copyright © houghton mifflin company. all rights reserved. 5–15–1 chapter five learning

Chapter Five

Learning

Did You Know That…

• A major form of learning was discovered by accident?

• Déjà-vu may be a learned response?• The founder of behaviorism made his mark

on the world of advertising by applying a form of learning first observed in studies of digestion in dogs?

Did You Know That… (cont’d)

• In an early study, a young boy learned to fear a white rat after experimenters repeatedly made loud noises by banging steel bars behind his head while the rat was present?

• Salivating to the sound of a tone may not be harmful, but salivating at the sight of a Scotch bottle may well be dangerous to people battling alcoholism?

• Pigeons show forms of superstitious behavior that psychologists believe are learned in much the same way as humans learn superstitious behavior?

• Many people develop fears of various creatures even though they have had no direct negative experiences with them?

Did You Know That… (cont’d)

Module 5.1

Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association

Module 5.1 Preview Questions

• What is learning?• What is classical conditioning?• What roles do extinction, spontaneous

recovery, stimulus generalization, discrimination, and higher-order learning play in classical conditioning?

• What stimulus characteristics strengthen conditioned responses?

Module 5.1 Preview Questions (cont.)

• What is the cognitive perspective on classical conditioning?

• What are some examples of classical conditioning in daily life?

What is Learning?

• A relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience.

• Has adaptive value.

• But how does learning occur?

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

• Accidental discovery while studying digestive processes in dogs.

• Discovered form of learning now called classical conditioning.– Learning by association.

Figure 5.1: Pavlov’s Apparatus

Figure 5.2: Diagramming Classical Conditioning

Figure 5.3: Strength of aConditioned Response

Figure 5.4: Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination

Figure 5.5: Higher-Order Conditioning

Stimulus Characteristics that Strengthen Conditioned Responses

• Frequency of pairings• Timing• Intensity of US

Cognitive Perspective

• Rescorla: Conditioning depends on the predictive information of the CS.

• Conditioned stimuli help us predict events in the environment.

• Important survival implications.

Figure 5.6: The Conditioningof “Little Albert”

Examples of Classical Conditioning

• Conditioned emotional reactions (CER)

• Phobias

• Positive emotions

• Drug cravings

• Conditioned taste aversions

• Immune system changes

Module 5.2

Operant Conditioning: Learning Through Consequences

• What is Thorndike’s Law of Effect?• What is operant conditioning?• What are the different types of reinforcers?• What are schedules of reinforcement, and how do

they differ?• How are schedules of reinforcement related to

learning?• Why are psychologists concerned about the use of

punishment?• What are some applications of operant conditioning?

Classical vs. Operant Conditioning

• Classical Conditioning: Learning results from the association between stimuli before a response occurs.

• Operant Conditioning: Learning results from the association of a response with its consequences.

Figure 5.7: Thorndike’s Puzzle Box

Thorndike’s Law of Effect

• The tendency of a response to occur depends on the effects it has on the environment.– Responses that have satisfying effects are

strengthened and more likely to occur again.– Responses that lead to discomfort are weakened

and less likely to occur again.

B. F. Skinner andOperant Conditioning

• Radical Behaviorism: Behavior is determined by environment and genetics.– Free will is an illusion or myth.

• Organisms learn responses that operate on the environment to produce consequences.– “Operant conditioning” or “instrumental learning”

Operant Conditioning

• Consequences of a response determines the likelihood that the response will occur again.

• Operant Response: The response itself.• Reinforcer: A stimulus or even that increases

the likelihood that the behavior it follows will be repeated.

• Superstitious Behavior: Coincidental association of a response and a reinforcement.

Figure 5.8: Discriminative Stimulusin a Skinner Box

Basic Principles of Operant Conditioning

• Discriminative Stimulus: A cue that signals reinforcement is available if a particular response is made.

• Types of Reinforcement– Positive: Reinforce by adding something pleasant.– Negative: Reinforce by removing something

unpleasant.

Figure 5.9: Types of Reinforcers

Primary vs. Secondary Reinforcers

• Primary Reinforcers: Reinforcers that are naturally rewarding because they satisfy basic biological needs or drives.

• Secondary Reinforcers: Reinforcers that develop their reinforcing properties because of their association with primary reinforcers.

Shaping

• Application of the method of successive approximations.

• Reinforce responses that are closer and closer to correct response

Schedules of Reinforcement

• When is reinforcement delivered?• Continuous Reinforcement: Every response is

reinforced.• Partial Reinforcement: Only a portion of the

responses is reinforced.– Ratio schedules: fixed or variable– Interval schedules: fixed or variable

Figure 5.10: Rates of Response Under Different Schedules of Partial Reinforcement

Source: Adapted from Skinner, B. F. (1961). Cumulative Record (3rd ed.) Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Escape and Avoidance Learning

• Escape Learning: Escape an aversive stimulus by performing an operant response.

• Avoidance Learning: Avoid an aversive stimulus by performing an operant response.

Punishment

• Consequence that weakens or suppresses a response– Removal of a reinforcing stimulus– Introduction of an aversive stimulus

Figure 5.11: Types of Punishment

Punishment

• Often confused with negative reinforcement• How are they different?

– Punishment • Introduces an aversive stimulus• Weakens a behavior

– Negative reinforcement• Removes an aversive stimulus• Strengthens a behavior

Drawbacks of Punishment

• May suppress but not eliminate undesirable behavior.

• Does not teach new behaviors.• Can have undesirable consequences.• May become abusive.• May provide inappropriate modeling.

Applications of Operant Conditioning

• Biofeedback training• Behavior modification

– Token economy program

• Programmed instruction– Computer-assisted instruction

Module 5.3

Cognitive Learning

• What is cognitive learning?• What is insight learning?• What is latent learning?• What is observational learning?

Cognitive Learning

• Learning that occurs without the opportunity of first performing the learned response or being reinforced for it.

• Involves mental processes that cannot be directly observed.

Insight Learning

• Wolfgang Köhler’s experiment with Sultan the chimp

• Insight Learning: Process of mentally working through a problem until sudden realization of problem occurs– The “Aha!” phenomenon

Figure 5.12: Tolman and Honzik’s Study of Latent Learning

Latent Learning

• “Hidden” learning occurs without reinforcement.– Learned behavior displayed only when reinforced.

• Tolman: The rats had developed a cognitive map of the maze.– Mental representation of maze.

Observational Learning

• Acquire new behaviors by imitating behaviors observed in others.– Also called vicarious learning or modeling.

• Become capable of behaviors even before have chance to do the behaviors ourselves.

• Modeling influences a wide range of behavior.

Module 5.4

Application: Putting Reinforcement into Practice

Module 5.4 Preview Question

• What steps are involved in applying reinforcement principles?

Applying Reinforcement

• Be specific.• Use specific language.• Select a reinforcer.• Explain the contingency.• Apply the reinforcer.• Track the desired behavior.• Wean from the reinforcer.

Giving Praise

• Make eye contact and smile.• Use hugs.• Be specific.• Reward effort, not outcome.• Avoid repeating yourself.• Don’t end on a sour note.

copyright © houghton mifflin company. all rights reserved. 5–15–1 chapter five learning

learning results

discovered form of learning

classical conditioningfigure

higherorder learning

thata major form of

learned response

stimulus generalization

conditioned stimuli

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