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Contributions from:

The Environment Working Group (GTA) (Grupo de Trabalho Ambiental)

.-»-">-

Ebenizario M.W. Chonguica-, Department of Geography, Faculty of Arts, Eduardo Mondlane University,.). rtr.„q r

Bernardo ...P. Ferraz,rr, Environment Division,v". National^ Institute c for Physical .Planning, National Planning Commission"^ . ~ .'{,'" : r , .',

Barbara Leite,. Environment Division, National ^Institute' * 'for Physical Planning', National.Planning Commission.

Mario R. Marques, Department of Land and Water, National Institute for Agronomy Research, ^ Ministry of Agriculture.

Alfredo V.R. Maisiriga, Fisheries Research Institute,:State Secretariat for Fisheries.*' K '" * *

Antonio M.lA.' Pedro7".National Institute of Geology, 'Ministry of Mineral .Resources. is.. . j. • u„ .

i

Inocencio^ Pereira,'•, .."Department of Geography,^FacultyTof .Arts, Eduardo Mondlané university.._ , < _;

J

With a s s i s t a n c e from: Oscar Marleyn,V ETC r ^Founda t ion , Consu l t an t s for Development-Programmes, Zimbabwe.

- "; * i ' ' • )

John Huttori, Faculty of Biology, Eduardo Mondlane University.

Translation to English from Portuguese: Frances Christie i

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CONTENTS . . v i ' t 1' j t l ur»

P r e f a c e . 3 * l i b :: ->idnA oaIt»d£>-tT 3'', o u n G )

,>»•

1 <2\ 2

, 2, '2-,

3.

3,

3,

3, 3,

i

4, 4

4, 4 4, 4, 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

2.4

1-.C' r Introduction « h , . » . '. 'I'.T.- •

?.;1 or ,.\i nod-

2.2.1

•r' .tr.-sLJ':S'J

Popu 1 at i'on, 'economic'' deve 1 opment and the environment . „ , r. . * Popu 1 at ion dynamics' and' deve 1 opment Part•icipat:ion"'bf„ the' 'population in' the national economy The role of different "economic sectors in formation of Gross Domestic Product Sectoral''structure Human settlements and' the" '. 'rural' environment l

Human settlements and the urban environment V

, . r - J - ^ - . • . . - • • • ;

'Industrial'activities and 'their impact on the environment The processing industry -j . and its effects'on the environment The+mining'industry.and its effects on the'environment The local environmental impact The energy sector .

Agriculture and agricultural resources Climatic influence on^ , , •-agricultural potential ( \ Rainfall 'and temperature,,' Evapo-tfanspiration potential Soil Soil erosion „. , .-.,, Soil^fertility ' , •. Water 'content of the soil Agro-ecological potential Degradation of agrarian resources Present 'situationJin Mozambique Family farming'**"'' Mechanised agriculture Livestock .• , ,

i i

-,vi i-i"1

-»rtv

> T ï ' ij . T

5. The use of water resources u - _« :t _ \ vt

5.1 The system of hydrological control 5.2cii r>r x Management^tof-(the international airi:t 3 0 nr r f.ailrv..i >rlf '•ir'-T . U: • hydrographicalabasins j, ; J.-,ao( J io'i yon3pi, :bipowio.; >rl.:

5.3 i.-rov: Actual, andnpptential. use^pf, Jf;-, >{d. 1m h - t. «;•.) Mic r m " BJ .:.water,.resources •.-.» nrf'.ai '1 ?i' ij.inn-j 'i-jxr! > , \'7ü) quoi^

5 4 4 J ; r Hydroragricultural use : yt; b-jJm . «JJ i in-»io : t i b ••Vi ni . i.'U "; • JJ :--iü a nl . o • &w ' . > rijmn • .> J r-.J J !.°-J-'-J; '

5.-3;. 2 vhji H y d r o - e l e c t r i c ;use ;. r , , » ^ j , ^ - <?, . Y-, >r . • l i n ï »•• 5.3.3 Urban and rural supply ..[<>. 5.3.4'r t,Use uof rinland^ f ishery Lr e sources^ 5 '• > %. „r>i • •,-> r>: 5.4 v, t Actual .and potential.r.enYironmental , t. it. v^J. rrimpact^pf\;the use of watery resources; - L o , 1 q - q c

5.;4..1VJ1~ r tAlterat'ion-fOfj.the,-! natural J order G 1 v ' n .. , • qi > nr: !J as.-? of water-systems, ^-.mouvnc S M ^ «J^J , . r -V 1'

5.;4.2. nl . P o l l u t i o n c o f ^ s u r f a c e w a t e r j n e i ,,.Jus ., , ,ti ^ , :1 Jti

6. . jnFragile, ecosystems, of ,the coasta^strip .,, , ,n f|i ,v 6.I1 yni.:> Fishery^resources^„. 3 U u p OJ rll.,.ja ; ^ , ,' , 6^2 [;1-;.,,it;The ecological impact, of >.the Cahora3Bassa , , t.,.. ,\;|

i:,. VJ!ÜI dam-t on-, fishing s,, •;,, n-, „ - 3rj •* , ,:jJ-f 6.3 ^ ,-o .«The effects of coastal _ development. :> •

b ;'.?.', , r.pn, thexecological systems . j • ,xo -1

6.3.1 Threatened ecosystems 6 .3 .2, j r, j The ..main causes^ of degradation cqf,,

. j«J:r.-iithefeicpsystems - .__,/,.- ,;l0iVr, :>; , ..;••' 6 4;j nt. ,bThenMozambique ChanneL0ü j a ;iQr, i £ -n - ,L 1<r , t tJ ., tf;

J\J, . b j : ! f •Ji:r»o:> : : f s i i .3 i 3sqa io- " ' :.^noq;i*yi h i r- . ' T I 7 ; 0 ,« : q,,, p r o t e c t i o n t and - { u t i l i s a t i o n o f w i l d l i f e . ., . , a i j . ..

. 7 . 1 . - W i l d l i f e i 0 j ^ ; , ,- s lc^^.oc; ,! , , u i ' i i , . - • . ; ' - i ' : i l . i L . " . 7 ; 2 t j , . - 4 N a t i o n a l p a r k s and r e s e r v e s , , ^ v.Vu.. ,. ; - • /• H 7 . ; 3 : ' ,-, The need» f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g ^ p r o t e c t e d ^ ^ , . . . j : j . n (

,r- • 1 • m a r i n e c a r e a s , , P , , , c . r,-, ~uj-^.' Ü *"'":•'. •« » °ri '• o j

c ' l i O ^ • • ' . , ! ' . . : , i f ' 1

i j '- -j .

.o

C o n c l u s i o n s -, .-> i l . - . -.i, V j l ^ j i v w t - d I ] ^ H ; O

O ^ . i j 1 0 ] - u ' ., _u n:•• .j ( ' ; . ' , . . , ! ' -.Bibliography

Indexnof authors •'-.:> .-T 5> rt > .-. > v^ ' 1 ' . '<i\ "1 <-" ' J 1 •> • r ' . . h j i , i f . ' j . b ' 0 •••- h , . j - . .

ei"**! 1 . .c H ' I - •••• - . ' . , / • : • * , . bl , / i r . .-.. r ; . ^ . j ;o-'-ANNEXES , 1 3 J : S , - J -J-,oi -e •_.' l o [ U ^ O

\

PIEFACE c—.•; .ii v-:.v ïr, >u-.r . ..

The realisation of this stüdy;was made possible' by-financing fromc the Norwegian Agency for Cooperation-foriDevelópmehfHNORAD) . The work was carried out by the recently-formed Environmental Working "* Group (GTA), which consists of technicia"hs^randJ*scirëhtists from different fields, united by their ' special^ interests "in issues-linked to the environment. It was on the basis of this inter­disciplinary teamwork that the elaboration^)'bf-)"thévYstudy 'wast possible. •'-.-:•'• i-'-itin bn. _u&6\ J , * ." *?

In the course of discussions on the^first'evaluation of Nthe ? work there was an alteration to the'ini"ti'alT aim, 'whi'cK was onlyc to prepare a preliminary study for* the Norwegian' Ministry of Cooperation for Development, containing" infbrmation^in different£ fields on the state of the environment in Mozambique; It was then agreed to draw up a document which would -bèrof interest to both «-countries and which would constitute a starting point for subsequent work in the field of: enviröhmëntaï':mahagëmént. «^

So the aim became to go beyond thé^simplë^'gathering of information, indicating also' potential-'-' darig~ers ~* concerning & destruction of the environment and1" presenting -^ relevant conclusions. All the information at the disposal-of-the GTA was 9 worked on, and more specialists from different'fieldsrwere asked to collaborate. ^ '•••'•' - - :' ' "j" ' "'- :

Despite these efforts, this study still'dóes not give a complete picture of the environmental si'tfuatiorP-xh' Mozambique. This is a result of a lack of up-to-date infórmatiónsarid, on the'' other hand, a limited response from specialists consulted. In some aspects it was thus only^possible -to "work 'withcëxamples ofN

countries in conditions comparable to that of Mozambique. • - • However the study offers 'all those interested 'an:'all-round^*

picture of the environmental' situationï^irf Mozambique ; 'in relation" to the most important natural resources and- economic -^activities. The^object of the exercise is, above all, to create one of the conditions necessary for the definition of an1 environment policy •• for Mozambique and to open up a forum for discussion and beneficial exchange of views while buildingYpubliciawareness and opinion on the subject of the environment.

This study is the first version of*an^ongoing effort which should unfold with constantly improving form and content, with more research and more data revealing more of the essence and detail of the subject matter. • 23?:31T!.A

A

• • » -

» A

r ^

»*?. v.. I

FIGURE 1

ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISION

KEY , '

International border Provincial border

• ... National Capital • Provincial Capital

i t ' \

' . : j'

r !• f

ESC AL A 1:6 .800.000 Des: P Maciel/Pted/e60l7

8 8 O 24GKms

1. IITBODOCTIQB

i?trtt iun p T i v i i i . o fix C J V I J 0 9 [ V 'iV^jauo quo iD -»rfï r.Ufit The p r o b l e m a t i c of r a t i o n a l u s e of n a t u r a l , r e s o u r c e s and^ c o n s e r v a t i o n of t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a r e a m a t t e r of s p e c i a l jriJ Ï O t,~ie>: i üiiJ "J i \ a v i a s y i b f a m i L r i q £» 3>iÉim o j i l

i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e p r e s e n t s t a g e of h u m a n k i n d ' s d e v e l o p m e n t , i f arjr.nt>y I n '{Iq^nir axa&c' irii no , ;apidiibM>.' ni Jn^mnoixvna we a c c e p t a s a p r e m i s e t h e a c t i v a t i o n of e c o n o m i c - p r o d u c t i v e sno r\j. , ii- xrl*» .iui Jx TntuoJoob bnii g f j a n s i s i o i ornqf.ic;>.i i axd p r o c e s s e s which e n s u r e s u s t a i n a b l e economic and s o c i a l

, n o i J a j u p s , rf i no 101 j urn o i'n ' ^ ' i v o i q . ,Tt'jfi tons. i-«"> {""•" d e v e l o p m e n t . -*•* ,. - . yri'i nii ;iOi •'•>£- «iiu'Ui lul -'..i: l6bn9«.039-i rnoH ^ji-.lu-no* ui (-

It is known that the economic and social process of stems • vi.i)3nfs3ai9bnu onxn.hboW "*& i>--nt> 'rni**') muirbcm bat J'C r...> from the intensification of the relationship^ between humanity and

; bf: f ? i irab v aflieiooi^ ? ions t oni srt":f ïo anb iworiA im^ nature in the productive process, based on the application of nt.«-> J "i~i -n i. I q IOS ibfs lr • n. •'ui ygo ' ouu'l J^H OIIL>:"IO* t> n. JJ ox It technological and productive systems increasingly perfected

. .T-:.1 ,-XM lo « ibairf 'tuo {ii.h> c.j through the new technical-scientific achievements that are

continuously evolving to be used by society. , \hi.ja .'n--i<: ' 'J , ua Li-jcui.-i ü'.V; J j-: ; Ü O jrfcf ridiV;

However, these anthropogenic intrusions into the natural . i'j-U'bonq -..VJ (Uij.ru. o :iJ'/J..o-vi XX a fc.iinx'Ê ïnoö

environment cause interruptions in the cycles of energy and noitGiuqoq hi..„ n > -v \i^::i":".'j iri'l a: g^uaaiu i JqErl* Jaixï jn-i specific materials" in the natural systems (perfect feedback brii mrji;uTJa tmn-jx ixbnoo y i ' .ox ïodf ' n t... J oJ r>-3>tnii tfa if.'tostjg.j systems), which in turn has a considerable effect on ecological^ Toi sno ' Jfooi Iqr:"1; J rH prt cey ' 6Ü J , Yi'.ono'js nv.üiJ.jn èrij io óinfcavï productivity as such, 'with the concomitant economic and social

*!.tintj l6.''cj--qê» etsisqtM srid n x JntJfiinouvnj 3n3 1c «I:>*S:JC 9flj implications. / !->xi jt-'r'n f oi bsJnii paiMdc-1 ; aagauoa'b i^tqrio bnoosa arlT

Problems such as deforestation and desertification, erosion «srH no joGqmi I*> t tr^Joq bns ^nsiiuo ?Jx bne ,ioi}3Lr;oi4 and reduction in soil fertility, the eutrophication of water-•3fij **o i'lrsldoiq •i.-Ii --'n aauool •£'-i'li&'1 .'io * ••"!'",,iih _rJT . . --" -. ;vi' based ecosystems and the pollution of the sea constitute only a ol >/sh'' pna'rfoi' - s bn- ïo'u-^n . rl 1 nf r; -:, ;^x ^Vj 1.3 ilxr. few bitter examples' wel1-known to humanity, with grave effects airylftib '-l!J:".-i -4. J \ . 'Sl-tr: o n*»d < X ll^ubnx *u noij'T.o .:. '• on ecological-economic productivity, particularly amongst the ,1 ,-iU' "*' ir-'l -at <M -si'iiT'd irc':«'<vja 3r .; ^.iw lii^i a —' 1 ^ >

developing countries. . jriic'^-M *• 3c ff:i r.n no-J n 1>ni

Considering those aspects already mentioned and with the aim p .I.Ujn •v.-ftfil i jj1'.?;. ,. r-.v ' 1 ;i''..-!i..'.r| hixri . srlJ" .-il

of stimulating some reflection on such question as: •.-,i.,"i«^-,!i <•'->. '••; , r.t • :* bro'j '.:,.... j *i r :.'r - * o + " > a i'Siuil.j')'.it's '»''*

the state of the environment in Mozambique; -". * • . *i i -i'. " P»r 'i\-',-'~<. • r •' li-ran-in f s'lTri iX»c f - p^

what implications do environmental problems have for • -.. t- ,' \.in <•* i. bu • >-' •."'' . 1 » ^ti ti or) f ip!i nx >;

the socio-economic condition of the people? what factors/processes taken together constitute the

. 1 H "; :" .' a 'r> .-1 L'v. •> +>'.t i; • r o \ la.,r'o i'.' f»r or!i causal agents of the main environmental problems?

- _•.-•:* n J 1; . ..>••-. :-)-\ ,~.-J ':-; .iijo;' 'Mb Jn^;';-q 3fl bnft ~'.i jri .I--. -">[' ..,-'/' .-u *.' -jj'iju ~> fc-ft *::.*.w n&^i-i • f'dod in

The Environment Working Group was prepared to carry out this £:.».. do . : ..tn .1-. 1 rVr j 1 1: qtt'fo in'-' nx noiij ".nsifi study, without however holding any expectation of providing

...t'.'-c.d o ' r :ioo-'c>-' 1 ,n-.'1s> i • .'< \± 9*1+ nixv. aaijboM.iÉ rounded answers to the range of questions raised.

Thus the Group's central objectives in carrying out this

study were:

1) to make a preliminary survey of the state of the • ' « • • . n ' > ' ' ' •• • ' " - ' • - • ' ' ' • " - ' • ' ' ' • ' ' -

environment in Mozambique, on the basis simply of various bibliographic references and documentation which, in one

'.-. • , " " • o,d'.n.-u':..;M '_;-'.j»jfV- . •'.*". ' i-.. :•"•••

way or another, provide information on this question;

2) to formulate some recommendations for future action (in the : . .-,(-,•-. j t i o n e - + ,••. n v ,. i J J i

short and medium term) aimed at broadening understanding • ; ,! \ ' , . - , . . • : ' . . ' . : ;*• . • . . • " . . I T O I . ; ».- J'

and knowledge of* the most serious problems identified; a . . '->• • , . • - - j - * • ,• ' '• J - t ; • i • < • ' *

3) to test a working methodology for an interdisciplinary team ' -, > - • . ' • ) - • : . •.• • :- . i -» k i Or ..:

to carry'out studies of this type.

With the objectives defined thus, the present study, '• . •-« • T . .', it: i : r . - .;:•'•* •

containing six separate chapters, was produced. ,U ... .. ' ' 'J, ' ,'•• J.T . .1.1 -. . '

The first chapter discusses the demographic and population aspects as linked to the historically conditioned structure and

dynamic of the national economy, analysing the implications for \ ' > i. . .. , . *• .: • , u : • o i q

the state of the environment in the separate special units.,' ' "•

The second chapter discusses problems linked to industrial M - i u . •-. .-• X

production and its current and potential impact on the • : . - . . . . j i . . •_. - t ^ - . .

environment. The discussion mainly focuses on the problems of the

extractive industry in this respect and on problems related to

the location of industry in urban centres. A thorough analysis

of this field was not possible because of the lack of current

information on these problems.

In the third chapter, the analysis centres fundamentally on

the agricultural sector. The natural conditions which determine

agricultural production are discussed and after outlining the , t j - n . , - , t •>... - . i .

main agricultural systems practised in the country, a survey of their current environmental problems is presented.

: .. . .; t* J i '

s The next chapter covers the exploitation of water resources

and the present and potential environmental impact in the case

of both surface water and ground-water. Another point of < * . ! . ; • • ! 'J. • i .~r...: ;

discussion in this chapter is the environmental problems . . . . . . * . • , ' • ' • ' ' -->•"• i ; v ' . u i . *

associated with the international hydrographic basins.

6

: *• • The 'fifth chapter is directed-towards^'an analysis of the

ecosystems of the country's coastal zones, including marine

resources in terms of their potential state, systems of

exploitation and'th'eir observable and potential' environmental

impact. • l *! ï '•'»'•' ',n«> '•• I;'- <<-••'' •*: — • -->_-bo,i

The chapter which follows present's1 an -'analysis'-'of' the

problematic of the National Parks and Reserves in terms of their

inventories ;'5J present state arfd their ' importance for the

preservation of • natural resources as we'll as f or Scientific

studies and research.

jjfi. i Final-Iy, some'"cone 1 us ions are formulated on the basis'óf the

survey-made and a number of recommendations are presented.

£•_> --if ig stressed, however, that' since :it is not the ' normal

practice of national institutions which directly or indirectly

gather and maintain data on natural resources, many of the

analyses do not present quantified parameters. On the other hand,

many of the observations of environmental risk are presented in

terms of'""'potential with- regard to the' experience of- other

countries in' 'comparison ' with the 'development trends in

Mozambique. " • "" / ~ -

rr... - ; .-r, • -.- „ ,15 •.. '- ' i :

< ' '• ^ D ' . v I . ' •

i- . .1 ( •

2 . P O P U L A T I O B , E C O t l O n i C D E V E L O P f l E S T A D D T H E E I V I It O 9 fl E Q T

' ' f , ' • > . • : •.

Amongst all the factors that intervene in the process of material

production, the population assumes particular importance to the

extent that it represents: ,

_ , , i). the subject of material production

ii) the link between the, different economic, .sectors

iii) the main consumer of production.- , , .

•• • Since this is so and because the process of economic

development results essentially from the quality of the relations

established between humanity and nature, the need becomes clear

for proper qualitative and quantitative characterisation of the

population variable,in planning models and systems in order to

optimise the economic and productive returns with a minimum of

damage to the productivity of natural ecosystems. t Sj

Humanity's action to dominate nature has today reached such

magnitude that one can observe that economic activity has begun

to exert a significant influence on the dynamic of nature.. This

results in the creation of a state characterised by a total lack

of harmony between the natural processes and the social and

productive ones, with all the negative economic and geological

implications that are current in various countries and regions

of the world.

Problems such as deforestation, desertification, the rapid

degradation and erosion of the soil and eutrophication of water-

based ecosystems are but a few examples of the anthropogenous

shocks to the equilibrium of natural ecosystems. Their impact on

economic development and the social well-being of the community

(particularly in developing countries) is a matter of grave

concern.

To analyse the present situation in Mozambique with regard

to the relationships between the population, economic development

and the environment is no easy exercise, given the country's

extremely complex situation and its enormous difficulties in

terms of accessibility to a whole range of basic data on human

activity and the characteristics of the natural ecosystems.

2.1. POPULATION DYNAMICS AND DEVELOPMENT n . t , . >

The total number of "the Mozambicah population has been increasing

at, ever more rapid rates of growth, as can be observed from the

data presented in the table below. - ' ' '-.,:•"

- n * ' • - - . i ' I

Table 1: Population totals and growth (1950 to 1985)

Year Total population C

(x 1,000 inhab)

Average annual increase.

' (x 1,000 inhab")

Growth, rate (%)

1950 6,465.5 --. 1

1955 6,953.7 , . 97.6 ,. • 4

1.5

1960 7,595.3 r; - ,

128.3 1.8

-1965 ,, 8,406.8 162.3 2.0

1970 9,407.7 200.2., * .2.3

1975 10,627.V * 243.9 .'' 2 • 4

1980 ,12,130.0 , . 300.5 ,2.6

1985 13,809.7 >335.9 . ' .. J 2 . 6 •«

Source: Infofmacad Estatistica: National Planning Commission/1985

This, pattern of the trend in the overall numbers of the

Mozambican population is caused by a series of socio-economic and

demographic factors which, at different stages, affected the

dynamic of^the vital indicators (birth and death rates), as well

as the scale#and direction of population movements.

f In relation to the parameters for determining pppulation

growth, a summary of the vital indicators used at national level

and to distinguish between the urban and the^ rural areas between

1975 and 1980 is shown in the following table.

9

Table 2: Vital indicators

Country as a whole

Urban Rural

Global fertility rate 6.42 5.72 6.93

Birth rate (per 1,000) 47.01 41.03 48.00

Death rate (per 1,000) 20.06 13.00 21.08

Infant mortality rate (per 1,000) 159.00 130.00 183.00

Life expectancy (years) 43.60 48.70 39.1

Source: Inf ormacao Estatistica: National Planning Commission/1985

An analysis of these demographic indicators clearly points

to the low socio-economic level prevalent in the country, more

seriously in the rural areas.

The relatively high rate of population growth obviously has

implications for society's levels of demand for basic

necessities, which logically signifies the need to expand

production activities and areas of habitation.

As happens in all the countries of the world, the increase

in the levels of satisfaction of the basic needs of the

population in line with the growth in the number of the

population requires ever higher levels of exploitation of natural

resourcesl(expansion of farming areas, greater incorporation of

mineral and agricultural raw materials in industry, increased

energy consumption, extension of water supply capacity etc.),

resulting in greater pressure on natural resources.

Where such pressure occurs without the necessary measures

being taken in terms of environmental conservation through the

application of environmentally sound technology and systems, the

levels of degradation of natural resources rise greatly, with

their consequent negative effects on economic productivity as

such.

10

In the developing countries in general and in Mozambique in

particular, given the fragility of their economic systems, the

possibility of applying such measures becomes really remote when

counterpoised against the need to increase production because of

the rapid population growth. This results in the deplorable

factors which include high rates of deforestation,

desertification and degradation of the soil, with their

consequent impact on the productivity of agriculture and 'the

socio-economic levels of the communities.

With regard to the distribution of the population by

province, this is shown in the following table based on the 1980

population census.'

Table 3: Population and population density by province (1980 census)

Province Area!km2) Total population 1980

Density (per krr\2)

Cabo Delgado 82,625 940,000 ' 11.4

Niassa 129,055 514,100 4.0

Nampula 81,606 2,402,700 29.4

Tete 100,724 83i<000 8.3

Zambezia 105,008 2,500,200 . 23.8

Sofala 68,018 1,023,879 15.0

Manica 61,661 641,200 10.4

Inhambane 68,615 997,600 14.5

Gaza 75,705 990,900 13,1

Maputo 25,756 491,800 19.1

Maputo City 602 755,800 1,255.5

Total 799,370 12,130,000 15.2

Source: Panorama Demografico/1980 Census Coordinating Council

J. 11

This table shows that, given the provincial differences in . • i • . . . ' " . . • • i. i . . • •> - j

population, the pressure by the population on the various types i . . • - ' i • '• '

of natural resources is spatially very differentiated, as the n > '. ' . i . •• .-.

density.indicators suggest.

As can be seen in figure 2, the most complete map of the

spatial distribution of the population, . the country is

characterised by a high concentration of inhabitants along the

coastal strip, as well as in the main river valleys, the most,

suitable areas for farming, considering the techniques available

to the .broad.mass of the people. They are areas with relatively .

lighter soils and without major scarcity of water and thus, more,

easily tilled using rudimentary cultivation tools.

However, the impact of the war of destabilisation caused a

significant spatial redistribution of the population as a result

of the security factor. Thus, the new areas of population

settlement vare not always the most suitable for the development

of productive activities. At the same time, besides the high

concentration of population found there, these new human

settlements have not always been the result of proper systems of

planning and.. selection of the sites most suitable for their

establishment.

The disruption in security terms caused by destabilisation

has generated high mobility in' human settlements in the rural

areas, notably in the increase in the number of centres for

displaced people or of people classified as affected

1 Population who, while living in their home area, have their productive and social life affected by frequent attacks.

KT.

'S'.

FIGURE 2 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

OF THE POPULATION - 1980 t -

* KEY ^

SYMBOL .DENSITY (Inhab/l<m2)

<5 K-

21 - 40

6 -"10

1 1 - 2 0

41 - 80

>80

SOURCE: Araüjo, Manuel, 1986, The system- • of communal villages in Mozambique

/•.

«• ir *r

•r

10»

>*•

F1G. 2

STRIBUIQAO GEOGRAFICA

POPULAQAO - 1980

LEGENDA

FONIE: Araujo, Manuel , 1986. O Sistana

das Aldeias

DENS1DQDE (hab/Krn?)

11 - 20

21 ~ 40

41 - 80

> 80

AF*. DO SUL Ccnunais en Msgaibique

Jo* j f J«' *<r

ESCALA 1:B.BOO.OOO Des: F. Ventura BB O

uuuuut_ 2 4BKm»

JO*

!»•

14

There is today a significant influx of people seeking better

security conditions along the main undertakings in terms of

infrastructure and transport projects designated as "corridors",

as well as in the main provincial and some district capitals.

Thus it becomes very difficult to present reliable data on

the current patterns of population distribution by province and

district. However, estimates of this information, published by

the National Executive Commission for the Emergency in

collaboration with the United Nations (1989) are shown in table

4.

Table 4: Distribution of affected and displaced population (by province), 1989

Province Population Province

Total* (inhab)

Displaced Affected

Province

Total* (inhab) inhab % inhab %

Maputo 1,850,000 173,300 9.4 224,900 12

Gaza 1,200,000 38,500 3.0 657,800 55

Inhambane 1,310,000 187,900 14.0 425,000 32

Sofala 1,242,000 125,000 10.0 195,000 16

Manica 764,000 93,100 12.0 147,500 19

Tete 1,010,000 97,000 9.6 125,000 12

Zambezia 3,078,900 538,900 17.5 334,900 12

Nampula 2,943,000 200,500 7.0 535,900 18

Nias sa \

635,000 199,300 31.0 119,380 19

Cabo Delgado 1,134,000 36,400 3.0 79,400 7

Total 15,166,000 1,689,900 11.0 2,874,700' 19

* Estimate of the total population of the country as of mid 1989. These data include one million Mozambicans displaced outside the country.

Source: The Emergency Situation in Mozambique; United Nations and The Mozambican Government, 1989.

15

The proportion of the population displaced and/or affected

is very large in the provinces of Gaza, Niassa, Inhambane and

Manica, where it accounts for more than 30 per cent. These new

densely concentrated human settlements raise the question of

pressure on natural resources and/or socio-economic

infrastructure with a high degree of urgency.

Looking at the composition of the current influx into the

major . cities in terms of sex and age-group, there is a

significant predominance of young males.

It can thus be deduced that the women, the elderly and

children predominate among the rural population. The paths^_to

economic development must be specifically adapted to the local

conditions and to the available labour force.

2.2 PARTICIPATION OF THE POPULATION IN THE NATIONAL ECONOMY

2.2.1 THE ROLE OF DIFFERENT ECONOMIC SECTORS IN FORMATION OF GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT

The influence of the main economic sectors (agriculture, industry

and services) on the formation of the Gross Domestic Product

(GDP) has fluctuated over the years, as shown in the following

table.

Table 5: Distribution of the GDP by sectors (constant 1980 prices in US$)

\ ITEM

YEAR \

GDP Total

Population , GDP per

Capita US$

SECTORS

Total EAP

Medium GDP per EAP

\ ITEM

YEAR \

GDP Total

Population , GDP per

Capita US$

AGRICULTURE INDUSTRY SERVICES Total EAP

Medium GDP per EAP

\ ITEM

YEAR \

GDP Total

Population , GDP per

Capita US$

GDP Total

EAP Total

GDP Total

GDP Total

EAP Total

GDP EAP

GDP Total

EAP Total

GDP EAP

Total EAP

Medium GDP per EAP

1970 1980 1983 1985

2,617 2,167 1,720 1,659

9,408 12,130 13,110

x 13,810

278 179 131 120

495 791 826 647

2,140 4,750 4,950 5,140

231 166 167 126

480 401 241 216

375 390 395 385

1,280 1,028

610 561

1,642 975 653 796

415 433 475 455

3,957 2,252 1,375 1,749

2,930 5,573 5,820 5,980

893 389 296 277

Difference -959 4,402 -158 + 152 +3,000 -105 -264 + 10 -719 -846 + 40 -2,208 +3,050 -616

Growth rate (GR)

-3 2.6 -5.45 + 1.8 + 6 -4 5.2 -0.18 -5.35 -4.7 + 0.62 -5.3 4.87 -7.5

Source: Lisker, P., 1987, Project FAO MOZ/81/051

16

According to the information provided in the rtable, it can be

noted that while the population increased at an annual rate of

2.6% in that period (1970 to 1985), the GDP fell by 3%.

The specific share of the agricultural sector in the

formation of the GDP rose from 19% in 1970 to 39%, with an annual

average rate of increase of 1.8%, even with the fluctuations in

the absolute values in each five-year period.

The industrial sector has fallen most in importance in the

formation of the GDP, with an average annual decrease of about

5.2%. .

The service sector (the most important in the GDP) likewise

saw its role decreasing in this period, falling from*63% to 48%.

The levels of progression of the national GDP, compared with

the increase in the total population, determine constantly

decreasing levels of per capita income, which fell from US$278

in 1970 to some US$120 in 1985.

The GDP by sector, compared with the evolution of the

economically active population (EAP) by sector, reveals a

significant decrease in productivity of the EAP, with the minor

exception of the industrial sector.

17

Table 6: Distribution of the GDP per capita and of the by sector (constant 1980 prices in US$)

ITEM

YEAR

Adjusted

Total

Population

(million)

National GDP

GDP Participation by sector ITEM

YEAR

Adjusted

Total

Population

(million)

Total

(million)

% Agriculture Industry Service

ITEM

YEAR

Adjusted

Total

Population

(million)

Total

(million)

%

(mill.) % (mill.) % (mill.) %

1970 GR 1975 GR 1980 GR 1985

9.407 2.47 10.627 2.68 12.130 2.63 13.810

2.617 -4.30 2.100 +0.63 2.167 -5.20 1.659

100

100

100

100

0.495 -1.37 0.462

+11.35 0.791 -3.94 0.647

19.0

22.0

36.5

39.0

0.480 -4.67 0.3 78 + 1.19 0.401

-11.64 0.216

18.0

18.0

18.5

13.0

1.642 -5.16 1.260

-5.00 0.975 -3.98 0.795

63

60

45

48

GR 70-85

2.60 3.00 + 1.80 -5.18 -4.71

Source: Lisker, P., 1987, Project FAO MOZ/81/051

This table reveals a very low socio-economic profile and it

is thus easily understood that in the case of the agricultural

sector the poor levels of productivity are determined by the

prevailing destabilisation and the relatively undeveloped

technology that it is possible to apply. Such levels of per

capita income can contribute little or nothing to raising

agricultural production to accompany the expanding demand caused

by the rate of population growth.

2.2.2 SECTORAL STRUCTURE 1

The distribution of the population by sector of activity

according to the 1980 census is characterised by a v. high

concentration in agriculture, with some 85.3% of the total EAP,

followed by the service sector with 7.7% and lastly by industry

with 7% (table 7).

18

This is obviously a characteristic in common with the other

developing countries and more specifically those in Africa.

The sectoral structure of the economically active population

has profound implications for the economic dynamic, of the

country, both for the present and in terms of future prospects.

The current rate of population growth and its effects on the

annual increase of the EAP and the real capacity to generate

employment may cause the .severe economic distortions to continue

in the immediate future.

j

Table 7: Economically active population AEAP) by sector

Year EAP (10M AEP by Sector <10»)

Year Male Female Total Agriculture Industry Services

1960 1.97 2.21 4.18 2.98 0.36 0.84

1980 2.62 2.95 5.50 4.75 * 0.39 - 0.43'

1985 - - 5.98 5.14 0.385 0.455

Growth rate(%)

, . - - 1.44 2.20 0.27 -2.4 .

Source: Lisker, P., 1987, Project FAO MOZ/81/051

j . The country's current financial limitations do not

facilitate the application of the economic axiom of

differentiating employment through investments which permit the

absorption of the labour force in sectors other than agriculture.

Thus a situation is created where there is a strong concentration

of the EAP in this sector (agriculture), without a corresponding

real increase in the sector's productivity. Many people in the

rural areas, however, possess inadequate working tools, which

represents a cheap way of occupying the EAP, but with negative

economic impact.

-\

On. the other hand, the implementation óf measures aimed at

diversifying employment requires strong investment and'management

capacity. •

Therefore, apart from the private investment anticipated'in

certain- sectors', the central planning" of directed ' investments,

the industrial production of basic consumer goods and the revival

of commerce and of family farming would appear to be the only

answer to solving the problem of the extremely low standard of

living of the population, to better use of the available and

accessible natural resources and to increasing the role of

agriculture in the national economy.

r

2.3 ' HUMAN SETTLEMENTS AND THE RURAL ENVIRONMENT

I -'• • '

Structured rural settlements based on the extended family have

experienced many changes, both from having to adapt to colonial

policies .and in the post-independence period with the policy of

socialisation of the countryside through the communal village

programme.

This latter feature, despite its various advantages, did not

achieve success because of the problems of destabilisation, in

addition to the irregularities committed in the process of

implementation. Aspects such as the proper scale and physical

size of the structure in relation to the present and future size

of the population; the optimisation of the location with regard

to the potential of agro-ecological resources, access to sources

of water and to energy resources are but a few examples of the

variables that were not always duly considered in the communal

villages project.

The environmental problems of rural human settlements are

more significant where there are centres for displaced people.

The immediate food and energy needs of the communities already

in existence there result in heavy pressure on the forestry

resources and the soil.

20

In the rural areas with better., security, given the

possibilities for developing some existing production, there is . .1 ~ ~ • * •

_a heavy concentration^ of population which, allied to the

rudimentary cultivation techniques, means /that there are few

possibilities for applying the most elementary norms for' the

exploitation of land resources in order, to guarantee their

conservation.

At the same time, the heavy concentration of population in

geographical space which is in a certain way limited and without

the necessary infrastructure for proper environmental hygiene

could have serious effects on the health of the community.

The precarious housing, nutritional and productive situation

in these human settlements provides suitable conditions for the

spread of" potentially epidemic diseases while there are scarce

resources to combat them. • j i .. '. • •

The present state of the rural environment requires field work to be carried out to determine in greater detail the

• ' . . • • . • > * - , i . . . i . ' • • - •

magnitude of the problems. /,,

" • \ ' • • • J. •• • • • •

2.4 HUMAN SETTLEMENTS AND THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT

The intense influx of people to the towns and cities from the

countryside is not a new phenomenon, since this type of

population flow is very common whenever there are spatial

imbalances in terms of socio-economic, development levels and of

the possibilities of satisfying the basic needs of the people in

the rural and urban areas.

With reference to the impact of this influx on the urban

environment (provincial and district capitals and other towns),

it results from the incompatibility created between the swelling

population and the continuous reduction in the capacity of

infrastructure in the urban areas. The possibilities of providing

housing, energy, water and social services such as education,

health care, commerce and transport become extremely complex.

21

Thus the heavy population pressure on infrastructure is

accompanied by galloping degradation of the urban environment.

Taking the current situation in Maputo City as the point of

reference, the following list summarises the urban problems with

negative effects on the quality of the environment: i f "

a) Deterioration of buildings given the heavy population

pressure and the poor or non-existent maintenance

services;

Studies carried out by the Ministry of Commerce in

1988 - survey on the nutritional situation in Maputo

City - recorded an indicator of 6.8 persons per room'

as the average rate of occupation of housing in this

city.

b) Deterioration of the plumbing systems given the

continual interruptions to or total lack of water

supply;

This situation' has an effect on systems of domestic

drains and drainage infrastructure, with its

consequent impact on public health.

c) Lack of 'a regular urban garbage collection and

disposal system;

This is characterised by a shortage of suitable

domestic dustbins and of an overall system for the

removal of urban rubbish. Dumps are established

without the necessary conditions of pre-treatment or

separation of different types of rubbish, some of

which should be incinerated and not simply deposited

or burned in the open air. Hospital waste should be

specially treated. The impact on health of this

situation is evident. " •;

d) The release of domestic and industrial effluent into

the Bay of Maputo without prior treatment;

! Room is understood to mean each of the divisions in a house or flat, except for the kitchen and bathroom.

22

Before the construction of the Maputo drainage system

and its associated treatment station, this situation

caused the pollution of the Bay of Maputo.

Fishing and recreational . activities are still

prohibited in some parts. „

e) Significant reduction in the areas of forest around

. - the city as a result of the heavy demand for firewood;

This aspect has influenced the ever-increasing

distances to the energy sources (firewood) with

r.•- .•- repercussions on the price of this fuel in the urban

i 'markets, which, in turn has an impact on the family

.<;.., budget'.

• .-" In these circumstances, the proportion of the family

budget spent on energy is very high for the majority

of the population, thus diminishing the possibilities

for higher domestic .spending; on quantitative and

qualitative improvements to the diet, which ,is not

very good to begin with.

f) Rapid increase in the area built up with housing made

of non-durable materials and without any previously

established urban plan;

As a direct consequence of the security problems in

the rural areas, this phenomenon could in some cases

have implications for planning for urban

infrastructure, should there be no proper organisation

in the new housing areas.

All the problems raised here, although specific to Maputo

City, will be to some degree similar in the provincial capitals,

with specific differences in relation to each region. However,

it should be noted that in some cases the seriousness of the

problems could be more acute in the surrounding neighbourhoods

and in the various capitals than in Maputo City.

A study carried out by the Ministry of Industry and Energy and the Beijer Institute found that among the population sample 60 to 90% of the family budget was spent on domestic energy in 1985.

3. IIDOSTRIAL A C T I V I T I E S AID THEIR IHPACT OB THE EIVIROI1EIT

The industrial sector is characterised by the fact that it is of

minor importance with regard to the level of employment of the

economically active population (7% in 1980). In terms of the

composition and scale of the industrial plant, 'it can be noted

that light industry (food, textiles, clothing, footwear etc.) is

predominant, while there is some extractive industry which does

not go beyond the stage of primary transformation. There is

practically no heavy industry.

This pattern is the result of the whole policy of colonial

domination, which as a matter of principle deprived the colonies

of an economic sector capable of providing a degree of autonomy

in terms of production capacity for equipment, within the

framework of the capitalist international division of labour.

Thus the classification of the industrial sector in

Mozambique, with a brief identification of the respective sub-

sectors, is as follows:

- a) light industry

b) extractive industry - Moatize coal Montepuez marble Zambezia semi-precious stones construction materials in Maputo, Beira and Nacala

c) heavy industry - engineering ship repairs petroleum refining cement/construction

, v - hydro- and thermal energy.

food textiles clothing footwear electrical materials

2 4

• .: - j " __ i ••

In terms of spatial division, • the industrial plant is :heavily

concentrated in the country's main urban centres, 'with the

exception of the extractive sub-sector obviously. it'

In this sector, including the extraction of lime, stone,

sand, salt and, coal, 45% of' the activity is1 concentrated in

Maputo province and 10% in Tete province, which represents all

the mining of coal.at Moatize (table 8).

Table 8: Location of industry in Mozambique (calculated on the value of production in 1973) .

Province

Distribution of industry (%)

Province Extractive Food TextiT industry industry clothing and

tanning industry

Gaza — . 9 _

i'Inhambane - 1 -

Manica 4 1 26 Maputo 45 31 24 Nampula 10 16 18

. Sofala 26 22 14 Tete 10 - 1 Zambezia 2 11 11

Source: calculated on the basis of industrial statistics, 1973 Statistics Service, PRM, 1976

Analysing the location of productive capacity in heavy and

light industry, it can be seen that:

53% of the food industry is in Maputo and Beira, 50% of the textile industry is in Chimoio and Maputo, 83% of the paper industry is in Maputo and 95% of the chemical industry is in Maputo.

4 This information is based on installed capacity in 1973. It does not include the MABOR factory (Maputo), TEXLOM (Matola) or IFLOMA (Chimoio), built in the 1980s.

25

The impact of the war and of economic destabilisation have

meant that only a small part of the installed capacity is used.

Levels of production have fallen drastically in recent years

(table 9) . '' T

Table 9: Evolution of the volume of industrial production (1975 - 1986)

Branch 1975 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986

Petroleum * 100 177 117 126 75 30 0 0 Chemicals ** 100 222 215 199 0 9 5 0 Textiles *** 100 166 276 252 225 238 134 115 Clothing 100 100 90 93 117 121 89 61 Extractive industry 100 88 102 150 230 102 — —

* excluding propane gas ** excluding electrodes and explosives *** excluding blankets

Source: Informacao Estatistica, 1986, _ National Planning Commission, National Statistics Directorate, 1987

3.1 THE PROCESSING INDUSTRY SDB-SECTOR AND ITS EFFECTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT

In terms of the environmental impact of industrial production as

a whole, Mozambique may be regarded as a country without major

problems because the degree of industrialisation is practically

insignificant and the levels of production are low.

However, industry is situated in the urban centres (Maputo-

Matola and Beira) in the midst of a vast concentration of

population which is constantly and rapidly growing, given the

urban influx from the countryside. The bulk of the plant is old,

with obsolete equipment and systems of technology. Production

takes place without the minimum of regulations to protect the

population against environmentally dangerous waste, such as the

emission of solid, liquid or gaseous effluent.

Under these circumstances, certain specific industries could

have a strong impact on the state of health of the population

living in the urban areas.

26

The textile and paper industries should warrant careful

study with regard to the treatment of their specific waste

products (caustic soda in the former and cellulose in the

latter), since instances are already known of dumping of these

substances (caustic soda in Manica) in areas of easy public

access or (cellulose in Infulene and Manica) in rivers and

streams with the consequent impact on water-based ecosystems.

As for the cement industry in Mozambique, it is known that

it has problems with the filtration systems while the factories

are situated in heavily populated areas, although'no study of its

environmental impact has ever been carried out. It should be

pointed out that a rehabilitation programme for this industrial

sub-sector will probably include treatment of its by-products.

The engineering and petroleum refining industries, are

situated in the major cities, close to bays, into which;they

discharge effluent without any treatment whatsoever. •. . (

Thé chemical industry,- located mainly, in Maputo, produces

industrial chemicals, as well as explosives, fertilizer and

paint. The manufacture of these finished or intermediate

products, without: any form of supervision over the effluent or

production regulations could directly or indirectly affect,the

health of the population.

All these circumstances warrant further study in order to

evaluate the environmental impact more precisely. This sort of

appraisal should make it possible to introduce measuring routines

and establish a database with the aim of defining a policy on

environmental supervision.

A survey of conditions in the Bay of Maputo carried out in

1981 by the Food and Water Hygiene Laboratory indicated the need

to draw up a programme of action on water pollution of domestic

and industrial origin.

27

3.2 THE MINING INDUSTRY AND ITS EFFECTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT

Despite its enormous mineral resources, for historical reasons,

Mozambique has little mining.5 The principal mines and quarries

functioning in the country are: '

(i) the Moatize coal mines in Tete; (ii) the copper mine at Mundonguara in Manica; (iii) the bentonite mine at Boane in Maputo; (iv) the marble quarry at Montepuez in Cabo Delgado; (v) the garnet mine at Cuamba in Niassa; (vi) the bauxite mine at Penhalonga in Manica; (vii) the gold mines at Penhalonga in Manica.

Major.projects in gold, coal, gas and heavy minerals are at

an advanced stage of implementation, as well as other more modest

projects, notably in graphite, diatomite earth, marble, bauxite

and bentonite (figure 3). Thus discussion of the environmental

effects of mineral exploitation will'deal not only with present

problems, but also with potential problems arising from the

expected increase in mining in the country. Problems affecting

the environment locally will be discussed, but.not the large­

-scale or global problems, since they are not expected to .occur

in the country in the near future.

'Ait

5 Annex C deals with the occurrence and location of mineral resources.

>

FIGURE 3

PRINCIPAL MINES AND DEPOSITS TO BE EXPLOITED

KEY

0 Pegmatites O Primary gold

^ Alluvial gold . A Economic heavy minerals • Marble i Graphite

Q Diatomite earth ® Bentonite

•— Coal © Garnet A Copper O Bauxite

% f Working mines

SOURCE: National Geology Institute (adapted).

ESCALA 1:8 .800 .000 8 8 O 248Km»

Des: E. Dias

30

Table 10 presents the main environmental problems that could

arise in the principal mining operations under way or planned for

the future ih<-Mozambique.

3.2.1 THE LOCAL ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

The main local effects on the environment resulting from the

exploitation of mineral resources and other ''related activities

are: atmospheric and water pollution, infertility and subsidence

of the land, devastation of forests, pollution of populated areas

and changes in the equilibrium of different animal/plant

ecosystems, besides changing the shape of the land and the

natural landscape, with the concomitant psychological and social

effects.

These effects are caused both by the great movement of the

land involved in mining, by the emission of toxic gases from some

minerals (H2S,C02 from coal) and by other factors.

Land Movement •'

During the work of mineral exploitation, especially in the

case of open-cast mining, major works of mining engineering are

undertaken. Thus, rivers are diverted from their normal course,

people, are moved and farming is likewise affected.

The normal level of water is disturbed during and after

operations and vast areas of forest roust be destroyed when the

land is cleared.

The development of the coal mines at Moatize will involve

opening new mines, including two open cast ones. To extract the

six million tonnes of coal planned each year, some 15 million

cubic metres of earth and coal will have to be moved annually,

which will cause pollution problems in the town of Moatize and

possibly in Tete City, depending on the winds.

The exploitation of gold in Manica. could cause serious

problems in the Revue river valley, an excellent farming area,

which could be destroyed in the process of alluvial dredging,

upsetting the hydrological balance.

KEY

III serious problem Table 10: Principal environmental problems that could result from II problem requiring attention

mineral exploitation I local effects without serious consequences

Main mining operations

Land sub­sidence and sett­ling

Atmos­pheric pollu­tion

Water pollu­tion"

Pollu­tion of ; housing areas'

' i

Pollution along transport routes

Sound pollu­tion

Inferti-lization of soils

Devastation of forests and deser­tification

Changing the equilibrium of animal and plant ecosystems

Changing the natural land­scape

Hydrogeolo-gical- and hydrologi-cal changes

Break­down of tourism

Fine j dust and respira­tory di­seases -

Expansion of coal mining at Moatize (Tete)

I III

"i.

III III II II I • " /

r I I ii " III

Extraction of economic heavy mineral from beach sand at Angoche (Nampula), Pebane (Zambezia), mouth of the Limpopo river (Gaza), etc.

I I I I

>

III III i III

1

.~

Extraction of alluvial gold at1'the Revue river (Manica)

II ' III I V II II II - Ill III in

Extraction of primary gold (Manica) I III I II II

-II

Extraction of Pande gas (Inhambane) II I II II I II II i II

Extraction of pegmati­tes from the mines at Morrua, Muiane, Marropino (Zambezia)

I II-1 I ,

t-. V

I I

. J -

I i' II

Marble quarrying at Montepuez (Cabo Del-gado) i

~ - . II

1

II. i II

Exploration of graphi­te at Ancuabe (Cabo Delgado) t.

I •

. I I II I

Extraction of bentoni-te at Boane (Maputo)

I. I II A.

I I • II i III

Copper mining at Mun-donguara (Manica)

I III I I I - i I

Quarrying and extrac­tion of other non-metallic minerals around the cities

*

II

-

II /

I III i I II

* The need to build deep-water ports to handle minerals and gas could cause changes in the fragile equilibrium of these coastal areas.

32

Mining operations of heavy minerals in Mozambique's coastal

sands (Angoche, Pebahe,' Xai Xai etc.), which are concentrated in

dunes" and beach sand, will need protection measures for the local

ecology. If not, the dunes, the mangroves and the beaches will

be destroyed, should the process of reclamation be-inadequate.

With the destruction of the dunes, the effects1 of erosion would

increase, the productivity of the aquifers^and the feeding zones

of marine species would increase or diminish and the chances of

alteration of salinisation of the land and inland water would

rise. • • '

The exploitation of graphite at Ancuabe (Cabo Delgado) will

require large amounts of water for processing the graphite, which

could affect the level of the aquifers and the supply of water

to the population. - - • ~

Emission of gases • ^ '-

In Mozambique, the greatest problem of atmospheric pollution

as a result of mining could occur at the coal mines in Moatize.

Many atmospheric pollutants, notably the oxides of nitrogen and

sulphur, carbon monoxide and the hydrocarbons, are a danger to

people who suffer from respiratory arid cardio-vascular diseases.

These gases are also emitted by some manufacturing industries.

The combustion of coal in the mines could likewise'produce

lead and cadmium, which locally could cause mental defects in

newborn babies.

Pollution of water and contamination of the soil

As mining operations go deeper, the problem of seepage of

underground water increases. Some minerals dissolve in the water.

Pumping this water out of the mine increases the flow of toxic

products into surface water. '

The copper mines at Mundonguara and the mines at Moatize are

faced with the problem of acidic water. Sulphurous compounds in

contact with water and oxygen form sulphuric acid, a problem

known as "acid mine drainage".

33

Various toxic products are used in mineral processing, the

waste products of which are normally discharged into the rivers.

The method of cyanic bleaching and the method of extraction using

mercury contaminate the rivers.

The treatment of bentonite at Boane generates waste which

could contaminate the water of the rivers, making it undrinkable.

In the Alto Ligonha region (the Morrua and Muane mines), the

rivers.and other water sources are contaminated by waste products

from the treatment of pegmatites.

3.3 THE ENERGY SECTOR

From the point of view of consumption, the main characteristic

of the energy sector is determined at present by the fact that

79.6 % of the total energy consumed in the country comes from

wood fuel'.

Table 11: Total energy consumed, by source (1984) (oil equivalent in metric tons)

Source * 10 TOE %

Oil Natural gas Coal Hydro-electricity Firewood Charcoal

. 300.0 0.0

62.0 152.0

2,350.0 90.0

10.1 0.0 2.1 5.1

79.6 3.1

Total 2,954.0 100.0

Source: SADCC Energy Development, Fuelwood Study, 1986 etc.

With reference to levels of energy consumption by the

different sectors, it can be noted that domestic consumption

alone accounts for 66.4% of the total.

• See Chapters 5.3.2 and 6.3.2 for an analysis of the impact of hydro-electric generation and petroleum exploration.

34

This pattern of energy consumption is a result of the

national socio-economic profile already mentioned which

determines the characteristics of the energy consumer,- as .well

as the figures shown in table 12.

Tab I.e. 12: Total ënergy( consumption by sector (1984) ; n (oil equivalent in .metric tons)

Sector 1 , i

Oil Hydro-'power

Coal Fire­wood

Char­coal

Total %

Industry Agriculture Transport ~ Domestic Power " generation Other

56 30

140 25

18 87

152

28 6 2 1

24

-414 36

1,900 34

498 72

142 1,960

194 87

16.9 2.4 4.8

66.4

6.6 2.9

Total - 356 152 61 2,350 34 2,954 100.0

Source: SADCC Energy Development, Fuelwood Study, 1986 etc.

.Taking into account the population growth, rates already

presented,^ the pressure on forestry resources will obviously

increase over time, with consequences in deforestation and levels

of soil degradation, the, reduction, of the productivity of agro-

forest ecosystems and genetic diversity and the. deterioration of

the socio-economic conditions of communities (fiqure 4).

The problem of energy at the national level is a matter for

concern if we observe the development trends in ,this sphere, as

well as the cases of areas with high concentrations of population

like the major cities and the rural areas with a negative energy

balance and/or large population settlements. . ,

The low. socio-economic profile in the^rural areas makes it

difficult to popularise sources of energy other than, wood. Even

in the urban areas, where the possibilities. are in principle

greater for using electricity,fthe consumption of fuelwood is

considerable, given the already mentioned socio-economic profile

of the majority of the inhabitants (table 13).

35

Table 13: Availability and demand for fuelwood by province

Province

Popula­tion (10')

Fuelwood demand "J "

(m'/inhab/yr)

Total demand+ °\ (m'/yr)

Annual production

<m')

Maputo Gaza Inhambane Sofala Manica Tete Zambezia Nampula Cabo Delgado Niassa ,

1,200 1,000 1,000 1,100 700 800

2,600 2,500 1,000

500 ,

1.1 - 1.7 1.1 - 1.7 1.1 - 1.7 1.1 - 1.7 1.2 - 2.1 1.2 - 2.1 1.2 - 1.7 1.2 - 1.7 1.1 - 1.7 1.2 - 2.1

1,320 .-• 2,040 1,100 - 1,700 1,100 - 1,700 1,210 -• 1,870

840 - 1,470 960 - 1,680

3,120 - 4,420 3,000 - 4,250 1,100 - 1,700

600 - 1,050

., .745.0 . 2,307.5 2,655.0 3,202.5

. j 2,550.0 • Ï,525.0 '3,475V0 3,305.0 4,047.5 4,580.0

Total 12,400 14,350 -21,880 28,392.5

Source: Department of Forestry and Wildlife, Ministry of Agriculture

r At "the same time, the level of supply "on the'national

market, in terms of the basic components for' the' use of

alternative sources of energy for domestic consumption (electric,

gas and paraffin stoves, electrification of houses built of non­

durable materials) is much below demand. The little supply that

exists is priced far beyond the pocket of the majority of the

population.

Some 50% of the national territory is covered with natural

forest formations, ranging from high through medium ' to low

productivity forests.

In some parts of the country which are densely populated,

th ere have been high rates of decrease in the forest cover,

taking into account the fact that the average annual consumption

of wood of the rural population is 0.5 m'/yr, signifying "about

13.5 x 10' m' of wood cut each year in the countr'yside. This

demand by the population is essentially to meet two basic needs:

fuel wood and construction materials.

. * * •

> . _-* \

V.'i

A«-<-yRGURE4

• ' -:r~. ~'.\ -FUEL WOOD SITUATION

BY PROVINCE

• ' , * « V/iKEY

SYMBOL SITUATION

Fair Fair Fair

X X x X X \ X ' ******** X X X X X X X ' ******** X X X X X \ X ' ******** X X X X X X X '

Poor \ ' ; - : . V

HH Deficit forecast

Shortage 11

Critical. > ,

t_ - - .

Provincial ?bounclary\

^ ,

SOURCE: The Beijer, Iristitute^ 1984\\ \ v , A\V-' l'. Mlnnsala Swpripn ' V \ V \ . ^V \ V \ >'• OUppsala, Sweden

V '

A \

_ l< ; / U i i^'*>V 's Q ' - ' • v Fin A } ' - ly r<->'y-- - - .y'%:-::'F1G-4

< 'i-,——xi ^y J ~! ^ S I T U A Q A O DE L

P0R>PR0V1NCIA

LEGENDA

S1M3U.0 siiUAqflo _...

Satisfatória Satisfatória Satisfatória Satisfatória

' ^ ' //1 Menos satisfatória

P Deficit previsto

:ï'.Wi .• • • »

Deficiënte

. *.V» •; • \ Critica

.._.._ Limite provincial |

A*PR. Do" SÜL FÜHIE: Uie Beljer Institute. 1984 .

UPPSALA, Sweden.

i r

10"

»•

ESC AL A 1:6.800.000 88 O 24BKm»

Das: H. Vanimal

38

Farming activities are associated with- this because the

rural communities practise a type of shifting agriculture which

means the rotation of plots which are abandoned after a certain

number of years using systematically slash and burn methods for

clearing new land for cultivation, which implies the degradation

of the vegetation cover and consequently of the productivity of

the forests.

r

4. A G I I C U L I O I E A I D AER I C O L T D R AL R E S O U R C E S

There is considerable correlation in Mozambique between the

climatic conditions and agricultural production. This means that

Mozambique is predominantly an agricultural country, since

agriculture, forestry and wildlife form the basis of the economy

and constitute the main source of income of the population, the

majority, of whom derive their livelihood exclusively.from the

land. . .

The shape and location of Mozambique, crossed by such major

rivers as the Zambezi, the Save, the Limpopo, the Incomati, the

Sabie, the Umbeluzi and the Maputo, implies great diversity in

ecological conditions, ranging from semi-arid to high rainfaljl,

from very hot and humid to almost temperate conditions and from

planes to uplands.

4.1 CLIMATIC INFLUENCE ON AGRICULTURAL POTENTIAL

The agro-ecological characteristics of the country (figure 5) are

determined essentially by such environmental factors as climate,

topography, the soil, the vegetation and to the different ways

that the soil is used in the various regions.

The climate is the environmental component which wields most

influence over the distribution of land use over relatively large

areas, while the adaptability and practicability of the different

types of land use may be regarded as resulting mainly from

differences in- climatic conditions and only in a secondary way

from differences in other resources such as the soil. Large

variations in production from year to year in a given region

indicate a lack of adaptability to the prevailing climatic

conditions. In Mozambique, the distribution of types of land use

follows this principle.

Taking this diversity and its inherent factors into account,

we shall attempt to define in regional terms, the types of

climate determining the predominance of a given type of land use,

including its potential and principal limitations on agricultural

production.

FIGURE 5

AGRO - ECOLOGICAL REGIONS V

KEY

Intensive farming

W ^

Spezialized and diver­sified farming

Semi-intensive farming

Semi-extensive farming

w Extensive farming

SOURCE: Agronomia Mocambicana, Vol. 3, 1969 ''" ///: K

-r A ;

Des. f? Maeïe l /PED/090è4

E S C A L A 1 ! 8 . B O O . 0 0 0

B8 2<J6KmS fffTTTKHF

42

4.1.1 RAINFALL AND TEMPERATURE

In general the average annual rainfall pattern shows a gradient

from the sea to inland, with major variations according to the

altitude (figures 6,7 and 8).

The average annual rainfall ranges from 350 mm at Pafuri in

Gaza to 2,348 mm at Tacuane in Upper Zambezia.

The variation coefficient lies between 20% and 40%, with the

highest rates concentrated in the south of the country and in the

strip south of the Zambezi river. This is of outstanding

importance to agro-climatic evaluation in the context of

agricultural production.

4.1.2 EVAPO-TRANSPIRATION POTENTIAL

In any study of agro-climatic ' evaluation in relation to

agricultural production, the second most important climatic

parameter after rainfall is evapo-transpiration potential, which

generally defines a crop's needs for atmospheric moisture.

The average annual evapo-transpiration potential in

Mozambique varies between 1,114 mm and 2,016 mm, following the

Penman method. The highest evapo-transpiration values occur in

Tete province on the south bank of - the Zambezi river, and near

Pemba on the coast.

4.2 SOIL7

The variability of the soil in Mozambique is well-known, since

the existence of a wide range of types is easily observed. The

aim here is to look at the different classes in general in terms

of their main characteristics and their material of origin

(Figure 9).

7 Annex A contains a more detailed discussion of the country's soils and climate.

Zi.-y-,

FIGURE 6

HYPSOMETRIC MAP

KEY

SYMBOL- ALTITUDE (m)

< 200

• • • • •

$

200-500 i :

£ 500-1000

1000-1500

> 1500

SOURCE: DINAGECA and S. J. Reddy, 1984 Altitude of map

*. t -

i r

Jtr

IV

— i -

FIG. 6

MAPA HIPSOMETRICO

LEGENDA

S1M30LO ALTITUDE (m)

^ 200

200-500

\\\\j 500-1000

1000-1500 ... ., 1000-1500

1 1 » f '"'t

>. 1500

DINAGECA & S. J. Reddy. 1984. Ie altitude

io-

IV

* F R. DO SUL

30*

ESCALA V B . 8 0 0 . 0 0 0 B8 O 2 4SKms

Des: R J. Model / PEOI B9072

FIGURE'7

AVERAGE ANNUAL RAINFALL

KEY

SYMBOL R

<400

H 400-600

o»o ' « ( c o n • • • ' o o • » , , 600-800

800-1000

/ •. •• 1000-1200

1200-1400

• • • t •

• • » • • > 1400

-v-KOO--R= Average annual rainfall (mm)

• SOURCE: S. J. Reddy, 1984

* r

FIG. 7

fRECIPITAQAO

MEDIA ANUAL

, LEGENDA

S1NB0L0 R «j 400

400-600

msptnesotannnr onnaoooaaaoaoa nnnnnsaanaoAOi tnaaanansBooan ooankaoaannanr

ODB»«aO»fMII«

600-800

1 800-1000

1000-1200

1200-1400

> 14W

FONIE: S. J . Reddy. 1984 AFn. DO SÜL

R= Precipitagao nédia anual (nm).

;/.•

ESCALA 1:8.B00.00O 8 8 O 2 46Kms

Des: P. J. Model / PED I 89074

FIGURE 8

AVERAGE ANNUAL TEMPERATURE

KEY

SYMBOL T(°c)

< 20

• • • • •

• • • 20 - 23

\ \ 2 3 - 2 6

: c' > 26

T= Average annual temperature ,

SOURCE: S. J. REDDY, 1984

ESCALA 1:B.800.O0O B5 O 2<18Krn*

Des; R J. Maclel I P E D / 89076

FIGURE 9

THE SOILS OF MOZAMBIQUE

KEY

Alluvial and hydromorphic soils

•*•- + + -+ + +. 4 4 4 -f 4 4 4 + + 4 4 4 4

Lithic soils

•. 1 *• • * . « " • ' • • • * * * • *..•••. Sandy and Mananga soils.

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIÜ.M liüiijiiiiiijiiiiiiiixii i 11 * f I i 111111 r~, ï 11 i 11 i 111F

Verti-soils

Soils of Mananga, f *

• ~ *— — — « - — — > — Soils derived from sedimentary' rocks

• Red laterite soils

Arid soils of volcanic rock

^ H Red ferralitic soils

Source: SOILS MAP, D.G. Gouveia and M. Marques, 1972

18°

II'

J 6°

£&££::::: {H^'^tei^.' V-t'/ o

%

F1G. 9

CARTA ÜE SOLOS

LEGENDA

Solos Aluvlonares e Hidranörf lcos

Lltossolos

Solos flrenosos e Mananga

r H K v f l CAHifl DE SOl.O! Il « ^W *J /t n.G.Gouveltl r M.

*b Urhs'l Marques, 1972

Vertlssolos

Solos de Maieiga

Solos Ü&rlvacfos. de tochas Spcllnptihares

Solos Vemellios Fersialicos

Solos Arldlcos de Rxlias BSslcas

Solos Veniellos Ferralltlcos

A V R , Do SUL p o r : f-1 , f 1 u y e H Beernoer l , 19B9 d ü I N l A I D T A

r— =T3C=

JZ" 36" CV

*6«

D»»rR MaeUWPBDfJOOU E 9 C A L A 1 ! B . B O D O O O

—I u ee o BHHHHï

2<J6KrnS 3

. - - 51

Among the pedogenetically immature soils, the alluvial soils

are those which possess the greatest agricultural potential, as

well as covering considerable areas in the extensive Zambezi

delta and along the banks of numerous rivers, notably the Rovuma,

Messalo, Montepuez, Lurio, Lugenda, .Ligonha, Zambezi, Chire,

Pungue, Buzi, Save, Limpopo, Incomati, Sabie, Umbeluzi and Maputo

rivers. The areas covered by alluvial soils include significant

layers of hydromorphic and halomorphic soils./

'Still on the subject of immature soils, the well-drained

soils should be stressed, given their distribution near or on t:he

coast in the provinces of Cabo Delgado, Nampul'a, Zambezia, Sofala

and Maputo and also in the interior of Gaza and Inhambane

provinces..' They constitute, the largest part of the sandy coastal

strip, which includes a broad ' strip' inland from the coast

stretching from the mouth, of the Rovuma to iPonta do Ouro,

interspersed in places with "alluvial and other soils from the

depressions. They are soils normally of low productive potential

for annual crops becausei of their low fertility," poor water

retention and course texture. However, it is along the coastal

strip that the greatest production potential for tree crops is

found, notably cashew and coconut, since it is along the coast

that the growth period (R+EP)' normally lasts 240 days.

Lithoidal soils cover large areas of Tete, Sofala, Manica,

Gaza, .Zambezia and Maputo. They are poorly developed soils,

coarse-grained and stony, with frequent occurrences of gravel,

stones and outcrops on the surface. The occurrences of these

" ^ . . ^ ï ' ve*y heterogenous, given that they form linked

completes. They also occur in areas of transition between humid

and semi-arid zones. These soils are normally used for extensive - • ' 'f

natural pastures, but care must be taken with their capacity so

as xto avoid degradation of the vegetation and erosion of the

soil •

* Balance between rainfall and evapo-transpiration potential.

52

Another major group is the sandy soils, which cover vast

areas with semi-arid or dry sub-humid 'climate's' in the southern

provinces and Manica, Sofala and Tetè. The richest of these soils

are the greyish-red soils derived from volcanic rock occurring

in Maputo, Sofala and Manica provinces.

The laterite soils are medium and fine-textured, well-

drainèd "and deep. They are the most widely represented,

associated with sub-humid climates and occurring in series. The

colour of these soils depends on their topographical position,

with red-near the surface and grey lower' down. These soils are

found in large areas of the central and northern provinces of the

country.

The red soils, wel1-drained, clayey and deep, are associated

with humid and sub-humid climates and cover considerable streches

in the upland,- rainy regions of Niassa, Manica and Zambezia

provinces. They are outstanding for their high fertility and

great agricultural potential. !

4.2.1 SOIL EROSION

To talk of soil erosion or degradation requires, first of all,

definition of the relationships between the' different parameters

besides of the physical properties of the soil which have

important influence on the risk of erosion. The soil itself would

not be enough to induce any form of degradation under natural

conditions.

Thus the rainfall, the topography/slope, the tendency of the

soil to erode and the vegetation/use of the land are the main

factors which determine the greater or lesser degree ... of

susceptibility to erosion of a given soil.

53

When soil management practices which are correct or more in

accordance with the natural condition of the soil are introduced

or practised, the chances of soil degradation are reduced to a

minimum.

The primary mechanisms causing soil erosion are the quantity

and intensity of the rainfall.

In Mozambique, the intensity of the rainfall increases from

the south towards the north, but the frequency of breaks in heavy

rainfall shows considerable regional differences (figure 10).

The principal areas at risk from erosion are those areas

where the land is undulated and dissected and where the soil is

normally fine and shallow (figure 11).

However, in order to have a general characterisation of the

erosive capacity of the rain and of the regions of the country

most susceptible to erosion, they may be grouped as follows:

- areas at least risk of erosion:

* areas of low rainfall in Gaza province * areas of low rainfall in the south of Tete province * areas of low rainfall around Pemba in Cabo Delgado

province

- areas of high risk of erosion: «

* Zambezia province * Niassa province * centre and northeast of Cabo Delgado province * north of Tete province * western parts of Manica and Sofala provinces * coastal areas of Inhambane and Gaza provinces.

4.2.2 SOIL FERTILITY

For the purposes of the present discussion, Mozambique may

divided in" a general way into two regions: north and south of the

Save river.

In the southern region, the climatic conditions are the

primary determinant of agricultural production, while soil

fertility is secondary. In the low-lying plains, where the

largest irrigation schemes are situated, the soils are as a rule

fertile and require little fertilizer to maintain the soil

nutrients after some years of cultivation.

* 'A \ / \ / • V ' * N'

!FIGUREIO

' • . / EROSIVE CAPACITY /OF'THE RAINFALL

~KEY

'V

'SYMBOL

J.

Erosion rate

Very low

Low

Low to moderate.

Moderate

Moderate to high

High

Very high

' / , : • <

SOURCE: S. J. Reddy, and Mussage, 1984

FIG. 10 IT'.

CAPACIDADE EROSIVA

DA PRECIPITAQAO

LEGENDA

iHfflü INDICES DEEROSflO.

Muito baixo

Baixo

' / / . Baixo-moderado

Moderado Moderado

11 Moderado-alto

11 Alto 11 Muito alto

FONIE: S. J . Reddy & Mjssage. 1984

ESCALA 1:B.BOO.OOO Des: PJ. Model / P E D / 6 907S

ee o BHHHEE

2 4BKmï

FIGURE 11

EROSION TENDENCIES OF THE SOILS (Highlands)

KEY

SYMBOL Erosion

• . " Minimal •

.•.•:•..-•. Very low

° O 0 O O O O |

°o°o°<> c- LOW o " o o ° ° °

Z'.~Z'.Z'.Z Moderate — • — • — • —

-H i g n

Very high

:::±::i:::::: Severe 1 1 f T

11 WiMk Extreme

Alluvial valleys

SOURCE: J. Van Wambeke • » •

; (Preliminary version)

ESCALA 1:B.BOO.OOO 8 8 O 2 46KmS

Des: E. Dias

58

In the higher areas, the soils may normally have some

deficiencies in nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorous), while the

low fertility of the densely populated sandy soils in the coastal

strip is particularly serious.

In the northern region, where the climatic conditions are

better in terms of regularity and distribution, the fertility is

without doubt the factor that could limit agricultural

production, particularly of food crops. The soils are normally

deficient in nitrogen, phosphorous, sulphur and occasionally

potassium. Although the"deeper layers of soil have a higher clay

content, the surface soil is of a lighter texture, which means

that, because of the high-intensity of the rain and possibly a

lack of vegetation, the topsoil can be lost or nutrients washed

out, which is very serious when it happens on slopes.

i

4.2.3 WATER CONTENT OF THE SOIL.

One of the main factors which periodically limits crop yields in

countries with a dry tropicalrclimate is rainfall. However, this

factor can be minimised to'some'extent if we take account of the

soil, which acts as a reservoir of rainwater, making it available

for crops to grow in the most critical periods.

Thus, considering the texture, .structure, type of slope and

depth of the soil, it is possible to estimate the soil's capacity

to store water. ;'

The average values for the water content of the soils of

Mozambique ranges from 10 mm to 250 mm, for lithoidal (shallow)

soils and deep clay, respectively, while over most of the country

the mean capacity is above 100 mm. The maximum and minimum values

of water retention are found mainly along the banks of the rivers

(figure 12).

r r-. t o r

• •= ^ i . i i * V ,

.1 .

> • • - l ( f JL t ( I

FIGURE 12

AVERAGE WATER'

i.i

j 3 f j- ,-

J'CONTENT OF THE SOIL

KEY 1 ) , L i •

1 ' '

SYMI 30L AWC r

, • • • . ' • . ' , - •

- • • . M - - M - , . . T ,

. < 50 "J '. a u :.. •

50-100 v - . , . , , - _ .

| 100-150

H l > 150 XwSmo ' ~ '* i •: T

AWC= Average Water ., -. Content of the

soil (mm)

1 1 O

' L '

a b v

; 1

SOURCE: S.J. Reddy and A. 'G; Vermeer, 1984

3-1 i •

•i' )

*t '

SII*B0LO. i AWL

< 50

50-100JlJ

:i 100-150. 1

"'V 150a -"'V 150a -

J f ' i '

M I FüNIE: 5- J- fertly & A- c- Vermeer **-' 1984.

AWC= Disponibil idade - •" -> média da êgua ros solos (mn)

•r

»r

»*•

«.(T

ESCALA 1 :8 .800 .000

8 8 O JJjSKmS

pes: RJ.Model I PEO/09073

61

4.3 AGRO-ECOLOGICAL POTENTIAL

The adaptability of many production systems, whether simple,

integrated or multi-use, is conditional on the agro-ecological

capacity which, on the basis of the potential of the physical

resources, identify and recommend the different types of land

use, with the aim of obtaining the best' rational use of

agricultural resources (figure 5).

Agro-ecological region I

This region • includes areas with highly specialised

agriculture, but the agricultural" potential could be very

diversified because of its natural qualities. It contains the

plateaus and highland areas of Mossourize and Chimanimni, the

high plateaus of Angonia and Maravia, Upper Zambezia (Gurue,

Namarroi, Milange, Tacuane, Upper Molocue)' and Lichinga and

Maniamba. 'l' ' •

This region is very undulated and uneven. Water deficiencies

are generally low, while surpluses reach high levels.

The natural characteristics of the-region make it suitable

for certain crops' which are not viable in other parts of the

country, such as tea, coffee, seed potato, temperate fruits and

dairy cattle. Forestry exploitation is recommended in areas

suitable for agricultural production, even given the defence of

the soil against erosion, because of the topography 'and the

occurrence of slopes.

The dryland rice, 'especially, in the Upper Zambezia, has

great production potential because there exist areas which offer

conditions -for growing periods longer than 280 days. jBesides

this, the regio'n is very suitable for forestation and exploration

of the natural forest, especially in areas where lithoidal soils

are found." ^ ; '

Agro-ecological region II

Climatically the region is characterised by lack of water

in the dry season (June/July to October/November) and excess of

water tin four months of the year (December/January and

iMarch/April) . -,

The development of various types of crops, many of which

have useful by-products for cattle farming, is possible in this

region.

-. jr Good use .and conservation of the soil must constitute the

'basis of any type of land use, systematically following the

practice of rotation, ploughing back crop residue and introducing

legumes.

Infestation-,with trypanosomiasis (tsetse) is one of the main

limitations on,the introduction of cattle, a situation which is

identical to that, in agro-ecological region I.

. The region is suitable for the production of maize, peanuts,

cassava, beans, cotton, fruits, oilseeds, tobacco, potato, kenaf,

sorghum and pineapple.

In the lower reaches of the Zambezi, Pungue and Buzi rivers,

the alluvial soils are as a rule fertile, in many cases

hydromorphic and in others halomorphic. They are suitable for

irrigation and are thus devoted to intensive cultivation, the ' ' . i' • . 1

main crops being maize, rice, sugar cane and vegetables. In the

higher, better-drained zones with lighter soils, the production

of the coconut palm is very, suitable, often being integrated in

a system of mixed livestock and crops. 'J . C J . <_ » j

Reforestation and orderly exploitation of the natural forest is recommended for the sub and middle plateau regions.

. - •• L •. v . . x i. i , : . • _ i

Agro-ecological region III

- •* This.is a region of essentially semi-intensive farming south

of the Save river. The irregular distribution^of/the rainfall

throughout the year, together with very high temperatures, cause

water shortages in the May to December period and excess water

in the remaining months. The irregularity of the rainfall causes

short dry spells during the growth period.

63

Although this situation is less severe north of the Zambezi

river, it causes major problems from the point of view of dry

farming.

The use of resources should be of mixed arable and livestock

farming. The region is also well suited to the cultivation of

tropical fruits, relatively resistant to water scarcity, aja it

is the case with cashew and mango in the coastal strip.

In terms of food crops, the cultivation of drought-resistant

varieties should be considered because of the hydrological

conditions and of their short-term cycle. More drought"-resistant

crops as cotton, sorghum, cassava and sunflower have demonstrated

the best adaptability.

From the point of view of livestock, some areas are infested

with tsetse fly, which is a limiting factor, although' this

limitation can be reduced with measures to combat tsetse.

In the sandy coastal strip, dry farming is most suitable,

with intercropping of maize, peanuts and beans,as well as cashew

among others. Forestry is also suitable in this zone.

Agro-ecological region IV

Given the irregularity of the rainfall, various forms of

water conservation must be considered for the development of this

region.

Livestock production and forestry are perhaps the land uses

best adapted to the prevailing ecological conditions.

Agricultural production is subject to the risk of crop

losses in many cases in these zones. Semi-extensive livestock

production is perhaps the land use wi'th best potential. In

general, the main most suitable crops are maize, cassava, beans,

sorghum, millet, cotton, and leguminous fodder. Thus, the

promotion of integrated development is recommended on the basis

Of livestock and dry farming.

64

Agro-ecological region V

Agriculture in this region is only viable with irrigation

along the banks of the rivers and their tributaries (figure 13).

Agricultural potential is thus limited to the parts with

heavier-textured soils where fertility is moderate and water

retention capacity is moderate to high, limiting production to

cotton, sorghum and millet.

4.4 DEGRADATION OF AGRARIAN RESOURCES

In talking of the degradation of natural resources in general or

of agro-ecological resources in particular, mankind must be

regarded from the outset as the main cause in the majority of

cases of the decline of these resources during the struggle for

survival.

However, as was noted in the earlier chapters of this study,

rural communities that are few in number have been able

throughout the years to adapt themselves to environmental

conditions, having reached an equilibrium between their basic

needs and the resources available, through the practice of a

series of appropriate cultivation techniques.

While the limitations of this experience must be recognised

in the light of the sharp increase of the population and

decreased availability of arable land, current examples in other

countries show that the combination of this traditional

experience with more modern knowledge can permit the satisfaction

of mankind's needs and the conservation of nature in the context

of sustainable development.

Our aim is not to make a detailed analysis here of the

current exploitation of natural resources in Mozambique, but to

mention only some examples which show that land use has not as

a rule been carried out in an ordered and properly planned way.

FIGURE 13

CLIMATIC APTITUDE FOR IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE

KEY

Level of aptitude

Very highly suitable

Highly suitable

Suitable

Less suitable

Unsuitable

Very unsuitable

SOURCE: S. J. Reddy, 1985 & 1986a.

JO"

A'F*. D O SUL FGN1E: S.J, teddy. 1905 & 1986a

ESCALA 1:8.BOO.OOO BB O 2-ISKmS

DesiP J. M a e l e l f P E O / 89082

This fact1 is often to be seen in the search to obtain the highest

returns in !the shortest time possible, which in the :short term

could spell the;end of economic exploitation and the depreciation . . . . . . . i

of capital,- as well as the degradation of the natural resources

being exploited.- • • / •

( \

4.4.1> • PRESENT SITUATION IN MOZAMBIQUE .'." -^ •

< • : . : • • • \ • ~ - : ' • • . : " • :

Agricultural is the basic sector in thé , national, economy,

representing about 40% of the Gross Domestic-Product (in the 1977

to 81 period). Its snare of the Gross Domestic Product in 1986

was 44.5%, because of the steep decline in industrial production,

transport and commerce. In the same year, agricultural products j' * i •

made up about 41% of total exports.

In terms of occupation, the agricultural sector, in which

84% of the active population is engaged, is also the most

important in the national economy. Meanwhile, the agricultural

sector still suffers some problems which hamper its development

and consequent increased contribution to the national economy.

This is most notable in the rural areas where the destabilisation

of the war of aggression waged by the armed bandits is preventing

the family sector from engaging in productive activities, since

about 40% of the population is affected by the war and unable to

till their own land.

The largest number of displaced people is found in the south

of the country. The. soil in these areas is generally less fertile

than in the north and the problems for agricultural production

caused by the climatic conditions , are significantly greater.

Besides having more fertile soils, the northern regions have more

hydrological potential. .'

The already-mentioned population pressure in,some regions

adds to the existing influences on the environment from

agriculture, livestock and forestry and helps 'to hasten the

degradation of agro-ecological resources. ", . • .

Because of the constantly growing population "pressure in these

regions, ever 'larger areas of marginal lands "are used for

agriculture, .an especially great, source^of, risk, of .erosion, 1 . . . t i

impoverishment of the soil and3 loss of • the \ 'f értrle ' l'ayeP of

topsoil. These marginal lands are'to be found, for example,1 cm

slopes or where the soil is not very fertile.. ' ' ° ' *' i . - ' •

f Extra pressure is placed on the forests in over-populated

areas, because of the constantly growing'need for fuelwood.

Still in the context of the use of agricultural resources,

it should be mentioned that the present structure of production

isTdivided" into' three main sub-sectors: family farming, also

called traditional; commercial, both private and state,, sometimes • ,

called^mechanised; arid'cooperative. These three sub-sectors are

discussed next, but it is worth noting that the differentiation

is found in terms of th'é available-means of production, as well

as in terms of the quality of the natural resources (soil, water,

vegetation). • •

Family farming is predominantly rain-fed and is concerned

basically with staple food crops and some important cash .crops,

particularly cashew nuts and cotton. Almost 100% of the cashew

trees and 60% of the coconut palms in Mozambique belong to this

sector, which also contributes about 52% of the national cotton

harvest.

Commercial, (mechanised) farming, composed of* private and

state^ farms, occupies some 250,000 hectares with annual and

perennial crops, being served by irrigation systems for all needs

or as a supplement, and using agro-chemicals and machinery, in

the majority of cases on the most fertile land, best suited to

agriculture, both rain-fed and irrigated. - •

69

Table 14: The social structure of agricultural production (1984/85 - 1986/8?)

Crop

1984 - ] 1985 (%) 1985 - 1986 (%) 1986 - 1987 (%)

Crop State jCoop Priv F am State Coop Priv F am State Coop Priv Fam

Maize 45 • 3 9 43 39 4 22 35 32 4 26 38 Rice 75 2 12 12 61 2 23 13 60 2 17 '21 Cassa­va 43 2 20 34 16 5 20 58 2 4 22 72 Pea­nuts 4 - 3 7 86 7 3 19 70 2 - 3 94 Sun­flower 6 - 5 88 9 2 23 65 9 - 43 48 Sorg­ < hum 22 2 11 65 14 3 11 72 10 7 13 70 Cashew - - - 100 - - - 100 - - - 100 Sisal 31 - 70 - 100 - - - 100 - - -Copra 40 - 29 31 32 - 23 45

•

22. —' 26 52

t.

Source: Informacao Estatistica 1987, National Planning Commission, National Statistics Directorate, 1988

Meanwhile, it can be stated in general terms that currently,

with respect to degradation of the environment, the low

population density and the forced abandonment of vast areas

because of the war is resulting in the' regeneration of the

vegetation and of the fertility of the soil.

^ In the !over-populated areas already mentioned, along the

coast, around the urban centres and within the transport

corridors, the opposite is happening. There the lack of access

to land and other resources by the majority of the population and

the unsuitability of production techniques to local conditions,

always make the problem of degradation of resources more acute.

4.4.2 FAMILY FARMING

More than 90% of the cultivated land in Mozambique is in the

family farming sector. The area each family tills varies between

0.5 and two hectares. These small plots are scattered randomly

and the land is worked on the principles of the rotation of crops

and fallow land, depending on the agro-climatic conditions.

70

Tools are manual and rudimentary, while there is no use of

chemical fertiliser or pesticides to combat diseases

As to the management of soil fertility, the majority, if not

all, of the small family farmers rarely if ever had access to

chemical fertilisers, they traditionally have been able to

regenerate the soil fertility through the practice of crop

rotation and fallow land. For example, on the Lichinga plateau,

where traditional agriculture suffered little influence from the

colonial administration, the conservation of the soil's fertility

by the peasants allowed them to cultivate their plots

continuously for at least eight years and allowed them to produce

staple food crops for subsistence throughout, since they always

intercropped and never practised monoculture. Because traditional

agriculture in many parts of the country is associated with

shifting agriculture, the current population growth rates and the

large numbers of people displaced by the ,war have led,

particularly in the densely populated and less fertile zones, to

periods of fallowness that are not long enough to restore the

fertility of the soil, resulting in a decline in fertility and

a consequent decline in crop yields. \

Table 15: Reductions in yields over time for selected crops

Maize Cassava Rice

1st crop year 100% 100% 100%

2nd crop year 80% 65% ' 65%

3rd crop year 55% 47%

Source: Nye and Greenland, 1960

This fall in yields^is »the main reason for the shifting

nature of agriculture, with the consequent effects on the rate

of deforestation.

71

The systematic use of slash and burn, even when not used for

agricultural purposes, mostly affects what is considered natural

pasture and the vegetation in general. Despite the fact that

there are advantages at the local level in slash and burn

methods, the disadvantages are much greater since the fires are

powerful agents in modifying and destroying the biotic layer and

are often responsible for inducing water and wind erosion.

Another aspect to consider in traditional agriculture is

with regard to the intense erosion of the soil as a result of

inappropriate cultivation techniques, particularly on steep

slopes. Another result of intensive cultivation in these areas

can be the silting up of water-based ecosystems if the

cultivation is close to rivers or lakes.

Given the importance of this sector and the huge numbers'of

people involved, rapid and coordinated action is needed to offset

the enormous consequences that the present situation could have

for agricultural resources, notably long and medium term

reduction in productive capacity, levels of marketing and

standard of living of the people. However, this is the sector

which benefits least from resources and inputs or assistance

.through agricultural extension services.

4.4.3 MECHANISED AGRICULTURE

As mentioned earlier, this type of agriculture is largely

practised by the state and private sectors and in some cases by

the cooperative sector.

The main aim of this sector is to market its produce at

national level, as well as to contribute to exports. It is often

semi-intensive commercial farming, occupying large areas of land,

both irrigated and not irrigated, with access to mechanisation

•and agro-chemicals and employing a large workforce. • <.. .

The land in the possession of this sector is not always

fully utilised, basically because of management problems,

worsened by the lack of maintenance of agricultural machinery.

72

The following paragraphs mention some of the 'negative

aspects arising from wrong management practices, the impact of

which could be of grave proportions in terms of the degradation

of land resources.

Salinisation

Salinisation and/or alkalinity are present in most of the

alluvial soils, especially in the south of the country; initially

through the formation of salty and/or alkaline deposits

originating from lakes or estuaries occurring at certain depths

and later aggravated by the poor management of irrigation water.

Such aspects are well-known throughout the sedimentary

plains and river valleys in the low-lying parts of Maputo, Gaza,

Sofala and Zambezia where much of the areas currently irrigated

are out of production because of problems of salinity and

alkalinity.

One of the causes of the salinity and alkalinity of those

soils is the lack of good management of irrigation water or of

proper drainage systems. Behind it is the lack of adequate

levelling of the land, which in turn has negative effects on the

crops grown, which do not tolerate long periods of water-logging

of the soil. Another reason normally cited is the lack of

systematic maintenance of the drainage network, as well as the

management of the physical infrastructure of the irrigation

system by the authorities.

Secondary acidification of the soil

As a result of the improper application of certain types of

fertiliser, which in turn causes the substitution of bases in the

complex process of cation exchange in the soil, there is a

reduction in the pH value of the soil, creating toxic levels not

tolerated by the plants, besides reducing significantly the

biological activity of the soil.

73

Even though this process can occur in the form of secondary

acidification, there are cases in which certain soils already

present low acid pH values, normally aggravated by the incorrect

application of agro-chemicals, which tend to lower the pH level

of the soil even further, making it marginal in terms of

agricultural production.

The influence of pesticides

The impact of herbicides and pesticides on the environment

is almost unknown in the country, since there are no mechanisms

for effective control and monitoring which enable the practical

evaluation of the residual toxicity in different natural

conditions. But it can be assumed that the use of such products

would normally mean the contamination of water resources when

located in areas of intensive; farming upstream from urban

centres, rural communities and villages, as well as upstream from

the various cooperative and other fishing combines using fishery

resources.

Degradation of the soil structure

Many of the soils found in Mozambique, and mainly those

that, because of their high fertility and favourable structure,

have been most intensively used for agriculture, both irrigated

and rain-fed, are currently displaying problems of compacting and

adhesion.

This phenomenon is associated in the majority of cases with

mechanisation, particularly the uncontrolled use of heavy

machinery, as well as preparation of the soil at unsuitable

times. Even though there is as yet no systematic knowledge of the

degree of extension nor of the existence of soils which exhibit

or potentially will undergo this process, there are areas,

particularly in the north of the country where the occurrence of

compacting and adhesion is very common.

74

Compacting and adhesion occur slightly in association with

the large cotton-producing regions, where there is essentially

monoculture and there has been no concern throughout the years

with introducing and adopting soil management practices to enable

natural recovery through the rotation and diversification of

crops, and fallow periods. They must now resort to more complex

and economically less viable measures.

Land clearing _ • •

Given the need for relatively extensive areas of land for

this type of agriculture, among the consequences of its

development are the reduction of the soil's capacity to retain

water and the increased risk of soil erosion.

In' the plateau and middle plateau regions, where the

practice is of monoculture of cotton, tobacco, tea, etc., the

productivity of the soils, is falling because of their^ declining

natural fertility. The land is not cultivated during part of the

year, in which time it is subjected to weathering and

decomposition, thus such management practices as rotation,

dressing with compost and proper soil preparation are required,

with the aim of restoring the levels of fertility without

recourse to major investment.

Considering the expansion planned for the mechanised sector

in the future, a process of study should be introduced into the

various practices in the use of resources in the long term.

4.4.4 LIVESTOCK

The most common species of livestock in Mozambique are cattle and

the small ruminants, numbering respectively 650,000 head

(1,300,000 head in 1981) and 300,000 head (500,000 head in 1981),

besides poultry and pigs.

Cattle raising in a traditional extensive form is the most

important method in the livestock sector in Mozambique.

75

Some 75% of the cattle are found in the region relatively

free from tsetse fly south of the Save river (1981 data), (figure

14).

It should be noted that all these cattle are maintained and

raised on natural pastures, without any sort'of sophisticated

modern techniques, but sometimes fed with crop residues,.The

majority of the remaining 25%, belonging to the state and'private

sectors, is also farmed on natural pastures» but generally with

better control of the, system of production.

In terms of livestock production, the country can be divided

• into three zones: south, centre and north.

As has already been mentioned, 75% of the. cattle are to be

found in the south of the country, corresponding to 1/5 of the

country. The region is considered free from tsetse fly

infestation, except for areas north of the 22nd parallel and

pockets of Glossina austeni to the south of this.

The central zone is very varied and extends from the Save

river to north of the Zambezi. This zone contains 18%, of the

national herd and the great majority of the cattle belongs to

private and state farms, except for Angonia where the cattle

-^belong to the family sector. Most of this zone is infested with

tsetse fly. . -

About 45% of the northern zone of the country (from the

northern half of Zambezia province to the Rovuraa river) is

covered mostly with miombo woodland and cattle production is only

possible in a few localities. Tsetse infestation is high and

there are consequently few cattle, perhaps 6% of the national

herd, and there is also little tradition of cattle raising.

FIGURE 14

CATTLE PRODUCTION • x REGIONS

KEY, ,

Distribution of cattle

Areas not affected by tsetse fly

Limits of the cattle > producing regions ,

SOURCE: J. Timberlake, 1966

E SCALA 1 : 8 . 8 0 0 . 0 0 0 Des: E. Dias B8 O

trnuuHi— 24BKmS

78

FORMS OF CATTLE PRODUCTION/PROPERTY'

Two* productive sectors are described, one the commercial

sector (state and private), essentially aimed at supplying the

market, and the other, called the family sector; represented by

thousands of peasants who own cattle and other livestock, using

them in the main for the family economy». There are" clearly

differences in productivity, from the point of view' of' meat

production in these two sectors, which also have different

objectives.

Cattle' for the family farmer have above all the following

importance:' easily convertible invested capital, animal traction

for agriculture and milk and meat for home consumption. Animal

"traction is perhaps one of the most important uses of cattle.

The system of pasturage (on communal areas) is sedentary or

semi-nbmadic.• There is one herd, which is concentrated in

- watering areas, sometimes causing over-grazing, which in turn

- induces the encroachment of the bush and reduces the quality of

"the pasture, a fact most evident in the drier years. In addition

to this concentration in watering places, which causes

degradation of the resources, deterioration of the vegetation and

the soil and even water erosion are caused in some regions in the

country because a lack of marketing. The investment represented

by cattle means that the herds tend to increase beyond the

capacity of the land.

IMPORTANCE OF TSETSE FLY INFESTATION

The tsetse fly and the disease transmitted by it

(trypanosomiasis), commonly known as "sleeping sickness", are

among the principal limitations to the growth of livestock

production and consequently of rural development in Mozambique.

' Annex B deals with the different types of pasture.

Approximately 75% of the surface of the country is infested

by four species of tsetse, and there are indications that it is

advancing southwards, putting livestock production in this area

; at risk (figure..14) ., ... .

^ • •> ,,-Sonie . .of, the methods of control and prevention of

'- trypanosomiasis have been tested at international and national

^,level, in joint actions carried out by theNational Institute-of

„rVeterinary Research (INIVE) and-, the National Livestock Board

,(DINAP).. As , well as tests of the different methods,

-.studies/inventories of different areas of the country have been

carried out, in order to assess the degree of infestation,

distribution and occurrence of the different species of tsetse.

In addition, because the infestation.seems to be assuming

very serious proportions and to be .reaching the. -tecological

limits, a regional project was conceived, to include four. SADCC

, countries -- Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Malawi and Zambia —• with

financing from the EEC. This programme for controlling,tsetse

^fly is at.the stage of inspection, training of staff and planning

of land use. The first stage of the project is under way; the

second stage is for the eradication of the tsetse fly and it.is

estimated that it will take ten years.

5. THE DSE OF BATES BESOOBCES

There are more than 100 river basins covering areas greater than

50 km1. The largest rivers rise outside ythe national territory,

enter Mozambique in the west and flow gradually down to empty

into the Indian Ocean. .>.,?. ... - - ' < v • • ', ' - . • • i

Mozambique has many "la£es, mostly fresh water ."It is mainly south of the Save river, on the extensive Mozambican plain,, where

lakes, lagoons and marshes are relatively frequent. They are , • , • ' - ' • ' . ' • • ' > -

mostly shallow and vary in size according to.the -season. • ' " ^ ' t . . • ' * • i *

Of the approximately 1,300 small lakes in Mozambique, only

20 have a surface area between 10 and 100 km2. The two largest

lakes in the country (Lake Niassa with 30,600 km2 and Lake Chirua

with 1,000 km2) are shared with Malawi. Only 6,400 km2 of Lake

Niassa and 7 km' of Lake Chirua are inside Mozambique. ,

The ten dams in the country have a total storage capacity

estimated at 43,000 x 10'. m', of which 39,000 x 10' m3 are behind

Cahora Bassa.

The original form of the lakes (natural and manmade) is not

permanent. Their dynamic character derives from their specific

nature and from the modifying action of man.

The ageing of the lakes, as well as the alteration of the

qualitative and quantitative characteristics of their water .are

largely caused by the accumulation of organic and inorganic

particles deposited through natural or human processes.

Lake Chiuta is in the process of disappearing and the

salinity of its water is constantly increasing. This is a well-

known case in Mozambique and the same process could happen with

dams under construction or recently constructed.

In the coastal strip and mainly on the Mozambican plain,

there are extensive wetlands which represent very important

ecosystems for the lives of many invertebrates. They contribute

in a significant way to the diversity of the local fauna. This

ecological interest in the wetlands could lend them outstanding

economic value and they thus deserve due attention and

consideration in the process of their development.

81

Three hydro-geological units may be distinguished in

Mozambique:

(i) aquifers related to the post-karroo sedimentary formations; (ii) aquifers which occur in the karroo formations; , (iii)aquifers related to the crystalline complex.

The quality of the water, marked by its mineralisa-tion,

varies spatially in accordance with the hydro-geological regions. f

With regard to quantity, it is notable that there are

numerous aquifers whose potential is limited and vulnerable to

variations in the rainfall in the region.

The intention of making rational use of underground water

resources first requires a thorough study of the territory's r» " " •

hydro-geological conditions. 1

5.1 THE SYSTEM OF HYDROLOGICAL CONTROL "i

Exhaustive knowledge about the water resources in Mozambique is

a basic condition to be able both to use and preserve them. w • " i . ' . • •

In this context, water management requires, besides a well-

thought out package of legislation, systematic monitoring of the

qualitative and quantitative, changes in the water resources in

the country.

The existing system of hydrological control is not" . • .. in­

sufficiently solid to permit satisfactory coverage in terms of

the systematic collection of hydrological data in different parts

of the country. In addition, the system is very uneven throughout

the country and some stations are probably out of action because

of the age of the equipment or because of the security situation

(table'16) .

Some stations functioned only for a few years, whale others

have been in operation continuously. It has not been possible to

obtain exact, detailed information on the current state and

number of the stations.

82

Table 16: Hydrological control

"""-~-~-- _ __ Network Data ' ~----^^^ Hydrometric •(*) Rainfall'

• - » t .

Rate of evaporation

Total No. óf stations 252" 487 122 .- • . • r • • • ) . .

Total No. of stations by operator

263/NWB 118/MSM 106/(**)

4/NWB 118/MSM ,

Total No. of stations by operator

263/NWB 118/MSM 106/(**)

4/NWB 118/MSM ,

Mean density (stations per 1,000 km')

0,3 0,5 • > • " • • • < • • > • • • •

Mean density (stations per 1,000 km')

0,3 0,5

Variation in mean den-' sity (stations per-1,000 km')

0,05 to

1,8

0,1 to

3,2

Variation in mean den-' sity (stations per-1,000 km')

0,05 to

1,8

0,1 to

3,2 I

Source: UNDP, UNESCO, NWB, 1986

Until 1975, the Flood Prevention System consisted1 in the

observation of the flow of the rivers, especially at the point

of entry to the country for rivers rising abroad. The data were

transmitted by telephone to headquarters in Maputo. This

r information system fell into disuse because of the age of the

equipment.

A new computerised'warning system was installed by the

National Water Board (Direccao Nacional de Aguas-DNA). The DNA

has 17 radio transceivers for data on rainfall and river levels,

with data transmission once or twice a day.

There occurs often salt water intrusion in the lower reaches

of many rivers in Mozambique, sometimes aggravated by the

discharge from dams, which generally takes no account of this

fact. There is no barrier at the mouths of the rivers in question

to control the entry of salt water. Nor is there any network for

the regular collection of samples of solid matter carried by the

water, and in studies carried out in the past'in some parts of

the country (for example on the Zambezi, Pungue, Buzi, Incomati,. Umbeluzi and Maputo rivers), consideration of solid matter was

insufficient. Such studies were not even carried out before the

construction of major dams.

83

The DNA recently began measuring solid matter in and the

quality of water, although on a very small scale. Besides this,

the DNA is establishing a hydrological data base, which will be

used basically to organise a Water Information System. This

system is designed to include all aspects of gathering and using

the data, as well as their application in more rational

management programmes for Mozambique's System of Water Resources.

Various restrictions must be considered in the

management of Mozambique's water resources. Besides financial

restrictions (in the context of extending the system of

hydrological control) and staff restrictions (qualified personnel

for the collection, analysis and processing of hydrological

data), there are also specific restrictions arising from the

sharing of important hydrological basins with other countries.

With regard to staff restrictions, the efforts expended to

establish a Water Institute should be mentioned.

5.2 MANAGEMENT OF THE INTERNATIONAL HYDROGRAPHICAL BASINS

The constantly increasing needs in water resources are evident

in the socio-economic development process in Mozambique. A stable

relationship between meeting these growing needs and conserving

resources for long-term use is vital. A basic prerequisite of

this is a thorough knowledge of the prevailing situation with

regard to water resources in the country.

One of the essential characteristics of water resources in

Mozambique is that they are the result of the .f country's

geographical location in relation to the source of the

international rivers (table 17).

84

Table 17: International rivers in Mozambique

Name of Area in Total area Length of river Total basin Mozambique in Mozambique length

(km') (km') (km') (km')

Zambezi 140,000 1,200,000 820 2,700 Limpopo 79,600 412,000 561 1,461 Rovuma 101,160 155,400 650 800 Save 22,575 106,420 330 735 Incomati 14,925 46,246 283 714 Maputo 1,570 29,800 150 565 Pungue 28,000 29,500 322 372 Buzi 25,600 28,800 320 360' Umbeluzi 2,356 5,600 100 314 Tembe 2,257 2,865 ! ' 110 125 Futi 777 1,924 60 70 Cele 90 118 15 20

Source: Suschka, 1986

Mozambique is' located mainly in the lower sections of the

river basins in the region and is in a very vulnerable position

with regard to reductions in the flows and increases in

pollution.

Another constraint on the country is the control of'floods,

linked to the situation of unfavourable land formations for the

construction of dams to control river flows, specifically south , I I ' . : • - • •

of the Save river.

Talks were started at a technical level with South Africa

towards the end of 1963 with the aim of securing better use for

Mozambique of the surface water of the international rivers south

of the Save (Maputo, Umbeluzi, Incomati and Limpopo rivers). The

talks culminated in an Agreement of Principles in which general

guidelines were established for technical collaboration and a

broad exchange of information on the current or projected use of

these river basins with the aim of optimising the joint use of

these sources.

85

There were further technical meetings with South Africa, in

which other countries participated as a matter of imperative

need, notably Swaziland, Zimbabwe and Botswana, although they

were not joint-meetings in all cases.

The Umbeluzi river is of particular importance, given its

proximity to thé city of Maputo and that it must guarantee the

city's water supply.

However, the volume of the minimum flow1of that river is

just equal to the current needs and in years of very low rainfall

this becomes insufficient. This situation is tending to worsen,

on the one hand because of the constant growth of the population

in the city of Maputo (and consequently of water needs) and on

the other because of more intensive use of water from this river

as a result of the projected regional economic development.

The position of Swaziland has been to allow Mozambique to

use the water while it did not need it for its own economic

development. In this country, use of the water from the Umbeluzi

river is very much connected with irrigation. Since the volume

of the flow in the umbeluzi basin is not enough to satisfy

simultaneously the projected overall needs of Mozambique and

Swaziland, there will almost certainly need, to be restrictions

on the area irrigated by the Umbeluzi in order to give priority

to water consumption in Maputo.

In relation to South Africa, the policy followed has in

practice been not to compromise the use of the water it needs for

its development plans. Most of the South African dams on

international rivers are small, and therefore have little effect

in regulating flows, that is high flows in time of flood and low

flows in time of poor rainfall, notably on the Incomati and Sabie

rivers. , . .

On the Incomati river in particular, it is known that South

Africa plans major utilisation of the water of this basin for

agriculture (irrigation), as well as for industrial purposes

(cooling the large thermal power stations located in this basin).

Under these circumstances, Mozambique must assume that sooner or'

later there will be some considerable increase in the thermal

characteristics of the water.

In essence, the problems relating to the utilisation of the

waters of the international rivers cover qualitative as well as

quantitative questions (the quantity that each country considers

that it requires or has a right to). The quantities necessary or

even susceptible to appreciable saving, in a future,phase of

intensive utilisation of water, will dictate the need for new and

more efficient irrigation techniques (such as lined channels).

But the quality of the water for various purposes will tend to

decline steadily (and purification will become more and more

costly), if one considers the intensification of agriculture

(chemical fertilisation), and above, all the advance of

industrialisation in the region, two of the main factors in water

pollution.

The availability of. water in the international rivers is

strongly dependent on the, internal development of the country in

, question and on the,decisions taken by the respective governments

to control the flows and to use and conserve the water.,-

Although there is today a slight imbalance in the way. the

natural Resources -in the international hydrographical'basins are

exploited, this imbalance has not yet-caused any conflict in the

region. , i ..•

j <•- However, the factt that there are no contradictions today in

relation to the use, of, these water:: resources] does- not] mean that

.. there are no plans ,for futureydevelopment in* the; basins. On the

ncontrary, as a consequence of the rapidly developing economies

in some countries, there is an all .round'need for; a /plan- to

t harmonise the use of the resources in the international' river

basins. . , : i . ~t

5.3 ACTUAL AND POTENTIAL USE OF WATER RESOURCES, it. _

Surface-water is the most important water resource in Mozambique.

The use of water in many parts of the country is direct, without

any regulation or even treatment.

87

Thus underground water is usually preferred for supply to

small towns and villages because it does not require much

treatment, especially when obtained from a' -borehole* óf properly

"protected well.- As the population in many- rural settlements 'has

increased enormously in recent years as a principal'and' direct

result of the war,' where the supplyof water1 ISM riiai:hlyT from {- 'underground sources, these underground supplies will- shortly

become exhausted» especially when the region has been affected

- by'prolonged periods of drought*. "' *x

-"- The utilisation óf water in Mozambique ranges from small and

large scale irrigation to small dams for watering cattle (which

hold a few thousand cubic metres of water) to industrial and

i domestic supply (rural and urban).' '

The utilisation of water for industrial purposes and to

generate energy occupy at the moment and will occupy in the

future a prominent position because of their ' importance to the

country's socio-economic development. However/r the 'installed

hydro-electric potential is still very small in comparis'bh with

the. theoretically estimated potential. ' ^

The bodies of surface water in Mozambique could, because of

•» their wealth of fish, take on special importance in the country's

economic development. L '

River navigation is not currently"of particular importance

to Mozambique's economy. Since the rivers are eithe'r torrential

or flow through unstable valleys, they are not suitable 'for

navigation"/ Never the less, on some rivers and in the Maputo

ëstuary there are transport routes or short distance transport

(to cross the rivers), for example on the Zambezi and Buzi

rivers.

In relation to the requirements of water for various

purposes, -there is no systematic collection of "data on the

different uses, except in relation to urban supply. Thus it is

•difficult to estimate -future water needs, since they depend,

among other things, on the-viability of various projects. '

88

However, considering Mozambique's geographical location in

relation to the sources of its main rivers (sharing river basins

with other countries) and the projected industrial development,

a substantial increase in water needs should be assumed.

5.3.1 HYDRO-AGRICULTURAL USE

The climatic characteristics of Mozambique, especially the

occurrence of a dry and a'rainy seasbn>- mean that the natural

supply to plants of rainwater- is variable and sometimes even

insecure.

In some parts of the country', the growing period of many

crops is too shor;t without additional irrigation (figure 15).

Consequently;, irrigation is necessary throughout the country

for intensive agriculture, particularly in the south where there

is a water deficit. ' ">

According to data furnished by the FAO (1980), about three

million hectares are cultivated with perennial and annual crops.

Of that total, some 70/000 hectares are irrigated.

;

FIGURE 15

PERIOD SUITABLE FOR RAIN-FED CROP CULTIVATION

KEY • i

180 ^——^ Isoline of the suitable crop period in days

Dam

SOURCE: UNESCO/UNDP MOZ/81/001 1986

PARA CULTIVO

EPOCA DE CHUVA

perlodo cultlvo,

JO-

Barragem H '

FONTE: UNESCO/UMJP MDZ/81/U01 - 1986

A F R DO SUL

«r

ESCALA 1:B.800.000 88 O 2^6Km*

Des: E. Dias

The Zambezi valley, as well as other river valleys in the

south of the country, (such as the Incomati, umbeluzi and Limpopo

valleys) will have an important long-term role in irrigated

agriculture in Mozambique. The dominant trend in future will be

to concentrate irrigation projects in the most populous provinces

- Zambezia, Nampula, Maputo and Gaza (figure 16). The water needs

for irrigation will reach roughly 1,416.3 million cubic metres

per year.

Estimates of water needs for irrigation by hydrographical

basin are shown in table 18.

5.3.2 HYDRO-ELECTRIC USE

The Cahora Bassa hydro-electric scheme is the largest undertaking

to utilise, water power in Mozambique. The installed capacity is

2,075 MW. On completion of the next construction phase, this will

reach 3,735 MW. Cahora Bassa's average annual energy production

is 14,676 gigawatt hours.

The hydro-electric stations at Chicamba Real and Mavuzi (I

and II) possess a total capacity of 71 MW. Their average annual

energy production is 55 gigawatt hours and 176 gigawatt hours

respectively.

Table 18: Estimates of current irrigation water needs (by hydrographical basin)

Hydrographical basin

Irrigated area (ha)

Water needs (million m'/yr)

Massalo Montepuez" -Rovuma Lurio Licungo Zambezi Buzi Pungue Limpopo Incomati Umbeluzi Maputo

570 50 600 500 200

9,800 6,800 10,400 21,450 14,700 1,300 1,000

7.2 0.9 10.3 ,9.0 3.6

176.4 , 114.5 187.2 537.5 -v

521.3--. , 23.4 25.0

Total in Mozambique ' 67,370 1416.3

Source: Suschka, 1986

V FIGURE 16

IRRIGATION

\ -KEY

"ff Area currently irrigated or estimated

50 000 ha

200 000 ha

100 000 ha

^ Dam

( j Potentially irrigable

SOURCE: UNDP/UNESCO Project 'MOZ/81/001

94

There are 26 thermal power stations in Mozambique, 12

operated by the state electricity supply company Electricidade

de Mocambique (EDM) and 14 by private companies.

The installed capacity of the thermal power stations is

2,388 MW. Of this total, 2,146 MW represent hydro-electric

generation and the remainder thermal generation.

The production of hydro-power increased when the Cahora

Bassa hydro-electric scheme went on stream in 1977. In

consequence, the imports of energy and the output from the

thermal power stations decreased (illustrations 1 and 2). Thus

the consumption of water in the thermal power stations fell.

The Cahora Bassa dam must discharge an average of 200 m3 per

second through its turbines for electricity generation, Chicamba

Real 60 m3 per second and Mavuzi 23 m3 per second. The Massingir,

Pequenos Libombos and Corumana dams are expected to discharge an

average of 60 m3 per second, 12.5 m3 per second and 47.5 m' per

second respectively.

5.3.3 URBAN AND RURAL SUPPLY

The existing supply systems include domestic and standpipe

connections. Other sources of supply include wells or even direct

use of river or lake water.

The three main industrial .areas (Maputo, Beira and Nampula)

depend on the urban water supply systems, although some factories

have wells for their own water supply.

There are 122 urban supply systems, two-thirds of which

provide water from surface sources and the remainder from

underground water. Half of all the systems are to be found in

Maputo city, while the rest are mainly in the provincial

capitals. Only 36 of the existing urban water supply systems

carry out complete or partial water treatment (figure 17).

The majority of the rural population does not have the

benefit of any treated water. The average water consumption in

the countryside is 10 litres per person per day, falling to four

litres per person per day in areas located far from water

sources.

FIGURE 17

WATER TREATMENT STATIONS - 1980

KEY

Water treatment capacity (10 per day)

O 1 - 5- . ,

O 5-10

© 10 - 50

Percentage utilisation

50 - 100

SOURCE: UNDP/UNESCO MOZ/81/001

w

r~

—\

>A

\ -

\vr\

»*•

L._

s

9 \ •v

1' •-•--, Q>8 \

ÏTAQÖES DE TRATAMENTO

ÜE AGUA - 1980 •

. LEGENDA

Capacidade de tratamento

de ögua ( l O V / d i a )

O 1 - 5

O 5- '°

% i W - 50

de utillzagSo ,

50 - 100

0-1 AF*. ÜOYUI FUNIE:UHÜP/UHESC0 MJZ/81/001

j r jt.* iv 10*

ESCALA 1:8.800.000 68 O 2 4nKm*

Des: H. Vanimal

JO'

»•

E N E R G Y C O N S U M P T I O N

(1971-1980)

illustration 1

MDZAM3IQUE Qh

900

800

700

600

500

Total

'•' hydro-power

thermal power

imported energy

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 years

Source: INPF-1988

Oh 450

400

300

200

100

0

i l lustration 2

MAPUTO PROVINCE

..--—..» „••** Total

/ hydro-power

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 years

Source: IISPF-1988

98

The limitations on water treatment, especially for domestic

consumption, explain why underground sources are preferred, since

they are also immune to temperature and rainfall.variations.

In fact there is a real need for regular control of the

available supplies in the different aquifers in use in different

parts of the country. The increase in population density in a

very short space of time has led to imbalances in some parts of

the country between potential water resources and population,

which could bring serious ecological risks. , , ,

5.3.4 USE OF INLAND FISHERY RESOURCES

- . } . - ' '

The inland water with useful fishery resources consists mainly

of the Cahora Bassa reservoir, Lake Niassa, besides lagoons-and

estuaries totalling about 2,200 km! and small lakes and

reservoirs amounting to 300 km' and about 15,000 km of rivers.

The exploitation of the fishery resources of inland water

is,.of major importance to the population of the interior. This

is-small-scale fishing carried out in many parts;of Mozambique

by individual fishermen and a few fishing cooperatives. Nets and

small boats„are used, occasionally motor boats;

There has been rapid progress- in fisheries on Lake Niassa

and the Cahora Bassa reservoir, notably since 1980, when efforts

were concentrated in developing local fishery resources.

The first fishing camp organised as a - way- of promoting

fishing 'in the Cahora Bassa reservoir was CAPASET at Nyamatimbsa

in the Chicoa basin, which flows into Cahora Bassa. This was

established in 1982 and began its activities with three motor

boats, some social infrastructure and more permanent methods of

catching, processing and storing fish. CAPASET is the private

fishing company on the reservoir which can also fish in deep

waters and grade the fish by size.

There are nine species of fish most frequently caught at

Cahora Bassa, however the most important is the Clarias

gariepinus.

99

. . • " . ; • • ' / ' ' - • : . , • • . < L

The 'Cahora'"' Bassa reservoir is judged to have sufficient

potential: for the development of small-scale and industrial

fishing. The initial estimates of the potential at Cahora Bassa

are "around 12,000 tonnes, while very rough estimates of the

potential3of Lake-Niassa are about 10,000 tonnes.

' Fishing on Lake Niassa is also small-scale, with a large

number of boats using a variety of techniques based in scattered

places along the 245 km of shore in Mozambique.

A survey of the fishing centres was carried out in June 1983

involving 41 centres. The number of fishermen was estimated at

approximately 3,380 and the number of boats at 1,228, of which

25 were motor-powered.

The estimate of the total average annual catch was placed

at 9,100 tonnes, 90% of which was caught in the rainy season.

Mention should also be made of the fishing combine at

Metangula and the cooperative on the Mague satellite reservoir

and other fishing activities on the Chicpa satellite reservoir.

* The inland water in Mozambique is ecologically very varied.

It has never been properly studied. However, its economic and

-nutritional- importance makes conservation and scientific

management a-prime necessity? ,-• - • , >

5.4-; ACTUAL AND POTENTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF THE USE OF WATER RESOURCES

The absence of reliable data is no great hindrance to affirming

that profound changes are currently taking place in the quantity

and quality of water resources, that < is in the nature of the

water-based ecosystems. These changes are caused fundamentally

by human intervention on a lesser or greater scale in different

parts of the country.

100

5.4.1 ALTERATION OF THE NATURAL ORDER OF WATER SYSTEMS

Alteration of the natural order of surface water systems through

regulation has caused a fall in the water table and increased

salt water intrusion and salinisation of the soil in the lower

reaches of the river basins.

The natural flora and fauna have also been affected to a

great extent by the quantitative changes in the rivers. For

example, some wetlands in the lower Zambezi are drying out and

some woody species are appearing among the local vegetation in

the area where the Pungue and Zambezi basins meet, as a result

of the increasing dryness of the soil.

The growing salinisation of the rivers and the soils near

the river mouths has caused changes in the composition of the

flora.

The declining availability and sources of water have reduced

the living space of many species of fauna, forcing them to

migrate; a good many of the species in Marromeu have changed

their habitat, moving in particular to the flood plains along the

banks of the Zambezi. Because of overcrowding, disputes and the

reduction of the means of survival, a process of natural

selection is in train in which some species run the risk of

extinction.

Areas with small lakes, lagoons and wetlands possess

favourable conditions for the development of native animal and

plant life. They represent important centres for bird nesting and

present extremely favourable conditions for the diversity and

conservation of local forms of life, and they contribute

significantly to the regulation and stability of local weather

patterns. "

These wet areas are mainly situated on the broad plains of

southern Mozambique and their demise is imminent, since those are

the parts most suited to mechanised agriculture, which includes

the drainage of large areas. The disappearance of these moist

areas would accentuate the aridness of the local climate.

I ' 101

-. The physical and t chemical characteristics of the water

flowing through Mozambique in the international rivers will

sooner or later have greater- or lesser ecological effects, with

repercussions for both the country's economy and human, animal

and plant life.

Most of the water "flowing into the Cahora Bassa reservoir

first passes through the Kariba dam. The water crosses into

Mozambique at Zumbo one degree Celsius warmer. There ,is no

• significant rise in temperature between Zumbo and Cahora Bassa.

This situation in. fact intensifies the evaporation of the water

, from the reservoir, accentuating the air convection associated

with large bodies of water., *

In any case, the region of the reservoir still,has similar

temperatures and rainfall to the surroundings, especially the

higher catchment area.

5.4.2 POLLUTION OF SURFACE WATER

Not enough attention has been paid to the quality of the water

in Mozambique. One of the many reasons for this is the belief

that the water in Mozambique is not polluted. It is true that

most of the water in the country does not yet suffer from

alarming levels of pollution.

However, the escalating entry of foreign substances in the

various stages of the natural cycle of water storage could cause

unwanted effects in the dynamic of the ecosystems in general.

. In the context of industry and consumption in Mozambique,

manufacturing industry and urban domestic consumption have or

will have the greatest negative impact on the environment, in

terms of both water pollution and the production of solid waste.

Waste water from industry^ and from the urban domestic

sector, although .not yet produced in very large quantities, has

considerable potential for pollution, especially when

concentrated in small areas.

102

•• In terms of environmental hygiene, the city of Maputo stands

out. Many parts of 'the city have drain- water leaking on the

"surface. A new higher-capacity drainage system is under

construction. The system could discharge 50,000 m3* of waste water

a day into the Maputo estuary.- This does not protect the estuary

from pollution, especially when this water is not treated before

it is discharged.

The quality of the water flowing into Mozambique in the

international rivers should also be considered. Hydrological data

collected in the Zambezi valley in 1985 simply confirm an

increase in mineralisation compared with data from earlier

studies . ' < • ' - > : ;

'The water of the reservoir, however, is increasingly laden

with* !clay-- * particles, which reach considerable high

concentrations. Recent studies show that the present chemical

characteristics of the water in Cahora Bassa show little

difference from the findings of earlier studies. The trophic

level of the water in Cahora Bassa appears to be very high. The

absence of any control stations to measure systematically the

quality of the water at the border hampers understanding of the

evolution of phenomena of this nature.

If the water flowing in the international rivers is

polluted, and these overflow their banks, the negative effects

of the floods are not only immediate (in terms of the economy and

human life). The gradual lowering of' the water table on the flood

plains as the water filters away leaves an accumulation of

pollutants'in the soil.

Many small rivers, lagoons and wetlands disappear in the dry

season, while others become torrents in the rainy season. These

seasonal changes contribute to their role as centres for the

spread of such diseases as bilharzia.

Quantity and quality control should not be restricted to

surface water alone. Underground water is used more and more in

Mozambique. The aquifers have finite"potential and are largely

dependent upon the temperature and rainfall conditions of the

region. - *" ' '

103

The consequences for the environment arising from thesexpanding

,use of fertilisers and pesticides in mechanijsed-^agriculture

.should be stressed. This use is projected.to,expand even, further

in the coming decades, particularly on the extensive flood plains

of the major river basins. There has in fact been no evaluation

of the impact of these accumulating pollutants in the soil, and

the rivers, nor of thedr effects on the fishery resources of

reservoirs and river estuaries. , , ,r,.'

6. FRAGILE E C 0 S Y S T E (I S OF THE COASTAL STRIP

The Mozambican coast does not present great variations in

altitude. As a whole, the continental shelf to a depth of 200

metres has an area of approximately 68,300 km! (figure 18). ; t

The coastal zone of Mozambique is characterised. by its

variety of ecosystems, including estuaries, mangroves, lagoons

and coral reefs (figure 19). All these ecosystems are known to

be biologically productive and to be vulnerable to human activity

and its side effects.

Information oh the ecology of the Mozambican coast is very

sparse and only exists in detail for Inhaca,Island, where all the

ecosystems but estuaries are present.

Studies on mangrove associations and wildlife have received

more attention than the ecology of the lagoons, coral reefs, etc.

Mangroves exist all along the coast, especially in the river

estuaries. The area they cover is estimated at about 1,700 km!,

with an average width of 2 km. The protection of the mangroves

along the coast is directly linked to the conservation and

development of fishery resources, notably prawns, as well as to

the prevention of coastal erosion.

6.1 FISHERY RESOURCES

Compared with production and the national economy, the fisheries

sector appears, relatively strong. It employs a total of between

50 and 60 thousand people and has become increasingly important

to the economy during the last ten years.

\

FIGURE 18

THE | \ / I O Z A M B | C A N COASTLINE -1 (SCHEMATIC)

. KEY

SYMBOL C h a r ^ c t e r j s t j c

A A ^ Indented-coast, coral

• ,' ^ r Coast wjth rocky dunes, high dunes

. * . • •

. . . • • Beach, mangroves

• • • Delta

SOURCE: Moreira Rato, J. D. L 1985

i

6 SC AL A 1:8.800.000 BB O 248Ktni

DES: E. Dias

FIGURE 19

THE MOZAMBICAN COASTLINE - 2 (SCHEMATIC)

KEY

SYMBOL Characteristic • m m »

• - • 0

Sand

Sand/mud Sand/mud Sand/mud Sand/mud

O » o Sand/coral

A A A Coral fringe

Coral/rock

SOURCE: Moreira Rato, J. D. L 1985

L E G E N D A

5JM30LO CARAC1ER1ST1CA

• • * • • t • •

Areia

' Arela/Lama

0 0 6 Areia/Coral

A A A Franjas de coral

Coral/Rocha-;

ESCALA 1:8.800.000 88 O 249Km»

DtS: E. Dl as

108

The relative importance of the sector can be measured in

terms of marketed production and of foreign earnings.

Income from commercial fishing is mainly from prawns, which

are an important foreign revenue earner. The fisheries sector

today represents about 40% of total export earnings, and the

trend is for this share to increase. Similar progress may be

observed in the case of marketed fish, which constitutes an

increasing proportion of marketed protein foods.

The abundance and distribution of fishery resources is

largely determined by the ecological variety of the coast.In

economic terms, crustaceans are the most important resource, with

particular emphasis on shallow-water shrimps (Penaeus spp. ,

Metapinaeus sp.), which are found all along the Mozambican coast.

The distribution of these shrimps is directly related to the

existence öf mangroves in the river estuaries, which are regarded

as nurseries for the young.

The reproduction of the shallow-water shrimp varies greatly

from year to year, which variations seem to be related to changes

in the environment. Some studies indicate a possible relationship

between the nursery aspect of the mangroves and the volume of

water carried in the Zambezi river.

Table 19 shows the current knowledge of Mozambique's marine

resources.

6.2 THE ECOLOGICAL IMPACT OF THE CAHORA BASSA DAM ON THE FISH CATCH

The Zambezi river conveys a large volume of fresh water, (an

average of 3,000 m3 per second) to a vast expanse of the

continental shelf around the Sofala Bank, a region of shallow

water situated between Angoche and the Save river. The river

water is rich in nutrients, and shrimp fishing, which is

economically important, is carried out in this region. The shrimp

catch varies throughout the year and also from year to year. The

period of recruitment (entry of the shrimps into the fishing

zone; December - March) coincides with the rainy season.

Table 19: The marine resources of Mozambique (10' tonnes)

Stock Catch Po­Rocniivroc 1983 ten­

tial Distribution Comments ncouuiica

max. min. 1983 ten­

tial Distribution Comments

COASTAL RESOURCES Mangrove crabs 1 5-6 Holoturia (sea 0,1 Cabo Delgado, dry weight cucumber) s Inhassoro Bay,

Inhambane beaches, Inhaca

Shells 0,1 all the coast, mainly the northern zone

decoration, industrial use

Algae 3 0,1 05-06 North: red algae, South:green, brown algae

excluding cultivation potential

Mussels/cockles

DEMERSAL FISH all the coast, mainly the Sofala all the coast, mainly the Sofala bank

St.Lazarus Bank 10 0 1 Sofala Bank 150 100 15-20 40

.,

shrimp-related fauna/MOSOPES-CA

Remainder of 50 10 coast

PELAGIC FISH all the coast, mainly Sofala bank all the coast, mainly Sofala bank

Hilsa kelee 5 5-8 inshore, mainly between Maputo and Beira

Completely ex­hausted in Ma­puto Bay

Anchovy 300 30 0 100 mainly between the Zambezi and Save.

Scad/mackerel 100 50 5 30 near. Pemba, Sofala bank, Inhambane, Boa Paz

M0S0PESCA

Sardine(Thryssa) 40 20 2 i 15 all the coast. * Includes Sardine(Pellona) 40 20 2* 15 mainly Sofala bank only shrimp

by-catch other small 80, 40 2 ± 30 pelagic fish

LARGE PELAGIC •

0,5 Sofala bank. Boa Paz bank £ISH •

0,5 Sofala bank. Boa Paz bank

Tuna 0,08 Sep-Dec 1983 Sharks 2-3 Continental shelf,

mainly near the Zambezi delta

'

CRUSTACEA 15 10 8 8-13 all the coast, industrial Shallow-water 15 10 8 8-13 all the coast, industrial

shrimp mainly in the fleet only - mangrove areas

Deep-water 4 2,5 1,5 2 South of 18 S shrimp

Deep-water 1,6 0,8 0,2 0,4 lobster Deep-water 0,1-crawfish 0,5 Deep-water crab 0,01

£EPHAL.QPQDA all the coast Octopuses Squids Cuttlefishes

110

This happens because the immature shrimps enter the

estuaries and mangroves, which serve as nurseries or development

areas. These areas are influenced by the tides and it is known

that the young shrimps have a limited tolerance of fresh water.

When the rain begins to dilute the salt water in the development

areas, the shrimps migrate to the ocean where the salinity is

higher. The greatest volume of fresh water in the region comes

from the Zambezi river. The natural variations have changed

considerably since the dam began to function: the maximum volume

is less pronounced, in both the dry and the rainy season. The

regulated flow registers a local minimum in February, which could

explain the corresponding lowest catch in March, through a

reduction not only in recruitment but*also in growth, since the

transport of nutrients by the Zambezi river has also diminished.

The prawn catch in shallow waters depends throughout the

- year on the recruitment from December to March, and as said

above, the recruitment depends on the flow during the rainy

season. Studies indicate a strong link between the flow of the

Zambezi river and the size of the catch (graph '3)'.

Tests and further study should be carried out to determine

the most favourable period and flow for. obtaining thé- best

returns from Cahora Bassa water, as much in terms of energy

production and tot avoid floods in;the Zambezi valley as in terms

of fisheries. - \

However, future consideration should be taken of the fact

that an excessive decrease in the flow during the rainy season

could have ' disastrous effects on the prawn fisheries of the

Sofala bank.

i

6.3 THE EFFECTS OF COASTAL DEVELOPMENT ON THE ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS

The coastal areas and the beaches along the coast offer many

important facilities to the inhabitants of the coastal towns and

even of the interior in various ways, such as sport (yachting,

swimming, game fishing etc.), commerce (port development,

industry, fishing, tourism etc.), defence (ships and naval bases)

and the deposit of drainage and industrial waste.

i~: > ' ' t l . (

J * U •

& - n

o

-"' i l lustration 3

GRAPH OF THE DRAINAGE OF THE Z/WEZE RIVER WITH

REFERENCE TO THE RAINY SEASON AND THE SHKJÜ0W

WATER SHRIMP CATCH PER MEDIUM fiNW. HOUR

Capture •

60 * A

i

40 • V.' '•' " '

. 2 0 .

0 1 1 1 >

25 50 75 Drainage

(MnVh) .

Source: Garmelsrtfd, T. 1988

112

As Mozambique is a developing country,' all of these various

facilities are still beTing developed, and the risk associated

"w~i~th most of them has""" not reached a serious stage. Thus', there

is still a chance to carry out the necessary studies and avoid

the" destruction of the coastal environment by enacting

appropriate legislation. But the fact that three-quarters of the

population of Mozambique live within 40 kilometres of the coast

'means that there is already considerable pressure on the coastal

ecosystems, including the dunes. . ...

6.3:i THREATENED ECOSYSTEMS- - "

The mangrove and cóVal ecosystems are already in a such a state

of degradation that measures for their immediate conservation

must not be ignored.

The mangroves are being or may be destroyed as a whole

through their use for agriculture, fish farming tanks, salt pans

and through irrational traditional uses which exceed sustainable

production and do not permit" regeneration.

'' ;'Over-exploitation of the mangroves by their users is very

much linked to the 'general problem of the rapid"increase of the

population and the associated decline in 'economic patterns.

Besides their importance in providing poles and timber for

building, boats, firewood and charcoal and a variety of other

products, which include resin, dyes etc, the space occupied by

the mangroves provides nourishment and protection for the

immature stages of many species of fish, crustaceans and

molluscs.

Furthermore, the role of the mangroves in catching and

-stabilising silt, as well as in protecting the c'oast from

erosion, makes it obvious where they have been damaged or have

disappeared completely with the resultant soil erosion (evidence

of this has appeared at Inhaca and Beira).

113

Besides their function as a nursery for some species of

.commercially jcaught shrimps, the . mangrove 1 forests, ^through

bacterial ,action, produce a type of detritus which is rich•in

proteins. É t

The/ removal of the mangroves from a given area could cause

a decline in offshore fishing through the loss of the source of

feeding and protection for the immature shrimps and fish..

An attempt„was made in Indonesia to relate the commercial

shrimp catch to the total . area of mangroves... A- linear

relationship was found to exist, where prawn production increases

with the size of the area of mangrove. The implication is that

any reduction in the area of the mangrove will cause a drop -in

shrimp production.-

If the mangroves are intensely affected by development,

there is a serious probability that the commercial shrimp catch

would fall drastically. In Mozambique's situation, it is safe to

say: no mangroves, no shrimps. . .

At the same time, the increase .in the , population.^ at rthe

coast, in recent years has .brought considerably greater pressure

on the corals. The traditional strategy for conservation has been

cast aside. The result .is.that large areas of coral along the

coast haye, been seriously harmed. This, process will continue

until a new way of protecting and managing the coral reefs is

f o u n d . • • - . - . • ' '

, The coral- reefs serve as a natural barrier against the

action of the waves along the coast, protecting.it from erosion

and other damaging effects of the sea.

One of the main- reasons for the degradation of the coral ' . ' • * • „ ' • •

reefs is silting as a result of human' activity on land. /This

. includes incorrect agricultural and v forestry practices,

exploitation of the mangroves, removal of earth close'to the

coast, ; etc. The construction of commercial or recreational

infrastructures on or close to the coral reefs has an immediate

physical impact. . i . •••

114

6.3.2 THE MAIN CAUSES OF DEGRADATION OF THE ECOSYSTEMS

There are four sources of pollution of the coastal areas which

one way or another affect the mangrove and coral ecosystems:

domestic drains, industrial waste - toxic and non-toxic solids

deposited in the sea close to the coast, port activities and

petroleum exploration.

In general, the sea, having twice the surface area of the

land and an astronomical volume of water, is the recipient of the

materials from clean-up operations on the land, making it an

ideal dump for all sorts of waste.

For economic reasons, the coastal cities often discharge

domestic sewage into the sea. In the case of moderately large

towns óf say half a million inhabitants, this sewage may not be

of great consequence for the marine environment. Cities with a

million or more inhabitants should at least partially treat the

sewage before discharging it into the sea; If the beaches of

coastal cities such as Maputo, Beira, Quelimane, Pemba and even

Nacala want to continue attracting bathers and safeguarding

marine life, a detailed study on the subject should be carried

out.

Industrial waste from factories is more dangerous for marine

ecology. The marine environment can still be affected by

industrial waste which is not necessarily chemical or toxic, but

which has an unacceptably high temperature for local marine life.

Although industrial pollution along Mozambique's coast is still

modest and is not projected to reach alarming levels in the near

future and thus gives time for an integrated study and

institutionalised control before reaching a critical stage, it

is a sphere of action that should not be neglected. It would be

advisable, for example, to enact legislation to limit the t

discharge from tanning factories", Texlom, the cement factory,

etc., which discharge waste into the Matola river.

115

While pollution from port activity has not yet reached

alarming proportions, or rather has not come to the attention of

the competent authorities, there are cases which merit due

attention, such as the spillage of dangerous cargo from ships in

the port area and the dredging operations and dumping of the

dredged materials.

"" Despite the fact that the fishing authorities throughout thé

world ' are making great efforts to persuade ship owners "and

manufacturers to package cargo more securely, there are still

major losses in the ports during loading and unloading

operations. The estimates vary, but the losses could reach 40%

in some ports. All these losses end up in the water of the port.

There is no accurate information in Mozambique from which

to calculate exactly the level 'of port pollution caused by

discharge from ships. Some toxic materials handled both in bags

and in bulk, such as fertiliser, could be damaging, making

careful assessment necessary.

Development capital for port construction or improvement is

so much that short-term economic considerations carry more weight

than all others. Dredging is often used to ensure sufficient

depth for ships^o manoeuvre and berth. For economic reasons, no

attempt has been made in this process until now to protect the

marine ecology. Such protection is not only virtually impossible,

but any attempt to do it would consume vital capital required for

the improvement work.

Preliminary studies carried out in ports in other aountries

show that besides the disturbance caused by dredging, the dumping

of the dredged material also has an adverse effect on marine

life. Coral reefs have been seen to disintegrate near dredging

zones or where dredged material has been dumped. The long-term

effect of dredging cannot be gauged without extensive

investigation. It cannot be expected that the port authorities,

whose principal concern is economic, will invest in such studies,

except perhaps in conjunction with other authorities or in

extreme cases when obliged by law.

For this reason, it is proposed that the ecological studies

be included in any plan or study on port development.

116

The requirements in fossil fuels such as gas, coal and oil

have spiralled in recent years. The level of imports must rise

considerably to meet our growing needs, while prospecting for and

development of deposits of gas and oil are carried out both on

land and off-shore. Refineries were established in'two of the

country's main ports Maputo and Beira.

A serious risk associated with fuel complexes near the coast

is pollution of the beaches from oil utilisation, especially^in

the case of spills. Despite the care that is taken during these

operations, some unscrupulous captains sometimes clean their

tanks in or near the ports. The legal instruments necessary to

penalise such actions must be created.

"* Current 'knowledge is inadequate and insufficient to evaluate

exactly the physical and biological consequences of the

development óf oil and gas exploitation on the environment. The

climatic conditions, the state of the'sea and ocean currents are

'only partially known and do not provide an adequate basis for the

evaluation, conception or operation in all areas.

The functional dynamic of the ecological ecosystems of the

estuaries, wetlands and open 'water is very complex and differs

according to geographical location. The system in some areas has

not yet been adequately documented. Thus it is recommended that

active efforts be started to extend the knowledge of the physical

and biological environment of the ecosystems that will probably

"• be affected by these activities. In particular, there should be

an evaluation of the potential impact on fisheries before

development is begun.

Little is known of the toxicity of petroleum and its

derivatives. It is known, for example, that the mangroves possess

a remarkable capacity' for rapid regeneration when they are cut

down for wood or such like. When they are damaged by?pollutants

like herbicides or petroleum, recovery may take much longer.

Although there is no evidence of this in Mozambique, it has been

observed in other'places that petroleum kills the fish in the

coral reefs and has detrimental effects on the reproduction,

growth rates, colonisation and feeding of the corals.

117

Studies on the effects of petroleum should not be limited to

offshore exploitation and industrial activity near the coast.

This analysis should include the projected increase in the

traffic of oil tankers along the Mozambican coast, as well as in

the Mozambique Channel. Collisions, accidents and even the

cleaning of tanks can cause considerable ecological and economic

damage in the region.

6.4 THE MOZAMBIQUE CHANNEL

The Mozambique- Channel is a dynamically active area which has

various living and inanimate marine resources which ought to be

exploited. However, today's intensity of port traffic could have

an impact. The discharge of non-biodegradable substances in our

main ports, as well as the illicit cleaning of the holds of

foreign ships in our waters could cause serious problems in the

marine ecosystems.

In order to minimise the effects of natural and man-made

disasters and maximise the exploitation of marine resources,

-.„detailed research into the dynamic of the Channel is required

as well as a system to monitor fisheries and the dumping of

waste. In relation to the dumping of waste, regional cooperation

is imperative, if we take account of the fact that Mozambique has

been alerted to the existence of unknown ships (whose movements

across international borders are covered by the Basle Convention)

and which are constantly dumping toxic waste in the Mozambique

Channel.

Naturally, despite there being no Mozambican capacity to

carry out such evaluations at present, this should be a cause for

concern to find long and medium term solutions.

7. PROTECTION ftPO USE OF OILDLIFE

The need to protect ecosystems and a variety of species of fauna"

and flora is, often viewed as an activity purely connected .with

the tourist sector. The conservation of certain ecosystems in

their natural state, free;from great impact 0f human activity>

is a living and open laboratory to experiment y/ith the management

of the country's resources. _; >v_. .

The protection of species of fauna and flora, including

genetic plasma of the cultivated plants, could provide us in the

future with a bank of potentially-useful characteristics for the

improvement of the ability of crops and livestock to cope with

the ecological conditions of .the country. In addition, the herds i . . .. . . . . . .

of wild animals could be a-valuable source 0f protein for the

people. ;

7.1 WILDLIFE

Mozambique was considered an African country with rich faunal

potential, because of-both the quantity and th e diversity of wild

species. These faunal species came to have diff e r e nt uses in the

country, through activities mostly ruled and regulated by the

different governing organ's, especially the Provincial Veterinary

Services in the colonial period, and now the National Board of

Forests and Wildlife, with the aim of correctly using and

protecting faunal resources.

Despite such measures, some animal species were subjected

through the years to unbridled exploitation, jeopardising the

very'existence of the animal communities.

Until 1960, activities in the faunal sector were essentially

related to the various forms of utilisation, although by this

time the Maputo Elephant Reserve and the Gorongosa Reserve had

been established, the latter with the current status of National

Park.

uncontrolled utilisation in that period generated problems

in the communities of large animals in many parts of the country,

although in that decade there were still big herds of ungulates,

especially outside of the big agrarian developrnent regions.

119

These herds could be found in the Lugenda/Rovuma region-in the

north, in the central region between the Save and Zambezi rivers

and the south- of Tete Province, in a large part of Gaza Province

along the Massangena river and the South African border, and in

some localised parts of Maputo Province such as

Matutume/Catuane, Moamba, Sabie and Magude.

Despite the existence of these large concentrations of

animals, some species such as the Roan antelope, the tsessebee,

the rhinoceros'both white and black, the ostrich^and the'cheetah

had a very limited presence in the country. As from 1960, some

utilisation activities, such as professional hunting for meat/

hides and ivory, came to an end and control measures were taken,

notably creation of several National Parks, increasing the number

of rangers, expanding tourist safaris and reintroducing some

wild species.

Such measures produced immediate beneficial effects, which

could be seen in a significant growth of herds and their

territorial stability, permitting(their utilisation in a more

rational way, making their economic value viable and enabling

better planning and therefore management of the animal

-populations. With the establishment and the strengthening of the

ranger corps therei was a significant amount of control of illegal

hunting in the country, an activity which was already reaching

serious proportions, not on a small scale but on a large scale,

with purely commercial objectives based on illicit trading of

animal products and by-products.

In the period of transition to national independence and in

the. two years that followed, this sector, which had undergone a

period of revitalisation and restructuring, felt the effects of

the'exodus of its technical experts and the weakening of the

ranger corps. This unleashed unbridled clandestine activity, now

well organised and essentially directed towards the traffic^in

ivory and the hides of animals normally designated as

"precious", such as leopards, lions, crocodiles and other small

mamma1s.

120

After national independence the Government took important

measures, in particular at the end of the 1970s and the» beginning

of the 1980s, demonstrating its concern over the situation and

the way the sector was going. A programme was started"at

national level to educate people and raise their consciousness

about the historical, cultural and socio-economic value of the

fauna, with the aim of using animals in the correct way.

Another important action was the creation of the wildlife

school where, for the first time, basic and intermediate courses

in wildlife were given. These courses at Gorongosa National Park

replaced the courses, for wildlife technical assistants which

were given until 1978. At the same time, some people were sent

to Tanzania to train and specialise within the framework of the

sector's activities. Revision and updating of legislation,

ecological and bio-ecological studies and land surveys in the

main protection zones were activities which in this period saw

considerable growth and made possible a reasonable knowledge of

the numbers of animals, their state and condition and the trends

in the context of natural environment. It was also at this' time

that the Government -- through the Ministry of Agriculture and

the National Board of Forests and Wildlife (DNFFB) -rr launched

an important campaign to control slash-and-burn farming,^the

impact of which was significant with tangible results. * However

there was no profound analysis of the degree of popular.,

participation and the appeal of the campaign, if we take into

account some of the practical conditions found during its

implementation.

The situation in the sector has now deteriorated and some

structural problems have come to the- fore because of the war of

destabilisation against Mozambique. Most notably, vital physical

facilities in the sphere of protection and utilisation have been

destroyed, rangers and other technicians in the sector have

difficulty in operating, there are difficulties of access to the

main areas where wildlife gathers and there has been a gradual

decrease in up-to-date knowledge about the animal populations.

121

There has also been an increase in poaching, 'and reports from

some previously well-stocked parts of the country indicate that

the numbers have fallen.

"Nevertheless, despite all of these problems 'and '

'difficulties, there is still a future for wildlife in Mozambique.

Several factors bode well for the future, if we consider that the

ge'neral policy guidelines of the state and the party in relation

to the conservation and use of natural resources are correct.

Large areas of the country are already subject to protection, and

many others with ecological potential could become protected

zones, besides the major regions of agricultural development

where there is also wildlife potential, and which, if it were

integrated, would represent a further economic resource' for the

rural communities, including obviously the meat of the wild

• animals.

Looking at the potential and future of wildlife, the DNFFB

has planned various activities, some of which are already being

implemented, notably the increase and training of the technical

staff in the sector, the training and upgrading of the ranger

Jcorps, the recruitment of foreign technicians to work with the

•^national structures in' drawing up management and utilisation

plans for the sector, as well as a development strategy in terms

of the various resources and of the various areas of protection

created, the procurement of foreign''funding for the sector, the

establishment of joint ventures for hunting safaris and the

breeding of wild animals in captivity, support from international

bodies to carry out studies and inventories to establish a

current body of knowledge on the wildlife resources, the recovery

and rehabilitation of suitable infrastructure necessary for the

various objectives and last, but perhaps not least, a review of

the limits and statutes of the conservation areas to correspond

to the development prospects, in line with national and

international strategies, as for example, in the work under way

in the Bazaruto archipelago.

122

7.2 NATIONAL PARKS AND RESERVES

Having recognised the need to protect, conserve and utilise the

animal communities, a compromise position had to be found between

the three different factors in order to make the various

objectives of conservation and utilisation of the country's

wildlife resources compatible and as good as possible.

Thus, different protection zones were officially created

according to their principal objectives and natural potential,

with the establishment of norms, principles and criteria for the

exploitation and utilisation of wildlife sanctuaries to protect,

conserve and ensure the continued propagation of the species.

The country has various types of protected area, namely

National Parks, Total, Special and Partial Reserves and Zones of

Special Vigilance (figure 20).

In the context of utilising wildlife, properly regulated and

legislated zones were created, called official and private game

reserves, where hunting is permitted, although all of these game

reserves are currently part of schemes for the multiple use of

wildlife resources, under the responsibility of the EMOFAUNA

state company. i

Besides the protection of wildlife resources, the protection

zones also take account of the need to protect biocoenoses for

scientific purposes, especially in connection with bio-ecological

studies, the delineation of zones with a high, potential in fauna

and flora, the protection of unique ecosystems, biomass or sub-

biomass which are threatened by degradation, the protection of

ecological areas where conditions are unsuitable for agriculture,

areas set aside for recreation and tourism and, equally

important, water catchment areas.

Almost 13 per cent of the country's total surface area is

occupied by areas of protection and conservation, including: a)

National Parks with an area of 15,850 km2 (1.6%); b) Reserves

with an area of 19,700 km' (2.4%); and c) Game reserves with a

area of 56,700 km2 (7%).

FIGURE 20

NATURE CONSERVATION ZONES AND GAME RESERVES

KEY

SYMBOL ZONE "

Conservation Zone

Conservation Zone

National Park

Conservation Zone

Conservation Zone

Conservation Zone

. • * • • * - " • * « « •

••"•:••*.'.' Hunting Reserves * * • • » -

Conservation Zone

Special Vigilance and Defence Zones

Conservation Zone

a° ° I ° I ° Game Reserves o o

o ° o o Util isation Zone ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ Fauna Utilisation

ɧ111 Zones Util isation

Zone

SOURCE: National Directorate for Forestry and Wildlife

•K>

6SCALA 1:8.900.000 60 O 249KH*

Das: E. Dlas

• * . - - - - - - • - - - — 1 2 5 '

There, are four National Parks:

. „• r Gorongosa National Park, 3,770 km1, Sofala province Zinave National Park, 5,000 km2, Inhambane province

" Banhine National Park, 7.000 km', Gaza province - .;, Ba'zaruto National Park, 80 km', Inhambane province.

Besides these National Parks, there are also four Reserves:

Niassa Reserve, 15,000 km', Niassa province Gile Reserve, 2,100 km2, Zambezia province Pomene Reserve, 200 km2, Inhambane proVince Maputo Reserve, 1,500 km2, Maputo province. ' ^

In relation to the game reserves, most of these are situated

in Sofala province, including the former buffalo reserve at

Marromeu which is today a wildlife production unit in the Zambezi

valley under the auspices of EMOFAUNA.

Apart from those in Sofala province, there is a large area

in Gaza province which has game reserve status,' called the Upper

Limpopo Production Unit. - \> • f

It should be mentioned that most, of the protection zones

were established with the aim of protecting and conserving the

abundant animal life in those areas, without taking into account

the conservation of other important biological and inanimate

factors, aspects affected by the establishment of the present

"boundaries, which do not correspond to the ecological boundaries

of the natural areas delineated. . ,

% It was also often' the case that a given status was not

analysed in terms of being the best form of land use, resulting

in conflicts between the different types of land use. ,

It can thus be stated that this action resulted in

"repetitions" and that there is biomass and sub-biomass without t

any protected status, which could threaten its existence.

7.3 THE NEED FOR ESTABLISHING PROTECTED MARINE AREAS

The protection of an area should not be limited to prohibiting

the removal of any or all of the existing species. To be

classified as a protected area, there must be monitoring and

prohibition of any activity that could alter the ecological

characteristics of•the area.

126

This includes dredging or any other activity which could

disturb the seabed, as well as pollution and the anchoring of

ships. !.

v- The establishment of protected marine areas is an obvious

need. -*

Before speaking of the need for protected marine'areas,

people must- be trained in the planning and management of such

areas. This raises a very important question. The science of

marine conservation must be studied as seriously as are wildlife

management and land conservation. Protected marine areas should

be established in zones that are ecologically, biologically,

aesthetically, culturally and economically valuable. These "

protected areas should be created and managed as viable units,

taking ecological principles and patterns of human use into

•consideration. This requires suitable training for the planning

and management staff and that the areas have legal and

'•institutional approval and are equipped and financed.

> In Mozambique, the beaches where the green and hawksbill

turtles lay their eggs have received relatively extensive

protection. Nevertheless, the main beaches for the green turtle

(Ilhas Segunda and Primeira) need greater protection. While the

beaches of the leatherback and loggerhead turtles appear to be

adequately protected, there are no protected beaches for the

Olive Ridley turtle. These places should be identified and

established as reserves. The feeding areas for the turtles should

also be protected. Future conservation work on turtles should

place more emphasis on the protection of the whole of their

habitat, particularly where cooperation between neighbouring

states is required. An example is the protection of the feeding

grounds of the loggerhead turtle in the north of Mozambique and

in Tanzania to help safeguard the laying stocks on the beaches

of the Maputo reserve in the south of Mozambique.

127

8. COICLOSIOIS

Any attempt to present a characterisation of 'the current--"state

of the environment in Mozambique in the light of economic* .

development plans and _programmes and of the population growth

trends is extremely limited by the situation of destabilisation

prevailing in the country, which creates enormous difficulties

for obtaining qualitatively valid and current data, in order to

make a coherent analysis, of the -environmental problems in terms

of cause and effect... • •. - * . •

At the same time,, irregularities within the country, such

as the lack of an established operational base oriented, towards

handling environmental questions, the absence of a Regular system

to gather, compile and analyse data on the-state of the < -

environment and on the variousi related indicators (population,

socio-economic, ecological) which determine the quality*of the

environment, the scarcity of qualified personnel in this sphere

and financial and technical limitations hamper the collection of

• the basic, data needed for a correct- interpretation of the

environmental problems in Mozambique." ' !

- Thus, the analyses offered in earlier'chapters and the-

conclusions presented next can in no way be-regarded as^finished

products. They constitute the beginning of a wholeJprocess that

must be continued and developed. They should be considered points

for discussion and reflection, leading to greater awareness,among

the .readers of the urgent need to integrate environmental !

indicators into the planning mechanisms and systems aimed at

achieving sustainable economic development. .

1. ^ The Population-economic development-environment triad

a) Given the country's socio-economic profile and it's

•demographic and population context, a thorough understanding of

the relationships between the components of the population

economic development-environment triad is important as to their

implications for the preparation of overall plans for national

economic development.

128

b) The problems related to the high rate of increase of the

urban population because of influx from the countryside, without

a corresponding expansion of basic social and service

infrastructure, deserve special attention in the formulation of

strategies for the territorial reorganisation of the economy in

terms of the spatial orientation of investments and the

definition of urban management policies.

c) Because of the pressure on fuel wood. supplies and the

'environmental, impact of this, the energy question in the urban

centres, as welT as in densely populated rural areas, requires

vigorous and controlled action/ not only to augment the

availability of alternative sources, but also to improve

conditions for the consumers.-

d) Strengthening the institutional base for research and

planning, as well as for the drafting of legal instruments to

regulate environmental questions•in the context of economic

development (exploitation and use of natural resources) are

fundamental conditions for establishing harmony among1 the

components - of the population-economic development-environment

triad.

e) Taking into consideration the factor of the war

devastating the country today, all these efforts should be '

concentrated geographically in the areas of greatest security.

2. The impact of industrial activity on the environment

a) Industrial activity is very limited in Mozambique for

historical reasons; Except for mining, all industry is located

in the urban centres, most notably Maputo and Beira. Thus, in

general terms, the environmental problems resulting from

industrial production in Mozambique can still be regarded as

infrequent.

" '.• r.-- . '

T !

129

b) Nevertheless, the high density of the population in the

urban centres with industrial areas, which, for reasons of

technological limitations, do not properly treat liquid, solid

and gaseous wastes, constitutes a health hazard for the

surrounding population or for the river and estuary (principally)

ecosystems, which are the primary recipients of' industrial arid

domestic sewage.

The paper, textile, cement and oil refining industries are

some examples. .The normalisation of what are still.considered

"small problems" merits rapid intervention to the extent that

their impact has never been evaluated in any systematic way with

the aim of obtaining indicators on the quality of the

environment. At the same time, one should not wait until the

degree of environmental degradation reaches the levels of the

industrialised countries before taking preventive action.

c) In the case of the mining sub-sector, the local impact

on human living conditions and agricultural resources can be

significant. The scarcity of basic data requires that research

be carried out in this sphere, at least in the areas of major

^mining works.

d) Industrial fishing, developed in the context of

international agreements, should be monitored for'its effect on

marine ecosystems.

3. Agricultural production and its impact on land resources

a) With regard to environmental degradation, it can be

stated that the low population density and the forced abandonment

of large areas because of the war have resulted in the

regeneration of the vegetation and fertility of the so;il in large

parts of the country. In the densely populated areas around the

cities, along the transport corridors and near the coast, the

opposite is happening. Here the difficulty of access to land and

other resources by the majority of tne population and the use of

agricultural techniques which are not suited to local conditions

make the problem of degeneration of resources even more acute.

130

The problem of the degeneration of agricultural resources

irr Mozambique, with the exception perhaps of wildlife, is on a

local scale, but nevertheless affecting a significant part of the

population.

b) Family farming, representing 90% of the cultivated area

in Mozambique, is the sector which has always benefited least

from inputs in terms of factors of production. Rapid and

coordinated action is required to minimise its negative effects,

which cause an accentuated decline in soil productivity and

consequently of the levels of food production of the population

and of surplus for the market.

c) Mechanised agriculture, developed on the basis of

techniques involving irrigation and the use of fertilisers and

pesticides, should be properly controlled in order to minimise

the environmental effects resulting from the poor application of

such technological resources. The increased levels of

salinisatibn and secondary acidification of the soil and the

rising rates of_erosion caused by plant denudation and the

degradation of the soil structure are some examples of such

effects.

4. The use of water resources

a) Mozambique is a country with significant potential in

which the economic resources of agriculture and fisheries are

largely determined by the hydrological situation. Over 100 rivet-

basins covering areas larger than 50 km2 can be identified. Th

country also has some 1,300 lakes and 10 reservoirs. Wetlands

situated near the coastal strip represent very important

ecosystems. Thus, a clear policy on the management of water

resources is important.

b) The existing water monitoring system is not extensive

enough to allow satisfactory coverage in terms of the systematic

collection of hydrological data. The flood prevention system in

place before 1975 became inoperative.

131

There are no barriers at the mouths of rivers to prevent saline

infiltration. Before the construction of the major dams, there

were no studies carried out on the environmental impact of the

construction work or subsequent operation of the dams.

The National Water Board recently began measurement of the

transport'of solids and the quality of the water, although still

on a small scale. > ' •

Given the importance of these aspects to- the rational

exploitation of water resources, studies and other such

undertakings should be encouraged with the aim of finding

solutions to these problems. t

c) It can be said that as yet there are no sharp

contradictions in relation to the use of water resources in the

hydrological basins. However, with prospects for the rapid

development of these resources in the neighbouring countries,

there is a growing need for a plan to harmonise the use of the

resources in the river basins.

d) The use of surface water is basically carried out without

any normalisation or treatment in most of the non-urban and

suburban areas. There are currently 122 urban water supply

systems, one-third of which use ground water. A monitoring system

of the use of this water must be established, at least in the

densely populated and industrialised areas, if we take account

of all aspects related to systems.of latrines, treatment of

industrial waste and the storage of agro-chemicals which can

filter through and contaminate the water table.

e) There have been major changes in the quantity and quality

of water resources. The alteration of the natural order of

surface water systems through the use of water in the hydro

electric industry and in agriculture implies a steady lowering

of the water table, growing marine intrusion and salinisation of

the low-lying soils near the coast.

132

f) Industrial and urban domestic sewage, although on a

smaller scale than in the industrialised countries, already has

considerable potential for pollution, especially when

concentrated in small areas. As was mentioned previously, a

minimum monitoring system must be established to evaluate the

possible impact of these pollutants on the population and on the

water resources.

5. The use of resources in the coastal strip

a) The coastal zone of Mozambique is characterised by having

several ecosystems, like estuaries, mangroves, lagoons and coral

reefs. All of these ecosystems are known to be biologically

productive and vulnerable to the effects of human activity and

its by-products. The abundance and distribution of fishery

resources are largely determined by the ecological differences

along the coast. This is why a system of control and monitoring

of this class of resources is imperative to maintaining the

country's future productive capacity in fisheries.

b) Besides direct use, the main causes of degradation of the

coastal and marine ecosystems consist of pollution from domestic

sewage and industrial waste, including port activity and

petroleum residue. Measuring should be started in selected areas

to verify the environmental impact of this pollution.

c) Major construction works which affect the level of the

water table and cause changes in the corresponding marine systems

require a network for the collection of data on the possible

impact of these systems. For example, account must be taken of

the fact that an excessive decline in the flow from the Cahora

Bassa dam in the rainy season could have a disastrous effect on

the prawn fishing in the Sofala Bank.

d) As was indicated for the industrial sector, projects

which may alter the quantity and quality of surface water require

preliminary studies on their possible impact on the environment

and other important activities.

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INDEX OF AUTHORS

ABURA, J.E.

001

AFONSO, R.S.

002

ARAUJO, J.R.

015, 016

ARAUJO, MANUEL

003

AZEVEDO, A.LOBO

004

BANCO MUNDIAL

005

BERNACSEK, GARRY M.

006

BOSAZZA, V.L.

007

CARVALHO, MARIO DE

008, 009

CHONGUICA, EBENIZARIO

010

CHR1ST0F0RIDES, A.

033

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FRANCISCO, ANTONIO DA SILVA

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