burnout among paramilitary personnel in nigeria: a perspective from conservation of resources theory

South African Journal of Psychology 2014, Vol. 44(1) 106 –117 © The Author(s) 2014Reprints and permissions: sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.navDOI: 10.1177/0081246313516256 sap.sagepub.com

Burnout among paramilitary personnel in Nigeria: a perspective from Conservation of Resources Theory

Oluyinka Ojedokun and ES Idemudia

AbstractThe job demands–resources model attributed burnout to incompatibility between job demands and job resources, and underplayed the role of personal resources in employees’ adaptation. Based on the Conservation of Resources Theory, this study proposes the inclusion of personal resources as predictors of burnout. A cross-sectional survey design was employed to gather data from 256 paramilitary personnel in Nigeria. Participants’ ages ranged from 19 to 65 years (M = 35.03 years, standard deviation [SD] = 8.55 years). Data were collected using measures of emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, organization-based self-esteem, optimism, and burnout. Results confirmed the joint influence of psychological resources on burnout. Emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, organization-based self-esteem, optimism, and tenure were found to have a significant influence on burnout. The findings suggest that organizations should be able to minimize burnout among their employees by increasing their adaptive capacities through appropriate training and development workshops.

KeywordsBurnout, Conservation of Resources Theory, Nigeria, paramilitary personnel, psychological resources

Burnout is a set of negative psychological experiences following prolonged exposure to the stress of work or involvement in work situations that are emotionally demanding (Schaufeli & Greenglass, 2001). The dimensions of burnout include emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and decreased

Department of Psychology, North-West University (Mafikeng Campus), South Africa

Corresponding author:Oluyinka Ojedokun, Department of Psychology, North-West University (Mafikeng Campus), Private Bag X2046, Mmabatho 2735, South Africa. Email: [email protected]

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personal accomplishment. Burnout more commonly occurs among people-oriented professions and frontline employees (Azeem, 2010).

Paramilitary service, a “lightly” armed military force whose function and organization are simi-lar to those of a professional military force is considered a people-oriented profession whose ser-vices include the regulation and movement of people and goods in and out of a country, border and immigrant control, issuing travel documents, correctional duties, disaster management, control of civil agitations, combating petroleum pipeline vandalism, and policing the nation’s borders. Although the word “paramilitary” is subjective, in Nigeria, personnel in customs, immigration, prisons, and civil defense services are categorized under the “paramilitary department” (Ministry of Interior, Federal Republic of Nigeria, n.d.).

Paramilitary personnel are more likely to experience high stress levels due to frequent transfer, understaffing, work overload, inadequate infrastructure, as well as poor and delayed salaries. Furthermore, they are in daily contact with large numbers of people, work in hazardous environ-ments, and experience unpleasant and emotionally charged events where they have to control their feelings and verbal responses. Adeyemi, Ojo, Aina, and Olanipekun (2006) have reported that generally, Nigerians work under stressful situations. High job stress is a precursor to burnout (Kyriacou, 2001).

There are no studies in Nigeria identifying paramilitary personnel as a high-risk group for burn-out. However, studies in Nigeria (e.g., Ogungbamila, 2013) have documented high levels of burn-out among people-oriented professions and work environments that involve face-to-face interactions with clients. Using the job demands–resources (JD-R) model, Ogungbamila compared teachers, police personnel, and health workers and found health workers higher on emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and overall burnout than police personnel and teachers. Results also indicated that health workers scored higher on reduced personal accomplishment than police per-sonnel. High levels of burnout in these professions were attributed to understaffing, staff shortages, work overload, inadequate infrastructure, hazardous work environments, and a poor reward sys-tem. The stressful nature of paramilitary employment and the documented negative outcomes of burnout for employees, organizations, and the society at large (Tomic & Tomic, 2008) inform the need to investigate burnout and its psychosocial predictors among paramilitary personnel.

Theory, research, and hypotheses

The theoretical assumption in this study is that individuals exposed to similar work stressors might cope differently with burnout based on varying personal resources. Thus, an association may exist between psychological resources (emotional intelligence [EI], self-efficacy, organization-based self-esteem [OBSE], and optimism) and burnout based on the Conservation of Resources (COR) Theory (Hobfoll, 1989). The COR theory expands on the JD-R model (Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner, & Schaufeli, 2001) which hypothesizes that every occupation has its own working characteristics that can be classified into two general categories (job demands and job resources). The JD-R model posits that job burnout develops, irrespective of the type of job/occupation, when job demands are not compatible with job resources (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007).

However, the JD-R model is limited in scope when applied to the burnout process. It places individuals at the mercy of external conditions and underplays the role of the individuals’ cogni-tion, emotion, and energy-related resources in their adaptation. To expand the scope of the JD-R model, the COR theory offers insights into the role of personal resources in burnout, thereby expanding the applicability of the JD-R model to burnout development. This expansion becomes necessary when job demands are not compatible with job resources, as is the case in Nigeria. However, since employees are expected to perform optimally even in the face of this



108 South African Journal of Psychology 44(1)

incompatibility, they need psychological resources, such as high levels of EI, self-efficacy, OBSE, and optimism to protect them against burnout.

According to the COR theory, resources are those entities that are valued in their own right, or act as means to obtain valued outcomes. The assumptions of the theory are that individuals invest their resources in order to deal with threatening conditions and protect themselves from negative outcomes (Hobfoll, 1989), and that individuals not only strive to protect these resources but also try to accumulate them to deal with demanding situations. Loss of these resources or the threat of such a loss may result in stress (Grandey & Cronpanzano, 1999). Resources include objects, condi-tions, personal characteristics, and energies (Hobfoll, 1989). Relevant to this study are psychologi-cal characteristics and internal resources which allow individuals to cope with stress (Grandey & Cronpanzano, 1999). The condition of tenure is an external resource (job resource in JD-R model) that is valued and sought after (Grandey & Cronpanzano, 1999).

Some personality variables form components of the COR (Jex, Bliese, Buzzell, & Primeau, 2001), and could be treated as resources. Differences in these resources may affect how individuals react to stress, and their vulnerability to burnout. Some individuals may have better psychological resources (such as high levels of EI, self-efficacy, OBSE, and optimism) to handle stressors, and become less vulnerable to burnout. However, those who are low on these psychological resources can be debilitated by stressors and become more vulnerable to burnout. Self-efficacy, OBSE, and optimism have been identified as personal resources that buffer the impact of stress and vulnerabil-ity to burnout (Xanthopoulou, Bakker, Demerouti, & Schaufeli, 2007). These variables are recog-nized as influencing individual adaptability to stressful situations (Davis, Zautra, & Smith, 2004; Hobfoll, 2002).

Lizano and Mor Barak (2012) used the JD-R model to investigate the influence of job stress, work–family conflict, organizational support, and supervisory support on job burnout among child welfare workers and found that tenure, job stress, and work–family conflict were associated with emotional exhaustion, while age, work–family conflict, and organizational support were related to depersonalization. Using the COR theory, Karatepe and Aleshinloye (2009) found that emotional dissonance partially mediated the relationships of negative affectivity and intrinsic motivation with emotional exhaustion among hotel employees in Nigeria. Bateman and Crant (1993) indicated that self-efficacy, self-esteem, locus of control, emotional stability, extraversion, conscientiousness, positive affectivity, negative affectivity, optimism, and proactive personality impacted substan-tially on burnout.

Bateman and Crant (1993) concluded that individual variables and contextual factors are closely interwoven in burnout development, and the relationship between certain personal resources and burnout are well documented. However, little research exists on how personal resources would predict burnout among paramilitary personnel. In response to this gap, this study investigated the influence of psychological resources (EI, self-efficacy, OBSE, and optimism) on burnout among paramilitary personnel in Nigeria.

Psychological resources and burnout

EI has been defined as the set of abilities that enable individuals to generate, monitor, express, understand, and evaluate their own and others’ emotions and use this information to guide thinking, action, and coping with environmental demands and pressures (Salovey & Mayer, 1990; Van Rooy & Viswesvaran, 2004). Differences in levels of EI may influence coping with burnout such that emotionally intelligent individuals are more able to use their abilities to cope with high levels of burnout. Here, EI protects against reacting with negative emotion to work stressors, thus reducing the risk of burnout. Chan (2006) and Oginska-Bulik (2005) posited that high levels of EI, emotional




recognition, and positive appraisal of events buffer the appraisal of the work environment as stress-ful and reduce feelings of emotional exhaustion. Chan (2006) also found that positive utilization of emotions increased the personal accomplishment dimension. Thus, we predicted that EI will be negatively related to burnout, and its dimensions of exhaustion and depersonalization, but positively related to personal accomplishment.

Drawing from social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986) and the work of Skaalvik and Skaalvik (2010), self-efficacy is negatively associated with burnout. Self-efficacy is the belief in one’s capa-bilities to meet demands in a broad array of contexts (Chen, Gully, & Eden, 2001). Higher self-efficacious individuals feel more confident about successfully performing assigned tasks and are less likely to experience burnout compared to individuals who harbor self-doubts about their abili-ties and competencies (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2010).

According to Korman (1976), self-esteem is an overall evaluation of the individual’s self-worth. Using Korman’s paradigm, Pierce, Gardner, Cummings, and Dunham (1989) conceptualized OBSE as employees’ perceptions of self-adequacy, self-perceived value, and worthiness as organi-zational members. According to Korman (1976), organizational experience plays an important role in shaping the level of OBSE, and by implication, individuals’ levels of OBSE become personal resources which individuals can use during difficult times making them less vulnerable to burnout. If the role of organizational experience in the development of OBSE is accepted, then OBSE is expected to have a negative relationship with burnout, so that individuals who perceive themselves as worthy organizational members are confident that the organization would reduce job stressors that could serve as precursors of burnout. Tang and Ibrahim (1998) found that OBSE and stress are inversely related.

Finally, optimism, a generalized expectation of positive experiences and outcomes in life (Scheier, Carver, & Bridges, 2001), makes a person appraise stressful situations in a more positive light, and this increases the propensity to take action to deal with the threats (Aspinwall & Taylor, 1997). Optimists hold positive expectations and remain confident about the future, even when dealing with serious disturbances (Chang & Farrehi, 2001). In contrast, pessimists experience greater stress and use more withdrawal and passive forms of coping to manage stressors (Harju & Bolen, 1998). It is suspected that the predisposition to look for solutions when confronted with stressful situations is a personal resource that optimists draw on in handling stressors and coping with burnout. On the basis of this information, a significant relationship between optimism and burnout is proposed.

Method

Research design

A cross-sectional survey design was employed to collect data on EI, self-efficacy, optimism, and OBSE as independent variables with burnout and its dimensions as dependent variables.

Participants

The sample of 256 paramilitary personnel was drawn from an estimated 82,000 paramilitary per-sonnel working in four paramilitary areas in Nigeria. These consisted of the Nigerian Prison Services, Nigerian Customs Services, Nigerian Immigration Services, as well as the Nigerian Security and Civil Defense Corps. The sample comprised 136 males (53.1%) and 120 females (46.9%) with ages ranging from 19 to 65 years (M = 35 years, SD = 8.54 years). In all, 98 partici-pants were single (38.3%), 146 were married (57.0%), 11 were divorced (4.3%), and 1 participant




was widowed (0.4%). Their highest level of education varied, with 25 participants having a pri-mary school education (9.8%), 6 having secondary school education (2.3%), 79 having a diploma (30.9%), 118 having received a university education (46.1%), and 28 participants having a post-graduate education (10.9%). Tenure ranged from 1 to 35 years (M = 8 years, SD = 8.23 years).

Measures

A battery of tests including measures of EI, self-efficacy, OBSE, optimism, and burnout as well as sociodemographic information were administered to participants.

EI. This was measured using the 33-item Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (EIQ; Schutte et al., 1997). The scale has response options on a 5-point scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). The total scores ranged from 33 to 165, with higher scores indicating higher EI. Schutte et al. (1997) reported a Cronbach’s alpha ranging from .87 to .90 for the scale. To demonstrate the reliability of EIQ in Nigeria, Akomolafe and Popoola (2011) conducted a 2-week test–retest reli-ability study on the scale and obtained a coefficient of .78. An alpha of .89 was obtained in this study.

Self-efficacy. This was assessed with the Generalized Self-Efficacy Scale (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995) consisting of 10 items such as “I can always manage to solve difficult problems if I try hard enough.” Items were scored on a 4-point scale (1 = absolutely wrong to 4 = absolutely right). High scores indicate higher levels of self-efficacy. Schwarzer and Scholz (2000) reported alphas of .75 and .91, while an alpha of .76 was obtained in this study.

OBSE. This was assessed using a modified version of OBSE scale developed by Pierce et al. (1989). The wording “around here” used in the original scale was replaced by “for the organiza-tion,” in all items. The scale consists of 10 items, including “I am important for the organization.” The items are rated on a 5-point scale, namely, 1= totally disagree to 5 = totally agree. High total scores indicate high OBSE. The reliability of the scale in Nigeria has been established with an alpha of .93 (Ojedokun, 2012), and .83 in this study.

Optimism. This was measured with the 10-item Life Orientation Test–Revised (LOT-R, Scheier, Carver, & Bridges, 1994). LOT-R comprises 3 items measuring optimism, 3 items measuring pes-simism, and 4 social desirability items, which were excluded from the analysis. Out of the 6 main items of the scale, 3 are positively phrased (e.g., “In uncertain times, I usually expect the best”) and 3 are negatively phrased (e.g., “I hardly ever expect things to go my way”), with responses ranging from 1 = totally disagree to 5 = totally agree. All negatively keyed items were recoded so that higher scores mean higher levels of optimism. Mäkikangas and Kinnunen (2003) reported alphas ranging from .73 and .72. In this study, an alpha of .81 was obtained.

Burnout. This was measured using the Maslach Burnout Inventory Scale (MBIS; Maslach & Jack-son, 1981). MBIS is a 22-item scale, with responses on 6-point Likert format, ranging from 1 = a few times a year or less to 6 = every day. The scale has three subscales: Emotional Exhaustion (9 items), Depersonalization (5 items), and Personal Accomplishment (8 items). All of the items in the Emotional Exhaustion and Depersonalization subscales are scored directly, and those of Per-sonal Accomplishment were scored in a reverse order. A high score on Emotional Exhaustion and Depersonalization and a low score on Personal Accomplishment are indicative of a high level of burnout. To obtain a total MBIS measure, the scores on the 22 items were summed. In Nigeria,




Omoluabi (2000) standardized the scale and reported an internal consistency of .86 and validity coefficients of .01–.36. In this study, the three subscales of Emotional Exhaustion, Depersonaliza-tion, and Personal Accomplishment yielded alphas of .86, .77, and .83, respectively.

Procedure

Self-report questionnaires that measure demographic variables in addition to measures of EI, self-efficacy, OBSE, optimism, and burnout were distributed to the respondents during shift meetings. In order to provide every officer with an opportunity to participate, the survey was distributed at all shift meetings each day for 3 weeks. Participants were allowed to complete the survey while on duty or off duty. All completed questionnaires were returned to a data collection box placed at the office of the officer in charge of personnel. The questionnaire took approximately 25 min to com-plete. Of the 500 questionnaires distributed, 268 were returned and 256 were usable.

Data analysis

Descriptive analyses were performed to describe the participants’ demographic characteristics. Pearson correlation analysis was used to determine the relationships among the variables. Simple linear multiple regression was used to determine the proportion of variance. SPSS Version 20 was used for all computations (IBM-SPSS, 2010).

Ethical considerations

Ethical approval for the study was sought from the relevant paramilitary authorities. Participants were informed of the nature, purpose, and anticipated discomforts associated with the study. They were also informed that participation was voluntary and that they were free to withdraw from the study at any time, without negative consequences. Confidentiality and anonymity were maintained by instructing respondents not to identify themselves in any way.

Results

Preliminary analyses were conducted to establish the degree of relationship among the variables and to identify variables to include in further analysis. Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics and correlation coefficients for the study variables.

The results indicated moderate to high correlations among the variables under study. A signifi-cant negative relationship existed between EI and total burnout (r = −.67; p < .001). EI was nega-tively related to Emotional Exhaustion (r = −.50; p < .001) and Depersonalization (r = −.60; p < .001). A positive correlation was found between EI and Personal Accomplishment (r = .84; p < .001). These results indicated that high levels of EI were associated with lower levels of total burn-out, Emotional Exhaustion, and Depersonalization. The results also suggested that high levels of EI were associated with an increased level of Personal Accomplishment.

Self-efficacy correlated negatively with total burnout (r = −.57; p < .001), Emotional Exhaustion (r = −.43; p < .001), and Depersonalization (r = −.69; p < .001). A positive correla-tion was found between self-efficacy and personal accomplishment (r = .28; p < .001). These results suggested that as the level of self-efficacy increased, individuals were likely to report lower levels of total burnout, emotional exhaustion, and depersonalization. Furthermore, the findings suggested that high levels of self-efficacy were associated with increased feelings of personal accomplishment.




OBSE demonstrated a negative relationship with total burnout (r = −.46; p < .001), Emotional Exhaustion (r = −.55; p < .001), and Depersonalization (r = −.47; p < .001). OBSE demonstrated a positive relationship with accomplishment (r = .65; p < .001). These results imply that a high level of OBSE was related to lower levels of total burnout, Emotional Exhaustion, and Depersonalization. High levels of OBSE were associated with increased feelings of personal accomplishment.

There was a negative correlation between optimism and total burnout (r = −.44; p < .001). Similarly, optimism correlated negatively with Emotional Exhaustion (r = −.64; p < .001) and Depersonalization (r = −.50; p < .001). Optimism and Personal Accomplishment were positively correlated (r = .52; p < .001). This implied that as optimism levels increased, total burnout, emo-tional exhaustion, and depersonalization decreased, while feelings of personal accomplishment increased.

The correlation analyses also showed that longer years of service correlated with lower scores on total burnout (r = −.17; p < .01) and emotional exhaustion (r = −.30; p < .001) and decrease personal accomplishment (r = −.31; p < .001).

To address the objective of this study, a simple linear multiple regression analysis was con-ducted to determine the independent and joint influence of psychological resources on total burn-out, exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment. Four regression models were tested to investigate this objective. The first model used the composite score of burnout as the cri-terion, and the second to fourth models included the three dimensions of burnout as criteria. The psychological resources variables, age, gender, and length of service were included as predictors in the four models. The results are presented in Table 2.

In Model 1, the results revealed a significant joint influence of EI, self-efficacy, OBSE, opti-mism, age, gender, and tenure on total burnout, R = .52; R2 = .28; F(7, 248) = 15.74; p < .001. According to the model, the R value (correlation coefficient) between total burnout and the seven predictors is .52. Since the R value is positive, a positive and high correlation existed between the criterion and predictors. Meanwhile, R2 (coefficient of determination) is equal to .28, which is less

Table 1. Correlation among variables of study.

Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1. Total burnout – 2. Exhaustion .16* – 3. Depersonalization .21** .65** – 4. Accomplishment .34** −.67** −.55** – 5. EI −.67** −.50** −.60** .84** – 6. Self-efficacy −.57** −.43** −.69** .28** −.06 – 7. OBSE −.46** −.55** −.47** .65** −.02 −.30** – 8. Optimism −.44** −.64** −.50** .52** −.09 −.06 −.11 – 9. Age .04 −.00 .10 .02 −.19** −.13* .09 .34** – 10. Tenure −.17* −.30** .06 −.31** −.14* −.19* −.09 .23** .10 −Mean 74.52 30.47 17.62 26.43 44.47 29.47 46.03 39.13 35.03 7.97SD 12.34 8.72 4.64 5.50 7.69 6.26 9.70 9.45 8.55 8.23Range 101.00 43.00 25.00 35.00 59.00 30.00 33.00 30.00 46.00 34.00Skewness .00 .06 .14 −.02 .36 −.31 .37 .05 .83 1.38Kurtosis 2.00 0.09 −0.04 0.17 −0.20 −0.23 0.13 0.14 0.49 0.91

EI: emotional intelligence; OBSE: organization-based self-esteem; SD: standard deviation.*Correlation is significant at p < .05; **correlation is significant at p < .001.




than 1. Since R2 indicates the extent to which the combination of predictors can explain the varia-tion in the criterion, the results indicated that 28% of the variation in total burnout could be explained by the predictors.

The independent predictions showed that all of the predictors except age and gender had a sig-nificant influence on total burnout. EI (β = −.64; t = −5.77; p < .001), self-efficacy (β = −.48; t = −4.27; p < .001), OBSE (β = −.50; t = −4.35; p < .001), optimism (β = −.61; t = −4.54, p < .001), and length of service (β = −.18; t = −2.23; p < .01) have significant negative influences on total burnout. However, age (β = .04; t = 1.30; p > .05) and gender (β = .07; t = 1.72; p > .05) have no significant influence on total burnout.

The second model indicated that the overall regression model of all the predictors on emotional exhaustion is significant, R = .61, R2 = .37, F(7, 248) = 24.03, p < .001, and explained 37% of the variation in emotional exhaustion. The relative contributions showed that EI (β = −.47; t = −4.28; p < .001), self-efficacy (β = −.33; t = −3.54; p < .001), OBSE (β = −.49; t = −4.29; p < .001),

Table 2. Regression analysis of psychological resources and burnout.

Dependent variables

Variables Collinearity statistics

β t R R2 F Tolerance VIF

Total burnout EI −.64 −5.77** .774 1.29Self-efficacy −.48 −4.27** .710 1.41OBSE −.50 −4.35** .851 1.18Optimism −.61 −4.54** .52 .28 15.74** .877 1.14Age .04 1.72 .553 1.81Gender .07 1.30 .987 1.01Tenure −.18 −2.23* .557 1.80

Exhaustion EI −.47 −4.28** .774 1.29Self-efficacy −.33 −3.54** .710 1.41OBSE −.49 −4.29** .851 1.18Optimism −.51 −4.53** .61 .37 24.03** .877 1.14Age .11 1.56 .553 1.81Gender .02 0.40 .987 1.01Tenure −.28 −3.06* .557 1.80

Depersonalization EI −.39 −4.12** .774 1.29Self-efficacy −.35 −3.96** .710 1.41OBSE −.42 −4.65** .851 1.18Optimism −.35 −4.97** .48 .23 12.69** .877 1.14Age .14 1.83 .553 1.81Gender .04 −0.64 .987 1.01Tenure −.10 −1.31 .557 1.80

Accomplishment EI .81 7.35** .774 1.29Self-efficacy .28 2.98** .710 1.41OBSE .34 3.75** .851 1.18Optimism .60 6.87** .33 .11 5.25** .877 1.14Age −.00 −0.01 .553 1.81Gender .10 1.61 .987 1.01Tenure −.29 −3.37* .557 1.80

VIF: variance inflation factor; EI: emotional intelligence; OBSE: organization-based self-esteem.*p < .01; **p < .001.




optimism (β = −.51; t = −4.53; p < .001), and tenure (β = −.28; t = −3.06; p < .001) had a significant negative influence on emotional exhaustion. However, age (β = 0.11; t = 1.56; p > .05) and gender (β = 0.02; t = 0.40; p > .05) had no significant influence on emotional exhaustion.

The third model revealed a significant joint influence of all the predictors on the depersonaliza-tion scale, R = .48, R2 = .23, F(7, 248) = 12.69, p < .001, and explained 23% of the variance in depersonalization. EI (β = −.39; t = −4.12; p < .001), self-efficacy (β = −.35; t = −3.96; p < .001), OBSE (β = −.42; t = −4.65; p < .001), and optimism (β = −.35; t = −4.97; p < .001) were significant predictors for depersonalization.

The fourth model revealed a significant joint influence of the predictors on personal accom-plishment, R = .33, R2 = .11, F(7, 248) = 5.25, p < .001, and explained 11% of the variance in personal accomplishment. Moreover, the independent prediction showed that EI (β = .81; t = 7.35; p < .001), self-efficacy (β = .28; t = 2.98; p < .001), OBSE (β =.34; t = 3.75; p < .001), optimism (β = .60; t = 6.87; p < .001), and tenure (β = −.29; t = −3.37; p < .001) were significant predictors for personal accomplishment. However, age (β = −0.00; t = −0.01; p > .05) and gender (β = 0.10; t = 1.61; p > .05) had no significant influence on personal accomplishment.

Discussion

The findings supported previous studies and the COR theory, indicating significant relationships between psychological resources and burnout. Personnel who reported higher levels of psychologi-cal resources were less vulnerable to burnout and its dimensions. This suggests that paramilitary personnel employing these psychological resources may be at reduced risk of burnout. These find-ings fit the COR hypothesis (Hobfoll, 1989) and previous studies in this area (Bateman & Crant, 1993; Xanthopoulou et al., 2007), which considered psychological resources as a resiliency factor in burnout. The findings also expanded the JD-R model which predicts that job resources are the physical, psychological, social, or organizational aspects of a job that may reduce job demands and the associated physiological and psychological costs such as burnout. Furthermore, the findings suggest that the adaptive personal resources of individuals are important factors in mediating the burnout process and should not be overlooked.

Specifically, there was a significant joint influence of EI, self-efficacy, OBSE, optimism, age, gender, and tenure on burnout. This indicates that when these factors are combined, they may increase employees’ adaptation to job burnout. One possible explanation for the findings was offered by Hobfoll (1989) who proposed that people accumulate personal resources to prevent the adverse effects of job stressors. Davis et al. (2004) suggested that individual differences influence adaptability when placed in stressful environments. These findings expanded on the JD-R model of burnout by indicating that personal resources assist individuals to cope with burnout in condi-tions where workers encountered incompatibility between job demands and job resources.

The findings indicated a significant independent influence of EI on burnout, suggesting that high EI may be a resource to help cope with work demands and personal challenges, thereby reduc-ing the risk of burnout. The findings support the research of Chan (2006), Oginska-Bulik (2005), and Schutte et al. (1997) who found that EI influenced burnout and its dimensions. Paramilitary organizations should therefore focus on the development of self-management and relationship management skills among employees with low EI to increase their coping capacity and to reduce their vulnerability to burnout.

Additionally, the findings revealed a significant negative influence of self-efficacy on burnout. The “I can do it belief” and confidence in individuals’ capabilities to control life events are possi-bly personal resources that prepare self-efficacious individuals to interpret taxing job demands as challenges to be mastered, rather than threats to be avoided. Such an outlook is more likely to




reduce susceptibility to work stressors and lowers vulnerability to burnout. These findings concur with those of Skaalvik and Skaalvik (2010), which indicated a relationship between self-efficacy and burnout. These results suggest that organizations should consider increasing the self-efficacy levels of affected employees through mastery building (e.g., on- and off-site training, thinking through a problem, and networking with competent colleagues), encouragement from others, and constant feedback concerning aspects of task performance.

In terms of OBSE, the findings revealed a significant influence of OBSE on burnout. The find-ings suggest that positive self-perception and corresponding positive evaluation from the organiza-tion are valuable personal resources that can help individuals to cope with emotionally charged work environments. The findings are in line with those of Xanthopoulou et al. (2007) and Davis et al. (2004), which suggested that individual resources enhance adaptability to stressors. Hence, organizations should focus on providing employees with low levels of OBSE with job assignments that can help them to develop confidence in themselves as valuable members of the organization.

Regarding the influence of optimism on burnout, the findings confirmed a significant influence. It is likely that optimists hold positive expectations and remain confident about the future, and their personal reserves allow them to perceive difficult job tasks as challenges that can be overcome. This suggests that optimism may be a valuable personal resource to be considered in reducing burnout among employees since high levels of optimism predispose people to experience positive emotions which would counteract the negative moods and emotions associated with stress. This can be explained by the COR theory (Hobfoll, 2002) and previous findings in this area (Bateman & Crant, 1993; Harju & Bolen, 1998; Scheier et al., 2001).

Finally, the findings revealed that demographic variables (with the exception of tenure) do not appear to influence total burnout, emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accom-plishment. It is possible that paramilitary personnel with longer tenure have acquired more job resources at work, and these resources are used to buffer the impact of stress which reduces vulner-ability to burnout.

Conclusion

The findings indicated that EI, self-efficacy, OBSE, and optimism are significant predictors of burnout and its dimensions. The COR theory offers a theoretical explanation for the finding that personal resources are protective factors in coping with burnout among paramilitary personnel. It is, therefore, recommended that paramilitary and related organizations pay attention to the psycho-logical resources examined in this study when planning interventions to reduce burnout. Further research, with larger samples addressing age and gender, should be conducted to determine other psychological factors that could serve as personal resources in coping with burnout among para-military personnel. Additionally, research should also be conducted to explore the role of moderat-ing and mediating variables in the relationship between psychological resources and burnout.

Although this study attenuates the importance of the JD-R model and the COR theory in the development of burnout, some limitations are recognized. First, the cross-sectional nature of the data calls into question any inferences that could be made concerning the directionality of relation-ships. Another limitation of the study is the use of same-source data, which increases concern for common method bias.

Funding

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.




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burnout among paramilitary personnel in nigeria: a perspective from conservation of resources theory

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