1. Fibres & Fabrics

Fibre is spun (twisted) into yarn, which is then woven or knitted into fabric. Disposable fabrics (used for cleaning cloths, nappies, etc) can also be made by missing out the yarn stage & heat bonding or gluing fibres to make bonded fabrics.

Fibres Type Origin Names of fibres

Natural Animal or Vegetable

Wool, Silk Cotton, Linen,

Regenerated Wood pulp & chemicals used to dissolve the wood pulp

Acetate, Viscose, Tencel

Synthetic Chemicals such as oil & coal

Polyester, Nylon, Acrylic, Elastane, (& Microfibres)

Cotton Linen Wool Silk Tencel Polyester Nylon LycraMicrofibres – a synthetic fibre which is 60-100 times finer than a human hair. The picture compares a microfibre with a normal one. Fabrics made from microfibre are soft, dense and have good drape, yet are lightweight. The fibre used for microfibre is either polyester, nylon or Tencel.

Fibre Blending and Mixing All fibres have their good properties and weaknesses. Fibre blending or mixing will improve the performance of a finished fabric. Blending fibres can be done at the staple fibre production stage. It is very advantageous to blend natural and man-made fibres. In this way the best features of both (or more) fibres can be exploited. The most popular blends are: Cotton and polyester, Wool and polyester, Nylon and acrylics. Mixing fibres is done at the fabric stage. In woven fabric the warp (threads running up and down the fabric) may be one fibre, whilst the weft (threads running from side to side) may be another. Any combination of fibres is possible in principle. The care label inside garments will tell you what fibres are included in the fabric. This is expressed as a percentage. E.g. 60% cotton, 40% polyester. The fibres have to be listed in order of greatest first.

Staple fibres are short fibres; all the natural fibres come like this, except silk. Filament fibres are continuous threads, all the synthetics and silk, because of the way they are made. Fabrics made from filament fibres are very smooth, whilst those made from staple fibres are less so.

Polyester cotton shirt

Woven fabric

Selvedge – where the weft yarn turns around at the edge of the fabric

Weft yarn Warp yarn Bias - 45º to the warp & weft

Plain weave Twill weave Satin weave

Knitted fabrics Weft knitting - Is worked horizontally, using one yarn. This type of knitting can be done by hand or machine. Loops are formed across the fabric (weft). Warp knitting Is worked vertically, using many yarns (one for each stitch). This is an industrial process only. Loops are formed the opposite way (vertically) and interlock down the length of the fabric (warp). Weft knit warp knit

Felt: Wool fibres are traditionally used to make felt. The wool fibres snag on each other, when subjected to heat, moisture and agitation. It is used for hats, snooker tables, tennis balls, etc. Barbed needles can be used to make felt from synthetic fabrics. The needles snag the fibres together.

This information is found in your text book; revise it for a quick test next lesson.

Fabrics made from these fibres

2. Smart fabrics Copper wires can be spun into yarn. This is then woven into fabric. The copper wires mean that mobile phones, MP3 players, etc, can be incorporated into clothing.

Scientists are always keen to develop new materials, with new properties. Scientists have tried over the years to create fibres in the laboratory which mimic natural fibres. As new fibres are invented, the company who does the research gives the fibre or fabric a name. This is called a trade name. For example “Tactel” is the name of a fabric. However, Tactel is a type of nylon. So you have to be aware of the difference between generic (or family group) names for fibres, such as polyester, nylon, Lyocell, etc and Trade names, such as Kevlar, Nomex, Tactel, Tencel. The newer fibres are generally known by their trade name.

Biopol, the first commercially available biodegradable polymer. (The fact that synthetic fibres do not easily biodegrade is a drawback with synthetic fibres). One benefit is in the use of fishing nets. If it broke loose, it would sink to the bottom, as it is heavier than water and biodegrade. This would prevent damage to propellers and fish. It can also be used for surgical implants.

Tactel is the trade name for a microfibre made from polyamide (nylon). It was developed by ICI. A company called Invista manufactures it. They have created five different fabrics using this microfibre. They range from soft light fabrics for lingerie to sportswear.

Tencel is a regenerated microfibre made from cellulose (wood pulp). It is used for a variety of clothing including shirts and jeans. It is a soft fabric, which has a good drape. The fabric is breathable, absorbent, durable, crease resistant, and easy to care for and is biodegradable.

CoolMax is a synthetic fibre, which is not usually breathable, making it hot to wear. It has a unique four channel shaped fibre that makes it allow moisture to move away from the body. The fibre itself is not absorbent (like natural fibres), it is the shape of the fibre that creates room to breathe.

Electronic textiles Copper wires can be spun into yarn. This is then woven into fabric. The copper wires mean that mobile phones, MP3 players, etc, can be incorporated into clothing.

Kevlar is a fabric that has been developed to protect the wearer against multi weapon threats, such as bullets, knives etc. It is a flexible fabric, so it is more comfortable to wear. It is also used for sports equipment, car parts and ropes. KEVLAR is 5 times stronger than steel on an equal weight basis, yet, at the same time, is lightweight, flexible and comfortable.

Nomex is a fibre which is fire resistant. It is used by racing drivers and firemen. It is a type of nylon.

Cordura is a type of nylon, which is extremely abrasion resistant. It is used for rucksacks, walking boots, etc.

X static A fabric that has silver threads woven in to kill bacteria.

Goretex Raincoats used to be hot and sticky to wear. They were made of nylon, which kept you dry, but was like wearing a plastic bag, because the fabric does not breathe, so moisture (sweat) is trapped inside the raincoat. W L Gore came up with the idea of a semi permeable membrane. This membrane has millions of tiny hole on the surface. The holes are too big to let a water drop pass through, but will allow smaller water vapour molecules (steam from sweat) to pass through.

Outlast fabric – temperature control fabric. Tiny gel bubbles absorb body heat and store it, it slows down the rate of your body temperature change.

Stomatex a biomimetic (mimics nature) fibre, that breathes like a leaf using pores. It regulates body moisture and heat.

The Speedo Fastskin swimsuit is a biomimetic fibre that mimics the skin of a shark, made from knitted polyester and elastane. Sharkskin is covered in lots of ridges. This helps to make the shark more aerodynamic and can move faster through the water.

Polar fleece fabrics can be made from recycling pop bottles. Reflective fabrics are made by laminating aluminium foil and tiny glass beads to fabric, creating a highly reflective surface. UV fabrics are tightly woven and offer extra protection against sunburn. Chromic fabrics change colour when subjected to heat or light. This can be used for safety as well as decorative purposes. Microencapsulated fabrics have tiny polymer bubbles sprayed onto the surface of fabrics. They contain various chemical, such as disinfectant or perfume and they gradually burst as the fabric is used.

3. Product Maintenance There are two British Standards that apply to garment labels: BS 5722 – Flammability performance of fabrics for sleepwear and dressing gowns, mandatory for nightwear for children and the elderly. The law relates to the whole of the garment, trimmings, buttons and labels as well as the fabric. BS EN 23758 – the care labelling code. Care labels are voluntary and use symbols that are consistent with those on washing machines, irons and detergent packs. Regulations require that most textile products be labelled with the type and quantity by percentage of different fibres use. The label must:

o Use the generic (proper) name of the fibre, such as elastane, rather than a trade name like Lycra.

o Give the percentage fibre composition, such as 60% cotton, 40% polyester, with the highest quantity first.

Name of manufacturer

Washing symbols

Extra advice given

Fibre content listed

Country where it is made (country of origin)

Size

Manufacturer’s product code

Product colour

Spare button

Note the flammability warning on this label for a child’s shirt

Washing temperature Tumble

drying

Bleaching – the cross means do not bleach

Ironing – 2 dots mean a medium temperature1 dot = cool, 3 dots = hot.

Dry cleaning. The cross means do not dry clean

4. Finishing Processes Interfacing adds body and strength to a garment. It should not merely stiffen the fabric. Interfacings can be sew-in or fusible. They can be made from woven, bonded or knitted construction. The trick is to choose an interfacing that compliments the fabric. E.g. for a knitted fabric, choose a knitted interfacing. Choose black interfacing for dark colours and white interfacing for light colours. Interfacing is an inner construction material that lies between layers of fabric.

Fabrics can be quilted to add warmth to a garment. This coat is made of nylon fabric, with a polyester wadding underneath, which has been stitched in wide rows to keep the wadding in place. This makes a very warm coat, as air becomes trapped in the wadding, which is then warmed by the body. This warm air then keeps the wearer warm.

Colouring fabrics Left: A commercial dye bath, used to dye large quantities of fabric. Right: Roller printing is used to print a pattern onto fabric.

Flat screen printing uses large flat screens that move along the fabric and print through the mesh using the squeegee (rubber scraper) to push the dye through in the form of a pattern. Small rollers each engraved with a different design roll onto the fabric adding a different colour pattern as each one passes through. This method is used for fabrics that have a pattern with more than one colour.

Digital printing is the latest technology. The design is created on computer and the fabric is either directly printed onto fabric, then steamed to fix it (natural fabrics) or it is printed onto special paper and heat pressed onto the fabric. The term finishing covers a wide range of processes. In general it means making the fabric suitable for its intended end use. Mechanical finishes Chemical finishes Framing The fabric is stretched on

a frame to make it straight.

Teflon A stain repellent, which also make the fabric crease less.

Raising The surface of the fabric is brushed, like polar fleece

Water repellence The fabric is sprayed with silicones to make it water resistant

Calendaring The surface of the fabric is smoothed with heavy heated rollers.

Flame resistance A chemical can be sprayed on to help the fabric resist flames

5. Components Components are any part of a garment or product that is not the fabric. It includes buttons, zips, beads, etc. Designers choose components for several reasons:

1. Suitability - as some fastening need to be strong durable. 2. Safety - as buttons that look like sweets could be a chocking hazard for young children and are

not allowed by law. 3. Decorative purposes – beautiful buckles may be a more aesthetic choice than buttons on a

jacket front.

Button & buttonhole Buttonholes can be sewn by machine or hand

Snap fasteners

There are a number of different types of zips. Other components include: Velcro, ties, braid, ribbon, piping, beads and sequins, etc.

6. Product Analysis

Style outlines showing common silhouettes used when designing clothes.

Aesthetics describe the look of a product. ‘Style or form’, are other words to describe the aesthetics of a product. It is generally regarded that a product needs to look good in order to be successful.

Balance is another criterion for successful design. Products that look top heavy or are oddly shaped can appear less attractive. It has something to do with symmetry, but not entirely. Many pieces of furniture, or similar products, are symmetrical and do look balanced. Some asymmetrical designs can still look balanced.

Colour is used as both an aesthetic feature, adding interest to designs. Colour is also used psychologically. Yellow and orange are associated with warmth and summer, green with envy and yellow with cowardice. Red is passionate and the colour of love, whilst blue is cold and associated with feeling sad. Colour is also used for safety when designing products. Red signifies danger, so red lights are used to show that a product is switched on. This alerts you to the danger of a product being hot or left switched on. Green is associated with ‘go’ and is used to show that a product is ready to be used.

Decoration adds luxury to a product. Without any decoration, products are merely functional. There is a trend for ‘minimalism’ that has dispensed with decoration as unnecessary. Decoration adds interest to otherwise plain products and is purely a matter of taste as to how much and what decoration people prefer.

Design is often referred to the ‘function’ of the product. A good design will perform its function well, even if it is only meant to be decorative such as a picture. A well-designed garment should fit the wearer well. A good quality fabric should be chosen, which performs well and lasts and can be cleaned effectively. The style of the garment should be interesting and practical.

Form shape or styling Function the purpose of the product

Fashion is not the only consideration in developing a garment for a market. The overall appearance (style) as well as the utility value (fitness for purpose, aftercare) also has to be appropriate. The style, colour, decoration, material, trimmings technique (explained below) are fundamental elements of clothing design. Decoration can emphasise the style of a particular item of clothing and can, for example, give an elegant, casual, business-like or romantic feel to the clothing. Decoration can take the form of:

• Decorative stitching and embroidery • Pleats and tucks • Frills and flounces • Piping and binding • Trimming and braid edging • Appliqué

The material greatly influences the character of an item of clothing and also determines its possible end use. On the one hand the visual qualities such as how the material hangs, the colour, pattern and surface texture are important when choosing a material. On the other hand the comfort, wearing and care characteristics, which depend on the fibres, type of yarn, fabric and finishing, must also be taken into account.

7. Evaluation What is evaluation? Evaluation means to assess, appraise or estimate how good a product is. Why do products need to be evaluated? If a company fails to evaluate their products and those of their competitors, they will not understand the strengths and weaknesses of those products. Staying in business and being profitable is all about producing the best product in its price range, so that everyone will buy your product instead of your competitors. Get it wrong … and you go out of business! Manufacturing companies need to assess and judge their products to:

• Make sure the quality is right • Learn what products sell well and what doesn’t • Help them plan future products • Learn from past successes and failures in order to make sure that the company

stays profitable. How do companies evaluate products?

o In order to evaluate you must have criteria. A criterion is a list of qualities that you use to judge products against.

o They disassemble (take apart) competitor’s products to look at the fabrics and components used, the pattern pieces (shapes) that have been used for the product and how it is made.

o Carry out a SWOT analysis on a product. SWOT stands for: o Strengths of the product being studied o Weaknesses of the product being studied o Opportunities for selling o Threats from competitors

The company has some control over the strengths and weaknesses of their product, but not so much control over the opportunities and threats. Another very important part of evaluating products is to suggest improvements. If a company can improve their products, then the company will sell more and become more profitable. This is why you often see adverts for ‘new improved’ products.

8. Social, cultural, environmental & moral issues Designing and making products has an impact on the world in many ways: Social: o A manufacturing company in a town or city provides jobs and brings wealth to an area. o If the company chooses to manufacture their products more cheaply abroad, then the area will suffer. For example, if many people in a town are unemployed, there will be less people eating out in restaurants or spending money on entertainment or buying goods and so other businesses will suffer. Cultural: o Since we live in a multicultural society, we need a range of products to be manufactured that will reach all target markets. This means more than designing and manufacturing for different age groups, ethnic groups, male and female and different qualities from market goods through to haute couture. o Fashion exists within different groups, such as cultural groups, different age groups or gender. Moral: Some manufacturers have their products made abroad in poorer countries where workers are paid very little and work very long hours. Life is very hard for them. In the West we have to decide whether we feel comfortable buying clothes made by people who are being exploited. It is very difficult to tell if a garment has been made by exploiting others. George at Asda retails products made in Uzbekistan, a poor country, with a record of exploiting people. However, Asda say that they employ someone whose job it is to check that products are made by workers who have been paid a fair wage and are working in decent conditions. There are many fair trade schemes, but the consumer doesn’t always know whether their garment has been ethically produced. Environmental: o Designers have to design products with all the environmental laws in mind. Manufacturers are not allowed to dump chemicals in watercourses or cause too much noise pollution. o Manufacturers need to be responsible about using materials sparingly, that will deplete the world’s resources. o They cannot do anything that causes pollution, such as disposing of dyes or other chemicals in watercourses. o Products need to be designed with their future disposal in mind. Products will only last for a certain time, so responsible manufacturers will use materials that can be recycled or re used. Eco Design: Eco-design involves looking at the whole product from the design to the finished article to make sure that they do not harm the environment or waste valuable resources. This includes: o The energy required (electricity & gas) to produce the product o The materials used to make the product o The transport needed for raw materials and the finished products o The manufacturing process creating pollutions that may affect air quality or water courses o Waste products that will result There are more products being created that are being used as alternatives: o Organic fibres, e.g. cotton o Products made from renewable resources, e.g. Tencel o Use of vegetable dyes, rather than chemical o Growing coloured cotton o Finishing processes that use less toxic fluids o Recycling materials, e.g. Synchilla, recycled fleece, from drinks bottles All Textile companies have strict guidelines to follow. These rules are issued at Local Government level, National Government level and by the European Union. Sustainable and organic resources: Sustainable resources are those that can be replaced, such as managed forests. Organic resources are those, which are produced without the need for chemical fertilisers and pesticides. Examples include: o Organic cotton o Linen – which is made from flax, which needs few chemical fertilisers or pesticides o Recycled polyester – from drinks bottles – fleece o Hemp clothing – a versatile fibre o Organic wool – Produced without toxic sheep dips and supports sustainable farming practices Recycling is becoming easier to do as Local Governments provide facilities for householders and manufacturers recycle their waste.

9. Health & Safety Issues Manufacturers have to protect their workers, users etc, because if anyone is injured by one of their products, at any time, then they may be sued and this may put the company out of business. By law manufacturers have to protect their workers. Health and safety at work is the responsibility of both employers and employees. This means that manufacturers must follow the rules of the 1974 Health & Safety at Work Act. Employers are required to make working conditions safe and employees are required to follow safety procedures. This should reduce the risks in using machinery, materials and manufacturing processes. As part of production planning, the Health & Safety Officer, is responsible for making sure that the production process minimises the risk of accidents. They will ensure adequate lighting, prevention of waste cluttering up the floor, making sure that parts of garments are not travelling around the factory unnecessarily. They must prevent the floor becoming wet and slippery, and make sure that there are first aid kits, trained first-aiders and fire procedures in place. Dangerous machinery will need guards fitting and these will need checking regularly. Manufacturers use risk assessment techniques to look for possible hazards in their production processes. They use British Standards to test and monitor textile production. All possible health hazards to employees have to be identified and eliminated. Some manufacturers use Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), to assess a products production from cradle (raw materials) to the grave (disposal). The Risk Assessment Code of Practice BS 1996, sets out the safety requirements for the design and manufacture of children are clothing. For example: • No cords and ribbons accessible to a child’s mouth (choking hazard) • No cords in hoods (strangulation hazard) • No zips in trousers of boys under 5 years old (obvious reasons!!) • Nightwear must comply with BS5722 relating to flammability • Fastenings must not imitate food, e.g. strawberry shaped buttons. BS 5722 relates to the whole garment, threads, trimmings, decorations and labels. The General Product Safety Regulations Act 1994, states that the garment must have the correct labelling description. In normal use children’s wear must not give any risk or potential risk. When planning for manufacture, companies have a health and safety officer who checks every detail before production starts. This is to minimise any risks. The sort of things they are looking for are: • Poor lighting • Slippery floors, or things being left lying on the floor • Seating that will not cause back problems • Risks of electric shocks – e.g. live cables near water • First aid boxes and trained first aid people • Safety guards on dangerous machines • Safety checking of all electrical appliances • Proper training for those operating machines • Equipment being stored safely, etc.

COSHH stands for the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations 1999. COSHH requires employers to control exposures to hazardous substances to protect both employees and others who may be exposed from work activities.

British Standards kite mark and the

European safety mark

10. Techniques and processes General hand sewing needles General machine needles

Stages in making a plain seam.

Clothes can be divided categories according to their type. Ready to wear clothes are made to standard sizes and are bought “off the peg”. It is also known as prêt a porter. Most clothes are bought this way. If you go into any shop and buy a garment, it is ready to wear. Made to Measure is when a person goes to a tailor or dressmaker and has a garment made to their measurements. Haute Couture is a French term meaning high fashion. Haute Couture is the very best fashion, hand made to the highest qualities by designers. Designer label products are those made by designers and bear their name, but are made to standard sizes They are expensive, well made garments.

Facing Neatens the cut edge around the neck and armhole.

Hem This finishes the edges of the garment

Seams They hold the garment together

Darts They give shape to the garment, to give a good close fit

Binding A binding can be used instead of a facing

Overlocking is fast and neat and is used to finish cut edges of fabric on seams and hems.

A French seam is self-neatening and is used to sew lingerie.

A machine and fell seam is used on jeans and is self-neatening.

A dart gives shape to a garment.

A hem is a turning of fabric on the edge of the garment. Here it is turned twice and machined, but hems are often overlocked, turned once and hand sewn.

Running stitch, used for tacking. Blanket stitch for hand

neatening edges tailors tacks – used to mark darts and other

tHand hemming stitch

11. Systems & Control

CAD Computer aided design CAM Computer aided manufacture CNC Computer numerically controlled

machines JIT Just in time QRM Quick response manufacture EDI Electronic data interchange EDP Electronic data processing EPOS Electronic point of sale PPC Production planning & control CIM Computer integrated manufacture PDM Product data management FMS Flexible manufacturing

systems

When garments are made in a factory they have to be well organized so that production is cost effective and efficient. This is done in many factories by using computers to monitor and organize the progress of the garments through the production line. Some parts of the manufacture, such as embroidery on the garment, are done by computer controlled machines. This is called systems and control. Computers are very useful in the clothing industry, saving a great deal of time and labour. They are however, very expensive to buy and maintain and keep up to date.

Flowcharts The process of making garments is carefully planned out using flow charts. These help the designer work out all the stages of making and help the manufacturer to plan production. Every now and then, the product is checked. Feedback loops are used to ensure that the product is returned to the previous stage if anything is wrong.

Feedback loops

Flowchart example

12. Information Communication Technology

13. Industrial Practices Job Production Batch

Production Mass or volume production

This is where products are specifically made to order, for example a unique wedding dress. Each order is different and may not be repeated. Other examples include specialist machinery manufacturers who would manufacture a machine for another business to do a special job, made to measure suits, cinema films or computer programs to perform a special task.

This is where similar products are made in blocks or batches. A certain number of one product is made. Examples include a small bakery, several houses built together using the same design, higher priced (designer) clothing.

This is when large quantities of a product are produced in a continuous process. It is sometimes referred to as mass production because of the large quantity of a standardised product that is produced. It is called flow production because it looks as if they are flowing down the production line, i.e. they move continuously along a production line. The basic ingredients are put together at one end of the production line and then the product moves down and more parts are added, and so on until the product is finished and has been packaged ready for sale. Large numbers of identical products are made and the costs of production are low. Any mass produced standardised product will be produced in this way. Companies that make large numbers of products often have fewer workers and many machines to do the work. These firms are called capital-intensive companies, because they have to spend a lot of money (capital) on machines and equipment.

Manufacturers must ensure that: All products look the same, even in different sizes. All products are standard. That is all size 10's for example has the same and correct sizes. All products are made to the same quality. The products are made in the simplest and therefore most economical and effective way. The products are all safe to make and use, preventing injury to workers or consumers.

Sealed samples The designer produces a sample of the garment as agreed with the customer. This is sealed into a plastic bag and kept for reference in the factory. It is also useful to refer to if there is a dispute between the manufacturer and the customer.

JIT – just in time production It is expensive to buy and store materials in the factory for a long time before production starts. Sometimes orders are cancelled, so materials could be wasted. JIT means that materials and components are ordered to arrive into the factory just in time for manufacturing to begin.

Costing Products The price of an item in the shops is usually determined by: Fabric price + making price + profit margin that the retailer applies In costing a garment, a few centimeters in the width of the fabric can make an enormous difference to the overall outcome. Trimmings can add a great deal to the cost. By adding up all the costs, including machinery, electricity, wages, etc it is possible to work out whether a product can be manufactured and make a profit. There are two types of costs, fixed and variable. Fixed costs are things like rent or mortgage, cost of machines, etc, whilst variable costs are where you can save money, for example, fabric or trimming costs. If you need your product to cost less, you could choose a cheaper fabric or buttons.

Marketing Everyone wants to sell their product to the consumer. In order for products to be sold they have to be advertised in such a way as to attract buyers. Marketing involves identifying a need and satisfying it. The aim of the marketing department of a company is to identify market demand and satisfy consumer needs, generate sales, and keep the company profitable. Places products can be sold: Independents - shops with less than 10 outlets are known as independents. Most are sole traders with only one shop or boutique. They usually offer the personal touch, and often specialize in certain categories of clothing. Multiples - they are chains of shops owned by a parent company. Well known companies such as French Connection and Gap are multiples. Department Stores - offer a wide variety of goods on different floors. They may have different companies trading in the store (known as ‘Concessions’ – they pay a certain amount of the profit to the department store) and they offer a range of services including cafes, toilets and banking. Franchises - franchise companies are well established companies. Someone buys the right to sell their product. The franchisee buys the stock from the company and sell them sharing the profits between them. Factory shops - manufacturers open up to the public, selling their excess and faulty stock at reduced prices. Out of town shopping villages have developed from factory shops. Markets - damaged or rejected goods are sold cheaply, and goods are usually bought for cash. People expect to find a bargain from a market. Mail order - suits those who cannot or do not wish to go shopping. It is an expanding field as many working women do not have the time to shop. Electronic shopping - shopping on the Internet, through ebay or interactive tv is also growing in popularity. Two advantages are that electronic shopping is available 24 hours a day to credit card holders and the market is opened up to inaccessible and/or overseas customers.