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WHY DOES INQUIRYMATTER?

BECAUSETHAT’S WHAT SCIENCE

IS ALL ABOUT!

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Why Does Inquiry Matter? Because That’s What Science Is All About!

K E N D A L L / H U N T P U B L I S H I N G C O M P A N Y4 0 5 0 W e s t m a r k D r i v e D u b u q u e , I o w a 5 2 0 0 2


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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

A portion of this information was taken from Building a Presence forScience: A Toolkit for Professional Development: Science as Inquiry(BSCS & NSTA, 2001).

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BSCS ADMINISTRATIVE STAFF

Jerry Waldvogel, Chair, Board of Directors

Janet Carlson, Executive Director

Robert E. Foulk, Director or Operations

Pamela Van Scotter, Director, Center for Curriculum Development

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Joseph A. Taylor, Director, Center for Research and Evaluation

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Getting Started 1

Inquiry in the Classroom 11

The Essential Features of Inquiry 19

The Look of Inquiry 25

Resources for Learning About Inquiry 29

Articles of Interest 33

References 35

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CONTENTS

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1

GETTING STARTED

For more than 30 years, the literature in science education has docu-mented increased achievement and improved retention of scienceconcepts when students are taught using curriculum materials that havean inquiry approach. Of this work, most has focused on biology, andfrequently on BSCS curriculum materials. If you review this literature,you will notice quickly that many research studies were conducted inthe mid-1960s and early 1970s, but there are a few recent studies thatreinforce these earlier findings.

One of the greatest challenges is trying to understand what inquiryis. This is because inquiry is one simple word used to describe a com-plex set of abilities and ideas about science. Consider the 14 statementsabout inquiry on pages 2 and 3. Which ones mean inquiry to you? Whatchallenges are there if you try to consider all these ideas as inquiry?What are the implications for your students’ learning experiences? Foryour teaching? For the instructional materials you use?

Statements about science as inquiry

1. “Scientific inquiry refers to the diverse ways in which scientists study the natural world and propose explanations on the evidence derived from their work.” (NRC, 2000, p. 1)

4. “One critical aspect of science education is to help children develop the skills they need to think like scientists in their pursuit of understanding.” (National Science Foundation [NSF], 1999, p. 1)

2. “Inquiry refers to the activities of students in which they develop knowledge and understanding of scientific ideas, as well as an understanding of how scientists study the natural world.” (NRC, 2000, p. 1)

5. “All hands-on is not inquiry; all inquiry is not hands-on.” (NSF, 1999, p. 34)

3. “Inquiry investigations in the classroom can be highly structured by the teacher so that students proceed toward known outcomes, or inquiry investigations can be free-ranging explorations of unexplained phenomena. Both have their place in science classrooms.” (NRC, 2000, pp. 10–11)

6. “Inquiry teaching is not chaotic—it is a carefully choreographed activity.” (NSF, 1999, p.36)

7. “In order for inquiry to be effective, a teacher must lay a foundation in which students can

begin to take more responsibility for their own learning.” (NSF, 1999, p. 36)

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8. “Good science inquiry involves learning through direct interaction with materials and phenomena.” (NSF, 1999, p. 43)

11. “In the inquiry classroom, the teacher’s role becomes less involved with direct teaching and more involved with modeling, guiding, facilitating, and continually assessing student work. Teachers in inquiry classrooms must constantly adjust levels of instruction to the information gathered by that assessment.” (NSF, 1999, p. 82)

9. “Inquiry science requires student discussion with others—working cooperatively and sharing ideas. In addition to these being important skills to learn, dialogue and socially gathered and shared informa-tion is a powerful means toward building individual conceptual understanding.” (NSF, 1999, p. 48)

12. ”To use inquiry to answer a question, you have to become good at knowing what you don’t know. I would argue that that’s exactly the opposite of what happens in schools. Classrooms focus on what you do know (or are supposed to know) and leave you unprepared to deal with the things you don’t know.” (NSF, 1999, p. 109)

10. “Scientists move back and forth among processes to refine their knowledge as the inquiry unfolds. Inquiry is an artistic endeavor, and not the following of a recipe.” (NSF, 1999, p. 61)

13. “Inquiry is a content different from other content. It’s not something to be studied for a short time and then left behind. Inquiry has a meta-content character that demands its presence while all the other content is being learned.” (Wheeler, 2000, p. 18)

14. “To implement inquiry in the classroom, we see three crucial ingredients: (1) teachers must under-

stand precisely what scientific inquiry is; (2) they must have sufficient understanding of the structure of the discipline itself; and (3) they must become skilled

inquiry teaching techniques.” (Bybee, 2000, p. 30)

Statements about science as inquiry


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4 Getting Started

The Abilities and Understandings of Inquiry

The text in the National Science Education Standards (NationalResearch Council [NRC], 1996; hereafter referred to as the NSES)challenges us to consider three perspectives of inquiry: the teachingstrategies that support student inquiry, the abilities of inquiry, and theunderstandings of inquiry. This is a far cry from the simplistic“processes of science” that characterized these discussions years ago.In fact, the authors of the standards indicate that the abilities andunderstandings of inquiry are actually essential components of thescience content in the K–12 science curriculum. Many state standardssupport this position also, although not always as explicitly as thenational standards.

Read and consider the following excerpts from the NSES contentstandards that describe what all students should be able to do and un-derstand with respect to scientific inquiry upon finishing fourth grade,eighth grade, and their K–12 science education.

The items in table 1 are the skills all students should develop byfourth grade, eighth grade, and finally, graduation. Do all the graduatesin your local school district adequately meet these standards? What arethe consequences if they don’t?

Table 2 includes the key ideas about scientists’ work that everyfourth and eighth grader should have and every high school graduateshould understand. Do your students have this grounding as they moveto fifth grade, middle school, and high school? What would need tochange so that all students could think and do science at this level?What would be the positive and long-lasting consequences of anelementary science education that ensured that students understoodand could conduct scientific inquiry? Do the graduates in your localcommunity really understand these ideas? Do writers for your localpaper indicate an understanding of these features of science whenreporting on new research findings? What kind of difference would itmake if all graduates were competent in these abilities and under-standings? Would it change the way citizens vote on science-related

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Getting Started 5

social issues? Would it help citizens become more knowledgeableabout and more responsible for their own health and health care?Would it encourage citizens to safeguard the environment?

At one time, science educators engaged in a “process versus con-tent” debate, thinking that spending time teaching the processes of sci-ence meant trading off time teaching the “real” content of science. Weare no longer in this debate. Inquiry is content. What we have calledcontent in the past to a large extent is really the context and results ofinquiry. If science is a way to ask questions about and develop expla-nations for phenomena in the natural world, there is no science with-out inquiry.

So how do we elevate inquiry to its rightful status in the sciencecurriculum? First, we need to learn to recognize inquiry in our class-rooms. Second, we need to choose instructional materials that promotethe teaching and learning of inquiry. Third, we need to implementongoing professional development programs that help teachers enact avision of the inquiry-based classroom, support the implementation ofnew instructional materials, and coordinate assessment priorities withan emphasis on inquiry.

Table 1Abilities of scientific inquiry

at fourth, eighth, and 12th grades

All students should have developed the followingabilities of scientific inquiry

by the end of fourth grade:

n Ask a question about objects, organisms, and events inthe environment.

n Plan and conduct a simple investigation.n Employ simple equipment and tools to gather data and

extend the senses.n Use data to construct a reasonable explanation.n Communicate investigations and explanations.

by the end of eighth grade:

n Identify questions that can be answered through scientificinvestigations.

n Design and conduct a scientific investigation.n Use appropriate tools and techniques to gather, analyze,

and interpret data.n Develop descriptions, explanations, predictions, and

models using evidence.n Think critically and logically to make the relationships

between evidence and explanations.n Recognize and analyze alternative explanations and

predictions.n Communicate scientific procedures and explanations.n Use mathematics in all aspects of scientific inquiry.


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6 Getting Started

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Getting Started 7

Table 1 (continued)

by the end of high school:

n Identify questions and concepts that guide scientificinvestigations.

n Design and conduct scientific investigations.n Use technology and mathematics to improve

investigations and communications.n Formulate and revise explanations and models using logic

and evidence.n Recognize and analyze alternative explanations and

models.n Communicate and defend a scientific argument.

Adapted with permission from National Science Education Standards © 1996 by theNational Academy of Sciences. Courtesy of the National Academies Press, Washington, D.C.


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8 Getting Started

Table 2Understandings of scientific inquiry at fourth, eighth, and 12th grades

By the end of the stated grade, all students should understand that the work scientists

do includes the following:

Fourth grade

n Scientific investigations involve asking and answering aquestion and comparing the answer with what scientistsalready know about the world.

n Scientists use different kinds of investigations dependingon the questions they are trying to answer.

n Simple instruments, such as magnifiers, thermometers,and rulers, provide more information than scientists obtainusing only their senses.

n Scientists develop explanations using observations(evidence) and what they already know about the world(scientific knowledge).

n Scientists make the results of their investigations public;they describe the investigations in ways that enableothers to repeat the investigations.

n Scientists review and ask questions about the results ofother scientists’ work.

Eighth grade

n Different kinds of questions suggest different kinds ofscientific investigations.

n Current scientific knowledge and understanding guidescientific investigations.

Table 2 (continued)

n Mathematics is important in all aspects of scientificinquiry.

n Technology used to gather data enhances accuracy andallows scientists to analyze and quantify results ofinvestigations.

n Scientific explanations emphasize evidence, havelogically consistent arguments, and use scientificprinciples, models, and theories.

n Science advances through legitimate skepticism.n Scientific investigations sometimes result in new ideas

and phenomena for study, generate new methods orprocedures for an investigation, or develop newtechnologies to improve the collection of data.

End of high school

n Scientists usually inquire about how physical, living, ordesigned systems function.

n Scientists conduct investigations for a wide variety ofreasons.

n Scientists rely on technology to enhance the gathering andmanipulation of data. New techniques and tools providenew evidence to guide inquiry and new methods to gatherdata, thereby contributing to the advance of science.

n Mathematical tools and models guide and improve theposing of questions, gathering data, constructingexplanations and communicating results.

n Scientific explanations must adhere to criteria such as: aproposed explanation must be logically consistent; it mustabide by the rules of evidence; it must be open toquestions and possible modification; and it must be basedon historical and current scientific knowledge.

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Getting Started 9

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10 Getting Started

n Results of scientific inquiry—new knowledge andmethods—emerge from different types of investigationsand public communication among scientists. Incommunicating and defending the results of scientificinquiry, arguments must be logical and demonstrateconnections between natural phenomena, investigations,and the historical body of scientific knowledge. In addition,the methods and procedures that scientists used to obtainevidence must be clearly reported to enhanceopportunities for further investigation.

Reprinted with permission from National Science Education Standards © 1996 bythe National Academy of Sciences. Courtesy of the National Academies Press, Washington, D.C.

INQUIRY IN THE CLASSROOM

Rather than write about how to recognize inquiry in the classroom, wehave created an activity to demonstrate it. The classroom case studies thatfollow provide examples from the elementary through high school grades.

Process and Procedure

1. Turn to the case studies on pages 12–14 and read the six scenarios.

2. Review the summary of observations in table 3 (found on page 15)and answer the questions.

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11


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12 Inquiry in the Classroom

Classroom Case Studies

Teaching Science as InquiryA teacher wanted to see inquiry in action, so she visited six different class-rooms.Her considerations included the content of lessons, the teaching strate-gies, the student activities, and the outcomes—what students learned. Duringfive days in each classroom, she made the following observations.

Classroom #1The students engaged in an in-vestigation initiated by significantstudent interest. A student askedwhat happened to the water in awatering can. The can was al-most full on Friday and almostempty on Monday. One studentproposed that Willie the pet ham-ster left his cage at night anddrank the water. The teacher en-couraged the students to find away to test this idea. The students devised a test in which they coveredthe water so Willie could not drink it. Over several days, they observedthat the water level did not drop. The teacher then challenged the stu-dents to think about other explanations. The students’ questions resultedin a series of full investigations about the disappearance of water from thecontainer. The teacher emphasized strategies such as asking students toconsider alternative explanations, using evidence to form their explana-tions, and designing simple investigations to test an explanation. The sci-ence teacher never did explain evaporation and related concepts.

Classroom #2Students investigated batteries andbulbs to learn about electricity. Theteacher gave teams of students abattery, a bulb, and a piece of wire.To begin, the teacher told the stu-dents to use the materials and to“light the bulb.” In time, the studentteams lit the bulb and made obser-vations about the arrangement ofthe battery, the wire, and the bulb.

The teacher then provided other batteries, wires, small buzzers, andother materials and asked the students to explore different arrangements andsee what they could learn.As the students continued their activity, the teacherpointed out certain results of their battery, bulb, wire, and buzzer systems. Af-ter several days of exploration with the materials, the teacher introduced theideas that (1) electricity in circuits can produce light, heat, sound, and mag-


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netic effects; (2) electrical circuits require a complete loop through which anelectrical current can pass; and (3) electrical circuits provide a means oftransferring electrical energy when heat, light, and sound are produced. In theend, students learned some basic ideas about electricity.

Classroom #3In this classroom, the students se-lected from among several shortstories that provided discussionsof scientists and their work. Storiesincluded Louis Pasteur, MarieCurie, Jonas Salk, and BarbaraMcClintock. Over a three-week pe-riod, every student read one of thestories as homework. Then, ingroups of three, all student groupsdiscussed and answered the same questions: “What questions did the sci-entist ask?” “What type of investigations did the scientist conduct?” “What in-struments and equipment did the scientist use?” “How did the scientist useobservations to answer his or her questions?” After reading the stories andcompleting the discussion questions, the teacher had the groups prepareoral reports on the topic “how scientists do their investigations.”

Classroom #4The students were engaged in aninvestigation initiated by significantstudent interest. A student askedwhy the plants on the windowsill allseemed to be facing the window.The plants had been pointing to-ward the classroom on Friday, andby Monday, all the leaves and flow-ers were facing away from the class-room. One student proposed thatthe teacher had turned all the plantsaround on Monday morning. Theteacher indicated that this had notbeen done and encouraged the stu-dents to ask other questions thatthey could test. Eventually, the students decided to find out if the plantscould follow the light.The students devised a test in which they covered halfthe plants for several days and turned the other half back toward the class-room. Over several days, they observed that the uncovered plants turnedback to the window, but the covered plants did not. The teacher then chal-lenged the students to think about other explanations. The students’ ques-tions resulted in a series of full investigations about plant phototropism.Theteacher emphasized strategies such as asking students to consider


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alternative explanations, using evidence to form their explanations, and de-signing simple investigations to test an explanation. The science teachernever did explain phototropism and related concepts.

Classroom #5Students investigated fossils tolearn about biological evolution.The teacher distributed two similar,but slightly different, molds withdozens of fossil brachiopods. Thestudents measured the lengthsand widths of the two populationsof brachiopods.The teacher askedif the differences in length andwidth might represent evolutionary change. As the students responded, theteacher asked, “How do you know?” “How could you support your answer?”“What evidence would you need?” “What if the fossils were in the same rockformation?” “Are the variations in length and width just normal variations inthe species?” “How would a difference in length or width help a brachiopodadapt better?” The fossil activity provided the context for students to learnabout the relationships among (1) the potential for a species to increase itsnumbers, (2) the genetic variability of offspring due to mutation and recom-bination of genes, (3) the finite supply of resources required for life, and (4)the ensuing selection by the environment for those offspring better able tosurvive and leave offspring. In the end, students learned about changes inthe variations of characteristics in a population—biological evolution.

Classroom #6In this science classroom, studentsselected from among severalbooks that provided extended dis-cussions of scientific work. Read-ings included The Double Helix,The Beak of the Finch, and A Feel-ing for the Organism. Over a three-week period, each student readone of the books as homework.Then, in groups, the students discussed and answered the same questions:“What led the scientist to the investigation?” “What conceptual ideas andknowledge guided the inquiry?” “What reasons did the scientist cite for con-ducting the investigations?” “How did technology enhance the gathering andmanipulation of data?” “What role did mathematics play in the inquiry?” “Wasthe scientific explanation logically consistent? Based in evidence? Open toskeptical review? Built on a knowledge base of other experiments?” Afterreading the books and completing the discussion questions, the teacher hadthe groups prepare oral reports on the topic “the role of inquiry in science.”

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15

Tab

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Stop and Think

Steps 1 and 2 should have engaged your thinking about teaching scienceas inquiry. To further clarify your thinking, take a few minutes and respondto the following questions. Refer to the case studies or summary table asoften as necessary. Select the best answers and provide brief explanationsfor your answers.1. Which classroom scene would you cite as the best example of teach-

ing science as inquiry?A. 1B. 2C. 3D. 4E. 5F. 6

G. None of the classroomsH. All of the classrooms

2. If teaching science as inquiry is primarily interpreted to mean using lab-oratory experiences to learn science concepts, which classrooms werethe best example?A. 1B. 2C. 3D. 4E. 5F. 6

G. None of the classroomsH. All of the classrooms

3. Suppose students had numerous experiences with the same teachingstrategies and student-originated activities as classrooms #1 and #4,but the questions the students pursued varied. What would you predictas the general learning outcomes for students?A. Their thinking abilities, understanding of subject matter, and under-

standing of inquiry would be higher than students who were in theother two classes.

B. Their thinking abilities, understanding of subject matter, and under-standing of inquiry would be lower than students who were in theother two classes.

C. Their thinking abilities would be higher, and understanding of sub-ject matter and inquiry would be lower than students who were inthe other two classes.

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D. Their understanding of subject matter would be higher, and thinkingabilities and understanding of inquiry would be lower than studentsin the other two classes.

E. All learning outcomes would be the same as that of the students inthe other two classes.

4. Suppose the teacher continues observing the classrooms for anotherweek. What would you recommend she look for in order to formulate ananswer to the question, “What is teaching science as inquiry?”A. What the students learned about scientific inquiryB. What teaching strategies the teacher usedC. What science information, concepts, and principles the students

learnedD. What inquiry abilities the students developedE. What teachers should know and do to achieve the different learning

goals of scientific inquiry5. Based on the observations of these classrooms, which of the following

generalizations about teaching science as inquiry would you make?A. Overuse of one teaching strategy may constrain opportunities to

learn some science subject matter.B. There may be benefits and trade-offs of different teaching strategies

and student activities.C. The potential learning outcomes for any one sequence of lessons

may be greater than the sum of the individual lessons.D. Different learning outcomes may require different teaching

strategies.E. All of the above

6. Based on these observations, the science teacher proposes that teach-ing science as inquiry may have multiple meanings. Which of the fol-lowing would you recommend as a next step in her investigation?A. Explore how others have answered the question, “What is teaching

science as inquiry?”B. See how the National Science Education Standards explain science

as inquiry.C. Elaborate on the implications of teaching science as inquiry in the

context of classrooms.D. Try teaching science as inquiry in order to evaluate the approach in

school science programs.E. All of the above

3. Read the essay “Constructing a New View of Inquiry.”

Reading

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My use of the initial observations of classrooms and questions set the context for thisessay.The questions based on those observations allowed you to think deeply aboutthe observations and explore several issues associated with the theme of teaching sci-ence as inquiry. Returning to the observations and questions now provides an oppor-tunity to separate inquiry as content and inquiry teaching strategies and establish aperspective on teaching science as inquiry.

Question 1 probes the dominant perception of teaching science as inquiry. Ifyour view was that inquiry is primarily activity directed by students, you probably an-swered A or D. If it was using laboratory experiences to teach the subject, you proba-bly answered B or E. Few teachers answer C or F, for most do not view understandingscientific inquiry as a primary aim of school science.Those who responded H proba-bly explained that some elements of all six classrooms contained inquiry.

Question 2 emphasizes the conception that most secondary teachers hold of in-quiry: inquiry as technique or laboratory experiences for learning science concepts.The best answer is B or E. In classrooms #1 and #4, students had many opportunitiesto develop the abilities of inquiry; and students in classrooms #3 and #6 developed anunderstanding of scientific inquiry. But none of those four classes concentrated on thesubjects of science: concepts of life, Earth, and physical phenomena.

Question 3 was designed to probe the idea of inquiry as a teaching strategy andengage your thinking about this as a singular approach to teaching science and theimplied learning outcomes for students. If you used this approach all the time, whatwould students learn and what would they not learn? I suggest that the best answer isC.The primary assumption here is that classroom experiences of inquiry alone do notguarantee the understanding of subjects. Teachers should make explicit connectionsbetween the experiences and the content of inquiry and subject.

Question 4 asks for a generalization about the connection between teachingstrategies and learning outcomes. I suggest that the best answer is E because eachof the others has some basis in practical truth.

In question 5, the teacher could look at any of the responses or could look at all.Response E best anticipates a theme of this essay: that science teachers must havesome understanding of scientific inquiry and a variety of teaching strategies and abili-ties to help students learn science subjects and the content of inquiry.

Question 6 organizes the reader’s thinking to a breadth of thinking about inquiry.The evaluation of my success and yours lies in E and especially D.

Source: Adapted from Bybee, R. W. (2000). Teaching science as inquiry. In J. Minstrell, & E. H.Van Zee (Eds.), Inquiring into inquiry learning and teaching in science (pp. 37–38). Washington,DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science.

4. Consider your responses in comparison to the author’s view in“Constructing a New View of Inquiry.” If possible, do this by hav-ing a discussion with your colleagues.


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THE ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF INQUIRY*

To begin shifting toward a more-inquiry oriented classroom, it helps toconsider five essential features identified in Inquiry and the NationalScience Education Standards: A Guide for Teaching and Learning(NRC, 2000):

1. Learner engages in scientifically oriented questions.2. Learner gives priority to evidence in responding to questions.3. Learner formulates explanations from evidence.4. Learner connects explanations to scientific knowledge.5. Learner communicates and justifies explanations.

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*This section adapted with permission from Inquiry and the National Science Education Standards: AGuide for Teaching and Learning © 2000 by the National Academy of Sciences. Courtesy of the National Academies Press, Washington, D.C.

Essential Feature 1: Learners Are Engaged by Scientifically

Oriented Questions

Scientifically oriented questions center on objects, organisms, andevents in the natural world; they connect to the science concepts de-scribed in the content standards. They are questions that lend them-selves to empirical investigation and lead to gathering and using datato develop explanations for scientific phenomena. Scientists recognizetwo primary kinds of scientific questions. Existence questions probeorigins and include many “why” questions. Why do objects fall towardEarth? Why do some rocks contain crystals? Why do humans havechambered hearts? Many why questions cannot be addressed by sci-ence. There are also causal and functional questions, which probemechanisms and include most of the “how” questions. How does sun-light help plants grow? How are crystals formed?

Students often ask why questions. In the context of school sci-ence, many of these questions can be changed into how questions andthus lend themselves to scientific inquiry. Such change narrows andsharpens the inquiry and contributes to its being scientific.

In the classroom, a question robust and fruitful enough to drivean inquiry generates a need to know in students, stimulating addi-tional questions of how and why a phenomenon occurs. The initialquestion may originate from the learner, the teacher, the instruc-tional materials, the World Wide Web, some other source, or somecombination. The teacher plays a critical role in guiding the identi-fication of questions, particularly when they come from students.Fruitful inquiries evolve from questions that are meaningful and rel-evant to students, but they also must be able to be answered by stu-dents’ observations and the scientific knowledge they obtain fromreliable sources. The knowledge and procedures students use to an-swer the questions must be accessible and manageable, as well as ap-propriate to the students’ developmental level. Skillful teachers helpstudents focus their questions so that they can experience both inter-esting and productive investigations.


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20 The Essential Features of Inquiry

Essential Feature 2: Learners Give Priorityto Evidence, Which Allows Them

to Develop and Evaluate Explanations That Address

Scientifically Oriented Questions

As the NSES notes, science distinguishes itself from other ways ofknowing through the use of empirical evidence as the basis for ex-planations about how the natural world works. Scientists concentrateon getting accurate data from observations of phenomena. They ob-tain evidence from observations and measurements taken in naturalsettings such as oceans, or in contrived settings such as laboratories.They use their senses; instruments, such as telescopes, to enhancetheir senses; and instruments that measure characteristics that hu-mans cannot sense, such as magnetic fields. In some instances, sci-entists can control conditions to obtain their evidence; in otherinstances, they cannot control the conditions or control would distortthe phenomena, so they gather data over a wide range of naturally oc-curring conditions and over a long enough period of time so that theycan infer what the influence of different factors might be. The accu-racy of the evidence gathered is verified by checking measurements,repeating the observations, or gathering different kinds of data relatedto the same phenomena. The evidence is subject to questioning andfurther investigation.

The above paragraph explains what counts as evidence in science.In their classroom inquiries, students use evidence to develop explana-tions for scientific phenomena. They observe plants, animals, and rocksand carefully describe their characteristics. They take measurements oftemperature, distances, and time and carefully record them. They ob-serve chemical reactions and moon phases and chart their progress. Orthey obtain evidence from their teacher, instructional materials, the

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World Wide Web, or elsewhere to “fuel” their inquiries. As the NSES(NRC, 1996) notes, “explanations of how the natural world changesbased on myths, personal beliefs, religious values, mystical inspiration,superstition, or authority may be personally useful and socially rele-vant, but they are not scientific.”

Essential Feature 3: Learners Formulate Explanations from

Evidence to Address Scientifically Oriented Questions

Although similar to the previous feature, this aspect of inquiry em-phasizes the path from evidence to explanation, rather than the cri-teria for and characteristics of the evidence. Scientific explanationsare based on reason. They provide causes for effects and establish re-lationships based on evidence and logical argument. They must beconsistent with experimental and observational evidence about na-ture. They respect rules of evidence, are open to criticism, and re-quire the use of various cognitive processes generally associatedwith science—for example, classification, analysis, inference, andprediction—and general processes such as critical reasoning andlogic.

Explanations are ways to learn about what is unfamiliar by re-lating what is observed to what is already known. So explanations gobeyond current knowledge and propose some new understanding.For science, this means building upon the existing knowledge base.For students, this means building new ideas upon their current un-derstandings. In both cases, the result is proposed new knowledge.For example, students may use observational and other evidence topropose an explanation for the phases of the moon, for why plantsdie under certain conditions and thrive in others, and for the rela-tionship of diet to health.


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Essential Feature 4: Learners EvaluateTheir Explanations in Light

of Alternative Explanations, Particularly Those Reflecting

Scientific Understanding

Evaluation, and possible elimination or revision of explanations, is onefeature that distinguishes scientific inquiry from other forms of inquiryand subsequent explanations. One can ask questions such as, “Does theevidence support the proposed explanation?” “Does the explanationadequately answer the questions?” “Are there any apparent biases orflaws in the reasoning connecting evidence and explanation?” “Canother reasonable explanations be derived from the evidence?”

Alternative explanations may be reviewed as students engage indialogues, compare results, or check their results with those proposedby the teacher or instructional materials. An essential component ofthis characteristic is ensuring that students make the connection be-tween their results and scientific knowledge appropriate in their levelof development. That is, student explanations should ultimately be con-sistent with currently accepted scientific knowledge.

Essential Feature 5: Learners Communicate and Justify

Their Proposed Explanations

Scientists communicate their explanations in such a way that their re-sults can be reproduced. This requires clear articulation of the question,procedures, evidence, and proposed explanation and a review of alter-native explanations. It provides for further skeptical review and the op-portunity for other scientists to use the explanation in work on newquestions.

Having students share their explanations provides others the op-portunity to ask questions, examine evidence, identify faulty reasoning,

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point out statements that go beyond the evidence, and suggest alterna-tive explanations for the same observations. Sharing explanations canbring into question or fortify the connections students have madeamong the evidence, existing scientific knowledge, and their proposedexplanations. As a result, students can resolve contradictions and so-lidify an empirically based argument.


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THE LOOK OF INQUIRY

Does inquiry always look the same? Hopefully not. Think about thevariations of classroom inquiry along a continuum. Sometimes theamount of self-direction by learners is high, at other times the amountof direction from the teacher is high. Figure 2 lists key features of class-room inquiry down the left-hand column. The rows across indicate vari-ations of implementation of that feature. A reasonable goal for thescience classroom that is strong in inquiry is to make sure that every stu-dent has at least one opportunity every year that would fit in column D.

To choose instructional materials that support an inquiry-orientedclassroom, consider changing how you look at materials. BSCS, inpartnership with the K–12 Alliance at WestEd, has developed the Ana-lyzing Instructional Materials (AIM) Process. This process provides aset of tools and strategies to examine instructional materials in depth toidentify evidence of conceptual flow, content accuracy, the work stu-dents do, the work teachers do, and support for assessment. Figure 3 isone of the scoring rubrics for identifying and rating the work that stu-dents do. Note the emphasis on inquiry. How would you rate your cur-rent materials using this rubric?

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1. Learner engages in scientificallyorientedquestions

Learner poses aquestion

Learner selectsamong questions,poses new ques-tions

Learner sharpensor clarifies question providedby teacher, materials, or othersource

Learner engagesin question provided byteacher, materials, orother source

2. Learner givespriority to evidence inresponding toquestions

Learner deter-mines what constitutes evidence and collects it

Learner directedto collect certaindata

Learner givendata and asked toanalyze

Learner givendata and told howto analyze

3. Learner formulatesexplanationsfrom evidence

Learner formu-lates explanationafter summarizing evidence

Learner guided inprocess of formulating explanations fromevidence

Learner givenpossible ways touse evidence toformulate explanation

Learner providedwith evidenceand how to useevidence toformulateexplanation

4. Learner connectsexplanationsto scientificknowledge

Learner independently examines otherresources andforms the links toexplanations

Learner directedtoward areas andsources of scientific knowledge

Learner givenpossible connections

5. Learner communicatesand justifiesexplanations

Learner formsreasonable andlogical argumentto communicateexplanations

Learner coachedin development ofcommunication

Learner providedbroad guidelinesto use sharpencommunication

Learner givensteps and procedures forcommunication

Figure 2Essential features of inquiry.


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Feature More -----------Amount of Learner Self-Direction-----------Less

Less--------Amount of Direction from Teacher or Material--------More

Adapted with permission from Inquiry and the National Science Education Standards: A Guide for Teachingand Learning © 2000 by the National Academy of Sciences. Courtesy of the National Academies Press, Washington, D.C.

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RESOURCES FOR LEARNINGABOUT INQUIRY

We encourage you to further explore how to implement inquiry in theclassroom. We begin with resources to help you teach inquiry, then pro-vide evidence for its value to students.


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30 Resources for Learning About Inquiry

Science Curricula

BBSSCCSS SScciieennccee TTrraacckkss

BSCS Science Tracks is a comprehensive, modular,kit-based elementary school science program thatincludes a full-year of instruction at each gradelevel, K–5. At each grade level, K–5, there are fourmodules, one each in physical science, earth andspace science, life science and science and tech-nology. Because of its hands-on, collaborativestructure, the program is appropriate for studentsof all ability levels.

In BSCS Science Tracks, students learn basic science concepts andinquiry skills, as defined by the content, teaching and assessment stan-dards from the NSES and the Benchmarks for Science Literacy (Amer-ican Association for the Advancement of Science). The curriculumpresents the concepts and skills through engaging experiences that in-volve students in the processes of scientific inquiry and technologicaldesign. Each module clearly defines the standards that students are tomeet and provides a sequence of age-appropriate, constructivist learn-ing experiences organized according to the 5E learning cycle.

BBSSCCSS SScciieennccee aanndd TTeecchhnnoollooggyy

BSCS Science & Technology is a multi-level,thematic program for the mid-dle grades that integrates life,earth-space and physical sci-ences in the context of themesand issues that have meaningfor science students. Usinghands-on activities and theBSCS 5E Instructional Modelin a cooperative learning envi-ronment, BSCS Science & Technology en-courages an inquiry approach to scienceand aligns with the NSES.

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Resources for Learning About Inquiry 31

BSCS Science & Technology creates opportunities for students tolearn skills, develop concepts, and acquire attitudes in many areas ofscience and technology. In this curriculum, students develop a concep-tual understanding of the foundations of science and technology whilethey study specific concepts, such as the theory of plate tectonics, theparticle theory of matter, the chromosome theory of inheritance, thetheory of evolution, principles of design, cost-and-benefit analysis andsystems analysis. Students also learn scientific and technological atti-tudes, such as accepting ambiguity, searching for evidence, working tosupport and justify answers, recognizing inferences and not always ex-pecting right and wrong answers or simplistic solutions for complexscientific questions or for technological problems.

BBSSCCSS BBiioollooggyy:: AA HHuummaann AApppprrooaacchh

BSCS Biology: A Human Approach is a standards-based, introductorybiology program appropriate for students of all abilities. The programinvolves students in conceptual biology by usinga human perspective, organizes content aroundsix unifying themes and teaches through inquiry,hands-on activities and the BSCS 5E instructionalmodel. The thematic approach encourages depthof coverage rather than breadth and, with its em-phasis on a human perspective, the text presentsbiology in a context that will be relevant to stu-dents’ lifelong learning.

BBSSCCSS BBiioollooggyy:: AAnn EEccoollooggiiccaall AApppprrooaacchh ((GGrreeeenn VVee rrssiioonn))

BSCS’s Green Version textbook integrates themajor concepts of biology into an ecologicalframework. Embedded into the curriculum arefundamental concepts such as science as inquiry,the history of science and the impact of scienceon society, and the diversity of life. Using a stu-dent-centered, active-learning approach, GreenVersion offers students a rich array of hands-on

activities and laboratories that develop inquiry skills and conceptualunderstanding. The students acquire and retain an in-depth under-standing of biology when they are directly involved with the conceptsand skills they are learning. Green Version emphasizes the process ofdiscovery over the memorization of facts so that students don’t justlearn about science, they think science.

BBSSCCSS SScciieennccee:: AAnn IInnqquuiirryy AApppprrooaacchh

BSCS Science: An Inquiry Approach is a ground-breaking, three-yearmultidisciplinary science program for highschool. This program features a strong inquirythread throughout the core concepts in physicalscience, life science, and earth-space science.

This curriculum engages students across thedisciplines in relevant contexts that explore thestandards related to science in a personal andsocial perspective, as well as science andtechnology. The BSCS 5E instructional modelstructures the learning experiences for students through each chapter.

BSCS Science: An Inquiry Approach provides high school studentsnationwide with a rigorous, cohesive alternative to the traditionalsequence of biology, chemistry, and physics. When students completeall three years of the program, they will have been introduced to all ofthe national standards for grades 9-12.


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32 Resources for Learning About Inquiry

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ARTICLES OF INTEREST

Dispelling the myth: Is there an effect of inquiry-based science teach-ing on standardized reading scores? Available at http://sustainabil-ity2002.terc.edu/invoke.cfm/page/729

Klentschy, M., & Molina-De La Torre. (2003). Students’ science note-books and the inquiry process. In W. Saul (Ed.), Border crossing:Essays on literature and science. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press.

Powell, J. C., Short, J., & Landes, N. (2002). Curriculum reform, pro-fessional development, and powerful learning. In R. Bybee (Ed.),Learning science and the science of learning. (pp. 121–136). Ar-lington, VA: NSTA Press.

Powell, J. C., & Anderson, R. D. (2002). Changing teachers’ practice:Curriculum materials and science education reform in the USA.Studies in Science Education, 37, 107–135.

Taylor, J. A., Powell, J. C., Van Dusen, D. R., Pearson, B., Bess, K., &Schindler, B. (2003, June). Rethinking the continuing education ofscience teachers: An example of transformative, curriculum-basedprofessional development, NSTA Monograph Series: Exemplifying


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the More Emphasis Conditions in the National Science EducationStandards.

Weinstein, T. (1982). Science curriculum effects in high school: Aquantitative synthesis. Journal of research in science teaching19(6) 511–522.

Windschitle, M. (2002). The reproduction of cultural models of inquiryby pre-service science teachers: An examination of thought and ac-tion. ERIC document ED464840.


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34 Articles of Interest

REFERENCES

Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L. & Cocking, R. R. (Eds.). (1999). Howpeople learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington,DC: National Academy Press.

BSCS & NSTA. (2001). Building a presence for science: A toolkit forprofessional development: Science as inquiry. Colorado Springs,CO: Author.

Bybee, R. W. (2000). Teaching science as inquiry. In J. Minstrell, &E. H. Van Zee (Eds.), Inquiring into inquiry learning and teachingin science (pp. 37–38). Washington, DC: American Association forthe Advancement of Science.

National Research Council. (1996). National science education stan-dards. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

National Research Council. (2000). Inquiry and the national scienceeducation standards. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

National Science Foundation. (1999). Inquiry: Thoughts, views, andstrategies for the K–5 classroom: Foundations (Vol. 2). Arlington,VA: Division of Elementary, Secondary, and Information Educa-tion, National Science Foundation.

Wheeler, G. F. (2000). The three faces of inquiry. In J. Minstrell, &E. H. Van Zee (Eds.), Inquiring into inquiry learning and teachingin science. Washington, DC: American Association for the Ad-vancement of Science.

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eD.


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