientists, XV (May, 1959), 21
397. McElheny, Victor. "Research Climate in Italy," Science,tXLV (AugUst14 1964), 690-693; "Part Ibid., CXLVIllpril 9,1 965), 205-207, .
2 3,
A
The Organizcition orScience in Western urope A7\147
j
398.
399.
Major, Robert. "Organization of-Scientific Activities in Norway," Sci-ence, CXXIX '(Marc, 694-700.
4.1
Michelson, Borge. "National Developments Based on Science: The Case .firof Denmark," Impact of Science on Society, IV (Spring, 1953), 29-54.1
400. Minerva . "Recommendation's for a Norwegian Research Policy," MinervaVII (Spring, 1969), 465-489.
401. . "Science Policy in Italy: A Policy for Scientific Research,"Minerva, II (Winter, 1 964), 210-224.
t 402. . "Science Policy in Italy: The Reform of the Organizationof Scientifictesearch in Italy," Minerva, II (Winter, 1964), 225-231.
403. . "ScienVific Research and Economic Development in Spain,"
4, Minerva, III (Spring, 1965), 385-391.
404.
405.
, Nature .4' "Switzerland: Searching fora Science Poncy," Nature, CCXXXI(May 28, 1 971); 224-225,
OECD Observer. "Belgium's Policy for t1 Sciences," OECD Observer,Number 20 (February, 1 966), 6-9.
466. "Norwegian Science Policy," OECD Observer, L (February,971), 27-31.
.
407. "Science .POlicy Itai5u7m OECD Observer, NUmber 42
'4#
(October, 1 969),'27-31.`A,
408. Organization for Economic Cooperation arid Deyelopment. Reviews ofNational Science Policy: Austria. Paris: OECD, 1971, 246.
409. ' . ,Reviews of National Science Policy: Belgium. Paris: OECD,
410. . Reviews of National Science Policy: Greece. Paris: OECD,7T9E76,71. ,
,4
4
411. . Reviews of National Science Policy: Italy. Paris: OECD,1969, 209.
40,
i
I, ../
248 The OrganizatiOn of Science and Technology,
.- 4
412. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Developtent. Reviews of. ..National Science Policy: Norway. Paris: OECD,1970, 194. 4.
413. . Reviews of National Science Policy: Sweden. Paris: OECp,1964, 66.
414. Randers, GOnnary. 'The Dutch-Norwegian Atomic Energy Project," Bul-letin of the Atomic Scientists, IX (December, 1 953), 369-371.
'4.
415. . *Planning formic Physics in Norway," Bulletin of theAtomic Scientists, VI (May, 1950), 14.
. ,416.
0Scandinavian Research Information Notes . Published in English since 1966
as a semiannual bulletin by Nordforsk, Stockholm.
. ,417. Science Policy News. "Netherlands: Structure of the 9overnmetyt Or-
, ganization far Science and Technology," Science Policy News, XI(March, 1971), 58-6g.
418. . "Norway: Proposals to Reorganise Research Structure,"Science Policy News, XI (May 6, 1971), 73-75.
419.E -. "Scandinavia:, Information Coordinating Body," SciencePolicy News, III (September, 1971), 26-27.
42Q. Shore, H . 'The Problems of a Small Scien tific Community: The NorwegianCase," Minerva, VII (Spring, 1969), 399-425.
. Ik,421. Vai go, A. C. "Scandinavici's Response to the Science Boom," New Scien-
tist, XXr(June 2, 1 966), 600-601.
422. Wendt, Frantz. The Nordic Council and Cooperation in Scandinavia.Copenhagen: Munksgoard, 1 954 247.
4
J .Ins
04:.
, 4
r..... .4.
2 fl" '.L., .)
v,
A .
4
r
it
4
-1
The Organization oitecience in Western Europe 249-,
LEADING QUESTIONS
1. What have been the historical relationships between government and sciencein the United Kijagdom? .1-Sow do these relationships compare with thosehcharacteristic of the United States, France, German , or the Soviet Union?
2. What is the "two cultures" Thesis of Sir Chases P. Snow? .1s its argumentvalid generally for modern society, for Englarrd, -or for alimited segment of
6British society? What recent developments in the U. K. seem likely to in-fluence the "two cultures" dichotomy in that, country in the future?
3., What are the principal components of the machinery for the formulation and,execution of science policy in the German government? How do they com-pare with instruments of science policy in the United States, France, UnitedKingdom, and the Soviet Union?
lc4 In wha respectl has the relation of science'and technology to government
differed 'n France froni its relationship in the English-speaking countries? .
To who,Lexten have French gdvernment-science relationships, provided amodel or other countries?
f.
5. What obstacles have stood in the way of greater colliboration between theWestern European nations in the field of science and technology? Has thedegree of cooperation'been increasing or decreasing?
6. What role has scientific and Technological research and development playedin the unification of Europe since 121.15? What has been the contribution ofEuropean regional agencies for nuclear research and space technology?
7. What are the causes of the "Technological Gap" between Western Europe andthe U.S.A.? Is it really one gap, or are there several gaps? Viihateffo'rtsare being undertaken, and could be undertaken, to narrow' itsixterit?
What has been the function of the independent research institute in tile de-.
velopment of EUropean science? Are these comparable or analogous to in-stitutions in the United States, the United Kingdom, or the Soviet Union?
9. HOw far can smaller European nations afford to invest in advanced scientificand technological research and develOpment? Are they threatened by tech-
, .nological "imperialism "? What are their alternatives?
10. What valid.comparisons or generalizations can be made regarding publicsupport for science and technology in Western Europe and in the United Statesand the Soviet Union? Do the major Western.European states tend to spenda higher or lower proportion of their national incomes on scientific researchand development?
1
411
TOPIC 09 INTERNATIONAI. TECHNOSCIENTIFIC COOPERATION
From its very beginnings science, as an intellectual enterprise, has transcendedpolitical bouAdari es However with the growth of political ideologies, and notablywith the growth of national states and nationalism, communication among scientistsand scientific organizations has been complicated by international politics.
It therefore follows that the organization of.world science has developed uponinternational lines. International scientific and technical organizations are gen-erally organized upon the basis of national membership (unofficial as well as offi-cial)`. There is a tendency, however, for the. organizations associated with theUnited Nations to assume an integrated world character rather than to emphasize.their multinational basis (World Health Organization, World Meteorological Or-ganization, and Food and Agriculture Organization).
Antecedents of permbnent international scientific organizations were interna-tional scientific congresses, beginning in mid-19th century, and the establishmentof international associations of scientists. In 1875, establishment of the Interna-tional Bureau of Weights and Measures near Paris marked the beginning of perman-ent, operational, international technoscientific organizations. Today internationaltechnoscientific cooperation is organizedooround (1) temporary emission-oriented
tprogram's, .(2) permanent nongovernmental professional associations, and (3) inter-governmental agencies. The first category comprises temporary congresses, com-mittees, or programs constituted for a specific duration, such as the InternationalGeophysicill Year and the International Biological Program. Representing th'second type of organization is the International Council of Scientific Unions andits constituent bodies. But there are many other technical, scientific, and profes-sional organizations that serve in various ways to strengthen the matrix of the in-ternational scientific community. The third type is represented by the United Na-tions and itsaffifiates, and administers continuing scientific and technical programs.
The global extension and impact of the technoscientific culture make fhe growthof international and void organizations for scientific and technological purposesal'mosr inevitable. t4nagement in the oceans, in the atmosphere, in outer space,in the great international river systems lies in large measure beyond the capacity
-national governments. The construction of feasible and effectiveorganizations for the worldwide management of science and technology is one ofthe great challenges to human intelligence today.
The voluntary character of international cSoperaTion is o source both of strengthand of weakness to scientific and technological efforts on a global scale. Coop-erative efforts, such as the World Weather Watch, serve the self-interest of allnations; but whenever Cooperation impingekwpon national military or economicadvantage, its existence becomes pricarious. The future of worldwide operation-.al efforts in science and technology in all probability lies with transilationat or-ganizations responsible to a representative international body such as the UnitedNations rather than directly to national states.
241
tr
-,.
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252 The Organization of Science and Technology
TOPIC 09 INTERNATIONAL TECHNOSCIENTIFIC COOPERATION
Selected Basic Readings:-1
Haskins, C. P. "Science and Policy for a New Decade," Foreign Affairs, XLIX(January, 1971); 237-270.
Kovda, Victor A. "Search for a U.Scientists, XXIV (Match, 1 968), 1
Russell, Clifford S. and Hans H. La
N. Science Policy," Bulletn of the Atemic,2-16.
ndsberg. "international Environmental Prob-lems--A Taxonomy," Science, CLXXII (June 25, 1972), 1307-1314.
Salomon, Jean-Jacque4. "The Internationale4of.Science," Science Studies, I
(January, 1971), 23-42.
. . .Skolnikoff, Eueene B. "Technology and the Future Growth of International Or-
ganizations," Technology Review, LXXIII (June, I 971), 39 -47.
Supplementary and .Substitute _Readings:
4 .Fox, W. T. "Science, Technology, and International Politics," International
Studies Quarterly, XXI (March, 1968), 1-15.
Gardner, R. N. "Can the U.N. Lead the Environmental Fisrade?" Arnericar,Journal of International Law,IXIV (September, 1970), 211-214.
0 EC DObserver . "International Technical Cooperation: Evaluation and Perspec-tives," OECD Observer, Number 29 (August, 1967), 3-6.
Pluhar, J. and B. Starnovsky. "Problems of International Cooperation in Re- 'tsearch," Scientific World, XII (Number 1, 1968), 21-24.
Richardson, J. "UNESCO: Super-Ministry with Problems," Science Journal, V(August, 1969), 7-8.
.r',..
Salon*, Jean-Jacques. "Introduction to Some. Aspects of International Coop-eration," in International Scientific Organizations, ed. by the Organizationfor Economic Cooperation and Development. Paris: OECD, 1965, 11-36.
.
A .242
TOPIC 09 INTERNATIONAL TECHNOSCIENTIFIC COOPERATION 253
TOPICAL OUTLINE
I. Science and Advanced Technology asInternational Enterprises
A. The universal character of scientificknowledge
B. The mobility of scientists and scientificand tecliplogical concepts
C. International diffusion of technology
lip The Necessity for International Techno-scientific Cooperation
"A. The ultimate indivisibility and,limitatioritof the planetary environment and thebiosphere
REFERENCE KEY
1,25, 162, 190,198
B. Limitationslof national political control over----- the air and the oceans and over physical and .
biological interactions in the biosphere 18, 122, 151,
30, 32, 45, 74,127, 132, 149,218, 25,1, 288
40, 45, 155, 203,292, 299
_
C. Int I cooperation becomes necessarywhen 'a phenometon
186,269$
1 . Transcends political'. boundaries and cannotbe controlled by_unitatece4 action (e.g.,weather reporting or modification, control ofnuclear fallout, international telecommunications,fur seals, whales, oceanic conditions generally) 1127, 28, 86, 100,
123, 124, 148,
175, 184, 202,2 259, 261,
2A cj26
to
111
7,;
254 The Organizationikof Science and Technology
2. Could only in; part be controlled unilaterally,and international cooperation could greatly easethe burden and enhance the effectiveness ofnational action (e.g., medical quarantine, pro-tection of atory birds, exploration of outerspace, aviatit'n safety standards) 18,.81, 136,
200, 221-3. Could not be dealt with unless intellectual'
and material resources that are dispeesed andunevenly concentrated around the world arebrought into some form of cooperative relation-ship (e.g., technical assistance efforts tocountries suffering tram physical, economic,and social deterioration) 140, 262, 276,
-301 j
III: Early Efforts toward International Organization forPurposes of Science or Technology 163
A. Early collaboration in observation and explor-ation1. Bessel's Sky Chart Project (started 1824)2. International Polar Year, 1882-83
B. International congresses1. 1 847 International Congress of Economists--
Brussels
2. 1 848 International Agriculture Congress--Brussels
3. 1 851 International Health Congress--Paris4. 1 853 International Statistical Congress--
Brussels
5. 1 860 International Congress cif Chemistry--Karlsruhe
6. 1 862 International Congress of Geodesy--Berlin
C. International associations1 . 1 861 Universal Society of Ophthalmology
Paris *
z
244
do.
7
I
NInternational Technoscientific Cooperation
2. 1872 International MeteorologidalComkteeLeipzig
3. 1 9007nternational AssociatiOn ofAcademiesQottingen
D. International bureaux1. 1875 International-Bureau of Weights
and Measures--Paris2. 1 92rInternational Hydrographic
Bureau--Monte Carlo
E., Research stations1. Naples Zoological Station-18702. Jungfraujoch Scientific Station--
1 930
F. ScirSc organizations 'under the Leagueof ns 254
255
1V. Contemporary International Organizations 179, 240, 248,249, 272
A. International organizations - -U.N.group (ultimate universality?) 40, 97, 2981. United Nations--its committees and
affiliated organizations , 118a . United Nations Educational,
e-
Scientific, and Cultural Orgpn-ization, UNESCO - -1945 41,50,146,2_9,
b: Food and Agriculture Organization,"236
FACE- -1945 98, 13 9, 140,
c. World Health Organization, WHO--225, 304
1 946 3, 77;73, 174,213, 3t0
.d . World Meteorologica4OrganizationyWM0-1 947:
e. International Atomic Energy Agency,/ IAEA --1 956
245
46, 204
5y 153, 173
lib
256 ' The Organization of 'Science and Technology
f. International Civil Aviation _Organ-ization, ICAO
B...6 Other intergovernmental-internationalorganizations1. International Computation Centre, 1CC--
1 961
2. International Institute of Refrigeration,I IR :--1 920
Y. International Telecommtalnication Union,ITU
4. Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative. Organization, IMCO5. Permanent Commission of the International
Fisheries Convention--1 9466. Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission,
, IOC -- 1960 -61
69,
C. International scientific unions and associations1. International Council of Scientific Unictrls,- -
founded 1 91 9 as the International ResearchCouncil and re-established as ICSU in 1 931 1 , . 4
29a Fifteen (1 966) constituent unions 93b. Fifty-seven (1964) national members
(represented by national academy, researchcouncil, or directly by a governmeni)
c. Scientific committees(1) Committee on Space Research, COSPAR--
1 >458 38,(2) Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research,
e
218
Off
, 1 2, 89, -
r .4"
-
256
SCOR--1 957(3) Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research, ,--
SCAR--1 958(4) Scientific Committee on Problems of En-
ilonmenl, SCOPE - -1970 306
d. interiion committees .(limited task and dur-ation) ,
(1) International Geophysical ComMittee, CIG1 959
(2) Committee on Frequency Allocations for Radio .
and Space Science, IUCAF
24,;
4
, 44
t
., *
,
. - .
o
Ilkk
International eahnoscientific ooperation4 -
e Special committees.
, .4 ' .0).Comite' Specia4de Ittonee .-
1 . 4G4ophysique Internationale,0 t . CSA GI .1, 0
...e. (2) Carnmittfte for the International' Years of the)- Quiet Sun, IQSY--
19 45x
256
2 (3).0 for the International,/ . . . ° Biolo ogramm SCIBP 242
/1*" . ... . ,f . Termane t seces
(1)%ICSU Abstracting Board-.1953, Q- , . (2) Federation of AstronOmiail and- 1 ...-*-..-1, Geophysical Services, FAQS--
.1*
1956*2. Other international uniontlif. ederations,,,
and asso`ciatiohs 248, 305 . 4a Semi-govornmentalio-son o governmental
invqlvement or:support: p.g./internafinalUnion for the Conservation. of.plature aridiNatural ResoOrces, IUCN; InternationalUhion of F,orest Research Organizations 4; 6,,230
b.. Non - governmental profession' al:Cauncitfor Inte*rnational Organization
.P: . of Medical 5ciences,t1OMS; The Wei-.national College of Surgeons; Union 6f
, . Intefnational Engineering Orepnizations, 01E0
V. The Process of biternaitortai Cooperation and, .23, 34,'179
i . , 306,. 311A. The strui.ture of, international coolieration
.
in science andtechnology ., , .293,. 3091. International
;organizaiions (limited partici-
110
pation) ,- ' % 4
"Thlit , , ...Ln
. International organizations (potentia/ univeral participation) . 97
ci ripnited Nations and affiliated .ft.1.or,Piztitittns:
,.. 62,42b:. Other intergovernmental rganizatians, "' .22
-3, international semi-govErnment I orgdnizations 6-,, 4 .,:hatei.narional non-governm n I orvniiiions-"Snam.4 - ..- :4,, . / 1- lt,
.,...___ a
',4)4_ '
e 0 d
Control
258
sw.
r.
0
The Organization of Science and Teohnoky
5.,InternatiOnal scientific unions6. Regiondorgamizations for science and
technology7. Cooperation and communicatiomeamong
v i duo) scientists
8. CYoperation between universities and otherTcientific institutior ir#different countries
B. methods of internationalkobperatiOn andcontrol1 Treaties .
,
a . Treaty on Nature Protectton and'Wildlife Preservatiortin the We;tern
. Hemisphere 11 94) '
I
b. London Conve ton 'on Oil iPollution(1 954) 4,
c,, Treaties for control of narcotics-"(1 946, 1961)
d. Geneva Convention on FiAing andConservation of the Living iResources of
_lir High Teas (1958)e . The Antarctic Tredty (1 959j)f. NuclearTestBan Treaty (1963)g. international Treation thelPeaceful
Uses of Outer Space (1 966),h. Nuclear -Non-prOtiferationireaty(),970)t. SeabedArms Control Treaty (197`1).
2. Interomornmental agreementsa. V.S.-Japdn Scientifra. Cooperation.
Programb. NetheriandsrNorway Atm* Energy
oject
1.0 _ .
141P;
22,- 90, 95 '
, 185 .
207, 306, 307, 11.
309, 310. 1 93, -294 si
.294, 303.
290
99, 254
1$1.-259, 263184193
w 1 93,7209, 23j:
1%49
111
1.
3.'llitnical cooperation ana assistance programs 44, 75, 101.
4. Concurrent action- Ili based on treaties2)r informal executkrgreemerutsa-. Conc4ent law: enforcementb,. Concurrpht action proiectsq-7.g., anti i-\
i malaria campaign5. lntirnational cooperative scierific efforls 617, 109, 110;
L. . - 150
24
I
International Technoscientific Cooperation
VI. Some Cases of International Scientific, Cooperation
A. International cooperation in scientificresearch--special programs1. International Polar Year, 1 932-332. International Geophysical Year,,
1957 -58
196
126, 2150
259
4 , 3, International Years of the QuietSun,1 91,65
4. Inferno iondf Biological Progra
5: International Hydrological Decade6. Indian Ocean Expedition
so
7
7, 14356, 57, 120,191, 288
177,11
41) 17 obal Atmospheric Research Program--GARP 116, 243
8. 'International Decade of Ocean Exploration 88, 187, 2419. The United Nations Conference on the
Human Environment (1972) 4, 63, 64, 107306, 309, 310
B. International technical rration--continuing efforts 30, 32, 67, 76,, -I
.6 92, 147; 279,..282
i 1. Outer space exploration 17, 38, 43, 58,`. 61, 79, 105,
2.- 46, 170, 205.,
Z. Peaceful uses of atomic energy 3%81,33, 172,,.,
187, 201, 235' 3. Allocation of radio-wave bands 7Q .
: satellitestion teflites 31., 70, 1,23, 165,Commiiniv- ,
V
.t5: Protection of endangered species,
)168,268,1114
254,.
261,277,175,302,
262,278 , .
227,303
I
6* Improved food production ' > 68; 78, 140,. .c 266, 284, 304.
7. Economic development 271, 274; 2768. Disea\e prevention and control 5
, 36, 156, 166, .
r 1 99,33, 234,281, 301. 9. Education 55, 76,118, 270
.t2 ....-
IP 1 IL
P
260 The Organ Inition of Science and Technology
1f* Public administration11.-Scientific Information.12. Weather forecasting13. Environmental monitoring
1*. Seismology-- ,
15. Information services-:-UNISIST
e
I
VII. Prospects for Ultimate International Control over e
Applications of Scientific and Technical Knowledgewit -Respect to /A. ilitary technology
B. State of.the global ecosystem
1. The atmosphere
2. The oceans
3. The polar 'regions4. Natural resolrces
C . National population policies
D. The outer space environment
a
25t)
15,171.21, 26,124 1$2,
-212 I'47, 176;243 -
4, 40, 63, 64,I. 129, 148'
13011, 273
.7
24, 11 2,124, 1 93,290, 209, 210, -
21 6, 221, 23-1;,255, 25713, 46,460, 107,1,15, 119, 129,155, 202, 203,265, 269, 275,285, 299, 304 308
59, 204, 243,-24410, 20, 53, 88,
'103, 145, 152,,21 4,220, 228,2,37, 38, 280,90,291.
14, 37, 18423274, 104, 122,264, 271
63, 64, 264
38, 41, 105,147,169, 219, 222,224, 232, 237,253
1
A
4
A
International Technoscientific Cooperation.*
%4I
VIII. Problems of,f Inter tiOnal ScientificCooperation . 35; 94;142,1'51,
T63, 164, 255;260, 286, 287,
- 52, 102,1 6Fe .1 93,200
1. Military or security considerations 49, 209, 210, 2162. N Tonal rivalry (U.S.A.-U.S.S.R.) 8, 54, 124, 144, -
'NJ 231
209
A. National sovereignty., exclusiveness, andself=interist
-3. Fear o pLecedent-setting. 4.:Fear;and suspicion of "scientific''
imperialism-
B. Political indifference .04
1. Refusal of governm.ents to lendsu portto ,international scientific activilegal and political grounds
2. Resistance bf political leadership tos'commitments where no political payoffis in sight
C. Ideological resistancel'and social conservatitm1. Population control2. Efficient food production3. Natural resource exploitation
4. Obsolete educational systems
D. Inadequate:organization wi.thinnational 6
governments for effective cooperation inscientific mattets1 . Science in advanced,nations-under political.
restraint ik So2. Division of responsi ' ity for scJentific activities
P.in various countries Er different Ministriesand agencies of goverpment. Delegation frainthe same nation to different conferences can besubject to inconsistent instructions
3. No real scientific establishment in many"new" nations
4
16, 98,135
'255
281
284104, 262, 266,28Q.,
76, 118
163, 192, 271
,
262 he Orbanization of Science anctiechnology
4. Organizations tend to follow own laws-ofgrOwth. Increasing expense poses problertisespecially for smaller countries .4"
E. Inadequate technoscientific or techcreconomicsolutions to the control problem1. Atomic waste disposal 128, 1332. Weather modification
control4'. Drug use
F. Lack of international machinery for effectivecontrol'over political or economic misuse ofscience or technology1. Misuse or de uction of rreplaceable -
national reso rites,.'e.g., oceans, wildlife:,.° topsoil
4
2. Activities irter space
8281
99, 254
117
t , 175,2535, 219
M.
0.
tr
p
--t
V.
44,
Genera I-References: Articles
?
I lichnoscientific Cooperation
BIBLIOGRAPHY
263
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r
International Tech\noscientific Cooperation. .265
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I
266 The Organitation of Science and Technology
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2I
I
Ulm
dak
International Technoscientific Cooperation 267
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4
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(
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268 The Organization of Science anclirechnology
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.v
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J
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al
a 411
t
a
,
AM.
1
4
----..._
Ili,
.
4
.6-
6 D ./A.
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..., .
a 6
International Technoscientific Cooperation
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27T r
4
r--1 11. McHugh, Joh/lir:The United States and World Whal&esources,",AlliS
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.4
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278. . Cornmiftee.on Foreign Affairs. Subcommittee on NationalSecurity Policy and Scientific Developments. Satellite Broadcasting,Implication's forioreign Policy. Hearings before the Subcommittee tothe 91st Congrelt 1st Session, May 13-22, 1 969 . Washington, D.C.:U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969, 317.
6,279. . Committee on Foreign Affairs. Subcommittee on, Nafionul. Security Policy and Scientific Developments. Science, Technology,anckArnerican Diplomacy: The Evolution of International Technology.
. Prepared for the Subcommittee by Franklin P. Huddle,Science Policy-Research and Foreign Affairs Division, Legisliativelleferene Service,Libraryof Congress, 91st Congress, 2nd SE's; .December, 1 970. Mash -ington, D.C.': U.S. Government Printing Officq, 1970, 70.
280.4 . _Committee on Foreign Affairs: Subcommittee on NationalSecurity Policy and Scientific' Developments. Science, Technotogy,and American Diplomacy: Exploiting Resources of the Seabed. Pre-pared for the Subcbmmittee by George A . Doumani, Science PolicyResearch :Division, 'Congressional Research Serv'ico, Library of Con-Oess,,92nd Congress, 1st Session, Ju ly,1971 **Washington, D.C.: U.S.'
ti Government Printinyk Office, 1971, 152. .
281. . 'Committee on Foreign Affairs. Subcommittee on NationalSecurity Policy and Scientific DevelOpments. Science, Technology,
.and American Diplomacy: The Politics of Globs) Health. Prepared'for the Subcommittee Freeman.H. Quimby; Science Policy ResearchDivi,ioh,Congressional Research Service, library of Cosgress,,, 92ndCongress, 1st Session, May, 1971. Washington,. D.C.: U. Govermeet Printing Office, 1971, 79.
274
°.
3
4
_
.,
,
);"
44-
-
International Teahnoscientiffc Cooperation 285'----,.t 4 t *.e .
. . .. . .. ,4:282. U.S. Congress. House.. Committee on Foreign Affairs . Subcommittee on
tlational Security Polic5, anOcientific Developments. Science, Tech-nology, and AmeriCan, Diplomacy: A Selected,,Annotated Bibliogrphyof Arc les, gooks( Documents, Periodicals, and Reference Guides: re-pared' for the SubCorreittie by Genevieve Knezo, Sciente Policy Re-search and Foreign Affairs Division, Legislative Reference Service,Library of Congress, .91aCongress; in# Session, March, 1970. _Wash-!now, p.c.: U.S. Government PH AN, Office, 1' I, 69. .
,..' f ji
283. = ..-cornmiffee on Forein,Affairs. Subcommittee on NationalSecurity Policy and Scientific Developments. Science, 'Technology,-cm&American Diplomacy: Toward a New Diplomacy in a ScientificAge. Prepared for the Subcommittee by Franklin P. Huddle, SciencePolicy leesearch and:ForeigritAffairs Division, Legislative Reference ig*
Service,. Library of'Congress, 91st Congress, 2nd4ession, April, 1 Ob.40 Washington, D.C. ': -Li :S . Government Printing !Office, 1970, _28.
- . iq ,I' ; r, k sga - '''\ .. :'
284.. .- rt . Cordmittee caForeign Affairs. Subcommittee ol"-, National.Secucity Policy ancl;Stigitific Developments: Symposium on,Scienceand Foretan Policy: The Green Revolution.. Hearings before the Sub-committWte the 91st-Congress.,- 1st Session, December 5,.1969. Wash-
. ingtonuO.C.: U.S; Government Printing Office, 1970, 238.t
-2851 . 'Committelon Foreign Affairs . Subcommittee on InternationalP . . Oeganizatinsancl Movements . .S.:. .Participation in 1972 United No-
..4 tions Cocierence on liurpan Environment. iearipg before the Subcom-mittee on Hove 'Resolution 523 and House
i-il
Resohition 562 to the 91itCongress,gress, lst'Sesn,1",lovember 13, 1969. Washington, D.e...u.s.
9
Government PrintingOffice, 1970, 13. '4
*it
*4. .286.,
' ,
287.
-
. A 6
t4 Q. Committee on ScienCe and Astronautics. InAnational'
Science Policy.. A Compilation of Papers Prepared for the h Meet-ing of the Panel on Science and Technology, 92nd Congress, 1st SessiorkFebruCtry,4971: Wash-ington; U.SoiGoviamment Printing Of-fice, 1 971I 66. . ,.. .s \ . .
. - Committee on Science and Astronautics. InternationalScience Policy. . Panel On Science and Technology, Twelfth Meeting,Proeeedings befoseythe Com?nittee tothe 92nd Congress, jst Sesfion,January 26728, 1971. .Washington,v.c it U.S. Rotornent PrintingOffice, 1971, 373.1.:
111r.2 W' C.A
/I
. s
a.
%.
'
286 The Organiiation of Science and Technology
288. 'U.S.,,,,Congress. douse. Committee on Science andAstronautics. .1.sb-oomn'sita tee on Science, Research, and Destelopmesh House Joint Res-olution 589, International Biologi?al Program. Hearings before t!eSubctimmii Congress; Session,tee to the 91st C; 1st Si 6-7, 1969. Wash-
'ington, ref, , . : U.S. Covernment Printi464flp 69, 193. -4!
.
CovernmentY .
q
289. . Committee on Science and Astronautics .Subcominittee oriScience, Research, and Qevel opm;nt . Partitil potion Medera I Agenciesin InternatiOnal*Scie.ntat Programs. PrepareOfor the Subcommittee byFreeman ft; Quimby,. Science Policy Research and Foreign Affairs (M
' vision, Legislative Reference Serivce, Li blary a I dangress, 90th Congrest,1st Sesiian, 1967. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government,Printing0f-tee, 1 967, 167. '
4._-
290: U.S. Congress. Senate. Two,ConVentions end AtmendmentvRelating to
sidb.293. U .S . Library of Congress . Reference e part nt . General Reference and
Bibliography Division. Inter a Scie 'fic Organizations: AGuide to Their Library 2ocumentation, divilp0r ma t i on Servir. Wash-", . ington, D.C.: U.S. Covernment Printing Office, 1962, 794. ,
294P';United States Treat); eries.981t.1' "Convention on Nature Protection and
Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere," in Treaties and 'OtherInternational Agreements of the United States of America, 1776 -1949,Volume III . Compiled under the direction of Charles I . 6vans . Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of State, 1969, 630-660.
l'ollution of Sea,6,/ Oil . Messaf from the President-Aft he United. States transmittffig twi3 conventions done in Brusseisat the International
Legal, feral& on 14,41The Pollution Damage, 1 96 9; 91st Congress,..
2nd ion, Mai 20, 1970. ' Sentheavecotive Document G.' Wash-ington, : 'U.S. Govefnment Printing Office, 1970, 50. .
,p '
. Comrr)ittee on Commerce. Special Studyon United NcolorasSuboceanic Lands Policy. Hearings before the torimittee to.the 91stCongress, 1st Session, September 23, 24,-October 3, and,;Novernber 21,
.1969.Washington, P.C.: U.S GO.vernment °Printingdifice, -1 970,186. ir ,
. .
. . , .
./.S. Department of State. The United States-Japan Committee on Scietrtific Cooperation,. Departmenrot State Publication 8210, East Asianand Pacific Series 158, International Scientific and Technological Af-fairs. Washington, D.C.: U.S . Government Printing Office, 1967, 70;
27C)
a
ti.
-
I
14.
r t
4'
4 4,
295.
e_ :
/*A
46.
*International Technoscieritific Cooperation'. 287 .
. .
Vahlei C. W., Jr. 'Planning and Coordiriating Oceanographic Programs.Walngton, Oper,ptions and Policy Research, April' 1 969,55. (Publications Board 182 602)
. f296. Vaughan5o. Thomas W.,' et al , International Aspects of Oceanography.
Washington, ci ,c . : Foundation, 1957, 225.,.-
297. 'Walsh, Warren B. Science and International Public Affairs: * Experi-r melts in International Scientific Cooperation. *Syracuse, New-York:
International Relations Program, Maxwell School, Syracuse University,1967, 161. ,,
298.,
299.
300.
301.
302.C
f
I
303-
304.
305:
0 ,
Waters, Maurice, ed. The United Nations:, International Organizationand Administration. New '631-k: Macmillan, 1967, 583.
$
Wilson, T .W $r. International Environmental Action: A Global Survey. ---'New York:- Dunellen, 1 Sr/1i 3O4.,
World HbalthOrganiiaign. The First Ten Yearsief- the WorlekHealth Organization. Geneva: WHO, 1958, 538. fix'r
,0.4
-. . National Environmental Health Programmes: Their Manning,-grganization, and Administration. Report of a WHO Expert Oakimittee.
..,,Geneva: WHO, 19704_56. ...fi . to -
World Wildlife fund. All Life' ori it th. Second International Congress..
of the World Wildlife Fund, London; November 17-18, 1970. Morges,Switzerland: World WildlifeNnd, 1970, 116. "F"Thy
. World Wild Life Yearbook 1970-71; ed. by Peter,4Jackson.
Morges, Switzerland: World Wildlife Fund, 117.1, 300.
Yates, Lamartirt . So Bold -an Aim: ten Years of Inptinational Coopera-tion, \toward Freedom from Want. Rome: Food and;Agricuitiire Organ-ization;.1.955, 174. , .
. .
Yearbookof International Organizations.. Tenth Eaition, 1964-65. Brussefs:Union of International Organizations, 1965. (Nate Part IV, Chapter14, pp. 112-1215.) .
fs
a
r°1 .
I
.d.
ott
is
288 'The Organization of SCience and Technologys
Addendum: ,.. . ,I
S\
\ '4 ,,. , i 0 0
306. Caldwell, Lynton K.,. in Defense of Earth: International Protection of theBios here. itoomington: Indiana University Pres*, 14972?295.
12307: de S,eynes, Ph i I ipPe "The United Nations Committee on Natuti Resources
end Ifs Challenge;' T chill,' ical Forecasting and Social Change, III(Number 2, 19), I . . ,
.. .,,, ,
. .
, 308. ,Falk, Richard A. Tliis'Endangered Planet: Prospects and Proposals forHuman Survival. New York: Random House, ,1971,. 495.
*it . .
30,. Intetnatienal Institute far Env iron mental Affairs. The Human Environment:Science and rnternational Decision-Making. New York"! International
i Insfitute.for Environmental Affairs, 1971, 31. t. -.. .-. ..310. Natiar41 Academy of $c iente s. National Acadliny of Engineering. Envi-
o, ronmenta I "Studies., Board. Institutional rrrang_ements for International., ir. virorrnent61 Co9perat ion: A Report to the Cl ipartment of State by fhe'
. Corrimiitee for Jniernational Environmental Programs. Washington, .D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, 1972; 74.7National
.1 . .- .
311. 1.1...$. Congress.. Senate. COmmittee on Commerce 1972 Survey of ,
Environmental Activities .of International Organizations. Prepared..,
. by fhe Committee! viith.theassistance Of Hervey R. Sherman and HowardA, Brown , EnviroAietta l' Pal icy- Division, Congressional ReseStchService, Librisry of Congress, 92nd Congress,- 2rid Seision, Februarje,1972; 187,. . ... r it
"
.1
i
4
.
2,7'm
-St
ea.
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itt
t Internatiqnal Ti chnosciAentific Cooperation
4.EADINGeESTLONS
A
1 . What are the principal.cbtegories into which international organizations forscience and technology are customarily groupecie What are the principalcriteria for their.classifitati4n?
1 4
289 ,
2.-: To what extent doe's the, United Nations function as an international organ-ization 'for" -stienteAtife'ciinology?
,3. What have been the principacontributiOns of UN CO k, the advancementof science and technology, and how have its scientific 'activities been orgyn,ized? . .'
4. What are the prospects for inteenational ,scientific and technologicaforgani-zations a,coriring an identity independent of the system of national states?
ere a significance in the_term "World," in the name of-several organiza-.tions? What problems or d6'ngers or advantages might ree-08;front a world
;scientific organization th; has independent of national governments?,
5. What has been the role of ngovernmental professional associations_in theiVernatione orgenizatlort7sciehce and technology"?' WrObt have been thecentributiOni:of.these association?
In view of `the generally high prfor the relatively low priority aby many governments? Whatwidely.resisted and why?
17,
f Science anliscientists, whataccountsinternational scientific cooperationinternational cooperation are-most
In wit'', matters issinternational.scieatific cooperation most urgently neededtoday? Whaf are the prineipal'beirriers to this cooperation?.
8. What sppcific measuies-mighlre taken to strengthen'international'scientificcooperation ?' What foerns of ooReratiok appear to.have worked most effec-tively 'thus tar? :
.110. . .
9. What has been the contribution of international sci ntificiconfere e 'andseminars to international ipoperation? Are' gatherings like .the PugwashMeetings significant? P.
. ,-. .. . .
10. at art the impliaAions for international relations in tire highly differentialat of scientific and technoloaicatdevelopment in the "advanced" and newlyemerging nations? Is technoscientific "imperialism.". a possible consequence
erdeve I oped countries to cope/with science- induced prob-tty for recotekto technical-assistance from more ,"advanced"
. .
of the inability o(ems and the rresocieties?
2'7.) illk W
4
t
.,...
4.
ak I
.st
Topic 10 TECHNOSCIENCE IN THE DEVELOPING COUNTRIES .
;
Moderrocience had its genesis, in Western-Europe' in an historical period coin-cident with the rise of netionaliim andthe expansion of European political controlto nearly all parts of the world. The Science broUght from Europe to the non-Eu-ropean world wcis not only an (Wei% force, but was also atiOrect of an alien cmd.threatening civilization, iln ab few casesMost notably in.. Jaan-L.-science was \
, seen as separable from otPler, aspects of Western civiliiation. Jzipan became amodern Scientific artzi technological Power while retaining many of ilk values andcharacter. istic of .itraditional civilization. '
, 4
As*rnItny formetCole*Pendencies gitned natio 'status after W`orklWar II, effortswere made through international technical assis
Nnce to develOp science and tech-
nology in these new nations-. lorticipating in thiias:sistance were the United Nationsand their Ifiliated organizations; maltilateralgioups such as the Organization forEconomic Coopercuitin and Developmentethe Narth Atlantic Treaty Organization,'and the American 344Iiancfor PrOgress; and bilateral arrangements of which the
Aiso-called foreign aid program'Of the United States was the principal ex'ample. In
1961, the Utifeci Nations sponsored at Geneva-a Conference on Ore Application r',ofScienceand-rectibology for the Benefit ofthe Le*,,,, Areas, with 94. '-governmentlerefresenteci. The eff*fs tticit have gong' developing scientific--competente in *e -new nations hay.e beersiihpressive. Onforfunately,1he results-have frequently been disdppointing., ----
...
A .basic reason for the slowness of the scientific Ahoy olife to take-root in thenon -Western world is .pxhaps becausescience ifselPhas been an aspect of Western
,
.culture. Unless, as iAllopon, science found an accommodating conjunction ofvaluesert could not establish itself 'turing the ,nineteen sixties, (xties, there was a ra-
.pid development bf technplogic capability ict the People's Reffiklic of China,but.the status of science in C na has been difficult ,to assess.; Science in theWestern world hatbeen the out rowth of at least three ceritirri es of, cul tura I change .
It is notiurprising that most w.nationThave found it difficult to make this transi7 io., '-.,
tion in °single generati . Moreever, it should also be remembered thatsc4ence, . /...is not els yet a major rote st or influence in the lives of large numbers of peopleeven in the m technot ientifieally advanced 'countries. . ,
1 A secondary factor., in fording 'tile grooh of science in the new nations has.been the,bias of the aid- powers toward economic ajothe prime, mover Of,
-societies. A widely j3revoiling a mption Of international tschbiCaLassistance has.been tliat ifnational economies can activated to reach some specified."take-Cff"pOint, development of the 'more aelvo cedatpects of the fechnoscientific Cul,tUreoutomatically will follow. Unfortupotely*, economic planning as it hds been ,
applied in most of the new and developing nations does not apPeqr to have irnablbd ,..them to.gentra. I ly improve the quality of life for their 'peoples or rt3have protected- *...
-or ir9provectThe v.iabiliry of their biopbysiccil environments: Specific successes. .
'have been OdhieVed, but thetechnosckItific suPirculliwioaktugh wilich the futurestate of thoe world.may be determined if-still overwhelmingly concentrated In thenations which\eve it birth.
.. :
S
292 The Organiption of Science and Technology4.-
TOPIC 10 TECHNOkIfitICE IN THE 15EVELOPIN49UNTRIES
,
Selected Basic Readings':,
4.
, , ,Boffey, Philip M. "Japan (I).:* On the Thmhold. of an Age of Big, S'cience,"
Science, CLXVII (January 2, 1 970), 31-35! 6"Japan (1,I):. University Turmoil IsReflected in Researchl: Ibid. (January 9, 1 970);147-1'52; !Japan (III)i In=dustria I Research SfruggTes tClose the Gap," Ibid. (January 16; 1 970), 264 -267.
Borlaug, Norman E. "The, Green Revolution: For Bread and Peace," Bulletin ofthe Atort Scientists, XXVII (.lime, 1971); 64; 42-48.
Brown, H. "Science, Technology and the Dev loping Countries," Bulletin of theAtomic Scientists,. XXVII (June, 1971), 10 -14. ,
a . .. .
Moravcsik, Michdel V. "Some Modest Propoials," Minerva( IX (Jd nuary, 1971), -55-65.- 7
4. A. .
,Signer, Ethan and Arthur W . Gal ston . "Education andSdience in thipa " ScienaelCLXXV (January 7, 1972); 15-23.
SuFiplementary Substitute Readings:
Baldvin, Qeorie 6. "Brain Drain or Overflaw,",Foreign Affairs,;XLVII. (January,1970);. 358-372: a
`Blacken; P. M.415r",cieffe and-Technology inn UnCulture, XXIV (January, 1 968);16-24..
I Worrd,C Science and
.a
, . . )Detsau, Irin. ,"Social lidlorsAffecting Science and Technology in Asia," Impact-
.
of Science on,Scifiety,'XIX kianuorlitMarch; i969),4,3=23. . 'Si,
iD.
Mboycl,-Thornas J. "Technology in the Development of Africa: A Critique," I.
pact of Saienti on Societ?,, XIX (October- December; 1969), 131-3-19..
.r ,.. Minenta. * "Science in Underdeveloped CountAries: Wdrld Plan-of Action for the
''.. ` 7ATT,..p Ication of Science and Tethndlogy to Development,' Mill a, IX (January,c..' ' , . 1971), 101 -121. ,, 0.
.
Paddock, William C. "1-row Green Is the Green R Ol'ution7"-AlkliAltin:: '\.,:.
t
(BioScience), XX (gagust 15,1970), 897-902.
Ir,
4-
/Ps 46
,44
Ai
i
ti e**4
= 4
TOPIC 10 TECHNOSCIENCE IN THE btVELOPiNGCOUNTR1E 293:
TOPICAL L OUTLINE
Influence of Science aProcesses of NationalEconomic, and Politi
4I44
1
hnoliskgy upon thevelOpment--cultural'
-A Science and tec °logical ovption
acculturating foices, ,
.1. In Western society (cf. Topics 02,pnd03)
2: In nor Western traditional societies ,
on of Western societies under the ,
impetus of technological development, 1 ColOnialism as an adjUnct of techno-
icigiCal -develOpriti-nf_.
. a . Mercantilist Systems ,
b. kow materials ancarkei is n, - industrial-economies
. _- c. Exporting unemployment
24- Thoe :White awl's, burdenthe culturalmission ,of the-West
. .a . Neligiow -mis-sioni ai vectors of
Western indliktry ones'cience. .. .
.b. T Cultural role Of international- ..-bust _ a
c. The cultural mission of eduCCoion:foundations, universitiek,Inter-nations! technical "alsistance . .
'.''. F'-,.C. Primacy of political leconpmy over science girt,-) the ,development process - .
.. ,--
1. The.domination df economic theory in theWest .
a. COpifalism and kts,
inodificaiiiins reflecting"do econornic perspective on society
b. Marxism as a Western heresy-1-the primacyof politics. over' economics in pn iciebiogj, .
of economic deterrninliny
4,S
2Q(1. a
0
,REFEREIceE KEY
;69;98, 107,108, 124, 150,15?
,1,46
47,'114
170
135, 1441O4-'
ik
*, 115
e
26, 49, 53( 79
It2.
210, .22;
I
1
/ 4
. 294
4
The Organization of Science and TeChnology"
. .,---
2. Conflicting interpretations of the'relajionship. .
of science.and technology to .the developmentprocess--cm'ospect of conflict botwein Wes-tern ideologies in the new and "underdeveloped"
_
nations 69, 73, 97,-181, .J. Resistance to "the scientific culture" in Ica-
ditional sdlieties 44, 80, 116a. IdentifiCation of science with Western
influence 170; 253b. Religious and traditional rejectipn of i.
, science in authorittiricin politiCal syste*ms 51 .c. Marxist rejection of scientific objectivity
in areas dominated bpolitical ideology(cf IsTic 07).
, .D. Adaptation of traditional society to science
l. The emergence of Japan os a techno-,scientific- -state (256 through 27ft
Z. Science acid technology in mainland-China b 182 through 2n
22(
Extension of the Benefits cf Science and Tech-noiogy to the New Nations-'7InternationalTechnical. Assistance (See clisa Topic, 091
A. United-Nations technical assistance1.. The U U.N. expanded program
211, 33, 39, 68,
69, 73, 79, 80,123, 139, 145.89, 14646,
2. Work of the affiliated agenciesa . UNESCQb.WHOc. FAO'
177,4
313 I.
'd. IAEA3. The Geneva Conference of 1963 126, 146, 158
159
B. United States technical. assiit9nce programs
C. Technical assistance by European andpcivanceclAsian states--e.g., Israel and Japan
2S3
22, 25, 30, 33,59, 68, 84, 90,
4,126, 128, 134,157, 158
118713t
t4
1
;
Technoscience i* he Developing punYries* %
D.- Technical assistance by, the Sov iet-EastturOpean.bloc
dIP4P
W. "Development" as a,Vehicle for the,Transferand Application of Scienceand Technology
.
'A. 'MAnirigs and assoptioni of the deVrlop-Merit eoncept
111,8*-1 . Emphasis heavily economic
.
2.."Modernization" as a socio- politicalgoal of development
3. Neglect of cultural and ecologicalvalues
4. Critics of economic deVelopment- *,
B. Limited Influence of Sciencment
t 1.. What is,trartgerred is not "scibut rather the expertise of parti Far'specialists in particular sciences andtechnologies
4..
2. Development decisions often politically,inspired ore not receptive to "scientific"
Areservations3 Relatively few peop%, in developing
. countries capable of making oriticalat=sessment-of their own needs and options
4.. Motivcifions intaid-giving countries rriietl;scierSte seldom a dominant factor
R.
2S
elk
33,161
295
1, 8,"10, 26,64, 85, 99, 101,1021. 103,10,1241125, 134,
.138, 143, 145,146,.149
14, 36;69, 91,,10?, 122, 129.-6, 9, 12; 51, 531,74, MO/ 11 1 2,127,j530 76
92, 115, 143:
6, 52, 1,09', .115;.116, 15052
\55,151
t 4
54,' 73, 97
114
65,1'06, 142,148;1 52
134
c
296: .e
The Organization of Science and 'technology* .
IV. Nobrems of Deve,loping Science and Technoiogy inte New NatioIs
A. Cultural orientation1. Political acceptance of freedom of i dry
rand of critical appraisal of technology ,
often absent2. Need for social -recognition of scientific -0
cra"technical work aid training as "hiltstatus" and attractive to the educatedyou,th . ,
Lack of local opportunfty results in a ''brain,icirain" to industrialized nations
4., 11
B.. Erivir'onmental problems1: inadequate criteria for estakilishing
Air:cities in development/
2. Traumatic effect of %leap from Itrto urbanism--the case of CentralNarrowing margin of Opportunityfrom a
andor destruction a now,
merits resOurces
4 National rivalry a rertarnertionto international cooperation on
lissues' , '. International rivers
b. Wildlife and, natural areas,c. Pcipotation policy -%.,\,..
I - .V.
. ; 5. Growing awarerils* of environmental -hazards-° in, the developing counties' . 51,r
t A
C. Institutional support 7. -. -- 66, 71, 83, 85
. 1.*The educational base for, science and technology -- 4 . 4
transferrid curricula and teaching methods Often- . ,
4.- inappropriate .- . , . 11, 15, 29, 48,137.6
.
6,13/ 37,, 40, 54,55, 63, 64, 67,69, 71, 72, #03,106, 125,330, 302118, 140
. 't
35
97
-,45, 23, 56, 11,81, 87, 84, 96,104, 113, 120, _
2791
3`1; 51,
'.1-8, 38, 40, 70,98, 11'4, 148
ibalismAfrica 122; 159, '171resuling
r
yoretneotal21; 88159
24-
24
75; 78, 132,,'
4i.
a
fr
42E4'5* ,
I
.
;
t n .0
Technbscience in the bevelopingCou ntries , 297
\( 1-2. Higher ecrucation, the deivelorerit of 5
scientists, engineers,.and biomedical t-proffssionals 14, 29, 60, 102,
228, 2453. Limited availability of funds for sup-.
porting scientific research 2, 40, 61,85,87
4. The role of government in the.advance-rnent and control of science and tech-nology usbany nonexistent, uncertain,or opportunisti6
I.11, 63; 72; 86
5. Need for external reinforcement frompolitically acceptable source, e.g.,'international rather than bitateral Ass-sistance . 25, 28
n
eIf
4
n
At
O''
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r
p
I I.5.
. Technoscience in the Developing Countries
BIBLIOGRAPHY
General References: Articles
r
1. Allen, Thomas J. and S . Cooney . "The International Technological Gate-keeper," Technology Review, LXXIII (March, 1971), 37-4.3.
2. , Anderson, R. S. "Are Conferences o4 Science in Poor' ations.a,UsetlessExtravagance?" Science-Forum, IV,Mecember, 1971), 12-15.
3. Apter, David E. "New Nations and the Scientific Revolution," Bulletinof the Atomic Scientists, XVII (FebrUary, 1961),.60-64.
4. Ascher, Charles S. "Current Problems in World Health Organization'sProgram," International Organizations, VI (Winter, 1952), 27-50.
5. Baldwin, George B. "Brain Drain or Overflow," Foreign Affairs, XLVIII(January, 1970), 358-372._
6. Baranson, Jack. "EconomicandSocial Considerations in AdciptingTech--no logi es for Developing t ountries, " Te chnologY and Cui tyre, IV (Winter,1963), 22-29... .
7. . "National Programs for Science and Technology in the Un-derdeveloped Areas," Bulletin of the Atomic Son'entists, XVI (Muy1 960),151 -154. ew
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India and Pakistan
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228. Kahn, Mohammed A. "Educ9fion and Research -in Pakistan," Impact ofScience on Society, XIX (lanuary-March, r969), 85 -92.
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Techn9science in the Devekpin9 Countries 11 319
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238: Parthasarathi, Ashok. "Appearance ant:laity in IRdiariSciince Policy,"Nature, CCXXI (Miirch 8,' 1969); 909-1,1. :..
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247 United Nations Education pc..Scientgic, and CUItuid (0i.ga-Ki ZatilIn 'South .._ .".
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Japan 51
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320 The Organization of Science and-Technoogy ,
(2-51. Aviation Week and2Space Technology. "kealigned National Space Pro-gram Adopted by Japaneie," Aviation Week and SpOce Technology,-XCV' (November I, 1 971), 6446.
252. Boffey, Philip M. "Japan (I): OritheThresholdofimAgeof Big Science,"aience, CLS(V.II (January 2, 1 970),, 31-5; "Japan (II): University
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253. . "Research in Japan: U.S . Army Grants Causd/Controversy,."Science, CLVIII (November 44,1 961), 748-752.
254. Campbell, Louise. "Science Japan," Scienee,CXLIII (February 21,1964), 776-782.
255. Fukushima, Yaichi. "Japan'sfive-Year Science Plan," New Scientist,XXIfic (October 21, 1 966), 1 78,1 80.
256. Glass, H. Bentley. "The ..14.0(.4se Science Education Centers," Science,CLIV (October 14, 1966), 21-228..-.
257. Hall,George R. aqRabert E. Jo' Transfers Of United StatesAlyo-.
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258. ioi, Ryukichi "Japah and the Nuclear Age," Bulletin 'of the ,AtomicSc?entists, XXVI (June,-.1 9Z0), 35-39.
259. International Sciente Notes. "Japan's Science and Technology: Trendsand Forecasts," International Science Notes, Number 24 (March) 1970),1-5.
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262. ,Japan. Science and Technology Agency,. Summary of White Paper onScience and Technology--New Demands on Technical Innovation.Tpkyo: Planning Bureau, Science and Technology Agency, Prime Min-ister's Office04 971, 76. *
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163. Jequie "Towards a Technological Policy; The Japanese Model,"Science Policy News, III (Jy_ty) 971), 1-5.
264. Karsh, Bernard and Robert E. Cole. "Industrialization and the Convey=genice Hypothesis: SOme Aspects of Contemporary Japan," Journal ofSocial Issues, XXIV (October, 1968), 45-63.
265. Kots;rnai, Taku. "Science and Freedom in the Orient," Bulletin of the A-tomic Scientists, X (June, 1954), 209 -210;
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32-2 The Organization of Science and ethnology
275. Yoshino, M. Y. Jan's Marla erial S stem: Tra flan an Innovation.Cambridge, Massachussets: M.I.T. Press, 1968,
Latin America
276. Adams, R. N. "Politics and Social. Anthropology in Spctnis America,"Human Organization, %XIII' (Springt 1964), 1-4. ,
277,, Hawkes, Nigel . "Chile: Planning for Science Faces Obstacles Old andNew," Science, CLXXIV (December 17, 1971, 1217 - ,1219. \
278. Mexico. Office of the President. "The National Councir for ScienOcindTechnology," Mexican Newsletter, Office of the President, separata 2,1971, 15.
279. Nussenzveig, H. Moyse's. "Migration of Scientists from Latin AmericaScience, CLXV (September 26, 1969), 1328-1332.
280. Ryder, Walker D. "How Cuba Manages Its Science," New Scientist, XLIV(November 13, 1969), 339-341.
281. . "Lessons of Castroi Cuba," New Scientist, LII (December-30, 1971), 262-265.
282. SchulMan, Sam. "Intellectual and Technological Underdevelopment: ACase Study--Colombia," Social Fortes, XLV1°(March, 1968), 3P9-317.
283. Strassman, W. Paul . Technological Change andiconomic Development:The Manufacturing Experience of Mexico and Puerto Rico. Ithaca,Nv York: Cornell University Press, 1968, 353.
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Technoscience in the Developing Countries 323
286. United Nations Educational,, Scientific anciCultural Organization . WorldDirectory of National Science Policy-Making Bodies, Vol, 3: 'LatinAmerica. Paris: UNESCO, 1968, 187. 0.
Middle East.
287. Ason, Samuel K "Physicsin Egypt: A New Type of Lend - easel"Bulletin of the A mic Scientists, XVI- (October, 1960), 317-32'1-; 335.
288. Greenberg, Daniel S. "Mideast Science Gap Widening," Science Policy'Reviews, IV (1971), 21727. 4
289: Ismail, Abdeq. "Current 'trends in Science Policy in the nited ArabRepublie'Impact of Science on Society, XII (Number rl 962),:1 03-118.
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293. Rahnema, Mavid. "Iran: Science Policy Development," Impact of Scienceon Society, XIX (January-March, 1969), 53-61.
294. Tauber, Gerald E. Scientific Endeavor of Israel: Teaching, Resources,Research. New York: Herzl Press, 1961, 80.
295. U.S. Department of State. Science and Technology irr Israel . Depart- 1ment of State Airgram No. A-448 from American embassy, Tel Aviv,November 28, 1970. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of International Com-merce, U.S. Departmenfof Commerce, 1970, 4.
296. Worthington, D. B. Middle East Science: 'A Survey of Subjects Otherthan Agriculture . London: Her Ma jesty's Stationery Office, 1946, 239.
297. Zahlan, A. B. "The -Alquisition of Scientific and Technological Capa-bilitties by Arab Countries," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXV(November, 1969), 7-1 0.
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324 Thetrganization of Science and Technology.
298.. Zahlcin, A. B. "Science in the Arab Middle East;',:- Minerva, VIII (Jan-uary, 1 970), 8-35.
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Southeast Asia
299. Bhathal, R. S. "Science and Government in Singapore," Bulletin of theAtomic Scientists, XXVII (January, 1971), 20-21; 38.
300. . "Science and Technical Education in Asia," New Scientistand Science Journal, L (June 24, 1971), 729-730.
1301. Cortes, J. R. "Factors Associated with the Migration of High-Level Per-sons from the Phil iPpinesto the U.S .t.," Science Review, XI (January-February, 1 970), 3-17'.
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303. Eversul I, Frank L. "Korean Scientists Organize," Scientific Monthly, LXV(September, 1947), 243-245.
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305. Hemptinne, Yvan de, ed.' "Science in a Changing Asia," Impact of Sci-ence on Society, XIX (January-March, 1 969), entire issue. 41
306. Hermann, R. A. P "Sow Notes on the National Science Policy of thePhilippines," Philippine Science Review, XI (MaPch-Apri I, 1970), 13-20.
307. Kim, Kee -Hyong. "Korea's Strategy for Science and Technology, 't Impact,of Science on Society, XIX (January-March, 1969), 98-98. OE
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TechnoscienC,e in the DeNieloping Countries 325
310. Pecson, Geronima T. "The Good and Bad of Science and, Technology,':Impact of Science oh Society, XIX (October-December, 1969), 363-:370.
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Technoscience ire the Developing Countries 327
LEADING QUESTIONS4:
4What have been the principal effects of science and science-based technologyon n9n-Western traditional .cultures Is there a "scientific culture" distinctand separable from Western traditio I culture?
2. Have certain of theseeffects been inherent in contradictions between scienceand traditional culture, or have they followed frOm the manner of the intro-duction of science and advanced technology, or both?
3, What were the objectives of the .United Nations Conference the Applica-tion of Science and Technology for the Benefit of the Less eloped Areas?What wore the achievements of the conference? What ere its significantomissions?
4. What factors seem to influence the extent, to which science and ;dvanced tech-nologyare accepid (or rejected) in traditional societies? What may explainthe contrasting reception of Western science in Japan, China, India, Indonesia,and 04 Arab.states?
Is science, as a method of thought, consisfent with the political assumptionsunderlying the creation of new "sovereign" nations in Africa and Asia?
6. What are the principal obstructions to the development of science in traditionalcultures where there is no overt opposition-to science per se--in much of Cen-tral and South America, for example?
7. What are the rndre important institutional arrangements for introducing andcultivating science in newly emerging nations? E what internationalorganizations or agreements have been developed to assist this process?
8. Are scientific and economic developmentsolwayi compatible in the new na-tions--or have there been conflictingeffects? Can you cite sPecific examples
of incompaiible objectives?ti
.Can the development process be made amenable to broad-based scientificconcepts and methods? If so, how might this be accomplishedand whereshould the initiative be located?
10. Given the p'resent exponential growth of science and advanced technology inWesternized countries, is there any red( prospect that the new nations can"catch up" with the more advanced societies--or will the knowledge gap widen ?
3.14t.
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--,
'POLICY PROBLEMS OF-SCIF,t10E AND TECHNOLOGY
T eT five topics -comPrising this section cover some of the largerproblem areas of public policy that have resulted'from the ad-vancement of science.and 'technology. In Topics 11,_ The Politicsof Science and Technology, and 412,. Administration of Researchand Developmentrerriphasis is on estciblising thildirection, prior-.ities, and'al locations of money 'for sciegific and technologicaldevelopment in the United States. in the-remainingtopics of thissection American experience is also emphasized, but attention isgiven,to policy problems in other national Contexts. Topic 13 isclosely related as it examines methods of controlling the directionof technoscientific development and its effects on planning for thetested application bf selected technOlogies. Topics 14, Science,Human Rights, and the Role of Law, and 15, Managing the Tech-noscientificnoscientific Superculture, dearw,ith policy, problems growing oufof the impact of science and technology upon thelives of indivi-duals. Advancements in medicine, engineering, genetics, pharm-acology, and indt4stria I chemistry have given rise to 'novel circum-stances in whicX the rights of individuals and of kwciety.cannot
, -always be defivetd by historical precedent. 'The focus of all topicssin'this section ii upon problems generated. by the growth of tech-,nosc ;eve, and the policy issuesthattriscin consequence of .theseproblems and of the efforts of society to cope with them.
"*.
411
V
31'5'
1
°
.
.1 6 .
*tr
4.
4
TOPIC 11 THE POLITICS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
VAlthough the formal structures of government- science relationships may be
studied comparatively, it is more difficult to compare (in any detail) the actual'course af politics through which a nation's policies for science and technology areshaped. In any nation, the development of science and technology has beeninfluenced by unique factors of history, institutiorys, and personal leadership.Science policy is seldom shapedprimarilyout of concern for the advancement ofknowledge. In the United States, no less then in other countries, considerationsof national security, economic growth, fear of illness, and international prestigehave influenced the..direction of science policy.
In the United States, the politics of science during the 19th century was strongly,influenced by riValty among several leading scientists. Political attitudes towardthenderal role in science reflected popular beliefs regarding the proper functionsof government in general, and the Federal government jn particular,' The prin-cipal scientific functions of government were in pursuance of other objectives,chiefly military in the years beforethe Civil War. In the post-Civil Warlears,agriculture became a major focus for applied science and, at the close of thecentury, file conservation of, naturql resources emerged as a related-field for theapplication of scientific knowledge.
It washot until science assumed the proportions of a major national enterprisein the.yearsfollowingnWorld War II that it become a significant political issue..Its increasintLfmportii4Ce explains its growing pcil itical involvement - -a relation-ship that sore sc'entistfliave been reluctant to concede. In the immediate post-War eripctquesti s of how' to manage the recently liberated Aprgy of the atomwere .1) mount, followed by debate over thenature of a notiRnal'instilutian topromot the'41'vane ment of science. The Atom Energy Comession 41946) andthe National..Science Foundation (1950) were Outcomes of these political issues.Thispost--War era also saw the expansion of the National Institutes of Health intoone.Of the world's greatest biomedical research establishments.
SuccessLof the Soviet Sputnik in 1957 stimulated new efforts to strengthenAysical science and led directly to the Space Program and establishment of the.National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The structure of advice and co-ordination for Federal science pOl icy became a pol itical issue, and led to structuralinnovations. Buf increasingly, the politicrof science and techhologr reiflect;edpublic concern over the Wise use of knowledge. Among the political issues cif.fecting the direction of science policy have been nuclear fallout, pesticides,environmental pollution, ciciingerousOrugs, Supersonic TranspOrt, and the nationalinvestment in basic science. ArgUments have been advanced from several sourcesfora ,Ifi -level review of the 'consequences of scientific and technical innOvatibnBy the early nineteen seventies there' was widespread concern in most scientificallyadvanced countries over priolities in scientific research and development, and forbetter ways to determine them. (See. Topic 12)
44 7 IS7
3160
IF
332 Policy Problems of Science and Technology
IMP
TOPIC 11 THE POLITICS OF SCIENCE AND TECH OGY,
Selected Basic Readings:
gume, Stuart S. "Science Policy and Science Policy Research; Nature, CCXXVII I(OCtober 17, 1970), 215-218.
Greenberg, Daniel S. "The New Politics of Science," Technology Review, LXXIII(February, 1971), 41-45. 'IS
Long, T.D. "The Government of Science: Comparative Approach," -ScienceStudies, I (October, 1971), 263-286.
Pitzer, Kenneth S. "Science and ciety: Some Policy-Changes Are Needed,"Science, CLXXII (April -16, 1971), 223-226.
Price, Don K. "Science at a Policy Crossroads,". Technology Review, LXXIII(April, 1971), 31-37.
Supplementary an crSubst itute Readings: .
Etzioni, Amitai and Richard Remp. "Technologic'al 'Shortcut,' to Social Change;'Science, CLXXV.,(January 7, 1972),. 31-38.
Jensen, Edwood V. "The Science of Science," Perspectives in Biology and'Medicine, XXII (Winter, 1969), 274-28q,
Kass, Leon R. "The New Biology: What Price Relieving Man's Estate?" Science,CLXX IV (November 19, 1971), 779-787.
King, Alexander. "Science-Policy, Economic Growth, and the Quality of Life, 't, Science Policy NeWs, II (July', 1970), 1-6.
Leitenleerg, Milton. "The Present State the World's Arms Race," Bulletin ofthe Atomic Scientists, XXVIII (January, 1972), 15-g1.
Orions, Harold* "Social Science Research Policies in the United States," Minerva,IX (January, 1971), 7-31.
31 it
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Iffk.
TOPIC 11 THE POLITICS,OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Q '333
TOPICAL OUTLINE REFERENCE KEY .
I. Politibs and Science inn the UnitedStates
A. Historical relationships (Cf. Topic 06);
40B.' Contrasting values of science and politics
1. -Scientific enterprise involved in thesociopolitics;31 mqtrix of the times, butwith its own valves and assumptions
2. Political and scientific criteria fortruth- -a contrast
3. Defining the public welfare-- differingapproaches oficience and of politics
. ,
175,-178,285,356,359
26,289, 326, 358
153
371, 381
308
204
JI.
C. Mutual dependence of sctence and politicsfrc in the technoscientific_society
Thl Politics of.the Contemporary Structure for.
,,41 145, 148, 177,213;290,291,314,350, 391, 418
Science Policy 56, 74, 75, 76,275, 330, 303,345
A. P'rec.urs s of a new status for science 441. Changed international position of the
United States2. Vannevar Bush Rlirt to the President:
53, 311
ScienceThe Endless &Antler, 1945 4093. Scienceand.Public Policy, report of the
President's Scientific Research Board,John R. 5teel'man, Chairmao; 1947 4 1 1
4. Establishment of *the Atomic EnergyCommitsion, 19466 . 299
5. Establishment of the Natibnal Scien,ce J
Foundation; 1950
31.:
4, 90, 394
334
%b.
, Policy Problems of Science and Technology
2,.'52, 298129,198,315,317,380, 391, 403
327, 335,39282, 119
152,179,292,294
4 ___,"
44; 247, 314.249, 336,339, 393, '-
B. The changing role Of science in Americansociety1. Heavy increase in defense-related R & D' ,,2. Relationship to economic growth (Cf.- Topic 05) , 267,3. Recognition of the value of basic science c.
4. Role of immigrant scientists in the deve-lopment of indigenous science compe-tence in the United States 78,
.
C. Post-Sputnik reorganizatiorl and develop-ment, 1957 _
1. The Space Program, NASA, 1958
2. Newproposals for a department of,-ence (Cf. Topic 06)
3. Government stimulation of science edu-cation (Cf. Topic 05)
4. The new structure of science advice(Review Topic 06)a . Special Assistant tb the Pres ;dent_ for
,Science, 1957b. Federal Council for Science and
Technology, 1959c. Office of ScienCe and Technology;
a, 1962
d-. Reorganization Plan No. 2 of 1962'"'Note summary in Pen ick,The Politics
of Americarr-Science-,-2 3565. 'Concentration of scientific programs ,
and support 34, 95, 165.a. In paPiblcular sciences and techno-
logies .141,222,224,343b. In particular geogiaphicickations: 28, 300
- c. In particular institutions 28, 2346. Inadequate opportunity for public par-
. ticipation in the consideration of alter-natives and setting of Priorities 35,-73, 262, 316,
318
394,400,401,410,412
151,162,230,340,381
1, 6, 61, 79
91
31"
The,Politi
ff
f Se fence and Technology
7. Hatarqs and safeguards of American .
. science policy from 102, 106_ a. Manipulation by highly organized
. *and influential ,groups for group=centered interests -- military, inUui--.trial, academic s 45, 48, 80, 113,
. ,,.,, 117,172, 246,2560
. ,.4
270, 294 305, 320,. %420 -
7 b. Neglect of areas of research of great-',
est social need in favor of areas of . .", '7 ., : .....,40 ,
highist interest and prestige 29,108, 120, 138,r , :141, 224, 251, 267; ; .414
. 335
J
Ill. The Larger Dimensions` of'Science Policy 1424,68,89,105,112,124,128,1,14,144,184, 244, 254,255,289300,354361
..'A. 'Co rnpetiflion for available mnds' t 262,290,328,414,,
.,
.. 420 .., .
. - -1. AdvantageOus position of /defense and
energy- related science.and technology
ASP
2. Health research: medicine versus basicBiology
3. Handicaps of social and envillinmentalstudies
4. Limited sources of supp6rt for basic asopposed to applied research
B. Responsibility for formulation of public,,pdlicy for science and technology.
41.
3Zu
9, 55, 114, 125,158, 198,253,297,310, 328,360, 366,383,-386
108,150,225,284334
39,40,81,83,131,132,146,163,189,219, 245,257, 2691122, 333, 344
62, 63, 135, 207
56, 1.71,193;197, .
329, 418
A
. .. ,
. !.. ,. . ..,
i
336 Policy Problems of Scieillb and Techfialogy
1. Relatingscience polit to science ad-vice
2. Vetermining the extent to which scion-iif ic knowledge will influence politicaldecisions,fixik; responsibility in the R tri-angle, e.g., government, universities,indu.stry
4. Responsibilities of theYederal and State'governmentsthe _case of- the U.S.
if
a
.
42,, 69, 109, 130
115, 368.
127,162,318,352.
Atomic Energy Agency vs. Minnesota 145. Surveying, assessing, and interpreting
the status of science and technology_(Cf. Topic 13) 29, 351
IV. Policy Problems in the Utilization and Controlof Science and 'achnologc-Some IllustrativeCases 51, 108,236,263,
A. Public policy and the integrity of the
266,281, 284, 287,304, 309,337, 341,348,365,W, 378,382
scientist t1. The Robert Oppenheimer Affair 276,278,301,325,
330, 3742.- The AD-X2 Battery Addictive Case3. Fjuor'itiation of water supplies./ 41 - 1914. The Krebiozen Case5. Blacklisting of scientists by HEW 155, 1566. The Franklin A. Long incident . 15, 167. Rachel-Carson and the agricultural
scerAsts 33, 85, 159, 268 ea
8. Standards for nuclear radiation 67, 70, 160,182,218
9. The Velikovsky controversy10. The Agri-statistics Case
B. Social' sensitivity and scientific curiosity1. Darwinian Evolution: The Scopes Trial
321
258, 302, 377
4
The Politics Science and Technology .337 .
.2.1rGenetics.af human differensot 98, 126,16'8,194,. 282,312
4r3. Genetic engineering , 58, 101,143,154,208, 354
4. Sexual behavior of human beings . 11, 58, 142 `5. Social research as "spying": Project
Camelot . 92, 3066. Reformistresearch,e.g.,Public Interest
....- Investigations4. 7. Experimentatic;ns with human subjects 259, 355
C. Alteration of the natural environment 4 430, 31, 38, 43,56,60, 245,274, 277,
. ,296{324,362,373,375\V---. ,
1. Air pollution 170, 235 '-g. Water pollution 17, 27, 84, 133
3. 'Solid wasfes 77, 186, 4074 P-esticides and herbicides 33, 85, 86; 157,/
159, 169, 220, 226,..,241-, 389
5. Inorganic fertilizers 104 .6. Scientific forestry7. Rainmaking .
1348. Defoliation 719. Supersonic Transport i '47,138,185,243,
176, 383, 39710. The Trans-Alaska Pipeline 7, 8, 14911. Experiments in sp ace: Projects Argue,
Starfish, and West Ford12. Nuc lear radiation
D. " Social" drUgs, science, and morality:
32, 67, 188, 217,218, 232, 239
51, 280, 295, 3211. Tobacco t .
2. Marijuana' 231, 372 .
3. Hallucinogens and 1.SD../j 142, 250,261,2794. Alcohol 51 -
E . Use of data processing techniques to collectand disseminate information on all citi-zens -- possible invasion of privacy
32
-25, 80, 140, 187,192, 346,364, 390,404, 413, 416
4
4
f °8 Policy Problems of Science and Technology
,
f4
F . Choice,ernphasis,ond alternatives in technological development . 46, 234 291, 417'1. The SRace Program: objectives, methods,
duration . 10, 20, 23,224,
.
it
t
2. Transportation: specific modes versuspublic systems
s
3. Automation and cybernetics: machines.versus manpower
4. Weapons technology: cost- effectiveness,realiability, and Morality
,
---,, )5. Energy: how much, from what, for what?
...
3 9 f)064 4.1
242,247,336,400,410, 412
3,13 37, 47, 136,138, 200,210,216,229, 240,266,383,
. 408
4
21, 413, 416
45, 96, 103, 125,158,167,,180,246,
-248, 265271,273,283,290,305,332,384, 385,399, 40532, 47, 64,97,149,
238,398,406, 419
..
,
A
The Politics of Science and Technology a 339
'BIBLIOGRAPHY .
General ReTerences: Articles
1. Abelson, Philip-H. "The President's Science Advisers," Mineroa, Ill(Winter, 1965), 149-158.
2. Adams, J.B. "MegaieicienCe,".Science, CXLVIII (June, 1965), 1560-1564.
3. Agnew, Spiro T. "Urban Fast Mass Transportation," Congressional Record,C.XVII (September 14, 1971), E9562,-E9564.,
4. Allison, David. "The National Science FoundatiOn," International Scienceand Technology, Number 52 (April, 1966)pr76-86.
5. Alpert, Harry. "The cbovernment's Growing Recognition of SotialScience,"- Annals of the American Academy of Political and SocialScience, CCCXXVII (January, 1960), 59-67.
6. Andersbn, I' on P. "Scientific Ady ice for Congress," Science, CX LIV(April 13,W4), 29-32.
7. Asp in, L. "The Bordeh Report on the Trans-Alaska Pipel ine," Congressional_Record, CXVII (June 15,1971), H5226-H5228.
8. . "Why the Trans-Alaska Pipeline Should be Stopped,"Congressional, Record, CXVII (August 6, 1'971), E9.062-E9064.
9. Aviation Week and poce Technology. "Special Report on Satellite Com-.mun icat ions, " Aviation Week and Spcice Technology, X CV (August 23,1971), 28 -95.
10. Bean, A.L. ,"The Value of Manned Flights to the Moon," Impact ofScience on. Society, XXI (April-June, 1971), 105-112. .
,Jessie. "Technology, Science, and Sex Attitudes," I act ofScience on Society, XVIII (October-December, 1968), 213- .
",---"'"- 11.
12. Bethe, Hans A. "Disarmament Problems," Bulletin of the Atomic Scien-tists, XXVI (June, 1970),, 99-102.
324
a.
340
13.
F
#
Policy Problems of Science wad Technology
Blume-, Stuart S. "Science Policy and Science Policy Research," Nature,CCXXVIII (October 17, 1970), 215-218.
Boffey, Philip M. "Radioactive Pollution: Minnesota FindsAEC StandardsToo Lax," Science, CLX1.11 (Mardi, 7, 1969), 1043-1044; 1046.
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17. Boyles Clarenct L. "Oil Pollution of the Sea: Is the End in Sight?"Biological Conservation, L(July, 1969), 319-327.
18. Brezino, Dennis W. "Wanted: A Science Policy Dbctrine, ScientificResearch, IV (December 22, 1969), 22-24
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.26 Chase, Edward T. "Politics and Technology," Yale Review, LII (March,1963),' 322-339.
325
a
The Politics of Science and Technology 341
27. Cheever, Daniel S. "Marine SCience and Ocean Politics," Bulletin ofthe Atomic Scientists, XXVI (February, 1970), 22; 29-34.
a28. Clarke, Robin.. "How the 300 Ge V Decision WdsMade," Science Journal,
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29. Cohn, Victor. "Shaking Up The System," Technology Review,LXXIII(July-August, 1971), 8-9.
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la
40. De G.azia, Alfred. "The Government in Behavioral Science: Some
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tr
342 Poilicy Problems of Science and Technology
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lb
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The Politics of Science and- Tec hnology 343
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)4-- vf----
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The Politics of Science and T ology 345
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. .
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89. H-aloman, J. Herb4rt. "Govel-nment and Science:,Flow Science Policyis Developed,," 5ci'ence, CXLIII (J.anu'arx 31, 1964), 427, 429.
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92. Horowitz ruing L. "The Life and Death'of Project Came Ibt '," Trahsaction,III (November-December, 1965)/4.3-8.
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95. Hutchinson, Eric. "Politics and Higher Educdtion," Science, CXLVI'(No,/ember 27, 1964), 1139 -1142.
96. Imai, Ryukiehi. ,"Japa -arid the...World of 5ALT," Bulletin of the AtomicScientists, XXVII (December, 1971), 13-16.; .
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97. Inglis, David R. "Nuclear Energy and.the MalthuOan Dilemma," Bulletinof the AtOmic Scientists., XXVII (February, 1971), 14-18.
, .. . r98. Jensen,, Arthur R. "RaCe and 6'ergtielkof Intel ligence: A Reply to
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99. Jensen, Edwoo'd V. "The Sdence of Sciences" Perspectives in Biologyand Medicine, XXII (Winter, 1969), 274-289.
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100. Jordan, Walter H. ''Nuclear Energy: Benefits versus RiskV" Physics1 M
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104 Jost., Alfred. "Reproduction (II); Hurrian Control of Reproductive Processes,"Impact, XX (October-December, 1970), 267-278..,,tir
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.112. Kantrowitz, Arthur. "PropOsal for an Institution for Sciekific Judgment, ",'k Science, CLVI (May 12, 1967), 763-764. `,
1.03. -Karbr,.Phillip A. "The Nixon Policy Ilf CBW," Bulletin of the AtomicScientists, XXVIII (January,'1972), 2-25; 27. V
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104. Kardos, Louis T. "A New Prospect," Environment, XII (March, 1970),, 10-21; 27.
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105, Kash, Don E. "ForceiAffOctirASciencePolicr," Bulletin of the Atomic--....
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106. . "Is Good Science Good Politics?" Bulletin of the AtomicScientists;XXI (March, 1965), 34-36.
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4.
7.108. Kass, ,Leon R. "The New Biology: What Price Relieving Man's Estate?"
Science,.CLMY (November 19, 1971), 779-787.
109. KeLr, James R. "Cdngress and Space: Overview or Oversight?" PublicAdministration Review, XXV (September, 1965), 185-192.
Yv'
110. King, Alexander. "Science Policy, Economic Growth, and the Qualityof Life," Science Policy News, II (July, 1970), 1-6.
111. Kinzel, Augustus B. "The Engineer GOes to Washington," 'International.Science' and Technolog Number 42 (June, 1965), 49-52.
112. Kistiakowsky, George . -"National Policy for Science," Chemical andEngineerin4News, L (January 22, 1962), 120-124.
: . .;113. Klass, Philip J. "Independent Research Due Closer Sirutiny," Aviation
Week and Space. Technol=ogy, xal (Maich16, 1970), 21-22.
114. . "Recoil Satellite Assumes Dual Role," Aviation Week andSpace Technology, XCV (August 30x 071), 12-13;
115. Kofmehl,'Kenneth. `:"COSPUP, Congreii, and Scientino AdviteP Journal° of Politics, XXVIII .(February, 1966), :1Q9-420.
.0116. Kvom, Roger A. "COMSAT: Thelnevilable, Anomaly,' in Knowledge
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f IOW117. Lakoff, Sanford A. "The Scientific Establishment andAmerican Plural ism,"
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118. Langer, El inor.. " Chemical aria Biological Warfaretl I): The Weapons andthe Polies," Science, CE.V (Ainuory 207 1967), 299-303o,
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119., Lang! ish, John. "Daps Industry; Neekr Scien'ce?"-Scienci Journal,, Va(December, 194)7-81-84.
12 . Lecwilt, Thomas W. The futUre of the Sockeye Program On the
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.121. Lederbit Joshua. "Biological warfare: A Global Threat," American'Scientists, LXIX (Morph-April, 1971), 195-197.
332 4
Policy Puib lams of Science and Technology
122. Lederberg, Joshua. "A Freeze on' Missile Testing; Bulletin of the AtomicScientists, XXVII (March, 1971), 4-6; 43.
123. Leich, Harold H. "Scientists and Engineers in a Civil Service System,"Public Personnel Review, XXVI (January, 1965), 35-39.
124. Leiserson, Avery. "Scientists and the Polk? Process',' American PoliticalScience Review, LIX (June, 1965), 408-416.
125. Leitenberg, Milton. "The Prose* State of the World's Arms Race,"Bu ligkin of the Atomic Scientists, XXVIII (January, 1972), 15-21.
126., Lawontin, Richard C. 'Further Remarks on Race and the Genetics ofr Intelligence'," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXVI (May, 1970),
127. Lindveit, Earl W, "Si.ieri , tdpcation, and Palitics," EducationalRecord; XLV (Winter, 1964), 41-48.
128. Long, Thomas D. "The Government of Stience: A COmparativeApproaoh,",-SCIence Studies, I (October, 1971), 263-286.
411,129, Low, Ian. "Science and Weaponry," New SCientists, XXX VII February
29, 1968), 464-465. ,.1'
130. Lowe, George E. "Congress ar*I Scientific Advice," Bulletin of theAforniaScientis , XXPrfletember, 1965), 39-42.
131: Lundberg, George A. "The Senate Ponders Social Science," ScientificMonthly' LXIV (May, 1947), 3974411.
132. MacArthur, D6Ref1d M. "Current Emphasis on the Department of Defense's.Social and Behavioral Sciences Program', American Psychologist, XXIII(February, 1968), 104-107.
133. McCaull, .fu I ion.'1969), 2-16.
134. MacDonald,of the Ato
"The Black Tide," Environment, XI (NovemTher,
on J.F. 'Science and Politics of Rainmakin6' BulletinScientists, XXIV (October, 1968), 8-14.
McElheny, Victor K. "Can Scientific UnpredictabAity Become;PyblicPolicy?" Technology Review, LXXI (December, r968), 10-11.
333
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^1,
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.136. Macinko, John. ".,TeTailpipsvarobter4 Environment XII (June; 1970),6-13.
137. Macy, John W., jr. "The Scientist in the Federal Service," 'Science,Cni,V111 (April, 1965), 51-54. `.
138. Magruder, William M. "SST: Lessons in All That Pain," Astronauticsand Aeronautics, IX (July, 1971), 16-18.
139. Mainzer, Lewis. "The Scientist as Publ lc Administrator," Western Politicalduarterly,XVI (December, 1965), 814-829.
Malik, Rex. "Thi Data Bank Society: Can We Cope?" New Scientistand Science Journal, XLIX (March 4, 1971), 497-499.
141. Mandelbaum, Leonard: "Apollo: How the iinited States Decided to Goto the Moon," Science, CLVIII (February 14i 1969), 649-654.
142, Mann, Thaddens. "Reproduction (1): Sex, Drugs and Eihics," Impact ofScience on Society, XX (October-Decem r 1970), 255-265.
0143. Mascall, Eric L. "A Theologian's View of Scienc ," New Scientist anti
Science Journal, LI (August 19, 1971), 417-419.
144. Massey, Harrie. "Evolution of a Policy for. Science," New Scientist,AXI1 (Novimber 24, 19*, 422-429.
. 145. MOther, Kirtley. "The Common Ground of Science and Politics," Science,CX.VII:(February 20, 1953); 169-174.
146. Mead, Margaret. 'Public Policy and Behayioral Science," Bulletin ofthe Atomic Scientists, XXV (Efecember, 1969), 8-10.
147. Mesthene, Emmanuel G: "dan'Only Scientists Make Government SciencePolicy?" Science,,,,CXLV (July 17, 1964), 237-245.
148. '"The Impact of S,c iffnce on Public Pol icy; Public AdminispatianReview, XXVII (June, 1967), 97 -104.
149.. Moler, Murray. "Emphasis on Protection Will Maki Big Alaskan PipelineBetter, Safer," Congressional Record, CXVII. (September 23, 1971),'514918-514919.
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150. Mondale, Walter F. "The Implications of Biomedical Research and Tech- 4nology;' Congressional Record, 00/11(April 29, 1971), S5912-55929.
151. Morse; John F "The Federal Government and Higher Education: General*. and' Specific Concerns in theYearsAhead," Educational Record, XLVII
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152. Murcier, Alain. "Brains for Sale," BulloOln of the Atomic Scientists,'XXIV (March., 1968), 38-.
"Is153. Nader, Claire. "The Technical Expert in a Democracy;' Bulletin of the
111 Atomic Scientists, XXII (May, 1966), 28-30.
154. Nagle, James J. "Genetic Engineering'; Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists,XXVII (December, 1971), 43-45. .
155.. Nelson, Bryce. "HEW Blacklisting Issue IgnitesAgain," Science, CLXVI(October 17, 1969), 357.
156. "HEW Security Checks Said to Bar Qualified Applicants toPI--4-1-5717cience, CI.XV (July 18, 1969), 269-271.
157. Nelson, Gaylord. "Herbicides and the Genevo Protocol," CongreisionalRecoid, CXV1I (March 24, 1971), S3797-,S3800.
158. Nicholi, R.W. "The Coming SALTing of Defense R & D," Innovation,XXVI (November, 1971),.46-57.
159. Niering, WRStam A. "Effects or Pesticides;' AIBS Bulletin (BloScience),XVIII (September, 1968), 869-875.
160. . Novick, Sheldon. "A Mile from Times Squarer; Environment, XI (Janoary-February, 1969), 10-15;39. 11
ac
161. . "A New Pollution Problem; Environment, XI (May, 1969),
162C. Orions, Harold. "Developments in Federal Policy toward "UniversityResearch," Science, C14/ (February 10, 1967), 665-668.
163. sittlekl, Science Reseilich Policies in the United States,"4 Minerva, IX (January, 1971), 7 -31.
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164. Ossowskce, Mqta and Stanislaw Ossowski. "The Science of. Science,"Minerva, In (Autumn, 1964), 72-82.
165. Page, Howard E, "University Science Development dne Hundred MillionDollars Later," Educational Record, XLIXISSummer, 1968), 250-256.
166. Pauling, Linus. "Genetic and Somatic Effects'ofHigh-Endgy Radiation,"Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXVI (September, 1970), 3-5.
167; Perl, Martin L. "SALT and Its Illusion," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists,XXVII (December,"1971),
168. Peter, William G., III. "Ethical Perspectives in the Use of, GeneticKnOwledge," BioScience,q1XXI (November 15, 1971), 1133-1137.
169. Peterle, J. "Pyramiding Damage," Environment, X1 (July:Auguit,196; 34-40.
170. Peterson, Eugene K. "The Atmosphere: ACloudedHoriL; Environment,XII (April, 1970), 32-39.
171. Pitzer, Kenneth, S. "Scier>e and Society: Some Policy Changes AreNeeded," Science, CLXXII (April 16, 1971), 223-226.
172. Possony, Stefan and Jerry Poumelle. "The Technological War," Con-gressional Record, CXVI I (May 25, 1971), E5012-E5016.
173. Price, Derek J. de Sol la . "The Scientific Foundations of Siiertie Policy,"Nature, CCVI (April 17; 1965), 233-238.
174. Price, Don K. "The Established Dissenters," Daedalus, XCIV (Winter,1965), 84-116.
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176. . "Science at a Policy Crossroads," Technology Review,LXXIII (April, 1971), 31-37.
177.A -4*
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178. Price, Don K . , J. Stefan Dupree, and W. Eric Gustafson. "CUrrentTtends in Science Policy in the United States," Impact of Science onSociety, X (Number 3, 1960), 187-211.
179. Psacharcpoulos, George. "On Some Posit4ve Aspects of the Economics ofthe Brain Drain," Minerva, IX (April, 1971), 231-241.
180. Pugwash Continuing Committee. "SALT and International Security,"Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXVII (December, 1971Y, 17-19.
181. Rabinowitch, Eugene. "Decision Making in the Scientific Age.," in TheScientific Revolution: Challenge and Promise, ed. by Gerald W.Elbers and Paul Duncan. Washington, D.C.: Public Affairs Press,
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183. Rathjens, George W. "The ABC of ABMs," Bulletin of the Atomic
184.
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185. Reuss,, Henry S. "The .Garw1n SST Report: A $425 Million Misunder-staoding'; Congressional Record, CXVII (September 16, 1971), H8553-;H8558.
186. Risebrougb, Robert and Acsinia Brodine. "More Letters in the Wind,"Environment, XII (January-February, 1970), 16-26.
j187. Rose, Michael. "The Social Control of Computerized Data-Banking,"
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188. Russell, R. Scott. "Contamination of the Biosphlerew*Orn Radioactivity,"Biological Conservation, II (October, 1969), 2-9.
189. Salomon, Jean-Jacques. Science Policy for the 1970's," OECDObserver', LIII (August, 1971), 3-9.--
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190. Samuelson, Robert J. "The SST and Government: Critics Shout into aVacuum," Science, CLVII (September 8, 1967), 1146-1151.
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191. Sapol sky, Harvey M. "Science, Voters, and the Fluoridation ControversyScience, CLXII (October 25, 1968), 427-433.
192. Sawyer, Jack and Howard 'ScheChter. "Computers, Privacy, and theNational Data Center: The Responsibility of Social Scientists; AmericanPsychologist, XXIII (November, 1968), 810-818.
193. Sayre, Wallace S. "Scientists and American Science Policy," Science,CXXX I U (March 24, 1961), 859-864.
194. Scarr-Salapatek, Sandra. Illace/Social Class, andIQ; Science, CLXX IV \(December 24, 1971), 1285-1195.
195. Schilling, parner R . "Scientists, Foreign Policy, and Politics," 'AmericanPolitictl Science Review, LVI hJune, 1962), 287-300.,
196. Science. "Secrecy and Drssemirlgtion in Science and Technology,"CIWnce, CLXIII (February 21, 1969), 787-790.
197. Science Forum. "Who Should Make Science Pol icy?" arid "The LamontagneReport: Science Policy in Canada isa Legacy of Failures; Science Forum,IV (February,. 1971), 2-4.
198. Scientific American. "Unreordered Priority; Scientific American, CCXXV(July, 1971), 42-43.
199. Seitz, Frederick. "The Governmental Science Administrator," Pt ysicsToday, XIV (August, 1961), 36-38.
200. Shaffer, Helen B. "Jumbo Jets: New Travel "Era," Editorial ResearchReports, Number 11 (September 10, 1969), 669-688.
201." Shannon, James A. "Science and Federal Programs: The ContinuttvDialogue," Science, CXLIV (May 22, 1964), 1976-978.
202. Shapley, Deborah. "Plutonium: Reactor Proliferation Threatens a NuclearBlack -Market," Science, CLXXII (April 9, 1971), 143-146.,
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204. Sherwin, Chatmers'W. "the Management of Science in the Public Interest7Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XX (June, 1964); 9-:12.
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354 \ Policy Problems of Science and Technology
r205. Shils, Ward A., ed. "American VisaiPcklity and Forlrign Scientists,"
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207. Shipman, George A. "When Is Research Research?" Public AdministrationReview, XXVIII (November-December, 1968), 556-558.
208. Sinsheimer, Robert L. "Genetic Engineering: The Modification of Men,"Impact, XX (Octoberecember, 1970), 279-291.
209. Skolnikoff, Eugene B. "Scientific Advice in the State Deparliment,"Science; CLIV)(November 25, 1966), 980-985.
210. Smith, Bernard. "Ideal-Urban Transit," Astronautics and Aeronautics,VI (September, 1968), 68-71.
211; .Smith, Bruce "The Non-Profit Research Corporations in the U.S.A.,"New Scientist, XXX (June 30,-1966),
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212. SnoVi, Charles P. "Government, Science, and Public Policy," Science,CL1 (February 11, 1966), 650-653.
213. Staley, Eugene. "Scientific D'.A,lopments and Foreign Policy;' Bulletinof the Atomic Scientist*, XVI-(January, 1960), 7-13.
214; Stone, Michael G. and MalcolmWarner. "Politics, Privacy, and Com-puters," Political Quarter! XL (July-September, 1969), 256-267.
215.- Stratton, Julius A "Science and the Process of Managethent," ResearchManagement, V rch, 1Q64), 79-90.
216. Swihart,. John M..'OurSSTandEconomics" stronautics and Aetonautic's,VIII (April, 1970), 30-51.
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219. Truman, David B. "The Social Sciences and Public Policy,"Science,CLX (May 3, 1968), 508-512.
220. van den Bosch, Robert. "Pesticides; Prescribing for the 'Ecosystem,"Enviniment, XII (April, 1970), 20-25.
221.. Van Doren, Charles N. "U.N. Involvement in Disarmament: The Caseof the Non-Proliferation Treaty," American Journal of InternationalLaw, L-X-IV (September, 1970), 191-1,94.i
222. Viorst, Milton. "The Political Good-RN-tune of Medical Research,"Science, CXLIV (April 17, 1964), 267470.
223. Vohra, Hans R. "Ministry of ScienceU.S. Style," Bulletin of theAtomic Scientists, XXVII (January, 1971)72932.
224. von Braun, Werner. "Man and Space Exploration; Congressional Record,CXVII (February 24, 1971), El 1 11-E11,14. it
225. Wade, Nicholas:- Cancer NIH Backers Mount Late Defense inHouse," Science, CLXXIV (October 8,. 1971), 127-131.
226. . "Decision on 2, 4, 5- T: Leaked ReportsCompel RegulatoryResponsi ility," Science, CLXXIII (August 13, 1971), 610-615.
227. Walker, Eric A. "National Science Board: Its P late in National Policy,"Science, CLVI (April 28, 1967), 474-477.
228. Walsh, John. "Antipoverty R & D: Chicago Debacle Suggests PitfallsFacing OEO," Science, CLXV (September 19, 1969), 1243-1245.
229. Watkins, Harold D. -"SST Faces Congressional Hurdle," Aviation Weekand Space Technology, XCI (September-29, 1969), 16-18.
230. Webb, James E. "Education in the Space Age," Educational Record,XLV (Winter, 1964), 33-40.
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232.. Weinberg, Alvin M. "Impact of Large-Scale Science on the UnitedStates," Science, CXXXIV (July 21, 1961), 161-164.
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233. Weinberg, Alvin M. "Nuclear Energy and the Environment," Bulletinof the Atomic ScieAsts, XXVI (June, 1970), 69-74.
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235. Wendland, Wayne M. and Reid A. Bryson. "Atmospheric Dustiness,Man, and Climatic Change," Biological Conservation, II (January,1970), 125-128.
236. Wheeler, Hqrvey. "A Center Report: Man's Doingand Undoing," Center'Magazine, II (November, 1969), 32-49.
237. Wiesner, Jerome B. "Hope for GCD?" Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists,XXIV (January, 1968), 10-15.
238. Wilson, Richard. olitics of Nuclear Power in the United States,"Nature, CCXXX II (October 15, 1971),:- 453-454. .
239. Woodwel I, George M. "Radioactivity and Fallout: The Model Pollution,"AIBS Bulletin (BioScience), XIX (October, 1969), 884-886.
240. Worsnop, Richard L. "Lfrban Transit Crush," Editorial Research Reports(July 8, 1970), 507=526.
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282. Dobzhansky, Theodosius.' ,Herardity and the Nature of Mop: New York:Harcourt, BraceOd World, 1964, 17.
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292. Fermi, Laura, Illustrious Immigrants: The Intellectual 'Migration fromEurppe, 1930-1941. Chicago: Univel-sitsof Chicago Press, 1968, 440.
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295. Forney, Robert B.. and Francis Hughes. Combines -Effects of AI collo! andOther Drugs. Springfield, Illinois;. Thomas, -1968, 124.
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297. Robert. American Scientists and Nuclear Nopons Policy.Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1962, 352.
3 '
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4
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The' Poi itics'of Sc ience and Technology
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299. Green, Harold P. and Alan Rosenthal. Government-of the Atom:"... Thet grationof Powers. New York: Atherton Press, 1961,.281:'
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314. Lambright, Walter H. -Pub' io.Administration and Science and Technology .
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I tThe Politics of Science 9pd T,eclrology 373
, ' ...
.\ LEADING QUESTIONS,.,
What circumstances have dralvn scientists into politics? have the pre -vailing v-alu, s.ct'-ar;r:rattitudes among scientists and their socia status affectedtheir political activities? . , AP
, -2. What criticisms have been directed toward high-level science poliCy advice
11, `,
..in goverglent? What has been the source of these criticisms and the reasons'
have.
advanced to refute them,FtNhat alternatives have been suggested?.. ti. . ,
3. What events or reason§ have been the leadinifactbrs in Federal support forscientific and technological activities? Does Congress tend "to dcktheorightthings for the wrong reasons?" ,
.
* ,or;
, .
How %/timid. you evaluate-the fears of science elitism as expressedby Lapp,Price, and otheis? What threat do they perceive to political responsibility
V. and democratic institutions? What remedies are suggested?r
s SO . ' .....,..,,
5. What has been the personal, iAuence of scientists in shaping' U.S. science 0
.....s...,
. policy? kips the influence of men like Powell, Agassiz, Pinchot, and Bush.led to devejopments in government science different from what _objective
.. . ...0:-analysis of national needs and interats would have 'indicated?. .. .
..6.- ;What have been . theolift,cipatol pro6lems ofthe scientist-employee in government?' What issues have arisen over political loyalty, national security,accountability to management, personnel and budgeting procedures, and .
freedom of inquiry? ,..., .
What were the principal,issyes debated in the prOcess. of estplishing the dipNational Science Foundation? To what extent do these issues remain unre.- .
solved? What arguments have been advanced for and against a separate ,Social Science Foundation?. . , .
8i. Does the putlic- interest 'imply a need.ficr the surveillance and.contral of in-
vestigation, experimentptionrand allegationirnade in the name of science?If so, how should this'supervIsian be provided? By law? By the scientificcommunity? Through the administrative process? ;
A...,9. Does the future viability of democratic government require an increo
public understanding of science? Is an outlook of techmoscientificerminism compatible with a Coram4tment to self-government? '
4
at
Alf
When moral or pol it icaljudgments dnd scientific evidence are contradictory,which should govern ppblic Policy?
35S'
'5
o
0
TOPIC 12 MANAGEMENT OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
4Public investment in scientific research andtechnological devel ment has be-
come wdatory in any modern nation with pretensions to pow r. The largeamounts of inaney required in either absolute or relative terms, an e practicabnecessity for establishing priorities in the allocation of public funds among theseveral fields of science and teclInology, hove made the administration of R & Dd major policy area in to noscientifically advanced countries. ,
Specific, issues regarding R & D include the following: (1) How'much or whatpercentage of national income should be bllocated for R & DanTby what criteria?(2) What should be the distribution of available R & D funds"aenong the fields ofscience and technology and amahg claimant institutions? (3) Who should deter -mine priorities of R & D? (4) How can creativity in RA D be increased?
a
In the United States, at least, no clear or 'decisive answer to any of thesequestions has been forthcoming. Resoluiion of each of these issues has beerebytraditional political means. No scientificbtisis far Choice in the Aping of poi icj,for R & D hai, yet been generally accepted. Several committees of the Congress,scieritific bodies, ,and a number of ,civic aod educational organizations, havestudied the assessmentssessmlnt of the effects of sc iente and toechncilogy on society and haveproposed new methods for fhe review and evaluation,of scientific and techno-logical innovation. (See Topic 13) ,
6, . .
. The AniinistratiOn of R & D gives rise to sets of pratrems on two different levels.`On the macro or nattbnal level, the allocation of funds among the fields of inquiryavid among institutions age major policy questions. Closely associated is thegeographical distribution of R & D money and its eff,pfs upon academic strengthand economic, growth in the principal 'regions of the.country. On the micro orlocal-institutional level, a kirge number of specific issueacen be identified:
.. , 0- 4 40
Among these issues are msti:tods for determining research priorities, promotingcreativity, overcoming instautionarand personal obsolesced, and avoiding un-
.cleiired coniequerices of tecbnalocjica1 innovation (e.g., foaming detergents).
; In governmental and industrial.laboratoiievretafior4betiween the scientific andtechnical staff aid nonscientist administrative supervisors have freqbently been dit-f itb It; the objectives of researchcand of mission-oriented developmentore often verydifferent, and if not understood by.the laboratory persOnnel, they may leadto con-ffIctitig viewptints regarding the nature _of the work to be done:
.
Perhaps the major policy problem in Ohe adthinistrcition of R &D is the bringing.together Of the resources of government, industry, universities, and research institu-tions into coherent purposefulorid yet accoAtable telatiinships. This.combinotionof forces can form a powerhouse for the advOncement of scien0e and tecknolky andfor their wise use. Theopace efforl.provides a general moa I fb the cOordinatiOni;-of these forces on specific tasks. But these combinations *serious queslions forthe theory and practice 'cif responsible democratic gototnnient.
359
a,
376
1
-
PoliCy Prottre 4roiScience and Technottgy
,
4°OPIC 12 MANAGEMENT OFRESEARCH AND DEVELMENT
Selected Basic Readings?7
et Brooks, Harvey. "Models.for Science Planning?' Public Administration Review,.XXXI (May-June, 1971), 363-374., -
I 4. ,.. , t
Ho Romon, J. Herber and Al9n E . Harger. "America's TechnologiCal ailemr04:4"Technology Review, LXXIII (Julr-August, 1971),' 31f40. ,-:
Kash, Don E. "Forces Affect ;rig SCience.Pol icy;' Bulletin of the ktom ic`Scientists,*
XXV (Apr-1.1, 1969), 10-15. A
Mansfield, Edwin. "Coritribution of D to Economic Growth in the United States;Science, CLXXV (February 4, 2), 477-486.
Weinberg, Alyin.M. "Criteria for Scientific ChOice," Minerva, I (Winter, 1963),1591171; "Scientific Choice, Basic Sc ience "and "ed Missions, " Minerva,I1 I (Summerf1965);
Supplementary and SubstitutgpReadings:
:
Dedijeri Stevan . "Models of Science for Science Policy; Advancement of Science,XXIV (June; 1968), 498-508.
.. ,
., I
Foster, John S., Jr. "Vie' Leading Edge of National Security," .International '* .Science ond 'Technology, NUmber 82 Vctober, 1948), 13-21.. .
; ,,
6+.,.
Gilpin, Robert. "Technological Strategies dnd National" Purpose," Science,CLXIX (July- 31, 1970), 441-448. 1 .
,, 'is rHasiett, Arthur W. _Ain le Sc ienCe versus Big Sele,nce," Advancement of Science,
. XXVI (September, 1969), 99-105.
Nichols, Rodney W. "Mission- riented R.& D, " Science, 411.X I (Aprii 2," 19714,29 -37.
Salomon, Jeari-, JaCques,. "Science Policy irrlerspe e " Studium Generale,'XXIV (Nurfilber 1921), 1027-1037. .
4.
.3o
.s-
A
5)
rs'TOPIC 12 'MANAGEMENT OF RESEARCH AND. DEVELOPMENT
'TOPICAL OUTLINE-
Ai
, I. Research and DeyetOpment as Essential Functionsof Technosc-ientRio Societies
A.
4
V
A. National goals requiring R & D suepprt,
4111. MilikarY security
. ;2: Economic development
3. National preitige4. So i welfare
ogictXviability (Cf. Topic 11)
B. Intended outcomes of R & D effort1. Increbr jn national productivity2. Dev'bi*Inentgof-nnew prOducts
.
It .
3. improved cOnditior4'4. Impebved public health,5. Growth of knoWledge and technique
t
C; Percentage'4Of giagi'nationaFexpenditureallocated to various classes of R D
4
0 . .
tII, Determination of.,R Goals andAllocatian'
of Resolirces to, Specific Project{
.
A. Major decisions are made explicitly or ,
tacitly through government
det
361.
377
RBFERENCEKEI
16, 51,, 82, 103,.,130,130,151,156,'165, 1751 214
57, 153,157;169,. 195;4209
42; 4948, 66, 84, 118, k
125,143,153,)87, r2Q65, 76 .
63 ,
87L,),57143;146
v 6, 20;25, 48,, 79,12i; 186125
125
2;90
10 .
0 3462, 96, 1#7,,'1544, .155, 163,
be .
36 , 1'11, 115, .672 137,141,145L159,163, 171,173;
0, 174; 188, 199
21; 50, 75', 110,170,,197, 213,
4f*
4
41
4
.378 b
.
Policy Problems of Science and Technology
ov ern men t is the only source of finan-cial means to support basic research and",the ,more costly developmental work,
,e.g., atomic energy, outer *pace tech-nqlogy, advanced medical research
2.' Military considerations inmixed (non-.-
sogol ist) econom ies necessitategovern-ment funding toP maintain industrialsources of military hardWare, e.g., air.-craft, qrdinance, missiles, chemicals,commun icat ion'S
3. Governmentallesponsibil qty for full em-ployment tends to force fob-mak ing R & D(but high minimum wage rates and gov-ernmental beneficience toward unionsentourage automation}
$
4. As an increaskg percentage °eresearchin universities Is funded through govern-,ment, public policy (pol itical) conside-Prations, in the broad sense, tend todeterMine the general trend of academicefforts
B.' Bases of R & Q choices in the United Staresare mUltipartite:1. Popular econceptions and beliefs2. tcono tower
3. Politico- ntage
,
.4. Judgkient of science elites5. Interaction of fpregoing factors
C. dministratian Of R.8 D funds in the UnitedStates is
1 . Divided among a forge number of Federalageniies, but is
- . it36Z
$
31, 53,71,94 99,1.64 184,185,192204, 216
9,11 76, 92, 100,166, 204
44
4,, 6, 176; 1.77,178, 181
69,70,71, 73,78, 128, 156, 191
147, 103f 205, 206°. 2, 47, 71 .
7.479, 125, 151,207 .
7, 28, 30, 47, 76 ,
194, 207P8,133,135, 13819 88
4/' 34,,155,1,64,165, :
182,-193 '
'
4
r.
4
S
. 124,g,
Management of Research and Development
2. Heavily concentrateda. Defense
b. Atomic energyc. Space -
cr. Economic developmente. Medicine
3 Distributed through various typesgrants and 'contracts
eF
of
enerating of R.& D money becomes a newfir of enterprise1. Role 'of governmen industry associations- in formu kiting R & D andAvocurement
palicier-61d the chair:I-reaction effectupon substantive po'licy
2. R& Dnot-for-profit organizotions,e.g.,Battelle, Biookings Institution,RAtsIDCorporat for
r3.G antsrnariship becomes a form of aca-.
&pie enterprise with fide - effects uponb.Mobiliiy of scientistsb. Administrative control-by universi-.
ties over teaching, research, andfaculq policies
4 . -Geograp'hica I allocation of R & D money,
I. became i significant political issue and- science policy on increatingly.dttrcic-
,Jive forum for political influence in theCongless
. -
.111. Policy groblems Relating to R &,D Priorities
A.
a
F
'379
42, 49, 64, 77,180, 196, 2078, 132, 14024,3Z64, 72, 76,
4E112, 119, 180. -7, 28, 79, 125
174075, 208, 210
149, 174, 204
5, 66, 183
6, 127
14, 200
78, 160
104
1, 2, 126
19,27135, 64, 66,"81,86, 90005;111,114,116,144,158,192,199,211,215
How much of Ole_gross nat iona 1 exp'
should be allocated to R & D?.I
29,178
33, 89,108,.
1. What creeria foc deciding ?how much"? 36, 79
( . :363.1
4
4-
380
A
VPolicy Problems of Science and Teciology
2. What criteria for establishing the "best"means for making a decision?
a. Economic
24,79,159
41, 43
132, 134,
(1) Return on the allocation ofresources
(2) Comparison of this return withthat from alternative uses of theresources
b. Social values -- returns the programmay offer in improved quality of I if.(essentially nonquantitative par
,-- 'meters)
.c. Scientific
61, 163, 185
62, 87
22,59, 133, 138,.179
3,54,t0,113, 126,132
(1) Expansion of frontiers of know-.. ledge in the field 2, 46
(2) "Timeliness" of the project 113(3) Re) edness to other fields 1pf
sc nced. PolitiCa
(1) Ca he taxpayers be persbadedto port the program? 144
(2) Political implications af the pro-% . posa 38, 10k .
e Technological\(1) Efficiencyof*plementatian of
the desired end(2) Improvement of th-e state of the
arta
4t. 'Within the range of .possibilities, whatguidelines, if any, exist to indicant prix.
a
13,
46
2,
17,
46,
17
101, 113
erithis? i '36,45,88,98,102,s
132,159,164, 167 ,
On whet assumptions dopresentaltoca-tions'appear to be made?
2. What criticisms of allocations rye mostfrequently made? ,32, 55, 183
13e, 162, 185 . .
a. Subject matter' of R 8. D '56, 113, 138b. Methods of allocation 194
0
ft\
00
.1
--Management of Research and Development 381-
(1) Reactive rather thbn initiative(2) Project and peer group methods'(3) Have--hove not--competition
c. Geographical allocation of funding 113, 160d. Distribution of resulting,benefits 160
C. What means of public ordering of prioritieshave been tried qr advocated tb serve the.publ is interest more effective (Cf. Topics6, 11, 23)? .
1. Recommendations Jpri a Nigh-level re-view body in thrtederal overnmenta. Department of S ceb. Bbards of Reiew (Executive, Legi-
slative, and mixed)2. Upgrading and broadening the capabi I i-
ties of put:4 ic offic ials for wise judgmenton questions of public policy for scienceand technology
3. Strengthening the staff resources of theCongress with respect to policy, issues"relating to' science and techndlogy
365
74,88, 102, 105,. 108,162, 169,199
58, 67
194, 209
Management of Research and Development 383
ro
BIBLIOGRAPHY
2. ,z*Anderson, Paul. "Are the Big Machines NecesSary?" New Scientist and. Science Joirnal, LI (September 2, 1971), 510-513.
3. Appleton, Edwerd. "Science for Its Own Sake," Advancement of Science,X (September, 1953), 103-112.
General References: Articles
1. Abelson, Philip H . "Th Research and Development Pork Barrel," Science,CXLIX (July 2, '196 ),
4. Argyris, Chris., On the Effectiveness of Research and DevelopmentOrgan izatioris," American Scientist, LVI (Winter, 1960, 344-355.
5. Artsimovich, Lev A. "The Modern-Physicist and the Case for SciencePolitics," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXIV (November, 1968),23; 41-t.
6. Ayres, Richard U. "Governmental pol icy, and Prospects for Technology-Based Industry," Professional Engineer, XLI (December, 1971), 38-41.
7. . We May Be Losing Our Technological Lead;' Innovation,Numlaar 17 (January, 1971), 1?-19.
8. Bacher,lRobert F. "Research and the Development of Atomic &orgy,"Science, CIX (January 7, 1949), 2-7.
'9. Barnes, Carl E. "To Promote Invention," International Sc.ience aridTechnology, Number 60 (December, 1966), 67 -73.
10. Beckler, David. "Strategic Federal Decision-Making on R & D," ResearchManagement, 1X (September, 1966). 41-9-333.
11. Berkner,. Lloyd V. "Government Sponsorship of Scienti Research,"Science, CXXIX (March'27, 1959), 817421.
2. Bertin, Leonard, "Science Pol icy ia Canada," Technology Review, LXXIII(FebrUary, 1971), 35-39.
36G
4
384 Policy Problems of ScienCe and Technology
N
13. Best, Robert D. "The Scientific Mind vs. the Management Mind," IndustrialResearch, V (October, 1963), 764-784.
14. Bolman, Frederick de W. "The Effect of Government Grants on FoundationsEducatIonal Record, XLIX (Winter, 1968), 103-108.
15. Brode, Wallace R. "Approaching Ceilings' in the Supply of ScientificManpower," Science, CXLI II (January 24, 1964), 313-324.
.-"The Growth of Science and
.
a National Science Program,"Amer can Scientist, L (March, 1962), 1=28. ..
Brooks, Harvey. "Applied Science and Techn olog ica I Progress;' Science,CLVI (June 30, 1967), 1706-1712.
18. . "Future Needs fo4the Support of Bask Research," in Knowledgeand Power: 'Essays on Science and Government,edl. by Sanford A. takoff.New York: Free Press, 1966, 432-468.
19. .. "Models for Science Planning," Public Administration Review,)---7(00 May-June, 1971), 363-374.
20. Cahn, Robert W. "Case History Of Innovat ions Nature, CCXXV (February21, 1970)f 693-695.
21. Cairncross, Alvin. "Government and Innovotion, " New Scientist andScience Journal, LI (September 2,,p 1971), 502-505.
22. Caldwell, Lynton K. "Authority and Responsibility for EnvironmentalAdministration Annals of the American Academy of Political and SocialScience, CCCLXXXIX (May, 1970), 107-115..
. -
23. Carter, ChOrles F. "The Distribotion',of Scientific Effort," Miniarva,' I(Winter, 1963), 172-181.. ,
... 41.
24. Carter, Luther J. "Post-Apollo: NASA Seeks a Mars Flight flan, IIScience, COW (September 5, 1969), 987-991.
25. Charpie, Robert A, "Technological Innovation and the International
0Ecc;nomy, " Science Policy News; I (July, 1969), 1-6.. ) .
.. . .
26. Clarke Robin. "How the 300 Ge V Dicision,WasMode; Science Journal,V (March, 1969), 4-5;.7. t
367
a
tad
z.t
Management of Research and Development' .385
27. Clayton, Robert. "A Convergent Approach to -R & D,Planning and ProjectSelection," Research Management, ,X IV (September, 1971), 68-74.
28. Cohnk Victor. "Not Like the Olympici, " Technology Review, (XXIII(firnuary, 1971); 10111.s,
29: . j"Science in the Begabuck Era," Technology Review, LXXII I(February, 1971), 8-9.4
I
30. Congressional Record. "Soviet Science and Technology: Some I mp I icat ionsfor U.S. Policy," Congressional Record, CXVI (401 14, 1970),H3056-H3062. *'
31. Cooper, Joseph D. "Onwdrd the Management of Science: Th'e W0°14:fridge'Report," Science, CXLIX (June ilk 1965), 1433.
32. Cordtz, Dan. "Bringing the Laboratory fwn to Earth;' Fortune,- LXXX I II
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35. Dedijer, Stevan. -"Models of Science, for ,Sciince Policy,"'Adircementof Science, XXIV (June, 1968), 498-508.:
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, sr37. Dryden, HughL. -"Space Kt#1wledge,and Its Impact on Future Research,"
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38: Dyson, Freeman. "Death of a Project;' Science,*CXLIX (July, 9, 1965); .
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391 %.-Encel, Samuel. "The Support' df Science withoOt -Science Policy i
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I
4
l
368
386
4
Policy Prob=lems of Science and Technology
, .
Feiblenart, James K. "Importance of Technocogy',' Nohow, CCIX (January8, 1966), 122-125.
41. Pishlock, David. "The 'Fall -Out' from the Space Race;' NeW, Scientist,XVIII (May 30, 1963), 480-481. ,
42. Foster, John S., Jr. "The Leading Edge of National Security;' International,Science and Technology, Number 82 (October; 1968), 13-21.
4.,
43: Freeman; ,Christopher. "The Evaluation of Science(June 9, 1966), 660-662.
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.
49. Gan:in, kichard L. "Strengthening Military Technology," -Science and,4,4. ' Technology, Number 82 (October, 1968), 22-27.
4 A
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...
.t) .
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Management of Re4earch qnd Development740
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.
54. -Greenberg,aniel S. -"Money for Research: Congress and Scientists HaveDifferent Ideas on How the System Should Operate," Science, CXLIX
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4 1 .
t ScienceXXVI (September, 1969), 99-105..II . .
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I ,
62. Hi I I, Robert B. "The Improvement of Returns from Research and Development .
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.
,
63. Hotlomon, J. Herbert. "Modern Engineering and-Society: The Marriagebetween Technical Ability and Social Needs',' Chemical and Enginee.ring
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w ,V
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388 PolicyProba'ms of Science and Technotogr 4 60
401( -
Anson, Harry GO "Federal Support of Basic Research: Some Economic '.
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........ , .
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w
e
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4
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't a
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'ft
I
3 '71. -.
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11
#
u.
r
41,
'I
tI.
'9.
o °
'4
4.
4
81.
1,
, .
Management-of Research andDevelopment
, .. '
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,
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4 , ,
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Mancpement of Research and Develbpment 403
LEADING QUESTIONS r
1. How might it be determined that the existing level Of support of basic researchin an area of sc Vence is not sufficient to maintain the rate of growth of that field:mould-you ask experts in that field alone, or would y* ou alio cal I outsiders?
2. An\fcbriomist, Denison, has cajculated that the rate of return from investmentsin It c D,programs has been only about that of investments in nonresidentialreal estate. Would You accept the analogy between R &D-txpenditures andrecd estate investments?
t3.. V1lihat has been the effect of Federal support of sc ience on the existing charactgr
of tile universities doing scientific work? Has the rise of national researchlaboratories diminished the relative importance of the universities in scientificresearch?
4. Is there really a &anal policy for the support .of basic scientific research?What would be the implications of such a pol icy, how could it be implementedin practice, and what are some of the arguments against a single Federal"science budget"?
5. Some writers have charged that there are alteinative programs, e .g., a,warNat a inst poverty or improvement of existing health facil ities, which would ndt
require any basic research for their implementation and would promise a betterrate pf return in social and economic goods than the space race or high-energyphysics. Have their arguments taken all relevant factors into account?
6. Toulmin Weinberg, and otherPhave attempted to formulate criteria for theevaluation of proposalsfor scientific research. What factors have they takento be imporr-tant? Do their illustrative evaluations seem satisfying?
7. From an overview'of the present funding practices of Federal support for basic)scientific research, would you judge that our estirp44es of the probable returnsfrom such expenditures have beery based upon. the cultural or the mission-oriented values of science? What consequences would follow from the method'of estimating benefits? ,
.
8. What would be some probable outcomes if Federa) support of science weredrastically curtailed?
,What factors should be considered in allocating resources among the varioussciences?- Is it possible to predict,on the basis of present trends; any changes inthe relative amounts of support of the physical, biological, and soc is I sciences?
10. What are some of the proposals that huve been made to obtain more disinterested,more broadly benef icia I ,dnd more responsible decisions regarding the emphasis.and funding of research and development projects?
355
.1
et,
/ TOPIC 13 TECHNQLOGICAL FORECASTING AND ASSESSMENT
Experience with the consequences of technological innovation hasiindicatedthe desirability of foreseeing the possible effects of technological charrge. Tech-nological, forecasting has become of special concern to,persons responsible forsocial, economic. orsindustrial planning. Investment houses, banks, and manyVusiness firms have an obvious concern with the economic implications of techno-logical change, and tliej, are therefore anxious to foresee, the course of technologi-cal development. Governments must also be alert to I,be character,and implica-,tions of technologictl change, cis nearly every fricet,of public policy could beaffected by the complex 'interactions among modern technologies.
The objective of forecasting is not orily to estimate the direction in which tech-nology is, likely to develop, but also to discover the directions in which it,canand should (or should not) move., This examinption of the implications and poten-tialities of technology is calle41 technology assessment. Concern for the effectsof technology has been stimulated by the environmental and psyclio-physic$consequences of a large number of technological innovations. Examples'range fromthe radiation hazards of microwaves promoted by household el ectrooleappl lances,tap the ecological consequences of pesticides, to the physiological and atmosphericeffects of supersonic flight. 1,
4 One of the more hig.y developed systems of assessment is in the area ofpharmocology and medicine, as provided in the United States by the Food tddDrug Administration and the National Instit&es of Health. The rapidly devel-oping field of chemical technology has 'created q. need for greater informationand controls over new products, and an international registry.of 'chemical com-pounds_has been proposed. A more positive approach tatechnotogy assessment isthe analysis of the rin'ds of technologies needed to attain specific.social goals.Thus assessment can be used to discover arid 'develop,beneficial new technologiesas well as to `protect against harmful effets. )
4t is difficult and, in general, Unwise to separate technological forecasting t'
and assessment from its total ecological and social context. Asiessment of thecosts, risks, and benefits of a ,technology requires some standards of welfare orvalue. Moreoyer, the conditions required for the development or control of aparticular teehn,flogy may be of asocial, economic, political, or ethical naturenot directly evident in do isolated exami5ation of the technolOgy itself . <Techno-logical forecasting and assessment tend, therefore, to induce more,comprehensivesysteMs analyses of all major trends in society, leading toward a "science".ofpossibleffutures or "futurology".
r.r
38c
406. Policy Problems of Science.and Technology
IOPIC 13 TECHNOLOGICAL FORECASTING AND ASSESSMENT
Selected Basic 'Readings:
Jantsch, Erich. "Towcrrd a Methodology for Systematic Forecasting," Techno-logical Forecasting, I (Number 4, 1970), 409,419.
Jones, Martin V. "The Methodology of Technological Assessment," Futurist, VI(February, 1972), 1 9-26 . / .
.4
Kiefer, David M. "Assessing Technology Assessment'," Futurist, V (December,.1 971), 234 -239. .
Roberts, Edword "Exploratory and Normativie Technological Forecasting: ACritical Appraisal, Technological For,ecasting, I (Number 2,1 96 9), 113 -127.
Congress. Hgge. Committee on Science and Astronautics. Subcommitteeon ScienCe, Retiorc14, and Development. Technolow Assessment. Statementby Emilio Q. Daddario before a Subcommittee of theftth Congress, 1st Ses;ion,July 3, 1 967 . Washington, D.C.: U .S . Government Printing Office, 1 967,..19."
Supplementary and Substitute Readings:
Abt, Clark C. -"AriApproOch to Methods'of Combined S'ociotechnological Fore-casting," technological Forecasting and Social Change, II (Number 1,.1970),17 -22. ,
aeDror, Yehezkel . "A Is, ol icy Sciences View of Futures Studies: Alternative Futures
and Present Action," Technological Forecastirand Social Change, II (Numlber 171 970), 3-16.
arForrester; Jay W. "COunterintuittive Behavior of Social Systems," Technological
Forecasting4inctSocial Change5. Ill (Number 1, 1971), 1-22.
McH9le, John. "World Facts and Trends: Man in\the BiOiphere,EnvironmenialSysteth(s), Hunfon Systems,".Futures; III (September, 1971), 216-201%
Platt, John R. "How Men Can Shape Their Future," Futures, III (March, 1971),32-47.
Salomon, Jean-Jacques. "Science Policy and Its Myths,'" Futures, III (March,1971), 11-23:'
f 38:1/4 I
I"
L.)
O
A,
5TOPIC 13 TECHIiOLOGJCAL FORECASTING AND ASSESSMENT. 4407
ti
TOPICAL OUTLINE
I. Need for Technological Forecasting and Assessment
A. Danger of unforeseen side-effects of powerful.new technologies. The large increase in worldpopulation with reduced margins for error meansthat there art vet.), few areas in which risky ex-periments can be conducted, and consequencesare less likely to be confined locally
B Bays for economic choice and investment, aswell as for rational development planning.Rapid advances in science andtechnologynecessitoe a high selectivity ow/lie part of thedecision maker not only at a national IeveJ,but at the level of the individual industrialenterprise. orecasting'techniques are/valuabletools in identifyIng alternate possibilities forchoice
C. Systematic means are needed to estimate im-pacts which technological developments arelikely to have on society in the future, and4for guiding the applic.otion of new knoWledgetoward goals set by- society. Also necessary todetermine priorities of fields in which newknowledge is urgently needed
3SSA
REFERENCE KEY
5, 21, 27, 43, 47,54, 63, 70, 94,123, 127, 134,138, 152, 159,182, 183, 204,319, 336, 338
7] 93, 99, 133,144, 166,167,177, 185, 248,
. 266
e ,
..34, 36, 73, 77,BO, 82, 100,114, 1,16, 150,160, 161, 169,174, 218, 236,242, 298, 323
28, 48, 49, (56,72, 75, 78, 103, .
121; 122, -12d,. 139, 141, 142,
162, 186, 192,227, '263, 272, ,278, 245, 324,350, 359, 362
408' - Policy Problems of Science aricrTe,chnology
.)II . Early Effdrts at Forecasting , 39, 102, 198, '
1 ' , . 208; 317-.
A. Observed correlations between "stellar con- .. steHations and the annual floods in,the valley
of the Tigris and Euphrates gave the Mesopotamian;-priesti!--theifirst known forecastersan enormous
political and economic power - 202If*/ - .
.
iB. Implicit forecasts in the Middle Ages and theRenaistance--da Vinci, Bacon's New Atlaptis, .
.. .etc. , . 198.. I
C. Forecasts mode to promote specific developments,e.g., tircraft, space travel, and communication'ssatellites
D. forecasts usedas warning against dqngers inspecific technologies such as electroniceavesdropping and genetic engineering
E. Other wide-ronging,forecbsts up to World War, I1
F. SCience fiction as cr.semi-intellectual exercisewith emphasis on entertainment value--the novelsby Jules Verne, H H. G. Wells, Aldous Huxley, andGeorge, Orwell
III. Systematic Technological Forecasting
A. Inclusion of social, technological, and militaryenvironments in forecasting National ResearchCouncil report of 1.937, "Technological Trendsand National ,Policy"/
229,4244'
202
19; 163, 209,271, 285, 321,
41 343, 369
107, 414
17, 25, 31, 32,46,29, 83, 88,158,159, 179,190, 199,2021212, 224, 225,275,199, 318,'328
349, 352
e-
11.
rI
Technological Forecasting and Assessment
B. Utiltion of forecasting technigyes by the
409
U.S. Armed Services 117, 119, 222;237
1. Air Force Office of S'cientific Management--Project FOrecast . 120, 315, 385
2. Ann 601 longrange forecdst- issued by the ArmyMateriel' Command
3. The.Naval Materiel Command's forecasts 35, 226, 4034. Military forecasts undertaken by universities,
and by nonprofitorganizations, such its theRAND CorpOration and the Hudson Institute 235, 279, 294,
305, 306, 405.
C. Nonmilitary forecasts by government agenciesdealing with availability of key r7aw materials,energy sources, labor supply, etc. 4, 240, 252, 292,
293, 312, 313,.362, 386, 391,393, 399
1,. The Report of the President's MaterialsPolicy Commission (1952)* 404
2. TheNctional Power Survey.(1964-) 40Q3. Forecasts by the Bureau of Mines and the
Department of the Interior about fut4reav6ilability`of petroleum fuels
.4. Study by the Department of Labor offuture technological trends in major U.S.industries and their impact on wage;, .1
labor requirements, 4aci,availabilify of ,
manpower 386'Federal agencies continuously concernedwith 'the future impact of technologx include'PSAC, FCST, OST,.NSF, Department of Commerce, NBS, FDA, NIH,'AEC, and NASA, aswell as ad hoc groups .340, 387
'1114
.D.. Nongovernmental gro4dealing with specificaspects of technolOgiaTforecasting1. Resources-for the'Futtfre, Inc. 3132tvAerospace Industries' ssociation 1943. Ameripan Academy of Arts and SCiences--
"Thi Year 2000" 195, 196
30 ,
410 Policy.Problems of Science andTechnology..
"` 4. Bertrand de Jouverial's "Futuribles"-) . Program , . 239
5. Robert Jungk's Project on "Mankind.2000" : 302
6. Institute for the Future 252, 278, 295,
7. International organizations such as. s. -I OECD, EURATOM, ICAO 250
8. Prefate industry 67, 114, 129,
..) .7. 41
351; 408, 409, .
*-- .E. Some current methods of technological ,
1., ,. forecasting .1.,37, 64, '97, 1Q5,
4.
.1. Exploratiry forecasting Marts fromcurrent basis of knowledge and attempts
. to predict the technological state-of-' the-art in a give time frpme .
..a . Trend 'extrapolation to either a straight
line fit or an S-shaped expectationb. "Genius Forecasting" by individual
experts ,
c'. "Brainstorming"--group meeting deliberatelyset up to stimulate "Way out" thinking
4 . d. The "Delphi" technique-forecasts made bypanels of experts not in direct communication
.with -each other )e . "Cross Ifnpact"-st dies-the effects of several
A alternate (level° ments on the subjects of thefore oasts
f. "Gaming" and "Scenario Writing":- partici-pants asked to simulate a specific role in a 4"scenario." In "Scenarifi, Writing,"the em-phasis is on the critical branch points, wheresmall influences may have large effect on 'outcome
fr
109, 118, 14Q,147,.157, 202, ,
212, 216, 364
147, 199; 202
4144
..
.
52, 126, 314, 386'
27, 307, 322, ' t. .
383 .,..,
.
18, 20, 30, 50,151, 175, 176
30, 115, 280'
65, 191, 193
it
)1,
V
I
0
Technological Forecasting and Assesiment
g . Model iniand simulation
411
54, 85, 115, 203:268, 297, 320,327, 336, 358
2. Normative forecasting first assesses fUturegoals, and works backward to the present-."Inventing the Future" 3, 59, 104, 147,
272 /a . Morphological Analysis.--a technique for
idositifying, indexing, counting, andparametrizing the collection of all pos-sible-devices to achieve a specifiedfunctional capability. Can also be usedfor identifying and counting all possiblemeans to a given end at any level of ,
abstraction or aggregation a 132,420b. "Operations Research" and "Systems
Analysis" as forms of self-fulfillingitechnological forecasts (cf. Topic 15) 54, 84, 12,
360, 371/3. Drawbacks of the exploratorytnormative
classification. Need to look beyond thisfor creative synthesis and additional per-spectives 2, 33, 56, 147,
148, 164, 165,
11, 40, 41, 60,76,16, 93, 101, .
106, 136, 139,154, 180, 181,231, 265, 345,
IV. Technology Assessment
A. The nature of technology assessment
, 347, 39(), 392,39698, 110, 335,344
.1. A form of policy research which provides a
balanced appraisarto the ptrlicyrhaker 195, 232, 334,387, 391, 393
2. Identifies policy issues, assesses the impact 4of alternative courses.of action, and presentsfindings 130, 197, 381,
391
1WillW- .
3004
412'
Policy Problems of Science and Technology
. Apalytical methods which vary from case tocase, and appraise the nature,'significace,status, and merit of a technological .program
9
B. The scope of technologj, assessment .
1 'Measurement of physical parameters 'such asclimate and weather modification, fan$ne,epidemics, radiation effects
2. Establishment of ca -and-effect relationsliips,'with special mpsis on second- andthird-order effect
3. Risk-versus-reward ratios for. diifereni.
nations, e.g,, use of DDT irvIriclia may bedesirabI9, bpt not necessa(ily io in the U.S .A :
4. Emphasis on short-term impcets that can bemeasured by natural science paratheters, butlong-range effects such as possi,ktle changes binvalues, attitudes, or institutions also considered
s'
C. Sorrie areas in critical neediof technology aisess-:4 ment
I
29, 45, 1 25, 23S,363, 366, 395, t3,27, 398.13, IA, 90, 92,93, 162; 166,196, 210, 231,329, 330'
1 97,.217, 258,270
9, 149, 205
89,198, 108, 121,145, 149, 172,178, 185, 195,"200; 207;21 9,320,'407, )4,1 0
99, 110, 112, 155,
1. 'Energy production from fossil fuel,nuclear plpnts, and other sources
/117, 187, 204,221, 258, 259,2e7, 308, 331,340-
62, 69, 111, 18A,289, 354,4376
2. Phosphates and other substances in water 2173. Short- and long-term effects of pesticills 1717 2174. The role of the automobile in transpor ion* 10, 28.5. 'Supersonic passenger dircraft 266. Further growth of the cities 42, 291, 384
I
7
*
Teellinological Forecasting and Assessment t
7. Fertility control drugsGenetic Engineering
- D. Steps involved in technolograssessment
1. Identification of all areas influencedby a programinphysical, social,economic, and legal sectors
2. Establishment of cause and - effect rela--tranships, including indirect effects
7
3 Determination of alternative methods toimplement the program
4. Identifitation of alternative programs toachieve the same goals and poisible impactsassociated with them ,
5. Evaluation of all the bad, as well as
good, impcicis of the program6. Presentation of findings from the analysis,
arta- 'recommendations
.394'
4
171, 205
125
413
'130; 269367, 379, 416
85, 153, 1,89,332, 340 le
91,341
54,205
51;
511
173,
84,
260
260
33a,1
112, 113,
1
*-4
Technological Forecasting and Assessment
General References: Articles
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A
415
1. Abrams, Mark. "Mass Views of the Future: A Report from the Nether-.lands," Futures, III. (June, 1 971), 1 03-115 .
Abt, Clark'C. "An Approacly to Methods of Combined Sociotechnolog-ical Forecasting," Technological Forecasting and Social Change; II(Number: 1,- 1970), 17-22.
3. Alderson,.R. C.. and W. C. Sproull "ReVelmenlnalysis, Need Fore-.
casting;and Technology Planning Using the Honeywell PATTER7.1 Tech:-nique," Technological Forecasting and 5ncial Change, 1,11 (Number 2, ,
1972), 255-265.
4. -.Alexander, W. 0. "Metals and Non-Metallic. Materials," Futures, 4(December,'1969), 500 -509.
5. ,Allison, David. "Measuring the Good and the Bad of New Technology,"A Innovation, (Number 9, 1970), 44-55.
-A
6. Anierican Association for the Advancement of ScienCe. C.Kimmittee anScience in the Promotion of Human Welfare . "The Integrity of ScienCe," .
American Scientist, 1:111 (June, 1965), 174 -198.4
7. Anderson, f\ohn. "Medical Education and Practice(March; 1970), 4-58.
in 2000,: Futures, II
8. Architectural Design. "2000 +," -Special Issue of Architectural Design,XXXVI I (February, 967),. entire issue .
9. Austin, Arthur L. "Wor 17 pulation Growth and Related TechnicalProblems," Technolo tc Forecagtin and Social Change, Ill (Number1, 1971), 23 -49.
6
/10. Barbiroli;GianCarlo. "Forecas ing and Planhing the Energy Source forCars," Futures, III (June, 197 , 05-141.
11. Barker, Ann and Jo Ann' Fowler . " chnolog) Assessment," AIBS Bulletin(Bi6Scienc), XIX (OCtober, 1 969 925-924; 934-935.
395
I
.416
1 2.
13,
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
1 9.
21.
22.
23.
A
I
Policy Problems of Skilncii a,nd Technollogy ,
1,1e.,3 t
, 3
Bar- Zakay, Samuel ,N. "Terchnplogi nsfer Teohnol,
Forecasting and ,111;trt0414,. u niberis3.. 'and 4, 1971), 324.44
Basuik,, Victor. -"Perils of the ew Technology," Foreign Policy, 11
(Spring;1 971), 51 -68
. "Technology, -Western' Europe's A[ternative Futures, andAm'er'ican Policy," Orbis, ,XV (Summer, 14271)7-485-506r.
'0
(I)
. ''-b-a
Beer, Stafford. "The Liberty Machine,;' Futures, III (December, 1971),338-3413.
114-122.
Approaches845-88,0.
"Managing Modern Complexity," Futures, II (June, 1970),
"Twelve Modes of, Prediction--a Iiirelimindi'y Sorting ofin the..Social Sciences," Daedalus, XCIII '(Summer7'1 964),
Bender, A. Douglas, Alvin E: Strack, George W. Ebright, and Georgevon Haunalter .4" "Delphic Study Examines Developments in Medicine,i"Futures, I (June, 1969), 289-303.
Benson, Alran L. "Intellview with Thomar, Edison: The Wonderful.NewWorldAhead of Us," cosmopolitan Ma6a3.ine, L (February, 1911), 294-306. -
Bernstein, G. 3:: and Marvin J. Ce.tron. "SEER: 'A Delphic ApproachApplied to Inf8rmation Processing," Techn ogical Forecasting, I (Num-ber 1, 1 969), 33-54.
Bertram, Christoph. "MOdels of Wesftrn Europe' in the 1970's- -The Al-ternate Choices," Futues 1 (December, 19684, 142-152.
Bierrum,Chteoten A. "Forecak,of Computer bevelopments'and Applica-r-v bons 1968-2000," Futures, 14.1iihe,, 1969), 331-338.
. _. . .., ,Borgstrom, Georg. "The World food Crisis,-".' Futures, I *(June, 1 969),
339-355.,s
4)*/ . .
. . .
24.' Bouladont G . "Aviation's Role in Future Transportation," TechnologidcriForecasting and Social Change, I (Number 1, 1969), 5-16.
4 #39G
I
Technological Forecasting and Assessment 41Z
ea. .
25. Bratt, Elmer C "Methodology in Long-Range. Forecasting," Commercialand. Financial Chronicle, CXCI (Februdr,y 4, 1 960), 10-11.
..
26. Iirookner, E. "Applying Technology to Civilian Problems," Aeronauticsand Aeronautics, IX (March, 1971), 36-51.
27. Brown; Harrison S. "Herman Cghn in Retrospe rist ugusily.*1 971), 157-159.
28. Brown,- R "Telecommunicdtions: The Next 20 Yeers,'and Science Journal, LI (July.1, 1971.), 13-20.
ntist
29. Busignies, Henri. "Electriccil Cdmmunication and Civi I ;lotion, " ResearchManagement, X.IV (July, 1971), 14-26:
30. Campbell, George S. 4Methodology, Relevance of Signal. Monitoling to, . Del ph i/Cross-Impact Studies.: Illustrative E,xanipfe for Energy Resources, "Futures, III .(December, 1971), 4044
31. Carter,Anne P.- "Technological Forecast gandInput=OutputAnalYsis,"TechrtoicNical.Foreca;ting, I (Numbet , 1970), 331-345.,
..:,.
32. Cetron,,Mcirvin.j. "Forecasting Technology," Interhatio Science and:., Technology; Number 69 (September, 1967), 83 -92.
33. . "A Method for Integrating Goals andlechnological Fore -'casTs into 'Planning,"Pfechnological ,Forecasting and Social Change,II (Number 1., I976),.2351.
34. , Cetron, Marvin j. and Bodo Sa rtoc ha.. "A Forecasting Model to Aid Re-.
, search and ,Development Planning," Fptures; I (December, 1969), 479-.487.' , ilk .
,-.:VP4.
35.* Cetron, Maryin J. arid D. N. Dick. "Producing the First Navy Tinological'Forecast," Technological Forecasting, I (Number 2, 196I8571 95.
..36. Cetrori,,Mar.vin J. and .Edmund B. Mahinske. "The Value af Teci;nologica Iforecotting for the Research and Development Manager,' Futures, I
1September, 1968), 21-33: -
, 37. Chambers, John C., S. K. Munick and D.D.' Smith . "How .to Cheoie-the Right Forecasting Techniques," tiarvard Business ,Review, XLIX(July-August, 1971), 45-741. ,
391
/
,41 8 Policy Problems of Science and Technology ..I
sr !'
,38t. "Ihduction of Psychointellectual Activity inIt Long-Term ,Forecasting and Planning 'of Research: Psychoheuristic
Programming, " Techno)ogial Forecasting, I (Number 2,1969), 129- 139.''
39 Clarke, I.-F. "The Pattern 6rPrediction 1763-1 973," Futures, continuingseries of article; in the journal: (June, 1969), 325-3307 (September,1?69)i464-468;. (December, 969), 553=557.
40. Congressional Record. -"The Teenology Assessment Act of '1 970," Con-gressional Record, CXVI (A-pri1.16, 1970), H3225-H3226.
. "Technology Assessment Act of\ 1971,1' "Congressional, R,e-- cord, CXVII (July 19, 1971), S11346-S11350.
Contini, Edgardo. "The American City--A Forecast," Futurist, vt (Feb-.ruary, 1972), 5-12.
I,
43. David, Edward E., Dr . "Some Questions on the Roleand Effectiveness of
III Technology Assessment," Research Management,,X1Vr(MarOh., 1971),21-23. . . s
44. biebold, John. "Whatq---Ahe'ad inqpInforrnation Technology," HarvardBusiness Review, XLII1 (September-October, 1965), 76-82,
45. Djerassi, Carl. .:"Fertility Control Through Abortion: An Assessment ofthe Perjod 1 950-1 980,1,1 Bul letin of the Atomic-Scientists, XXVIII (Jan-,ual:y, 1972), 9-14; 41-45.
40. Dory, John P. and Robert J. Lord. "Does TF Really Work?" HarvardBusiness Review, XLIX (November- December, 1 970), 16-28; 168.
47 Dror, Yehezkel . A---)olicy Sciences View of Futures Studies: Alternative at ..
t
Futures and Present Action)" Technological Forecasting and SocialChange, II (Number 1, 1970), 3-16.
48. . "The Role of Futures in Government," Futures, I (September,1 968 , 40-46 .
r
. 49. Eldredge, H. Wentworth. "Education for Futurism m the United States:An On-Going Survey and Critical Analysis," Technological Forecasting ,and Social.ChaNge, II (Number 2, 1970), 13,3 -148.
3
\
Technological F.orecasttvg and Assessment
4.
419
. .50, . Enzer, elwyn. "Delphi and Cross-Impact TechniquesAn EffectiveCombination for Syitematic Futures Analysis," Futures, 111 (March,1971),48 -61..
51. Eugster, Carl . "Corporate Plann ing in an Unstable Environment, " Futures,III (December, 1971), 357-371.
52. Fisher, J. C. and R, H. Pry. Sitnple Substitution, Model of Tech-nological Change2 Technological Forecasting and Socidl Change, la(Number 1, 1971), 75-88.
(
53: Fibres, Edmund°. "The Big Threat Is Not Hunger," Ceres, II (May-June,1 96 9), 1 9-21.
54. Forster, Jay V. 'Counterintuitive Behavior of Social Systems," Tech-nological Forecasting and Social Change, Ill (Number 1, 1971), 1-22.
E5. . "Engineering Education and Practice in 2000," Futures, I(September, 1 969), 391-401.
56. Foster, Richard{ N. and Robert H. Rea. "An, Integrated TechnologicalForecastingancl Planning System,"-Futui-es, II (Numbers'3 and 4, 1970);231-244.
)57. Fredriksson, Ingrid. "The Future Role of Women," Futures, I (December,1969), 532-540.
58. Fusfeld, Alan ndRichord N. Foster. "The Del phi Technique: Surveyand Comment," ifusiness Horizons, XIV (June, 1971'), 63-74.
59. Gabor, Dennis. "Normative Technological Forecasting," Tey,f-mologicalForecasting, I (Number 1, 1969), 1-4.
60. George Washington Law 'Review "Technology Assessment Symposium,"George Washington Law Review, XXXVI (July, 1 968), '1033-114 9.
61. Gilfillian, S. Co4m. "The PredictionorT-echnologicalChange," Reviewof,Economi. and Statistics, XXXIV (November, '1 952), 368-385.
62. Glaser, Peter E. "Solat'Energy-c-An Alternative Sour e for Power Gen-eration," Futures, 1 (June, 1969), 304 -313.
"420
;IP
Policy Problems of Science and TIchnology,J.
63. G aFb, Avrom J. "technological Forecasting: What and Whither?"echnological Forecastin and Social Change, III (Number 1,'1971),
51-64.
64. Gordon, Theodore J. and H. Hpyward. ,."Initial Experiments with theCross-Impact Matrix, Method of Forecasting," Futures, I (December,1968), 100-116.
z.65. Gordon, Theodore 'J., S.- Enzer, and Richard Rochberg. "An Emerimentip Simulation Gaming of Social Policy Studies,' Technologral Fore-castingyl (Number 3, 1970), 2411261, '
r t.
66. Hanler, Philip. "Remarks on the Conduct of Scienie in the Environmentdi the 1970's," Technological Forecastinga,nd Socia$hange, It (Num-ber 2, 1970), 115-123. /
Ak
67. Haverda, J. 11. "Forecasting Hyman Behavior In an International Corpor-ation," Futures, III (March, 1971), 24-31.
68, Helmer-Hirschberg, Olaf and NicKolas Rescher.. "On the Epistemology ofthe Inexact Sciences," Management Science, VI (October, 1959), 25-
- 52.
69. Hoffman, George A. "Future E lectric Autom8bil es, " Tech Fore -casting,casting, I (Number 2; 1969); 173-183: j
n?
70. Huber, Bettina J. and Wendell Bell . ,"Socioldgy and the Emergent Studyof the Future," American Sociologist; VI (November, 1971), 287-295.
1
- 71. Huddle, Franklin P. "The Social Management of Technological Conse-quences," Futurist, VI (February, 1972), 16-.18."'
72. It Hunt, H. "Forecasting the Need for Research and Development," Futures, ,
I (September, 1969), 382-390.
73. Huntley, James R. "Gaps in the Ftitur,e: The American Challenge and theEuropean Challenge," Futures, II (Marchil 970), 5-14:
e...74. IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management. "Selected Papers bigthe
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75. Fred C. "Social Forecasting and the Problem of Changing Valves,'.'With Speical Reference to 'Soviet and East.European Writing," Futures,
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91. Katz, M. "The Function of T(rt Liability in Technology- Assessment,", Cincinnati Law Review, XXXVIII (Fall, 1969),. 587-662.
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518. Laforte, Todd R0._, "The Context of Technology Assessment: A ChOnging
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128. North,.Harper re-:Tha d Donald L. Pyke. "Technological Forecasting toAid R&D Planning," Research Management, XII (July, 1969), 289-296.
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130. Ohio State Law Journal. "Population Control in the Year 200d: TheConstitutional ity of Placing Anti -Fertil ity Agents in the Water liptly,"Ohio *ate La`w Journal, XXXII (Winter, 1971), 108-118.
131,. OECD Observer. "Innovation in Ger,rron Universities," OECD Observer,Number 45 (April, 1970, 8-1 . *
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133. Page, J. K. "Possible Dexe nts in the Urban Environment," Futures,(September, 1970), 215-221.
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138. Platt, John R. ' "How Men Can Shape Their Fiature'," Futures, III (March,1971), 32=47.
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, ,143. Ramo, Simbn. "Towards Scientific Anticipation of Change,' Astronauticsand Aeronautic; .VII (October, 1969), 44-49.
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151. 'Salanc.ik, J. R., William Wenger, 'and Ellen Helfer. :, "The Constructio41of Delphi Event Statements," Technological Forecasting and8SociaiChange, III (Number 1, 1971), 65-73. ot!
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155. Science Policy News. ."Let the People Speak on tie ImpaCt of Technol-ogy," Science Policy News, (January, 1970), 83-87.
156. Seamans, Robert C., Jr. "Space," Science Journal, III (October, 1967),82-88.
157. Sheppark William J. "Relevance Analysis-in Research Planning," Tech-nological Forecosting,v1 (Number 4, 1970), 371-379.
158. Shostak, A.:B, and A. S. Pennington. "Methodology: Futurism Pro andCon;" Futures, III (June, 1971), .173-176.
159. Siegel, Irving H. --"Technological Change and Long-Run Fbrecastig,"Journal of Business of the University of Chicago, XXVI (July, 1953),141-156.
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167. Taylor, Gordon R. "Trends in Pollution,". Futures, II (June, 1970), 105-113.
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168. Thring, M. W. "Machines for a Creative 'Society," Futures, II (March,1 970),45-53 .
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170. Timm, Bernhard. "Chemistry and Nutrition in 2000 A .D.," ,Universitas,XIII (Number 2, 197.1), 110-134.
171. Tishler, M. "A New Goal for Science," Saturday Review, LIV (June 5;1971), 56-58.
172. Tizard, J. "On Planning Research Training in 'the Social Scierices,"Futures, III (March, 1971), 62-67.
173. Tribe, "Legal Frameworks for the Assessment and Control of Tech-nology," Minerva, IX (April, 1971), 243-255.
174. Turner, Louis. "The Multi-National Corporations: 0Consideraions for aScenario," Futures, III (June, 1971), 151-161.
175. Turoff, _Murray. "Delphi Conferencing: Computer-Based Conferencingwith Anonymity," Technological Forecasting and Social Change, III(Number 2, 1972 159-204.
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177. Van Tassel,, Alfred J. "A Seminar Exercise in Foreca'sking Ecol icalChanges: Pollution from.Rising Industrial Output, "Technological ore-,casting and Social Change, II' (Numbers 3 and 4, 1971), 237-245,
178. \Pokers, Geoffrey .4' "Changing Ethics of Distributiortf"1Futures,---H1 time,1), 116-134.
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180. Vohra, Hans R. "Preventive Technology: Rival Proposals in Congress,"rf Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXVII (Marcb, 1971), 25226.
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183. Waskow, Arthur I. "The Historian's Role in Fuhges Research," Futures I
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185. Winthrop, Henry. "Social Costs and Studies of the FUture," Futures,(December, 1969), 488-499.
186. Wormuth, Francis D. "Government and Science," Center Magazine, III(March- ApriJ, 1970), 41-46.
187. Wren-kewis, John. "Faith in the Technological Future," Futures, II (Sep-tember, 1 970), 258-262.
188. Zeman, Milos, "Futurology-- Illusion or Reality?" Future, III (March,1971), 6-1.0. 4
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277. Gordon, Theodore J. The Future. New York: St. Martin's Press;1965,184.
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306. Kahn,' Herman, et al . On Escalation: Meta'phors and Scenarios. NewYorIL' Praeger, 1965, 308.
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308. Kasper, R mak- Some Comments on Technology Assessment and the Envi-ronment. Washington, D:C.: Program Qf Policy Studies in Scienceand Technology,' George Washington University, 1970, 14.
309.,- Kasper, R. G ., ed. Technology--The proceedings of a Seminpr Series.January-April, 1969, Program of Policy Studies in Science and Tech-. nology.. Washington, D.0 . : George Washington Uniyersity; 1969, 164.
310. Keyes, Kenneth S., Jr. and J. Fresco. Looking Forward. Cranbury,New Jersey: Barnes, 1969, 204.
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316. Lewin,' Leonard C. Report From Iron Mountain on the Possibility andDesirability of Peace. New York: Dial Press, 1967, 109.
317. Lewisohn, Richard. Science,' Prophecy and Prediction: Man's Efforts toForetell the Future- -.From Babylon to Wall Street. New York: liar-
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318. Lien, Arthur P., Paul Anton,' and Joseph W. Duncan. Technologicd1Forecasting: Tools, Techniques, Applications. New York: AMAManagement Bulletin, No. 115, 1468, 27.
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324.. March, Michael S. Federal Budget Priorities foi. Research and Develop-ment. Chicago: University of Chicago Center for,Polic!, Study, 1970,45.
325. Marien, Michael. Alternative Fuiures for Learning: An Annotated dibli-ograph/ of Trends, Forecasts, and Proposals. New York: EducationalPolicy R4search Center, Syracuse, University Research_ Corporation,1971, 223.
326. Martin, James T. re Developments. in Telecommunications. Engle-wood Cliffs,..Nev'rjersey: Prentice-Hall,- 1971, 414. _
327.. Martin, James T. and Adrian R. D. Norman. The Computerized Society:An tIpraisal of the Impact of Computers on Society over the Next 15YeaW. Englewood Cliffs/ New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1970; 560.
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329. Marx, B...S. Early Experiences with the Hazards of Medical Use of X-Rays: 1896-1406. A Technology Assessment Case Study, Sraff Dis-cussion Paper 205, Program of Policy Studies in Science and Technol-ogy. Washingfoh, D.C.: George Washington University, 1969/71.
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332. . Scientific Method, Adversarial System, and TechnologyAssessment. Washington, D.C.: Program of Policy Studies in Science_.-and Technology, 1970, 109.
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334., . Some Implications of the Technology Assessment Functionfbr the Effective Pubic Process. Washington, D.C.:
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335. . Some Legal 'Jurisdictional, and Operational Implicationsof a Congressional Technology Assessment Component. Staff Discus-sion Paper 207, Program on Polby Studies in Science and Technology,Washington, D.C.: George Washington University, 1969, 56.
336. Meadows, Donella H., Dennis L. Meadows, Jpirgen Randers, and WilliamW. Behrens, III. The Limits to GrowA. A Report for the Club ofRome's Project on the 'Predicament of Mankind. New York: 'PotomacAssociates--Universe Books, 1972, 205. 4
337. Michael, Donald N. The Next Generation. New York: Vintagp, 1965,218.
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343. - Muller, Hermann J. ,Out of the Night --A Biologist's View of the Future.London: Victor Gollancz, 1936, 160.
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359. Polak, Frederik L. The\irna e of the Future: Enli hteni?i the Past; Ori-entating the Present, Forecasting the Future . 'Two Vo umes . New YorOceana, 1961; 456, 376.
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365. Ramo, Simon. Century of Mismatch. New YOrk: AilcKay, 1970, 204.
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367. Roslansky, John D., ed, Genetics and the Future of ManAppleton-Century-Crbfts, 1966, 204.
368. Russell, Bertrand. The Future of Igcience. New York:Library, 1959, 86.
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370. Rutstein, David D. The Coming Revolution in Medicine . Cambridge;Massachusetts: M.I.T. Press, 1967, 1'80.
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383. Thomson, George P. the Foreseeable Future. Amtridge, EnglancirICpm.-i. , .
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and Technologyin the 1985 Era. Supplement to The United States-andthe World in 1 985 Era . DDC Accession Number AD 61-3526. Syracuse,
Ne-w-York: Syracuse University Research COPorVon, 1964.
2 7
448 Technological Forecasting and Assessment
406. Van Leeuwen, Arend T. Prophecy in o Technocratic Era . New York:Scribner's, 1968, 130.
407. Vickers, Geoffrey. Freedom in a Rocking Boat: Changing Values in onUnstable Society. London: Allen Lane, 1970, 215.
408. The Wall Street Journal; the Staff of, eds. Here tomesTOrribriow: Livingand Wo7.king in the Year 2000. New York: Dow Jones, 1966, 1 96.
409. . The Innovators: How Today's Inventors Shape Your LifeTomorroW. New York) Dow Jones, 1'968, 110.
410. Wallia, C.S., ed. Tow d Century 21: Technology, Society, and HumanValues. New York:. sic Books, 1970, 318.
411. Warner, Aaron ft., Dean(4.Ooise, and Alfred S. Eicfiner,eds,. The impaCt
of Science on Technology. 'New York: Columbia University Press, 1965,221.
412. Warshofsky, Fred. The Tvienty-First Century:" The.Control of Life. NewYork: Viking Press, 1'969, 181. -
bze
413. Warshofsky, Fred, ed.:" The Twenty-First Oentuey:- The Njw Age of Explor-ation. New York: Viking Press, 1969, 1
,
'0414. Wells, Herbert G. Anticipation's of life RecieTiciei of Mechanical and S°ci en-
. tific Progress upop, HUman Life and Thought. New York arid Londop:' Harper, 1902, 342: ',, : 4' . ,, ,,,, . ..
415. Whyte Lancelot L. Accent on Form: An Anticipation of the Sbience of 4
To orrow. New York: ,Harper ana RI R, 1954, 198. .
%,,
416. . The Next Development in Mani New York: Hol.41 958, 332....
417. Wills, Gordon, David Ashton, and Bernard Taylor, eds. TechnologicalForecasting and Corporate Shot*: London: Lockwpod, 196?, 271..
:4a. t
41 . Wolstenho'lme, Gorddr., ed. Man and His Future., "London: Church-ill, 1963, 409; Boston: Little, Brown, 1 963, 409.. . ,
0 419. Young, Michael': Forecasting and the Social Sciences.as. manna 1 qiI8, 166.
. ...,f
420. Zwicky, Fritz. Morphi,losp of Propulsive Power. Pasad
Morphological Research, 1962. . ...../ 9')A-: fr.. u
r
: Heine-
Society for
1Pt
Technological Forecasting and Assessment ° .449
.? 'LEArNG QUESTIONS
0
1'. What are the distinctions between technological forecasting and assessment,and.how are they related?
2. Who attempts to forecast technological develone and why?
3. What is the differenceiletween exploratory and normative forecasti-ng? Arethey mutually exclusive or reinforcing or neither? Is there a more valid wayof understanding the modes of forecasting?
4. 'Haw may computers be used as tools of forecasting or assessment?
What are the merits, of reproducible vegus -non-reProducible techniques, e.g.the Delphi technique? What are theie'strrengths and weaknesses? For whakinas'of problems are rianreproducsilerte techniques most-useful? Least useful.?
6. What institutional arrangernentshove been suggested to improye the qualityof technological forecastingeseid assessment?
7. Ware the relationships between technological change and the socio-eco-nomic structure of society? Contrast or compare relationships under socialism,free entprcriise, and traditioncil forms of society. j'What are theitpssible roles for technological forecasting and assessment inpubic planning? Cite examples of how predictivevpprOaches to technologyhave been used (e.g., 1917; National Research Council report), and analyze
the validity of their assessments.
9. Hatsoience fiCtion and Utopian literature had any measurable effect uponthe history of technology? What have been the effects of forecasts appearingto be self- fulfilling or self-defeating?
Can the needs of society be identified and-defined for'optimal use of tech-nological possibilitios? If this could be done, what means would be employed?
AfV
A,
1
a
b
ti
-40
TOPtC,E4iSCIENCE, HUMAN RI D THE ROLE OF LAW
Science and technology change relationships among individuals, and betweenindiyiduals and society... For exam*, Vornedical knowledge has changed pub-lic attitudes toward ,various cirrects of disease and has placed upon governmentnew responsibilities for protecting the public welfare. New forms of informationgathering, new techniques of crime detection, new pharmaceutical products, and .1, vnew forms,g, energy and of industrial organization create problems of human rightsand jUstice for which historical experience provides no adequate precedent. More-over, the advancement of science sharpens debate over the meaning of "humanrights".and the substance of "justice". Are "rights" and "justice" nomore thansocial conventions, unsupported by any knowledge derived from science?
Law as a social institution is therefore under stress in attempting to accommodatetraditional attitudes and assumptions to the realities of technoscientific society.Before the advent of science, law rested securely upon social or political "truth".n Medieval Ebrope, Achcraft was a legal fact validated by popular belief . When
the growth of scientific knowledge undermined belief in witches; the laws punishingwitchcraft" ceased tobe enfOrceable .'. Witchcraft had ceased to be a social or po-litical truth. Law stabilizes and protects the established social order, and changesin the law reflect' changes in society. But an accelerating rate of technoscientificchange mai4ceed the capacity of social attitudes and institutions to make cor-responding adjustments. The volume of law making, in the United States for ex-ample, has increased over the years largely (although often indirectly) because ofthe new factori introduCed into society by scierak and technology. And yet theprocess of law revision does not keep pace with technoscientific change. .
Severat new fields of, law or legal theory have emergedasp direct consequenceof technoscientific innovation. Among these new areas for legal. concern are a-tomic.eneogY; expinitationof the oceans beyond national jurisdiction; exploration,of outer space; 'genetic manipulation of humanphysiology; and psycho - chemical.influences on human personality. In trying to cope with these and other problemsof the technoscientific age, the law is increasingly compelled to take cognizanceof, scientific evidence. Even the voice of.the people cannot make a scientifictruth out of a political falsehood.
Means are needed to speed up the adaptation of law to,conditions of the techno-scientific age. ,La*, revision commissions in several of the American state govern-ments assist the technical updating of the law, but they are rarely, if ever., equippedto deal with the larger dimensions,of the problemof technoscientific change. Someinstrumentality-for rapprochement of science and laY? is needed, not only in theUnitedStotes, butinalltechnoscieniificallyadvancedcoentries. Not only domesticnational law but also international lawmu'st be clarified,revised, and expanded to
. guide new suprar or transnational enterprises. A deficiency of adequate legal con-cepts is today aileterring fa4ior in the establishment of, transnational agencies forManagement of the oceans and polar regions,and for the exploration of outer space.
. Thus science transforms the character of the law a nd fortes it to expand its dimensions.
430
k6. .4io
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452
,
Policy Problems of Science and Technology
TOPIC 14 SCIENCE , HUMAN RIGHTS, AND THEIIROLE OF THE LAW
li!....
Selected Basic Readings:
Baram, Michael S. "Social Control of Science and Technology, "Science, CLXX II(May 7, 1921), 535-539.I
D'Amatoi Anthony A. "Environmental Degradationand Legal Action," Bulletin ofthe Atomic Sci*tists, XXVI glitch, 1 970), 24-26.
Meyers, David W. "OrganTransplantationaInd the Law," Impact, XXI (July-Sep-rember, 1971), 223-232.
Tribe, Lawrence H. ''Legal Frameworks for the Assessment and Control of Tech-nology," Minerva, IX (April, 197L), 243-255. .
.
4
4
,
`,.: -4,
Wheeler, Harvey. "Bringing Science under Law," Center Magazine, II (March,1 969), 59-67. -
Supflementary and Substitute Readings:
avers, David F. "The Legal 'Control of the Clinical Investigation of Drugs:Some Political,' Economic and Social Questions," Daedalus, XCVIII (Siring,1969), 427-448. ,
,
Curran, William J. "Government Regulation of the Use of quman Subjects-4,.._Medical Research: The Approach of Two Federal Agencies," baedalus, XCVIII(Spring, 19, 542-594.
Estep, Samuel D. "International Lawmakers in a Technological ,World: Space,Communications, and Nuclear Energy," George Washington Law Review, XXX III(October, 1964), 162-180. llb
4.
ac *Livingston, Dennis. "An International Law of Science: Orders on Mari'sExpandr
ing Frontiers," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXIV (December, 1968), 6 -10.
Loevinger, Lee. "Science and Legal Thinking," Federal Law Journal; XXV (Spring,l' 1 965), 153-166. A
,
Miller, Arthur S.1' "%ijence Challet.s Law," American. Behavioral Scientist,4 . XIII (March-April, '1970), 585-593.
431
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it
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4
4
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40TOPIC 14 SCIENCE, - HUMAN RIGHTS, AND THE ROLE:OF LAW 453
N
TOPICAL QUTLINE ;.REFERENCE KEY
Interactions between Science and Jurisprudence 13, 57, 79, 91,92, 142
A . Traditional conceptkof law: taws'o'f Atitur'eand man -made laws1. Laws of nature: deductive, descriptive,
value-freeNewton's laws of motion,Malthus' law of population growth
2. Laws of men: inductive, normative,value expressive
sa50
B. Concepts of natural 42, 10711.
Jus naturale in Roman law. Christian theocratic concepts - -laws
ture and of naturg's God<-3 Physiocracy, biocracy, technocracy
C . Science and positive law 641. Juridical truth versus scientific truth:
a. Statutory fiatb. Testimony in-courtsc. Methods of crime detection and
identification
178
127
55, 1252. Legal rights in knowledge and invention
a. Copyrights and patents -- comparison'46, 52, 67, 152
between U..S. and U.S.S.R. 1- 43, 101, 147, 149,
b. Government control overAcjIntific andtechnological innovation inthe idterestsof health, safety, public welfare,. andmorals
3P. 164, 179, 197
48, 105,153, 1 88c. Conflicts between rights to knowledge
as property and advancement of scienceand education
.
56, 98, 123, 184,198
D. Problems of interpretation ,
1 . Semantic difficulties anil the substitutionof. processes and forces for the "law" con-cept in science
2. Incompatibility of tests of "truth"
23, 59
1341
3. Value- relativity of normative laws
432
J
MM.
454 Policy Problems of Science and Technology
i II. Changing Coniept of Human Rights
A. Concepts of "rights" changed by scientific orscience-derived concepts1. Property ownership2. Contractual obligations3. Working conditions4. Person IA privacy
5. Educational opportunity6. Ethno-racial attitudes7. Environmental quality
B. Realization of theoreticalfeasible by kechnoscience1. NouttishmentIF. Medical service!.3. Mass education4. Gainful employment
"rights" made.
4
C. Areas of impending change or development inlaw resulting from the growth of scientificknowledge1. Space law: a new phase of international law
2. Resources On the ocean floor
4k4
3. Shift from rights in property to rights inenvironment
4. Domestic relations and sexa. Social interposition in traditiorval family
matters .b. Declining social interposition in dault sIxual
relations5. Sociopathic behavior
a. Preventive detention' rehabilitation
b. Penology--tieatment6. Experimentation
a ..Physical environment
and selecti4-personality
of criminal offenders
42, 89, 158/171, 174
135, 157
3616, 62, 70, 89,139, MO
120.18, 28, 187
157
25, 76, 83,151
"36
3, 24, 44, 77, 84,109, 110, 124,146, 159, 160,167, 170, 181104, 108, 114,128, 148, 156,157, 190
81, 157, 162
113
186,145
132, 163,.175,191
41
N.,
4
Science, Human Rights, and the Role of Law
; b. Human beings
c. EcotErgical conditions
1, 6, 26,93103, 157
455
27, 72,
7. Information and communication 5, 123, 164, 179,
a. What may be communicated?197, 198
Content and methodb. Rights to information and knowledge
(1) Patents, copyrights, contracts(2) Public control of information
Ill. Science Reshaping the Law I, 34, 54,79, 91
64,
A. ivnenability of law to scientific conceptsand methods
4%4r- 1. estions of law seldom directly amenableto sci cea. Tax w
. Corporation law.c . Pro rty law (in part)d. s generally reflecting value
judgments for which no empirical testis available
2. Laws subject to reshaping by sciencea :Legal provisions for which empirical
proof is relevant and admissible as evidenceb. Laws of which the underlying assumptions
are destroyed by science, e.g., witchcraft
B. Incongruence of scientific facts. and legal facts--selected issues 8, 861. Punishment as deterrent to crime
\2. Intelligence and the voting age3 insanity as a legal concept4. Legal status and scientific evidence con-
cerning tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana 94, 2065. SexOal behavior and legal proscription
b 6. Death as a legal and scientific fact38,33,
12645, 96, 122
0. Confrontations of science, law, and policy(Cf. Topic11) 12, 22, 58, 137,
A
434
138, 142
,1111.
456 Policy Problems of Science and Technology
1. Impairment of the physical environment 1 8, 28, 66, 150,
157; 175, 187Radioactive fallout 103, 130, 176,
205b. Air pollution 1 96
c. Water pollution 35, 99,104,114,
d-. Noisee. Esthetic degradationf. Crowdingg. Weather modification
148, 156
163, 1922. Biomedical technology
a. Animal careb. Experimentsdin human subjects
32, 177
10, 11, 15,72, 73
c. Prosthetic facilitiesd. Biological warfare 9, 14, 17, 47,115,
193e. Organ transplantation 31, 88, 111
'f. Keeping patients physically "alive" 203. Public health 1 9, 25, 47
a . Control of drugs 41, 52, 69, 94b. Tiouriciation of water supplies 85c. Population control 45, 49, 61, 82,
1.21;1 31d. Cigarettese. Side-effects of et 'cal drugs 53
4. Property rights in knowledge 63, 152, 200. a .Copyright lawsi replication technique,
and educationb. Restrictions on employment of research
workers and inventors.
51
168 .
C. Distribu of television frequenciesand ti
d. Conim ofit troom government-. supported research 2,1
e. Government patent policy 67, 199, 200
IV. Scientific Legal Technology 64, 117, 185
A. Does-the introduction of science into legaltechnolOgy protect, impair, clarify, or renderirrelevant concepts of human rights, or are allof these effects possible?
.
4
..
,
I
Scielite, Human Rights, and the Role of Lpw
B Extension of scientific technique to legalresearch1. Indexing2. Computerization of legal data3.1alytic methods of social and behavioral
science, and quantitative analysis
I
C. Continuing influence of scientific methods onphilosophy of law and juridical action 64, 79
436
(
i
7ft
I
457
,
r
Science; Human Rights, and the Role of LawJr
BIBLIOGRAPHY
41--
General ReferF.nc/es: Articles
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Science, Human Rights, and the Roleof Law. 465
79. Loevinger, Lee "Sciei*e and Legal Thinking," Federal Law Journal,XXV (Sprin , 1965), 153-166.
80. Luzzattqf Et ore "The Proposed European Patent ,Convention and theProtection of Scientific 'Property," Lex et Scientia, Ill '(July- Septem-ber, 1966), 127-134.
81. McCaull, Julian. "Who Owns "the.Woter ?" Environment, XII (October,19701, 31-39.
1 482. William D. "Biomedical Aspects of Population Control," AIBS_Bulletin (Biocience), XIX (January, 1969), 19-23.
,
v
83. McLeod, Raymond M. "Law, Medicine, and Public Opinion," Public Law .
(Summer, 1967), 107-128; Pag4tII, Ibid. (Autumn, 1967), 185-211.
84.; McMahon, John F.. "-Legal As f Outer S PaCQ, " British Yearbook OfInternationalLaW, XXXVIII (1,962 , 39-399.
,,, ,.85. Margolis, Howard. "The Politics' orFluoridation,"Bulletin of the Atomic .
Scientists, XX (June, 1964), 38-41.
86. Marshall, James-. "Eifect of Drugi 'and Blood Chemistry on Intent," Lexet Scientia, IV (July-September, 1967), 145-154.
87. Meenan, Patrick N.. "The Human as a Research Subject," Lex et Scientia,III (January-Mazch, 1 966)/1-.7.
88., Meyers,. David W. "Organ Transptantation and the Law," Impact, XXI(July-September, 1971), 223-232.
.'1411' 89. Michael, Donald N. on the Relation of the Computer toIndividual Freedom and the Right to Privacy," George WashingtonLaw Review, XXXII! .(Octobero 1 964)%270-286.-
90. Miliivan, Albert S. Rese6rch,Has No Place in q University,"Industrial Research, lieraober 5, 1 967),,87789.
Miller, Arthur S. "Science Challengestav, " American Behavioral Scien-tist, XIII (March - April, 1970), 585 -593. - >
93 . "Technology, Social Change,. and the Constitution," GeorgeWashington Law Review, XXXIII (October, 1964),-17-46.
I443 (
466 Policy Problems of Science and Technology
93. Miller, Arthur S. "Where Are the Lawyers?" Saturday Review, XLIX(July 2, 1966), 48-.50.
94. Modell, Wolter. "Mass Drug Catostrophet and re Roles of Science andTechnology," Science, CIVI (April 21, 1967), 346-351..
95. Moor, Edgar J "The International Impact of Automation, " Lex et Scie ntia,(Januari.Maech, 1967), 10 -14.
97.
Morison, Robert S. "Deathigust 21t 1971), 694-698.
4
Pr.ocess or Event?" Science, CLXXIII (Au-
Mulford, Robert D. "Experiments on Human Beings," Sta4'oilkw,Review,XX. (November, 1967), 99-117.
98. Munster, Joegil.. Suits," Scie
Nelson, SeevenSa to internatit&
99.
-44.
r. aad Justint . Smith. "Savants, Sandwiches, and 5pacCXLV (September 18, .1 965), 1276 -1
"Contemporary Practi of the United tes'RelatingI Lcik" American, Journal of International. Lciw, LXIV
(O4tober, 1970), 928-\947..
100. Neumeyer, Fredrik. "The employed inventor- -Part I: The European Sit-uation," Lex et Scientia, (January-MarCh, 1965), 233-242.
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102. Northrop, Filmer S. C. "Ethical Relativism in the f..ight of Recent LegalSctence," Journal, of Philosophy, 1.11 (November 1 0,1 945), 649 -662.
.103.. Novick Sheldon, "The. Burclep, of Proof, Env ironmftt, XI I (October,1910), 16 -29.
1 01 .
.44104. O'Connell, Daniel P, "Legal Problems of the Exploitation of the Ocean
r 'Flcior," Impact, XXI (July-September, 1 971), 253-264.
105, Palfrey, John G. "Law and Sciencilin Atomic Envgy," Lex et Scitlftia,'II (Jampory..March, 1965), 218-231.
106. -Parks., G and Studrt S. Dye. "' Ocean Resource Development andLaY4 of the Sea," Lex et Scientia, III (April.-JUne, 1966), 107 -1x16.
1
AO
ti
107.
b,
. .
Sci Human Rights, aitd the Role of tht Law 467
Pascal, Robert A. "Natural Law'and Respect for-Low," American Journalof Comparative .Lowi XV (NUmber .3; 1966- 1967), 500-506.
108. 'Pell, Clarence. "Seabed Resources," Congressional Record, CXVI (De-cember 19, 1 970),S2078-40788.
-
109. /Pepin, Eugene. "Space Flight/and the Rule 4 Law," UNESCO CourierXIX ,(Mciy, 1966), 17-18;.
110. . "Space Law (II): 1.41-1 Aspects of Direct Broadcasting by\ Satellite " Impact, XXI (Jury-September, 1971), 243-251.
111 Petrov, Rem. "Organ Transplantation: Problems and Peespectivei," Im-pact,, XX (October-December, 1970), 293-305.
112: Nei, Gerard.. "Scapnce, Censorship, and Public Interest, Science; CXXVtAp;r i I 26, 1957 , t792-794.
113. . Roller, Justine W. "Problems In.olving famil y and Child," Columbia LawReview, LXVI (February, 1 966), 305-316.
114. Purrett, Lawrence. "Tie PoLitics of Marine' Research," Science News,XCIX (January 2, 1971), 9-11.
115. Rosebury, Theodor, "Some, Historical Considerationt," Bulletin of the A-torrtic Scientists, XVI ()one, 1 960), 227-236.
116. RuebhaCssen, Oscar and -On.4i-lle G. Brim, Jr. "Privacy and BehavioralResearch," Columbia Law Review', LXV-(November, 1965), 1184-1 211.
, f
117. Schur, Edwin M. "Scientific Method and the Criminal-Tdol Decision,"Social Research, XXV (Summer, 1958), 173-190.
118. Science. "Medical. Ethks: British Unit Offers Giddelines for ResearchInvolving Human Subjects," Science, CXLV (Sepaiber 4, 1964), 1024-1025; 1080-1 084 .
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120. . "Racial Studies: 'Academy States.PosMon on Call for Newresearch," Science, CLAII (Novembet 17, 1 96 7), 892-893.
446
468 Policy Problems olicierme and Technology
L121. fegal, Sheklon J . "Research in FertilityRegulationf New England Journal,
of Medicine, CCLXXIX (August 15, 1968), 364-370.
122. Shaffer, Thomas L. "Abortion, the Law, and Human Life," Valparaiso U-niversity Law Review, II (Fall, 1967), 94-106..
123. Sheniti, S . Mahmud. "Multiple Reproduction Processes and Authors' Rights,"Impact,-XXI (July-September, 1971), 271-278.
124. Sibiryakov, G. "Real, Aims of U.S. Space Co-operatior,"--lAternationalAffairs (Moscoet) Number 2 (February, 1966), 62-65.
125. Sinclair, P. Michael . "New Technology for Crime F4hting," IndustrialResearch, IX (November 5, 1967), 84-90.
126. Smith, Alexander B. and Harriet Pollack. "Crimes without Victims," Sat-urday Review, LIX (Decem er 4, 1 971), 27-29.
re127: Smith, Bvrke M. The Polygraph," Scientific American, CCXVI (January,
1967), 25-31.
1 Stevenson, Johnathan Re., "Legal Regulation of dineral Exploitation in the.
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129. Stewart, William H. "An invitation to Open 01,124111," Satutda,y Review,XLIX (Ji.dy 2, 1966), 43-44.
13g.ttrohl, Pierre. "The.-Role of ENEA in the Field of Nuclear Law," OECDObserver, Number 38 (February, 1969), 38-42.
131 Szabady, Egon. "The Legal izing of Contraceptives and Abortions," Impact,XXI (July-September, 1971), 265-270.
132.v Taubenfeld, Howard J. "Weather Modification and Control:, Somelnter-natio%1 Legal Implications," California Law Review, -1.V (Ivry,.1967),493-506.
133. Taylor, Carl E. "Ethics forRn International Health PrOfession,"'Science,CLIII'(Aiugu'st 1 2, 1967), 71 6-720.I
134. Thomas, RiChard K. "Judging Scientific Fact infharmaceutrial Advert. ing," Lex et Scientio, III (October-December, 1966), 212-215. '.
1rj 4% / t .4
44
4: C
aa
.4 ffk
p
Science, Hurrt Ifthts, and the Role of Law 469
135. Tobriner, Matthew Q. and Joseph R. Grodin. "The Individual and the...Public Service Enterprise in the New Industrial State," California LawReview, LV (November, 1967), 1247-1283.
.
Topol, Allan J. :taw and the Nation," Saturday ReviewrLI (August 3,1968), 49-52,
137. Tribe LawFence H. "Legal Frameworks for the Assessment and Controlof Technology," Minerva, IX (April, 1971), 243-255.
1 38 . . "Towards a New Technological EthiC: T4e'Rcle'of LegOrLiability," l'Pnpact of Science orr Society, XXI (July-September, 1971'),215 -222.
1'39. Westin, Alan F. "Science, Privacy, and Freedom: Issuesand fropakals forthe 1970's. Part I: Th urrent Impact of Surveillance on Privacy,"Columbia Law Review, (Juno 1966), 1/002 -1050.
140. . "Sclenassr..eavacy, and Freedom: Issues and Proposals, fdrthe 1970's. Port II: Balancing the Conflicting Demands of Privacy,Disolo:.ure, and Surveillance," ColumbiaGLaw Review, LXVI (Novem-berii 1966), 121-1253..
141. ' Whale, Arthur R. "Securing the Benefits of Science for Human-Welfare,"Lex et Scientia, nuary-March, 1965), 77 -85.
142. Wheeler, Harvey.. "Bringing SCience under Law," Center Magazine, 'II(March,, 1969), 59-67. i ,
143. Willi% Sidney H. "The Control over Interstate DistributPand Use ffInvestigational Drugs," Lex et Scientia, IV (April-June, 1967), 110-119.
1 44. Wolfensberger, Wolf. "Ethical Issues in Research with Human Subjects"Science, CL (January 6, 1967), 4P -51 =
4145. Wright, J. Skelly. "The Need for Education in the Law of Criminal Cot-
rection," Valparaiso University Law, Review, II (Fall, 1967), 84-94.
146. Zhukov, G .,,P. "Space LaW.(f): The kew Extra-Terrestrial Jurisprudenc0,"Impact, XXI (July-September, 1971), 233-241.
447
470
rl
Policy Problems of Science and Technology
General Referencr.silkoks
147. Alderson, Wroe, ed. Patents and Progress: The Sources and Impact of. Advancing Technology. Homewood, Illinois: Richard D. Irwin, 1965,xiii, 251. Biblio.
*-Columbus: Ohio StateLaw of the Sea.148. Alexander, Lewis M., ed. The
, University Press, 1969, 321.
4 .149. Bachmbn, Otto; Frederick M. Sherer, et all Patents and the Corporation:
. A Report on Industrial Techrtallogy under Public Policy . Second EditionBoston: Patents and the Corporation, 1 959, 195.
-150 Baldwin, Malcolm F. and James- K. Page, eds. Law and the Environment.New York: Walker, 1970, 432.
. 151 . Bear, Larry A. Law, Medicine, Science, and Justice . Springfield, Ill inois:Charles C. Thomas, 1964, 656.
152.,
153.
Berle, Alfred K. and- L. Sprague de Camp. Inventions,_Patents, and Then-Marlogement. Princefon, N_ew ,lers-eyg Van NOstrand, 1959, 602.
4 - r. .
Bloustein, Edwardr
J.,-ed. Nuclear Energy, Public Policy, and the Law.Dobbs Ferry, New York: Oceans, 1964, 114.*
15.4: Bryan, William J., Jr. Legal Aspects of Hypnosis. Springfield, lt1inois:Charles C. Thomas, 1962, 304. J....
155. Burke, William T. \international Legal Problems of Scientific Research inthe Oceans, Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1967, 143:
.156. . Towards a Better Use of the Ocean: Contemporary LegalProblems in Ocean DevelopMenf. New York: Humanities Press, 1969,
157. Caldwell, Lynton K. In Defense of Earth. Bloomington, Indiana: Indianaversity Press, 1972, 293.
158. sserly, Julian V. In the Set-Vice of Man: Technology and th' Futureof Human Values. Chicago: Regnery, 1967, 204.
159. Christol, Carl Q. ,lnternotional Law Studies 1962: The International Lawof Outer Space. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Qfz,flop, 1,966, 513.
4
4-
.Science, Human'Rights, and the Role-of Lay. 471
160. Cohen, Maxwell, ed. Law and Politics jn Space: Specific and UrgentProblems in the Law of Outer Space. Montrect4, Canada: McGillUniversity Press, 1964, 221.
. .---161. Cohn, Simon I. Law Enforcement Science and Technology I . Pikezille,
Maryland: Port City Press, 1969, 612.
162. Dobzhansicy, Theodosius. The Biological Bads of Human Freedom. NewYork: Columbia University Press, 1'956, 139.
'N., 4...__
163. Ellert,-. Robert B. Legal Aspects of Weather Modification. Paper pre-- sented at the 1 967 Meeting of the American Association for the Advancerrient of Science, New York, Decemjoer 30, 1967. New York:American Association for the Advancemle of Science, 1967, 13,.
164. Forman, Howard I . Patents: Their Ownership and Administrafiort by theUnited States Government. New Yoric: Central BookCo., 1957, 351.
165. Freed, J. Arthur. Some Ethical and Social Problems o.Science andTech-nology: A Bibliography of the Literature from 1955. Los Alamos: LosAlamos Scientific Laboratory, University of California, 1964, 48.
166. Fuller, Lou L. The Morality of Law. New Haven, Corinecticut: YaleUniversity Press, 1964, 202.
.167. Gal, Gyula. Space Law. Dobbs Ferry, Nevi York: Oceano,' 1969, 320.
168. Gellhorn, Walter. Security, Loyalty, and Science: Ithaca, New York:Cornell University Press, 1950, 300. *
169.. Giesberg, Morris. On Justice in Society. Ithaca, New York: CornellUniversity Press, 1965, 248. 1
_York:
4
170. Haley, Andrew G. Space Law and Government. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1963, 584;
171. Hall, Cameron P., ed. Human Values and 'Advancing Technology. NewYork: Friendship Press, 1967, 175.
172. Hook, Sidney, ed. Determinism and Freedom in the Age of Modern Sci-ence:! A Philosophical Symposium. New Yoric: New York UniversityPress, 1 958, 237.
Vt.
445 I
472 Policy Problems of Sciencelknd,Technology
1172. Hutton, Gerald L. Legal .Considerations on Ionizing Radiation: .Radio-nucl ides and Radiation-Emitting Devices. Springfield, Illinois: CharlesC. Thomas, 1966, 108.
174. Jones, Harry W. Law and the Social Role of Science.efeller University Press, 1966.24.3-:
175. Krier, James E. Environment Litigation and the Burdengeles: Institute of Government and Public Affairs,ifornia, 1971, 18.
NewYork: Rock-
of Proof. .osUniversity of Cal-
176. Krogen, Adrian A. Symposium on AtomicEnergy and the Laws Berkeley:University of Cali 1958, 125.
177. Meyers, David W. The Human Body and The Law: A Medico-Legal Study .
Chicago: Aldine, 1970, 203. \178. Murphy, Walter F. Wiretapping on Ttleki: A Case Study in-the Judicial
Process,. New York: Random House; 1965, 176...
179. National Academy of Sciences. National Academy of Engineering. Com-mittee on Interplay of Engineering with Biology and Medicine. Gov-.ernment Patent Policy. Reportof the Subcommittee . Washington, D.C-.:National Academy of Engineering, 1 970; 83.
180. National Academy a Sciences - National Research Council . Administra-tion oft edical and Pharmaceutical Patents. Washington, DX Na-tional Academy of Sciences - National Research Cjuncil, 1955, 69:
1 81 . National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Conference on the Lawof Space and of Satellite Communications. Washington, D.0 .: Scien-tific .and TechniCal Information Division, Ndiional Adronaufics andSpace Administration, 1964, 205.
182. Northrop, FilmerStudies in the1959, 331.
188. Packard, Vance.
S . C. The Complexity of Legal and Ethical experience:Method ofNormative Subjects. Boston:' Little, Brown,
The Hidden Persuaders New York: McKay, 1.957, 275.
4z
4
K
-Science, Human Rights, and the Role of Law 473
184. Palmer, Archie M. University Research and Patent Policies, Practices,and Procedures. Washington, D.0 .: National Academy of Sciences -National Research Council, 1 291. (Publication 999)
185. Patterson, Edwin W. Law in a Scientific Age. New York:` ColumbiaUniversity Press, 1963, 87. >
186. Roche, Philip Q. The Criminal Mind: A Stud, of, Communication be-tween the Crjminal Law and Psychiatry. New York: Wiley,1 967,311. (Reprint of 1 958 Edition .
187. Sax, Joseph L. -Defending the Environment: A Strategy for Citizen AC"-tion. New York: KnOpf,1971, 259.
188. Shils, Edward A. The Tormentof Secrecy: The Background and Conse-quences of American Security POlicies., Glencoe, Illinois: Free Press,1956, 238.
189. Shindell, Sidney. The Law in Medical Practice. Pittsburgh: Universityof Pittsburgh Press, 1966, 297.
190. Slouka, Zdenek J. International Custom and the Continental Shelf: AStudy in the Dynamics of Customary Rule of International Law. TheHague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1968, 186.
4$
191. Taubenfeld, Howard J., et al. Weather Modification: Law, Controls,3 Operations. Report to the Special Commission on Weather Modifica-
tioh. National Science Foundation. Washington, D:C.: Gov-ernment glinting Office, 1966, 73'.
192. Taubenfeld, Howard J., ed. Weather Modification and the Law. Dobbs.Ferry, New York: Ocean, 1968, 228.
193. Thomas, An V. W: and Adrian J. Thomas, Jr. Legal Limits on the Useof Chemical and Biological WeaOns. Dallas, Texas: Southern Meth-odist University.eress, 1970, 337.
,.
1 94 . Thorwald, Jurgen. Crime and Science. New York: Harcourt, Brace,and World, 1967, 494.
1 95. United Nations Educational, Scleceic,and Cultural Organization. Hu-man Rights, Comment's drid Interpretations A Symposium . London:17Ian Wingate, 1-949,M7.
t.
4 5 L
,
474 Policy Problems of Science and Technology
:1962 0:S. Atomic Energy Commission. Planning for Envir2nmental Protectionin Sifirig of Nucrearand Fossil Fuel Power Plants; "Remarks before FAO-
"eral Bar Association, Atomic Enely Law Comm'ee at a Seminar onPossible New Issupxyin AEC'Licensing Proceedings, Antitrust and En'vi-ronmental Effects, October 15t1969, Washington., Washington, D.C.:U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969, 17.
0116
U S . Congress. Senate Committee on the Judiciary. Subcommittee onPatents, Trademarks and Copyrights. An Economic Review of the PatentSystem. Study ,of the Subckrnmittee to the 85t4, Congress, 2nd Session,June 30, 1958. Pursuant to Senate Resolution 236, Study No. 15 pre-pared by Fritz Machlup. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Print-ing Office, 1958, 89.
198. . Committee on the Judiciary Subcommittee on.Patents, Trade-marks, and Copyrights. The Impact of the Patent System on Research.Study of the Subcommittee to the 85th Congress, 2nd Ses ion, May 16,
. 1 958 . ,Pursuant fo Senate Resojtion 236, Study -No . 15 prepared bySeymour Melinan. WaShingikon, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Of:-ficee1958, 62. .
199. .S., fedgral Council-fos Science and Technology. Office of Science_____q and Technology. Annual Report on Government Patent Policy. Wash-
ikinaton, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1968, 64.r Ire°0
200. .. Office of Science and Technology. Government PatentPolicy Study. Final Report, Volume I. Washington, D.C.: U.S. De-partment of Cornmer,pe; Boston: Harbridge House, 1968, 57.
201. U.S. President's COmmissiori'.on the Patent System. To'Promote the Pro-gress of ...,Useful Arts in an Age of Exploding Technology. Report ofthe President's CommissiOn on'the Patent System. Washingtcin, D.C.:U.S. Government Printing Office, 1966, 58.
202. Weinstein, Jerry L.; ed. LajbandAdministration : new York: Pergamr,1966, 426. (ProgreL ir1 nuclear Energy Series, Volume 4)
203. Wilson, 0-. J. Patenttind'copyright Policies in Forty-Five Colleges andUniversities. Bowling Green: Office of institutional Research, West-ern Kentucky University, 1967
1
#1\A 52 .
to
I
ss
r
4
1
.
Science, HUrron.Rights; and the Role of Lowi
4 i'.204. Worldling, George V. Inventians and Their Protection. Second Editibn.
.e. New York: Boardman, 1954, 90. . tPe1
205. World Health Organizat ign.- Protection against Ionizing Radiations: ASurvey of Exiting Legislation. Reprint from The 1041-national Digest
4
1.......
r41.
of Health 1 ion, XV (Number 2,, 1 964), 170.
49206 . Treatment of Drug Addicts: A Survey,ofton. Reprinf fromthe International Digest of Health LegisiaM, X.11i(Number 1,'1962), 46.
I
'
S
-,1,
.rrs.
4'
-4
4 -41*
J r
453r
I
. 4.
I
a
2
:.7111 4--
Science, Human Rights; and the Role of Law(f"
; LEADING QUESTIONS
0-
1. What s.1en the net effect of Acience on belie inhuman rights--positive,
net tive, ior neutral?. What is the evidencV?I it
2. Have efforts to discove r a natural (or scientific) basis" for positive low beennone, misguided, rx premature? ,Hoye the difficulties been informational,-petceptual,,or institutional ?
. ,
What-pre the legal and moral implications ofbdvances in nlical technologywhich-make it possible to keep alive for considerable periods patientsswhomay have. suffered irreparable brain damage? "'N
.477
II tgy. If we postulate a situation in which a "scientific truth" and a -1,1porrtical truth"
are in conflict in society, which truth should prevail? In vAha.t respects are
4the, assumptions of science and democracy mutually reinforcing? --potentially
d .antagonistic?
5. With the a va i labi I ity awl prospective application of new instruments of ,controlover society, how can traditional concepts of freedom under law have meaiting?
or06. How far is it possible or desirable-for government to control the use of elec-
'tragic or other "spying" devices? Is privacy a human right? What is the evi-. -,,7 . dence?
...,.
, .7. What "new rigkts"Illave been Age feasible by science and what traditional
.s rights have beep modified or impaired? Is the very 'Concept of ."human rights"inconsistent witlia scientific outlook?
. . ./
48. What bc.differences in attitudes concerning the econo*.c and social
ofscignilic and technological innbvation ate retlectedlin LJ.,S. and U.S .S. .#-... patent laws? -' P . dal , ;
... AI; 'v. 9. To what extent must the scientist bear moral responsibility for 'theuses, made of. .'his innovation by,society (in his own country or in a foreign country)? Could, or should scientists band together in' refusal to work -in certain harmful areas
,., of Inowledge (e.g., nuclear weapons, germ warfare)? ,
.r."' . .10. What evidence 'might be cited for present or approaching changes in influence
by scientific% knowledge in the following areas: . .., .a.. Property rights
% -. s 1b. Sociopathic behavior .,,.. ''44c. Public health (e.g., sanitation, innoCulation" flour'
. d. lkiblicatien,printi, broadtasting, etc.' _ ,
e. Medical, psychological pand social experimentationf. Domestic relations
54.
'
41,
TOPIC 15 GOVERNING THE TECHNOSCIENTIFIC S'UPERCULTURE
One effect of science and technology upon modern'societyhas been to createa new level of assumptions, values, methods, and information that transcends na-tithe( and traditional cultural boundary lines. This level of awareness (or' ofknowledge) corresponds in some respects to the phenomenon that-V. I. Vernadskyand Pierre Te ilhard de Chardin called the "nobsphere". Perhaps it is more becauseit'includes material objects and social institutions as well as inariimate ideas,. It is
Ilikhere ikescribed as e technoscientific superculture, not because -a is necessarilysuperior to traditio al cultures, but because it is a new cultural level overlayinggeographically localized historical societies.
As noted under Topic14 (Science, Human Rights, and the Role of Law), the in-ability of legal and judicial; institutions to adjust-to changing conditions is one ofthe major 'policy problems of the technoscientific- age. In--traditional locietieswhere law could be relatively statskc, government could be largelya process of ad-judication. Ina technoscierifific society, however, the ,tisks qi.sovernment areincreasingly managerial . The type of which best serCes as a foundailonforpubl id management is notalwaysjhe same as that intended as a basis for the lodg-ment of courts . Anew 'structure of public accountabilitris required if society is tobenefit fully from science and,technology, end is to avoid both the tyranny of thetechnocrat and frustration from obsolete legal Strictures: . .
4,Tile challenge' of the technoscientific superculture to management is at leastthree-fold, .;he primary challenge is conceptual . It is to identify the needs of aviable industrial society, and the means to meet them, without impairing the eco-logical basis of that society or of human welfa&generally. In the second place,the task of management is one of institutional evelopment. The advancement ofscience and technology.hai resulted, often indirecliit in pro lems new in kind ormagnitude for which traditional machinery of goNte.rrNent doe tsolfice. Explor-atiorPof outer ppace.bils been one of theseeand the control o environmental pol-lution and the*univ.ersal extension of health care ace pOlicyareas that have yet tofind adequate.; nstitution'al expression? The third ohal lenge is one of4luman deveI -opmerrt. To manage the forces liberated through 'science requires public officials
. andadministrators with,qua.lities rarely ervideht.in the past. The stakes for successand failure in the superculture,hre too high to leave the quality cif/lead.ership in/policy an managemenn o chance. Ways must be found to provide society withleadersbipcompetence in the right places at the right times., This is largely a newtask ofIligher' education in4hich government, industry,the professions, and theuniversities must col laborate . ConcoMitant with this task is the upgrading of publicunderstanding of sciencearultechnology, so that true reciprocityandresporisibility,can prevail between the roles of scieetist and c tiien and bet,,4een both of these andthe leadership-in poliCy and management'of theltechtioscientific salperculture.
.t
455
a.
tr.
480
0.
PC; Priblems of Science and Technol* '
? .
TOPIC 15 GdVERNING TECHNOttlENTIFIC.4LSUPERCULTURE
: ..,Selected Basic Reading!: . - ,
.
Brooks, Harvey . "What Cam Techniogy Do About Technology?" Research Man.-er iagement, XIV (March, 1971), 12-20.
1
Caldwell,. Lyntan K. 'Mandgii.ig the gcientific Super-Cultore: The Task la Ed. .
national Preparation," Public Administration Review, XXVII (June; 1967),.128 -133. .
Gershinowitz, Harold : 1141Cit iona I. Differences in Styles-of Re.searCh Management,"Management, XII (May, 1 969), 205-21 8.Research
Lakhtin, George A. ; "Opera I ResearciorMethods irr the Management of Sci-entific Research)" Miner VI (Summer, 1968), 524-540.
t
,Rrders,. J4rgen and Donnella Meadows.* "The Carrying Capacity of the Globe,"Sloan Management Review,' XIII (Winter, :197 11-27.Review,'
Supplementary and Substitute leadi ngy
Beer, Stafford.. "Managing Modern Complexity," Futures, II (June, 1974), 1 T4-V4122.
Bush, Vannevar. "Of Inventions and, Imientors," Research Management, XIV(July, 1 971), 274?). . ... * .
Ito. . 64
.
Feinberg, tikortimer R. "Fourteen Suggestions for Managing Scientifia.Creativ.ity7.Research.Managiment, XI (March, 1968), 83-92. ' ,.
.
. . i .
Johnson, lalaward W. 'Laotian for Management and Technology in the' 1 970's,,
a
Science, CLX (May '10,1%8), 620-627....:
Merton, Robert K. "Behavi6r Patterns of Scientist.' American, Scientists,' LVII
(Spring, 19¢9), 1-2g,, . , : \
, - ...
. - 1 .1 a , , I
ipterback, Jonies'M. "The Process-of Technological Inn'ovat.jon Within the Firm, 'Academy Of Management Journal, Xl<t(March, 1971), 75-88. ,
# ! , . 5.* .....i,
I ir - ,,
'4'-I 44
se-7
.."
Alb
4
,.
A.
d
/
TOPIC 15 GOVERNING THE TECHNIOSCIENTIFIC SUPERCULTURE, 481
TOPICAL OUTLINE
I . D*inandsof the New Science and Technology.upor, Management
4.4A. itInformation: high-level demand for exten-
'sive, occurate, and timely data
B. interlocutio.n: intermediary Communication',
'among' specialists and diville interest groups. .
le .-. .C. Prescience: ability to deteCt trends and to
predict develOpments.:(Cf. Toptc 13)
D. Adoptability: cbpacrtY,to respond to rapidnge;.in technology and the environment
.
ersbti I ity: 'tolerance for complexity andmulti'foctsed problem-solving
. -4
IP I Ir'npact of Sciene pnd TecIpol- Concepts and Prictices
lb, .
A. 4S.cientific rr0;nagement"4
1. frwlerick W Taylor and the search for.florie best way" . ,
2. Effoosto,develop a rational, presCriptive,"scientific" pipctice of man9gernent .
3.1prnationalization of the scientificrnanagemontmovqment
Managerial
;
8. Ipclustrial psychology and organizationalAtkhavior
457
REFERENCE KEY
3, 97, 1 1 , 150,159, 172, 1'74,206, 239- ,
6,168, Fos; 151,2611
87, 95,155, 156, .
198
13, 17, 20.3
. 3, 27
87
4, 461.8 9, 150,
_174, 184, 24.231, 259, 261,26e, 2811 286,294114, 113, 197,
, 227, 2404 258.
171, 291
46, 47, 132
88, 92, 96,121,01 126, 131145,
1,74, 303-
40; k, 14i
44
1 It
4
I
Policy*oblemi of Science and Technology
1. The Hawthorne explrirnents2. Human relatidns and group dynamics..research3. Growth of personnel admInistnnion in
government and industry
C. Factors affecting the geativity of scientistsand engineers
1. Organizational structure2. Intellectual capability3. Age and physical condition4. Rewards and recognition
t5. Popularity of area of v4oric6. Peoonal motivation
7..Presiure to be ,productive8. Freedom to do work of vim interest9.. Patent policy and contract restrictions
10. Exceptional psychological, factors.
D. Operations research and "management science"
4
Ye,
i. .
forts to cope with organizatiOnal sizeit complexity through quantitative...-A:
is and mathematics '2. e lective: to study the management
... i Kocess scientifically, rather thanoAttempt to Make the practice of manage ''.
P
i iment a science
3. Product:, a new kind of specialist--theiystems analyst, advisory or adxiliary totraditional management -k
.
56, 276197, 245
245, 276)
24, 35, 50, 51,62, 75, 93,95, 117 127, 130,141., 144, 149,rss, 156, 162,,166,E 96, 250,257,..267, 270,277 .
3, 10, 41, 61,115,39,.109, 16Q.
28, 29, 3.3, \69, 70, 1014, 136,1.39
48
22, 39, 54, 67,95, 1406).;.38
23, 218, 29615, 81, 118
44; 9t, 94, 119,193, 195, 215,246, 254, 268,278, 282492
%
52, 158; 212
46,41 01
59; 65, 791122,168
.
ti
I I.
Governing the Technoscientific Superculture
E. Scientific concepts initcted into manage-ment thfory and practice
f. Systems theory' influence on organize-tional structure and managerial control
r
6483
11,45,100,102,125, 143, M8
63, 83, 1 08, 129,191,253411.
1814
246,186,249,
2. Probability, theory influence on actuarialfotecasting and organizational decision-making 119, 223
3. Cominunicatiort theories influencfonmanagement-employee information praqIcesand communication with organizationarclientele and the public 1 80, .272
4. Psychology oi pe lity influences on.,selection and plalifent-of personnel anduse of standardized tests and performance'ratings w31, 32, 64, 223
Science-Derived Tools of Manageria4 Operations,Analysis, and Decision-Making 27, 157, 231,
233, '284Hardware--examples 43, 132, 2221. Office machines2 T-T..communi 'Cations media, 241, 2723., Computers .
it
Softwore--examples
6, 16, 76,18,1 O5, 113t 161,209y 28301, 1 82, 238
. 1. 'Records management systems 241.2i Personnel management sysiens 135'3. Accounting and inventory systems . 103, 151
4. Budget, planning, prbgrammingsyftems_' 5..Operations control systems (e.g., PERT)6. Models and simulation
IV. t ducatOdT/Impliccitions fot tignagerilent in aTechnoscientfic'SuperCulture
I
'45ti
12,1 Q3, 264, 30083t 252, 262
,
1, 55, 92,128, .
. 1 94, 243, 292
?6, 82, 1 47,03",,280, 304
1
P
4.
484
lb
A
Policy Problems of Sciencliknd Technology
A. Necessity for a continuous process ofeducation1. Omnipresent threat of obsolescence2. Preparatory education must be
fundamental, not ephemeral3. Periodic up-grading through "executive
development" experiences is essential
, Cultural orientation required for effectivemanagerial. leadership1. Manager must be able to operate n two
cultures: traditional and tech scientific2. Educational experience ought therefore,
. to provide appreciation of t full rangeof the cultural,environrnen . humanistic,scientific, technical, pofi, cal
C.- Better means are needed to increase the ,
probability of managerial positions beingfilled by persons with qualities best suitedto the mends of the new technscientific
societ(- 1.. ties that impel individuals into
to litical, administrative,.andma gerica positions are not-netessarlythose that the responsibilities of the
. positions require2. Primitive attitudes may gain exaggepeed
harmfulness ice, highly interdepridenttechnoscientific sale ti
3. A i.e/ioble psychology of motivation isgreatly needed for thi improv #ment ofpolitics and administration and for the -
task of educational preparation for themanagement of science clnd technogy
eir
V. dome Problems of Management in the TechnoscientificSupercultyre (Micro-Administration)
71, 72, 97
5, 30, 235
13, 234
t. 131
26, 82
189, .190, 208,212, 217, 219,226, 239, 248,282, 284, 298
I
.t.
. ,
J
Governing the Technoscientific Superculture
A. Optimization and sub7optimization
1. Ascertaining point of satisfactory accom-plishment (Simon's 1'satisfycing"),
2. Calculation of cost's and benefits atalternative levels of accomplishmentand through alternative methods
B
3. Investigation of pos ible inadvertentand indirect conse encesa. Recourse to sy ems analysis
b. Use sf
Organization of complex operations within acritical time dimension (initially exemplifiedin military operationi and now extended toindustrial production, outer-space exploration,and biomedical technology)
1. Monolithic versus federalized (contractualorganization)
2. Combination of authority and specializedcompetence: functional, program, andproject management
3. CorWrol systems: timing, coordination,quality of performance
4. Stand-by auxiliary facilities5. Organizational task; of simplification,,
refinementr and phase-out
C. Organizationakcybeirnetics: steering theorganization through its task environment
1. Surveillance and mapping of the task.
s environment: 2. Interpretation of the si ificance of%
environmental i t 011S
1. Development of ed-back and earlywarning systemsand automatic responsemechanisms
461
485
53,155, 156, 169,200, 251
12, 58;1014,134,170
42, 213, 21499, 111,137,142,179, 181, 191,192, 268, 269,278, 29755, 85, 128
52 79, 86, 165,249, 255
216
57, 84, 177, 238
4, 112120
120
9, 83,128, 202,267
4.
s '
486 Policy Problems of Science and Technology
VI. Policy Problems of Managing the Technoscientific',Superculture (Macro-Administration)
A. Ascertaining the' goals and priorities towardwhich the resources of the technoscientificsociety should be directed (Cf. Topics 11 and 12)
.
18, 19, 74, 85,86, 175, 183,216, 304
26, 66, 76;0271,289, 301,
B. :introl of technology in the public interest°
(cf. Topic 14) . 4 7, 38, 89, 90,188,256
.
L. Reformulatiop af fAe public interest inthe results oNechnological change 207, 272
2. Instrumental means for control oftechnological change 150, 269, 289
C. Resolving the conflict inherent in differencesbetween the autonomy of technoscientificinstitutions and the values of democratic self-government e 207, 2161. Query: a there inherent conflicts between
science, technology, and democracy, or onlybetween certain concepts and interpretations? 7, 187
2. ExaMination of the rationale for prevailingorganization for science and technology 121, 216, 271
3. Development of an integrative concept ofsocial control to assist the harmonizationof scientfiic truth, technological advantage,and democratic responsibility 17, 146
4. Nefessity for administrative leadership inthe integrative task
4 13"..,1,
7, 26, 30, 106,289
A`
A.
1
Governing, the Technoscientific Superculture 487,._
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LEADING QUESTIONS
1. How would you distinguish between theatdministra.tion of scientific and tech-, nologica,,I activities withiir the gOvernment and the administration of general
,(affecting the applications of'iclence and technologyZ. -
2. How much of anation's economic effart should be channeled into the'ac-vanceecent of science? By what criteria should allocations be made amongsciences?
What's meant by the "bureaucratization" of science? Is this an inevitable*4 0
3.
' 4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
concomitant of big science?'
Should the administration of science be restricted to "scientists"? Can arnikadministrator," without science credentials administer science policy? What
has been the experience in government? n industry? In hospitals? In LA.
versities?
'What policy and operational problems arise om the interrelationships among.universities,. industrial establishments, oprofeskonal groups, and various gOv-ernment agencies in the public administrationof science? Are these rela-tionships consistent with traditionalconcepts.of governmental accountabilityand distinctions between public and private interests?
4
How.havescience and technolOgyinfluenced the 'character of the adminis-trative prOcess generally What'are. specific illustrations_of technology inadministration? ,
What, aspects of administration have not yet been influenced significantly byscience? In what respects could science most greatly Went administrationtoday? How does "management science." attempt to improve management?
.
I hnocracy" primarily a-consequencof the ambition or self-confidence .o lence ptofessionals arid engineers, or of popular ignorance, folly, or in-difference? Are there other factOrs?
What should be the content of educ ation for the administration of sciencepkolicy; and how, when, and v;ohere,shOuld it be acquired? Is the same truefor applied science? rlik
fr10. Must the reconciliation of scientific and dimocratiC values be undertaken inlarge measure through the administrative process, broadly construed? Would t .
it not be.enough to resolve differences through conferences and colloquia, orthrough public education toward a mote adequate' understanding of science?
487,:s