BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS OUTLINE

• DEFINITION OF RESEARCH• WHY RESEARCH?• TYPES OF RESEARCH• HOW MANAGER FACILITATES

RESEARCH• SELECTION OF A RESEARCHER• INTERNAL VERSUS EXTERNAL

CONSULTANT-RESEARCHER 1

RESEARCH DEFINITIONS

• THE PROCESS OF FINDING SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS AFTER STUDYING AND ANALYSIS OF THE SITUATIONAL FACTORS.

• THE PROCESS OF REFINING HUMAN EXPERIENCE FOR ADDING INTO THE STOCK OF KNOWLEDGE

• ANY ORGANIZED INQUIRY CARRIED OUT TO PROVIDE INFORMATION FOR SOLVING PROBLEMS. 2

BUSINESS RESEARCH DEFINED

• SYSTEMATIC INQUIRY THAT PROVIDES INFORMATION TO GUIDE BUSINESS DECISIONS BY REPORTING,DESCRIBING,EXPLAINING AND PREDICTING

• ORGANIZED,SYSTEMATIC,DATABASED, CRITICAL,OBJECTIVE,SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY INTO A SPECIFIC PROBLEM TO FIND SOLUTIONS. 3

WHY RESEARCH?

• NEED FOR INFORMATION FOR INFORMED –RATIONAL DECISION MAKING DUE TO :

IMPROVED INFO AVAILABILITY TO COMPETITORS.

BETTER DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYTICAL TOOLS FOR OPTIMAL DECISIONMAKING.

PUBLIC MANDATE FOR BETTER QUALITY AT AFFORDABLE PRICES.

THE BASIS FOR RESEARCH IS THE CURIOSITY-THE EXCITEMENT TO KNOW THE UNKNOWN. 4

AREAS OF BUSINESS RESEARCH

• ACCOUNTS;BUDGETS,COSTS PRICES• FINANCE,OPERATIONS,MERGERS, INFO

SYSTEMS,STOCK EXCHANGES• ATTITUDES,HRM,STRATEGIES• MARKETING,PRODUCT

IMAGE,CONSUMER PREFERECES,PROMOTION,NEW PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT ETC. 5

THE TYPES OF RESEARCH

• APPLIED RESEARCH PRACTICAL PROBLEM SOLVING OF CURRENT NATURE.RELATE TO POLICY,PERFORFANCE AND ACTIONS.

• BASIC RESEARCH PROBLEMS OF THEORETICAL NATURE-GENERAL PROBLEMS. NO IMPACT ON ACTIONS,POLICY,PERFORMANCE.ADDS TO BODY OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE. 6

WHY MANAGER SHOULD BE FAMILIAR WITH RESEARCH TOOLS

• IDENTIFY –SOLVE PROBLEMS• DIFFERENTIATE GOOD AND BAD

RESEARCH• FACTORS INFLUENCING RESEARCH

PROBLEM SITUATION• TAKE CALCULATED RISK BY DECISIONS• PREVENT POSSIBLE VESTED INTEREST IN

A SITUATION• COMBINE EXPERIENCE WITH SCIENTIFIC

APPROACH IN DECISION MAKING. 7

ISSUES IN ENGAGING RESEARCHERS

• PROBLEM SELECTION• LOCATION ,SELECTION ,COMPARE

CREDENTIALS• UNDERSTANDING WITH CONSULTANT• RELEVANCE OF INFORMATION,VARIABLES,

METHODOLOGY,CONSULTANT REQUIREMENTS.

• EXPLICT ROLES AND EXPECTATIONS OF CONSULTANT-RESEARCHER.

• ORGANIZATIONAL VALUES 8 CARIFICATION

INTERNAL CONSULTANT

• ADVANTAGESACCEPTANCE BY EMPLOYEESLESS TIME NEEDED-KNOW THE

ORGANIZATIONAVAILABLE FOR IMPLEMENTATION.LESS EXPENSIVE• DISADVANTAGESLESS INNOVATIVE-STEREOTYPEVESTED INTERESTSEXPERTISE NOT VALUED 9

EXTERNAL CONSULTANT

ADVANTAGES• DIVERSE EXPERIENCE• CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING• SUITABLE FOR COMPLEX PROBLEM OR IF

VESTED INTERESTSDISADVANTAGES• EXPENSIVE• NEED MORE TIME• DIFFICULTY IN GETTING EMPLOYEES

COOPERATION 10

RESEARCH KNOWLEDGE ENHANCES MANAGERIAL

EFFECTIVENESS• FACILITATE DECISION MAKING BY

MANAGER• BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF MODEL

SUGGESTED BY CONSULTANT• FACILITATE IMPLEMENTATION• OPENS PROMOTION AVENUES BY BETTER

DECISION MAKING• UNDERSTANDS NEED ,COST AND

BENEFIT OF RESEARCH 11

ETHICS IN RESEARCH

• STANDARDS OF BEHOVIOUR IN RESEARCH.

• SAFE GUARDS INTERESTS OF MANAGERS,RESEARCHERS,ANALYSTS, DATA PROVIDERS ETC.

• NEED FOR ETHICAL BEHAVIOUR AT ALL STAGES OF RESEARCH PROCEESS-DATA COLLECTION,ANALYSIS,PRESENTATION OF RESULTS. 12

WHAT DOES RESEARCH DO?

• VERIFICATION OF SOLUTIONS,QUESTIONS,ANSWERS.

• TESTS LOGICAL VALIDITY OF HUNCHES• EXAMINES EMPIRICAL SUPPORT OF

DEFINITIONS,ACCEPTED BELIEFS.• IDENTIFIES SOURCES –CAUSES OF

TENDENCIES• FINDS INTERRELATIONSHIPS BY

EXAMINING HYPOTHESIS. 13

SCIENTIFIC THINKING –OUTLINE

• THE NATURE OF SCIENCE

• THE STYLES OF THINKING

• THE HALLMARKS OF SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION

• THE HYPOTHETICO DEDUCTIVE METHOD 14

THE NATURE OF SCIENCE

• CRITICAL ACCOUNT OF LOGICAL JUSTIFICATION

• BEST CONCEIVED TRUTH IN EACH PERIOD

• TESTED KNOWIEDGE-FINDINGS• NO UNIVERSALLY ACCEPTED AND

STABLE AUTHORITY OF ASCERTAINING TRUTHS-LIKE WITCHCRAFT,MYSTIC POWERS,PARAPSYCHOLOGY,INHERITED TRAITS ETC. 15

SCIENCE CONTIUED

• PHYSICAL SCIENCES BETTER DEVELOPED AND FUNDED,MORE OBJECTIVE,TESTABLE AND GENERALIZABLE THAN SOCIAL SCIENCES

• THE HUMAN BEHAVIOUR CHANGES• NO FIELD OF SCIENCE IS FREE FROM

GLARING IGNORANCE AND CONTRADICTIONS 16

STYLES OF THINKING

• IDEALISM-INTERPRET IDEAS

-UNTESTED OPINION--LITERARY• INFORMAL-EXISTENTIALISM

.EMPIRICAL-DATA BASED

-SCIENTIFIC METHOD• RATIONALISM-REASON BASED

-SELFEVIDENT TRUTH-DEATH,R.DRIVE 17

CONTINUED…..

-PERSONS OF AUTHORITY BY STATUS,RATHER THAN EXPERTISE,INTEGRITY,QUALITY

-POSTULATIONAL –REDUCE PROBLEMS TO MATH .TERMS AND

DEDUCE FROM RELATIONSHIP OF VARIABLES.E.G.SIMULATION OF PRICES,OUTPUTS TO OPTOMIZE PROFITS

18

THINKING CONTD…

• DEDUCTION-REASONED CONCLUSION BY GENERALIZING A KNOWN FACT.MUST HAVE A VALID PREMISE AND TRUE IN REAL WORLD

• INDUCTION-CONCLUSION FROM OBSERVED EVIDENCE NOT STRONGLY RELATED.INFERENTIAL JUMP BEYOND THE EVIDENCE PRESENTED

• COMBINE INDUCTION AND DEDUCTION

HALLMARKS OF SCINTIFIC INVESTIGATION

• PURPOSIVENESS• RIGOR• TESTABILITY• REPLICABILITY• PRECISION AND CONFIDENCE• OBJECTIVITY• GENERALIZABILITY• PARSIMONY

HALLMARKS CONTD….

• PURPOSIVENESS

-AIM AND OBJECTIVE OF RESEARCH PROJECT

• RIGOR

-EXACT METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION,ANALYSIS,CONCLUS.

• TESTABILITY

-STATISTICAL TEST OF CONCLUSION

CONTINUED…..

• REPLICABILITY-REPEATED UNDER SIMILAR CNDITIONS BY OTHERS

• PRECISION-CONFIDENCE INTERVAL,LIMITSOF

ACCURACY• CONFIDENCE

-LEVEL,PROBABILITY OF RESULT WITHIN INTERVAL.

HALLMARKS CONT….

• OBJECTIVE-BASED ON REASONING EMPIRICAL DATA,NOT SUBJECTIVE

• GENERALIZABILITY-RESULTS OR CONCLUSIONS CAN BE GENERALIZED FOR USE BY OTHERS

• PARSIMONEY-SIMPLE TO HANDLE VARIABLES,ANALYSIS AND INTERPRET

HYPOTHETICO DEDUCTIVE METHOD STEPS

• OBSERVATION• PREL.INFO GATHERING-PROBLEM

IDENTIFICATION• THEORY FORMULATION• HYPOTHESIZING• FURTHER DATA COLLECTION• DATA ANALYSIS • DEDUCTION-CONCLUSION

STEPS CONT…

• OBSERVATION-SENSE CHANGES IN THE ENVIRONMENT WHICH ARE UNSATISFACTORY.E.G.MIS NOT USED WELL BY MANAGERS

• PREL.INFORMATION GATHERING-PROBLEM AREA IDENTIFICATION.-INTERVIEW AND LITERATURE SURVEY

• THEORY FORMULATION.-IDENTIFY VARIABLES AND THEIR RELATIOSHIP TO THE PROBLEM

STEPS CONT….

• HYPOTHESIZING-FROM THEORETICAL RELATIONSHIP OF VARIABLES CERTAIN TESTABLE HYPOTHESIS CAN BE GENERATED

• FURTHER DATA COLLECTION-DATA NEEDED TO TEST THE HYPOTHESIS

CONTINUED…

• DATA ANALYSIS

-STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF DATA TO SEE IF IT SUPPORTS THE HYPOTHESIS

• DEDUCTION

-BY INTERPRETATION OF ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

RESEARCH PROCESS OUTLINE

• OBSERVE BROAD PROBLEM AREA• PRELLIM.DATA COLLECTION• PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION• THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK• HYPOTHESIS GENERATION• RESEARCH DESIGN• DATA COLLECT,ANALYSE ,INTERPRET• HYPOTHESIS CONCLUSION• PRESENTATION OF RESULTS• MANAGERIAL DECISION MAKING 28

BROAD PROBLEM AREA

CURRENT PROBLEMS ,COMPLAINTS,CONCEPTUAL ISSUES,POLICIES NEEDING IMPROVEMENT /EMPIRICAL ANSWERS.E.G.

SALES NOT PICKING UPFLEXI TIME PROBLEMSTRAINING PROG.EFFECTIVENESSNEW INFORMATION SYSTEM NOT

UTILISED

PRELIMINARY DATA COLLECTION

• PRIMARY,SECONDARY DATA SOURCES• UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEW• BACKGROUND DATA CONCEPTUAL

FACTORS• STRUCTURAL FACTORS ,MANAGEMENT

PHILOSOPHY• WORK ATTITUDES AND ENVIRONMENT• LITERATURE SURVEY

BACKGROUND DATA

• ORIGIN,HISTOY,OWNERSHIP

• CHARTER,PURPOSE

• LOCATION,DEVELOPMENT

• HUMAN,FINANCIAL AND OTHER RESOURCES

• FINANCIAL POSITION 5-10 YEARS

STRUCTURAL FACTORS MANAGEMENT PHILOS.

• ROLES,POSITIONS,WORK FLOW

• SPECIALISATION

• COMMUNICATION CHANNELS

• CNTROL SYSTEMS AND SPAN

WORK ATTITUDES ENVIRONMENT

• BELIEFS IN JOB• WORK INTERRELATIONSHIPS• SUPERVISORY STYLE• PARTICIPATION• PROMOTION,DEVELOPMENT ,REWARD

SYSTEM• SOCIAL ORIENTATION OF FIRM• UNDERSTANDING ISSUES RATHER THAN

THE SYMPTOMS

WHY LITERATURE SURVEY?

• REVIEW PUBLISHED AND UNPUBLISHED SOURCES

• NO REINVENTING THE WHEEL• REVIEW ALL ASPECTS OF PROBLEM• HELPS DEVELOP THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

FOR HYPOTHESIS TEST• IMPROVES TESTABILITY/REPLICABILITY• CLEAR AND CONCISE PROBLEM STATEMENT• PERCEIVED TO BE SCIENTIFIC AND

SIGNIFICANT

CONDUCT LIT. SURVEY

• BASED ON ISSUES AND INTERVIEW SURVEY RELEVANT VARIABLES

• BIBLIOGRAHICAL CITATION DATA BASES[DB]• ABSTRACT DB-CITATIONS AND SUMMARIES• FULLTEXT DB;GLOBAL NATIONAL SUBJECT

AUTHOR TOPIC TEXT • EXTRACT RELEVANT INFO ON LINE• LIT. REVIEW WRITING TO INCL.SUBJECT

INTRODUCTION,RESEARCH QUESTION AND TO BUILD ON PREV.RESEARCH

PROBLEM DEFINITION

• A WELL DEFINED STATEMENT• GAP BETWEEN ACTUAL AND DESIRED STATE-

PROBLEM• SYMPYOMS NOT TO BE DEFINED AS

PROBLEMS• CLEAR CONCISE ISSUE STATEMENT TO BE

INVESTIGATED FOR SOLUTION.E.G.• HOW DOES NEW PACKAGING AFFECT

PRODUCT SALES?• WHAT ARE THE COMPNENTS OF GUALITY OF

LIFE?

IMPORTANT ISSUES

• MANAGERS TREAT SYMPTOMS AS PROBLEMS

• ANTECEDENTS-PROBLEMS-CONSEQUENCES

• INFORM WORKERS HOW RESAERCH FACILITATE THEIR WORK

• CONFIDENTIALITY OF RESEARCH PURPOSE?

WHY THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK?

• CONCEPTUAL MODEL THAT DISCUSSES RELATIONSHIPS OF VARIABLES IMPORTANT TO INVESTIGATION

• FROM IT TESTABLE HYPOTHESIS FOR EXAMINING DEVELOPED

• IT IS CENTRAL TO PROBLEM INVESTIGATION

OUTLINE:THEORY AND HYPOTHESIS

• VARIABLES

• DEPENEDENT,INDEPENDENT,MODERATING,INTERVENING

• THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

• HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT

39

VARIABLE DEFINED

• ANYTHING THAT CAN TAKE DIFFERENT VALUES AT VARIOUS TIMES FOR THE SAME PERSON/OBJECT OR SAME TIME FOR DIFFERENT PERSONS/OBJECTS E.G.

• EXAM SCORES,ABSENTEEISM, MOTIVATION

DEPENDENT VARIALE?

• OF PRIMARY INTEREST TO RESEARCHER FOR ANALYSIS TO FIND OUT WHAT FACTORS INFLUENCE THE DV.

• EXAMPLES:-WHY SALES ARE NOT UPTO THE

MARK?DV-SALES -ANALYSIS OF DEBT EQUITY RATIO OF

PRODUCTION FIRMS IN KARACHI DV-DEBT EQUITY RATIO

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE?[IV]

• INFLUENCES THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE IN +/- WAY

• TO ESTABLISH CAUSAL RELATIONSHIP THE IV IS MANIPULATED

• EXAMPLES:-NEW PRODUCT SUCCESS>HIGHER FIRM STOCK PRICE[DV]-SUPERVISOR TRAINING>HIGHER PRODUCTION LEVEL[DV]

MODERATING VARIABLE

• STRONG EFFECT ON IV-DV RELATIONSHIP AND MODIFIES IT >>NO.OF BOOKS AT HOME>READING ABILITY –PARENT LITERACY{MV} >>WORKFORCE DIVERSITY>ORGAN.EFFECTIVENESS –MANAGEMENT EXPERTISE{MV}

DISTINCTION IV-MV EXAMPLES

• TRG PROGRAM>WILLINGNESS TO LEARN –MV GROWTH NEEDS

• FORMAL TRG>EMPLOYEE PRODUCTIVITY-MV EMPLOYEE AGE

• WORKER INTERACTION>JOB WELL DONE- MV STAY TIME AFTER WORK

INTERVENING VARIABLES

• SURFACES BETWEEN THE TIME IV OPERATES TO INFLUENCE DV UNTIL THEIR IMPACT ON DV

• WORK FORCE DIV.>MANGMT EFFECT{MV}-CREATES SYNERGY[INT V]>ORG EFFECTIVENESS

• OCCURRENCE OF EACH VARIABLE DEPENDS ON GIVEN SITUATION FOR WHICH THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ADVANCED

VARIABLES SUMMARIZED

• IV CAUSES INT V• MV EXPLAINS DEPENDENT EFFECT

BETWEEN IV AND INT V • INT V IS FUNCTION OF IV AND SURFACES

BETWEEN TIMES IV AND ITS IMPACT ON DV-TIME DIMENSION

• DV VARIANCE EFFECT CAUSED BY IV –CONCERNS THE ANALYST TO FIND OUT WHAT INFLUENCES THE VARIABLE

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FEATURES

• IDENTIFY AND LABEL RELEVANT VARIABLE S

• DISCUSS RELATIONSHIP OF VARIABLES TO EACHOTHER

• INDICATE DIRECTION OF RELATIONSHIP + OR --

• REASONS FOR RELATIONSHIP LITERATURE SURVEY

• SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

THEORET FRAMEW EXAMPLE

• COMMUNICATION COCKPIT CREW

• COMMUNICATIN GROUND STAFF

• DECENTRALIZATION –INDEPENDENT VARIABLES

• TRAINING- MODERATING VARIABLE

• AIR SAFETY CONTROL VIOLATIONS-DEPENDENT VARIABLE

HYPOTHESIS DEFINED

• A FORMAL TESTABLE STATEMENT • LOGICALLY ASSUMED RELATIONSHIP

BETWEEN VARIABLES AS A TESTABLE STATEMENT

• THEORIZED RELATIONSHIP OF VARIABLES THAT CAN BE SCIENTIFICALLY TESTED BY ANALYSIS FOR CLUES TO PROBLEM SOLUTION

HYPOTHESIS EXAMPLES

• IF THEN STATEMENT-IF EMPLOYEES ARE HEALTHY THEY WILL TAKE LEAVE LESS FREQUENTLY

• DIRECTIONAL-MORE OR LESS THAN –THE GREATER THE STRESS IN THE JOB THE LOWER THE JOB SATISFATION

• NON DIRECTIONAL-THERE IS A RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AGE AND JOB SATISFATION

NULL HYPOTHESIS

• STATES NO SIGNIFICANT RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VARIABLES OR NO SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MEANS OF TWO GROUPS

• Ho:Um=Uw MOTIVATION LEVEL OF MEN AND WOMEN Ho:p=o

ALTERNATE HYPOTHESIS

• STAEMENT EXPRESSING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VARIABLES-DIFF.BETWEEN GROUPS

• Ha:Um< Uw Ha:p<o or p>o

RESEARCH DESIGN OUTLINE

• PURPOSE OF STUDY

• TYPE OF INVESTIGATION

• RESEARCHER INTERFERENCE

• STUDY SETTING

• UNITS OF ANALYSIS

• TIME HORIZON 53

PURPOSE OF STUDY

• EXPLORATION:SITUATION UNKNOWN,PRELIM.INFO FOR COMPREHENSIVE STUDY LATERE.G.ETHICAL VALUES OF DIFF.CULTURES

• DESCRIPTION:TO ASCERTAIN/DESCRIBE FEATURES OF A VARIABLE E.G.EMPLOYEES CHARACTERISTICS

Continued….

• TESTING HYPOTHESIS:EXPLAIN NATURE OF RELATIONSHIPS-DIFFERENCES-INTERDEPENDECES E.G.SALES VOLUME –PROMOTION EFFORTS

• CASE STUDY:CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS OF SIMILAR SITUATIONS FOR GENERALIZATION

TYPE OF INVESTIGATION

• CAUSAL RELATIONSHIP:ESTABLISH DEFINITE CAUSE OF A PROBLEM E.G.DOES SMOKING CAUSES CANCER?

• CORELATION:IDENTIFY IMPORTANT FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH PROBLEM E.G.ARE SMOKING AND CANCER RELATED?

• GROUP INFERENCES:RANKS-SMALLER-GREATER E.G.ARE WOMEN MORE MOTIVATED THAN MEN AT WORK?

RESEARCHER INTERFERENCE

• MINIMAL IF STUDY IN NATURAL SETTING E.G.TRAINING EFFECTIVENESS BASED ON DATA

• MANIPULATION,CONTROL OR SIMULATION:ANALYST CONTROLS VARIABLES E.G.EFFECT OF LIGHT ON WORKER OUTPUT

STUDY SETTING

• NON CONTRIVED:NATURAL SETTING-FIELD EXPERIMENT E.G ARE THE RATES OF INTEREST RELATED TO EXTENT OF DEPOSITS?

• CONTRIVED:INDEPENDENT VARIABLE CHANGED TO SEE EFFECT ON DP –LAB EXPERIMENT E.G.TO STUDY REL.OF RATE OF INTEREST ON INCLINATION TO SAVE THE RATES OF INTEREST IN VARIOUS BRANCHES ARE CHANGED

UNITS OF ANALYSIS

• INDIVIDUALS:E.G.STUDY MOTIVATION OF EMPLOYEES

• DYADS:INTERACTION OF SUPERVISOR SUBORDINATE PAIR

• GROUP:E.G.PATTERN OF MISUSE BY VARIOUS DEPARTMENTS

• ORGANIZATIONS:EMOLUMENTS OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS UTILITIES

• CULTURES:E.G.PROFITS MADE BY SUBSIDIARIES OF A CORPORATION IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES

TIME HORIZON

• CROSS SECTIONAL:ONE SHOT STUDY-ONE TIME OR PERIOD E.G DATA STUDY OF STOCK MARKET APRIL-JUNE

• LONGITUDINAL:STUDY OF INFORMATION AT MORE THAN ONE PERIOD OF TIME E.G.CHANGE IN BEHAVIOUR OF EMPLOYEES BEFORE AND AFTER MANAGEMENT CHANGE

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN OUTLINE

• LAB EXPERIMENT• INTERNAL VALIDITY• EXTERNAL VALIDITY• WHAT AFFECTS INTERNAL

VALIDITY ?• THREATS TO INTERNAL VALIDITY• EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS AND

INTERNAL VALIDITY 61

LAB EXPERIMENT

• CAUSAL STUDY OF IV-DV AND COTROL OR ISOLATE CONTAMINATING VARIABLES

• MANIPULATE-TREAT IV TO SEE EFFECT ON DV E.G.EFFECT OF LIGHT ON WORKER OUTPUT

• CONTROL CONTAMINATING VARIABLE BY MATCHING E.G.SPREADING SUBJECTS EQUALLY ACROSS CONTRL-EXP.GROUPS

• RANDOMIZATION:RANDOM SELECTION OF SUBJECTS OF GROUPS ALSO CONTROLS CONTAMINATING VARIABLES

INT. AND EXT. VALIDITY• INT.VALIDITY IS THE CONFIDENCE IN CAUSAL

RELATIONSHIP IV-DV –IT IS HIGH IN LAB EXPERIMENT

• EXT.VALIDITY IS THE EXTENT THE RESULTS FOUND IN LAB EXP ARE GENERALIZABLE

• FIELD EXP BEING IN NATURAL SETTING HAS MORE EXT VALIDITY

• THE HIGHER THE EXTERNAL VALIDITY THE LOWER THE INTERNAL VALIDITY AND VICE VERSA

• TO ENSURE BOTH FIRST LAB EXP THEN FIELD EXP

FACTORS AFFECTING INT VALIDITY

• HISTORY:DURING LAB EXP OTHER FACTORS EFFECT DV E.G PROMOTION BY FIRM AND ASSOCIATION

• MATURATION:EFFECT OVER TIME E.G. OLDER,TIRED,HUNGER,EXPERI.

• TESTING:SUBJECT TREATMENT EFFECTS POST TEST BY SENSITIZING

• INSTRUMENTATION:CHANGE IN FRAME OF MEASUREMENT PRE AND POST TEST E.G.MEASURE DIFFERENT OUT PUTS

FACTORS CONT…

• SELECTION BIAS:IN SELECTION OF MEMBERS OF EXP-CONTROL GROUPS

• STATISTICAL REGRESSION:SELECTION OF EXTREME SCORE SUBJECTS E.G.HIGHLY OR LOW MOTIVATED WORKERS

• MORTALITY:ATTRITION OF GROUP MEMBERS

• THE ABOVE EFFECTS CAN BE REDUCED BY SOPHISTICATED RESEARCH DESIGN

EXAMPLE

• DEMOCRATIC STYLE BEST TO RAISE EMPLOYEE MORALE?

• 3EXP GRPS FOR PRE TEST AUTOCRATIC,DEMOCRATIC,PARTICIPATIVE AND CONTROL GRP NO TEST

• TWO MEMBERS MOVE TONOTHER GROUP-HISTORY EFFECT.

• TWO MEMBERS FROM AUTO G. LEFT-MORTALITY EFFECT

• A POST TEST WAS GIVEN TO ALL-TEST EFFECT

INT VALIDITY AND EXP DESIGNS

• SHORTER TIME SPAN REDUCES HISTORY,MATURATION,MORTALITY EFFECTS

• QUASI EXP DESIGNS:

.1 EXP G-PRE AND POST T>TEST EFFECT --E=02-01 NO CONTROL G. .1EXP G-POST T AND 1 CONTROLG.E=02-01 >MATURATION EFFECT

CONT…

• TRUE EXP DESIGNS: 1EXP,1CONTROL G.PRE.AND POST

TEST ,CONTROL G.NO TREATMENT E=[02-01]-[04-03] >MORTALITY EFFECT

• SOLOMON 4 GROUP DESIGN: 1 EXP ,1CONTROE G.AS ABOVE1 EXP G .1CONTROL G.POST TEST,CONTROL

G.NO TREATMENT >MORTALITY EFFECT

SIMULATION

• ALTERNATIVE TO LAB/FIELD EXP• COMPUTER BASED MODEL BUILDING

TECHNIQUE• CREATES SETTING RESEMBLING NATURAL ONE

• PARTIPANTS RANDOMELY EXPOSED TO REAL

WORLD EXPERIENCE IN SIMULATED ENV• MANIPULATION AND CONTROL BY RESEARCHER• DATA COLLECTION BY

OBSERV.TAPING,INTERVIEW • EXPENSIVE, MORTALITY EFFECT

IT IS UNETHICAL TO

• TO FORCE SUBJECTS TO PARTICIPATE IN EXP

• GIVE MENIAL WORK • DISALLOW WITHDRAWAL • USE RESULTS AGAINST • EXPOSE TO HAZARD • NOT PRESERVE SECRECY • NO DEBRIEFING AFTER EXP • WITH HOLD BENEFITS

MANAGERIAL CONSIDERATIONS

• IS EXPERIMENT DESIGN REQUIRED?

• NEED FOR CAUSAL RELATIONSHIP OR CORRELATION ?

• IS HIGH VALIDITY NEEDED?

• HOW IMPORTANT IS COST?

SCALES OUTLINE

• OPERATIONAL DEFINITION

• NOMINAL SCALE

• ORDINAL SCALE

• INTERVAL SCALE

• RATIO SCALE 72

OPERATIONAL DEFINITION

• VARIABLES HAVE TO BE MEASURED IN THEORETICAL FRAMEW TO TEST HYPOTHESIS

• PHYSICAL MEASURES EASY-TEMPERATURE,LENGTH

• SUBJECTIVE FEELINGS,ATTITUDES,PERCEPTIONS DIFFICULT TO MEASURE AND ARE ABSTRACT CONCEPTS-LIKING,HAPPINESS

• OPERATONALLY DEFINING A CONCEPT IS TO RENDER IT MEASUREABLE

ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVAT.

• DIMENSIONS-TYPICAL CHARACTERISTICS: 1.DRIVEN BY WORK-CONSTANTLY WORKING,RELUCTANT TO TAKE TIME OFF,EFFORT DESPITE SETBAC 2.UNABLE TO RELAX-THINKS OF WORKAT HOME,NO HOBBIES 3.IMPATIENT WITH INEFFECT-DISLIKE MISTAKES,DISLIKE WORK WITH SLOW P. 4.SEEKS MODER.CHALLENGE-OPTS FOR CHALLENG ING JOB 5.SEEKS FEEDB-ASKS FOR,IMPATIENT FOR FEEDBACK

LEARNING EXAMPLE

• UNDERSTANDING:ANSWER Qs,GIVE EXAMPLE TO EXPLAIN

• RETENTION:RECALL MATERIAL SAME TIME

• APPLICATION:SOLVE PROBLEMS APPLYING CONCEPT,INTEGRATE WITH OTHER RELEVANT MATERIAL

• MOST CONCEPTS HAVE BEEN MEASURED –OPERATIONALLY DEFINED

SCALES• SCALE:A TOOL /MECHANISM TO

DISTINGUISH /MEASURE VARIABLE • NOMINAL SCALE:ALLOWS TO ASSIGN SUBJECTS

TO MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE CATEGORIES E.G.MALE-FEMALE,PAKISTANI-AMERICAN TO DISTINGUISH/DIFFERENTIATE

• ORDINAL SCALE:DISTINGUISHES AND RANKS VARIABLES E.G. BEST TO WORST,FIRSTBTO LAST,RANK JOB CHARACTERICS LIKE INTERACTION,SKILL USE,WHOLE TASK,SERVE OTHERS,INDEPENDENT

SCALES CONT…

• INTERVAL SCALE:DIFFERENTIATES,RANKS,DISTANCE BET VARIABLES,GROUPS SUBJECTS IN CATEGORIES E.G.THERMOMETER SCALE, PREFERENES ON A 5/7 POINT SCALE STRONG.DISAGREE,DISAGREE,NEITHER AGREE NOR DISAGREE ETC

• RATIO SCALE:DIFFERENCE ,ORDER,DISTANCE AND UNIQUE ORIGIN E.G. WEIGHING SCALE,USE ARITH OR GEOMETRIC MEAN,STANDARD DEVIATION,VARIANCE,,TESTS OF SIGNIFICANCE T,F

SCALES CONT…• RATIO SCALES USED WHEN EXACT NUMBERS ARE

CALLED FOR E.G HOW MANY ORDERS DO YOU OPERATE?

• INTERVAL SCALE USED FORB RESPOSES TO VARIOUS ITEMS ON 5/7 POINTS USE OF STATS MEASURES AS RATIO SCALE,A.MEAN,STAND.DEVIATION,VARIANCE,T,F

• ORDINAL SCALE:FOR PREFERENCE IN USE,STATS MEASURES ARE MEDIAN,RANGE,RANK ORDER CORRELATIONS

• NOMINAL SCALE:USED FOR PERSONAL DATA,STATS MEASURES,MODE,X2

SCALING OUTLINE

• SCALING

• RATING SCALES

• RANKING SCALES

• GOODNESS OF MEASURES

• RELIABILITY

• VALIDITY 79

SCALING• ASSIGN NUMBERS OR SYMBOLS TO ELICIT

ATTITUDINAL RESPONSES TOWARDS OBJECTS,EVENTS ,PERSONS ETC

• NOT TO BE CONFUSED WITH 4 SCALES• RATING

SCALES:DICHOTOMY,CATEGORY,LICKERT,NUMERICAL,SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL, ITEMISED,FIXED CONSTANT SUM,STAPEL,GRAPHICAL RATING

• RANKING SCALES:PAIRED COMPARISON,FORCED CHOICE

RATING SCALES

• DICHOTOMY S.:YES NO RESPONSE TO A QUESTION.E.G.DO YOU LIKE TO WORK?

• CATEGORY S.:ELICIT ONE RESPONSE FROM SEVERAL E.G.DO YOU LIVE IN A/B/C/D ?

• LIKERT S.:E.G.5POINT/STRONGLY AGREE…STRONGLY DISAGREE

• NUMERICAL S.:5 TO 7 POINTS BIPOLAR ADJECTIVE AT EACH ENDE.G.EXTREMELY PLEASED…..EXTREMELY DISPLEASED

RATING SCALES CON…

• SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL S.:BIPOLAR ATTRIBUTES AT ENDS E.G.BEAUTIFUL-UGLY

• ITEMISED RATING S.:5 TO 7 POINTS WITH ANCHOR E.G.VERY UNLIKEY…VERY LIKELY

RATING SCALES CONT.

• FIXED CONSTANT SUM S.:ASSIGN NUMER TO EACH ITEM FROM POINTS E.G. COLOUR,SHAPE,SIZE

• STAPEL S.:DIRECTION AND INTENSITY OF ATTITUDE E.G. –3 TO +3

• GRAPHIC RATING S.:PLACE MARK ON GRAPHIC SCALE

• CONSENSUS S.:A PANEL OF JUDGES SELECTS ITEM WHICH MEASURES CONCEPT

RANKING SCALES CONT..

• PAIRED COMPARISON S.:RESPONDENTS TO SELECT TWO OBJECTS AT A TIME.”RESPONDENTS FATIGUE IF NUMBER LARGE”

• FORCED CHOICE S.:RANK OBJECTS RELATIVE TO EACH OTHER TO ASSESS ATTITUDES TOWARDS OBJECTS E.G.FINANCIAL ENVITONMENT MOST USEFUL ..LEAST USEFUL

GOODNESS OF MEASURES

• VALIDITY: RIGHT MEASURE FOR THE CONCEPT[IN EXP DESIGN EXACT CAUSE EFFECT REL/GENERALIZ.]

• RELIABILITY:ACCURACY TO MEASURE THE CONCEPT .TO BE STABLE AND CONSISTANT

• STABILITY:MEASURES THE CONCEPT EVEN IF CHANGE OCCURS

• CONSISTANCY:ITEMS IN THE INSTRUMENT SOLICT SIMILAR IMPACT ON RESPONDENTS

ITEMS ANALYSIS

• TO SEE IF ITEMS BELONG IN THE INSTRUMENT

• THE MEANS BETWEEN HIGH SCORE S AND LOW SCORES ITEMS GROUP ARE TESTED BY t VALUES TO FIND HIHLY DISCRIMINATING ITEMS TO BE INCLUDED IN THE INSTRUMENT

• THE VALIDITY OF MEASURES IS ESTIMATED

RELIABILITY/STABILITY

• TEST RETEST RELIABILITY:REPEAT INSTRUMENT WITH SAME GROUP AND ANOTHER TIME.CORRELATION

• PARALLEL FORM RELIABILITY:RESPONSES OF TWO COMPARABLE SETS OF MEASURES FOR SAME CONCEPT.HIGHLY CORRELATED

RELIABILITY/CONSISTAN.

• INTERNAL CONSISTANCY:ITEMS AS A SET MEASURE THE SAME CONSTRUCT RELIABLY

• CONSISTANCY TEST:RESPONDENTS ANSWERS TO ALL ITEMS ARE CORRELATED CRONBACH A COEFF

• SPLIT HALF RELIABILITY:CORRELATION OF ITEMS OF BOTH HALVES OF INSTRUMENT AFTER SPLIT

VALIDITY

• INSTRUMENT MEASURES THE INTENDED CONCEPT

• CONTENT V.:ENSURES THAT MEASURES INCLUDE REPRESENTATIVE,ADEQUATE SET OF ITEMSFOR CONCEPT APPROVED BY PANEL OF JUDGES

• FACE VALIDITY:DO THE ITEMS MEASURE THE CONCEPT ON THE FACE OF IT[LOOK LIKE]

VALIDITY CON…

• CRITERION V.:THE MEASURE DIFFERENTIATES INDIVIDUALS ON A CRITERION.CORRELATION

• PREDICTIVE V:DIFFERENTIATES A FUTURE RELATED CRITERIONE.G.APTITUDE TEST FOR JOB/SUBJECT

• CONCURRENT V.:DISCRIMINATES INDIVIDUALS KNOWN TO BE DIFFERENTE.G.SCORE FOR WORK ETHICS FOR A HARD WORKER

VALIDITY CONT..

• CONSTRUCT V.:DOES THE MEASURE FIT THE CONCEPT AS THEORIZED BY FACTOR ANALYSIS?

• CONVERGENT V.:DO 2 INSTRUMENTS MEASURING THE CONCEPT CORRELATE HIGHLY?

• DISCRIMINATING V.:DOES THE MEASURE HAVE A LOW CORRELATION WITH THE VARIABLE THAT IS SUPPOSED TO BE UNRELATED TO THE VARIABLE?

EXAMPLES TESTED INSTRUMENTS

• JOB ENRICHMENT,PARTICIPATIVE MANAGEMENT,ROLE CONFLICT,CAREER SALIEN,LEAST PREFFERED COWORKER,PRODUCTIVITY AUDIT,ADS,SELLING,MARKETING AND QUALITY SERVICE RESPONSES,RELIABILITY RESPOSIVENESS,TANGIBLE PERSONAL ATTITUDES ETC

DATA COLLECT.METHODS OUTLINE

• INTERVIEW METHODS

• QUESTIONNAIRE METHODS

• OBSERVATION SURVEYS

• SETTING

• SOURCES 93

INTERVIEW METHODS

• UNSTRUCTURED:PRELIMINARY,TO IDENTIFY CRITICAL FACTORS

• SEQUENCE OF Qs NOT PLANNED• FROM BROAD TO SPECIFIC Qs• STRUCTURED:TO ELICIT INDEPTH,DIRECT

INFORMATION • TYPE OF INFO NEEDED IS KNOWN• PREDTERMINED Qs LISTED /POSED• VISUAL AIDS USED

BIAS FREE INTERVIEW

• INTERVIEWER RAPPORT WITH RESPONDENT• NOT TO INFLUENCE RESP. BY BODY

LANGUAGE• RECORD RESPONSES ACCURATELY• CORRECT ANALYSIS,INTERPRET.• TACTFUL QUESTIONING• REPEAT AND CLARIFY Qs• CONFIDENCE BY CREDIBILITY/ABILITY• ALLEY FEARS AND SUSPICION

BIAS FREE CONT..

• INTERVIEWEE TO UNDERSTAND Qs• EXPRESSES TRUE OPINION• AVOIDS PERSONAL LIKING/DISLIK.• AVOID PRESENCE OF NON

PARTICIPANTS WHO RESTRICT• RAPPORT FOR OPENNESS• ENSURE AVAILABILITY

FLEXIBILITY BY APPOINTMENT

QUESTIONING TECHNIQUE

• FUNNELING:START WITH OPEN ENDED Qs,FROM BROAD TO SPECIF.Qs TO IDENTIFY KEY ISSUES

• UNBIASED:ASK Qs IN A WAY OF LEAST BIAS IN RESPONSE

• CLARIFY ISSUES:REPHRASE IMPORTANT INFO OF RESPONDENT

• HELP RESP.UNDERS.ISSUES:Qs IN A SIMPLE WAY

• TAKE NOTES DIRECTLY /THEREAFTER

INTERV.METHODS +/-

• FACE TO FACE:ADAPT THE Qs,CLARIFY DOUBTS,OBSERVE NON VERBAL CUES,MAY BE EXPENSIVE,NEED TRAINED STAFF

• TELEPHONIC:REACH RESPONDENT FAST,DISCOMFORT OF FACING AVOIDED,ABRUPT TERMINATION

• COMPUTER ASSISTED:INDEXES RESPONSES,FILTERS OUT OF RANGE RESPOSES TO ENHANCE ACCURACY,SELECTS RESPONDENTS AND CALLS FROM FILES,RECORDS RESPONSES

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

• SET OF Qs FOR RESPONSE• PERSONALLYADMINISTERED:

QUICK,LESS COST LOCALLY,DOUBTS CLARIFIED,NEED LESS TRAINED STAFF,

• MAIL QUESTIONNAIR:FOR WIDE AREA COVERAGE,LOW RESPONSE[30 %] , PROVIDE MONETARY AND OTHER INCENTIVES TO RESPOND,FACILITATE BY ENCLOSING SELF ADDRESSED STAMPED ENVELOPE ,KEEP Qs SIMPLE TO ANSWER

Q.DESIGN WORDING• CONTENT/PURPOSE:TAP DIMENSIONS

AND ELEMENTS OF CONCEPT BY BEHAVIOURAL Qs

• LANGUAGE/WORDING:ACCORDING TO THE LEVEL OF UNDERSTANDING OF RESPONDENTS

• OPEN ENDEDQs:RESP.CHOOSES WAY TO DECIDE

• CLOSED Qs:CHOICE FROM GIVEN ALTERNATIVES

• POSITIV.AND NEGATIV.WORDED Qs:NOT TO BE USED FOR SAME CONCEPT TOGATHER,USE TO AVOID MECHAN.RESP.

BIAS IN Qs

• DOUBLE BARRELED:WHERE TWO PARTS LEND TO DIFFERENT ANSWERS.E.G.GOOD MARKET SELLS WELL

• AMBIGUOUS:RESPONDEND MAY NOT BE SURE OF MEANING

• RECALL:RECALL PAST EVENT HAZY• LEADING:TO PHRASE A Q.TO ELICIT

RESPONSE OF RESEARCHER LIKING E.G.EMPLOYEE TO GET RAISE IN INFLTIONARY SITUATION

•

BIAS IN Qs CONT..

• LOADED:MAY SOLICIT EMOTIONALLY CHARGED RESPONSE E.G.WILL IT BE VINDICTIVE IF UNION DECIDES TO STRIKE

• SOCIALLY UNDESIRABLE:E.G.DO YOU THINK OLDER PEOPLE BE LAID OFF?

• LENGHTY:NOT OVER 2O WORDS• SEQUENCE:FROM GENERAL TO SPECIFIC

CROSS CULTURAL RESEARCH

• CORRECT ASSESSMENT OF ATTITUDES BY MULTINATIONALS

• TRANSLATION OF INSTRUMENT ITEMS:BACK TRANSLATION TO ESTABLISH IDIOMATIC EQUIVALENCES

• PROCEDURES:UNIFORM PROCEDURE OF DATA COLLATION ALSO WITHIN A TIME FRAME

PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENT

• WORDING TO MINIMISE BIAS• MEASURES TO BE RELIABLE AND

VALID• SCALES AND SCALING

APPROPRIATE• ESTABLISH GOODNESS OF DATA• EASY CODING AND

CATEGORIZATION OF DATA

QUESTIONNAIRE GETUP

• LOGICALLY ORGANIZED• SECTIONS NEATLY PLACED• INSTRUCTIONS FOR RESPONDENTS• MINIMUM AMOUNT OF EFFORT BY

RESPONDENT• PRE TESTING OF Qs –NO AMBIGUITY• EXAMPLES PERSONAL

DATA,INCOME,ENDING ETC

ELECTRONIC Q.DESIGN SURVEY

• CHECKS LOGICAL/SYMMETRICAL ERROR

• DATA EDITING PROGRAMMES

• COMPUTING AND MEASURES

• MULTIPLE REGRESSION

• ON LINE Q.SURVEY,MAIL DATA DISC TO RESPONDENTS

OBSERVATION SURVEY

• OBSERVE BEHAVIOUR,ACTIVITIES,BODY LANGUAGE,PROCESSES,CHILDREN

• UNSTRUCTURED:NO SPESIFIC IDEA OF ASPECT TO BE STUDIED-NATURAL

• STRUCTURED:PREDTERMINED EVENTS OBSERVED,RECORDED AS NEEDED

• LESS RESP.BIAS,EASY TO OBSERVE ENVIRONMENT EFFECTS,CHILDREN

• NEED PRESENCE,SLOW,EXPENSIVE,DOES NOT OBSERVE COGNITIVE EFFECT,NEED TO TRAIN OBSERVERS

BEHAVIOURAL OBSERV.

• NON VERBAL:BODY MOVEMENT , GLANCES,FACE EXPRESSION

• LINGUISTIC:SOUNDS• EXTRA LINGUISTIC:VOICE,PITCH;RATE

OF SPEAKING• SPATIAL :HOW ONE RELATES

PHYSICALLY TO OTHERS• NON BEHAVIOURAL:RECORD

ANALYSIS,PHYSICAL PROCESSES,CONDITIONS

BIASES IN OBSERVATION

• ERRORS IN RECORDING , MEMORY LAPSES,BOREDOM,FATIGUES

• RESPONDENT REACTIONS• LACK OF TRAINING:WHAT TO

OBSERVE[EVENT,TARGET],HOW AND WHEN• USE OF CAMERAS,RECORDING ETC• CONCEALMENT OF OBSERVER ,EQUIPMENT

AND PURPOSE• UNOBTRUSIVE OBSERVATION,AVOID

HALLO EFFECT,OBSERVER DRIFT

FURTHER METHODS/SOURCES

• WORD ASSOCIATION:E.G.WORK IS –• THEMATIC TEST:STORY AROUND A PICTURE• INKBLOT TEST:INTERPRETATION• MULTI METHODS USE• FOCUS GROUP:GROUP DISCUSSION UNDER

MODERATOR-RESPONSES• PANEL:FOCUS GROUP TO STUDY

INTERVENTION EFFECT OVER TIME E.G. EFFECT OF ADS

• TRACE MEASURES:E.G .CANS IN TRASH FOR BRAND USE

SAMPLING OUTLINE

• DEFINITION• WHY SAMPLING?• NORMAL DISTRIBUTION• SAMPLING DESIGN• PROBABILITY SAMPLING• NON PROBAB.SAMPLING• PRECISION AND CONFIDENCE• CALCULTION OF SAMPLE SIZE 111

DEFINITIONS

• POPULATION:GROUP,EVENTS TO BE INVESTIGATED

• ELEMENT:A MEMBER OF POPULATION• POPULATION FRAME:LIST OF ELEMENTS

E.G.TEL.DIRECTORY• SAMPLE:RESEARCHER DRAWS SUBSETOF

POPULATION TO DRAW CONCLUSIONS FROM IT FOR WHOLE POPULATION

• SUBJECT:AN ELEMENT OF A SAMPLE

DEFINITIONS CON…

• SAMPLING :PROCESS OF DRAWING A SAMPLE FROM A POPULATION TO UNDERSTAND,ANALYSE ITS PROPERTIES TO GENERALIZE FOR THE WHOLE POPULATION

• SAMPLING R EDUCES EFFORT AND COST IF POPULATION IS LARGE

• REPRESENTATIVE S.:IN A REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE ITS CHARACTERISTICS ARE THE SAME AS THOSE OF THE POPULATION

SAMPLING DESIGN

• EXPLORATORY DESIGN: REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE IS NOT NEEDED-RESULTS NOT GENERALIZED, FOR CLUES TO ISSUES

• FOR DESIGN OF SAMPLE ONE NEEDS TARGET POPULATION,PARAMETER TO STUDY,SAMPLING FRAME,SAMPLE SIZE,TIME AND RESOURCES REQUIRED

PROBABILITY SAMPLING

• ELEMENTS HAVE SAME CHANCE OF BEING SELECTED,USED WHEN REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE IS IMPORTANT

• UNRESTRICTED RANDOM SAMPL.:EACH ELEMENT HAS KNOWN AND EQUAL CHANCE OF BEING SELECTED

• LEAST BIAS AND MOST GENERALIZABLE.• EXPENSIVE AND CUMBERSOME

RESTRICTED PROBAB.S.

• SYSTEMATIC:DRAW Nth ITEM RANDOMLY ,EFFICIENT AND USED FOR ATTITUDE SURVEYS ETC.

• STRATIFIED RANDOM:HOMOGENITY WITHIN GROUP,HETROGENITY AMONG GROUPS,SELECT SUBJECTS AT RANDOM EACH SUBGROUP IF SUBGROUPS WITHIN POPULATION HAVE DIFFERENT PARAMETERS

PROBABILITY S. CONT…

• PROPRTIONATE STRATIFIED RANDOM:PROP.SELECTION FROM EACH GROUP E.G .JOB LEVELS

• DISPROPORTIONATE STRAT.RANDOM:IF STRATA TOO SMALL OR TOO LARGE AND MORE PROB.SUSPECTED WITHIN SUB GROUPS

• CLUSTER:GROUPS HETROGENOUS WITHIN AND HOMOGENOUS AMONG THEM ,LESS EFFICIENT

• MULTISTAGE CLUSTER:CLUSTER IN EACH AREA AND SUB CLUSTERS AND RANDOM SELECTION

PROBA.SAMPLING CON..

• AREA SAMPLING:POPULATION WITH IN EACH GEOGRAPHICAL CLUSTER,LESS COSTLY

• DOUBLE SAMPLING:1st SAMPLE FOR PRELEMINARY INFORMATION OF INTEREST,2nd TIME PREVIOUS SAMPLE USED FOR FURTHER DETAIL

NON PROBAB. SAMPLING

• ELEMETS PROBABILITY OF SELECTION NOT KNOWN,FOR QUICK PREL.FINDINGS

• CONVENIENCE :EASILY AVAILABLE SAMPLE ELEMENTS TAKEN

• PURPOSIVE:CONFINED TO SPECIFIC GROUP WHO CAN PROVIDE DESIRED INFORMATION

• JUDGEMENT:BEST PEOPLE TO PROVIDE INFO

• QUOTA:ENSURE CERTAIN PEOPLE ARE REPRESENTED IN A STUDY BY QUOTA

PRECIS. AND CONFIDENCE• PRECISION:HOW CLOSE ESTIMATE IS TO

TRUE POPULATION STATS STANDARD SAMPLING ERROROF MEANS=Sx=S/SQUARE ROOT[n-1]

• CONFIDENCE:LEVEL OF CERTAINTY TO HAVE THAT PRECISION E.G 95% FOR k=1.96 Sx=10/(49^1/2)=1.43 U=X+kSx=105+-1.96*1.43=1o5+-2.35

• BY LAERGER n MULTIPLY BY [N-n]/N-1• LARGER THE SAMPLE SIZE HIGHER THE

PRECISION OR SMALLER THE SAMPLING ERROR.THE NARROWER PRECISION RANGE THE LOWER THE CONFIDENCE LEVEL

PRECISION AND CONFID…

• NO SAMPLE HAS EXACTLY SAME CHARACTERISTICS AS POPULATION

• PROBABILITY SAMPLING COMES CLOSER TO POPULATION STATISTICS

• X,S,S^2 MEAN,STANDARD DEV., VARIANCE OF SAMPLE

• U,SIGMA,SIGMA^2 OF POPULATION• n SAMPLE SIZE,N POPULATION

SAMPLE SIZE

• EFFECTED BY VARIABILITY OF POPULATION

• PRECISION/ACCURACY NEEDED• COST /BENEFIT OF INVESTIGATION• MOST RESEARCH SAMPLES SIZE>30AND

<500 • FOR SUBSAMPLES 3O IN EACH

CATEGORY• FOR MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS

SAMPLE SIZE 10 TIMES NUMBER OF VARIABLES

• EXPERI.RESEARCH SAMPLE SIZE 10-20

OUTLINE D ATA ANALYSIS/INTERPRET

• DATA READY FOR ANALYSIS: EDIT,CODING,CATEGORIZATION,DATA ENTRY

• DATA ANALYSIS:• OBJECTIVES OF DATA ANALYSIS:TEST

GOODNESS,HYPOTHESIS TEST,• ANALYSIS AND

INTERPRETATION:DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS,INFERENTIAL STATISTICS 123

DATA READY….

• EDIT:CHECK INCOMPLETENESS AND INCONSISTANCY,LOGICALLY RECTIFY DATA

• BLANK RESPONSES:LACK OF UNDERSTANDING,UNWILLINGNESS TO ANSWER,INDIFFERENCE

• TAKE MID POINT OF SCALE• IGNORE BLANK RESPONSES• ASSIGN MEAN VALUE OF RESPONSES• ASSIGN RANDOM NUMBER IN SCALE

DATA CONT….

• CODING:ASSIGN UNIQUE NUMBERTO EACH VARIABLE AND ITEM E.G AGE,EDUCATION

• CHECK 10% FOR ACCURACY• CATEGORIZATION:VARIABLES SUCH THAT

SEVERAL ITEMS MEASURING SAME CONCEPT ARE GROUPED TOGETGER.E.G. VARIOUS CATEGORIES OF AGE

• ENTRY:BY SCANNER DIRECTLY OR MANUALLY USING STATS PACKAGE DATA EDITOR

DATA ANALYSIS

• USE STATS PACKAGE SS-9 FOR WINDOWS FOR TESTS,EXCEL FOR DISPLAY RESULTS

• FEEL FOR DATA:MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY,DISPERSION,DISTRIBUTION, INTERRELATIONS OF VARIABLES TO DETECT INCORRECTNESS ,BIAS,OUT OF RANGE DATA

• GOODNESS OF DATA:RELIABILITY ANALYSIS CRONBACH ALPHA COEFF. CLOSER TO 1 THE HIGHER INTERNAL CONSISTANCY RELIABILITY OF ITEMS OF MEASURES

DATA ANALYSIS CONT…• SPLIT HALF RELIABILITY COEFF.FOR

CORRELATION OF SPLIT ITEMS• STABILITY OF MEASURES:PARALLEL

FORM RELIABILITY,TEST RETEST RELIABILITY TEST FOR CORRELATION OF MEASURES

• VALIDITY:FACTORIAL VALIDITY BY MULTIVARIATE TECHNIQUES TO CONFIRM CORRECTNESS OF DIMENSIONS OF CONCEPTS

• CRITERION VALIDITY:TEST MEASURES TO DIFFERENTIATE INDIVIDUALS KNOWN TO BE DIFFERENT

DATA ANALYSIS CONT…

• CONVERGENT V.:TWO SOURCES RESPONDING TO SAME MEASURES HIGHLY CORRELATED

• DISCRIMINATORY V:TWO DISTINCTLY DIFFERENT CONCEPTS ARE NOT CORRELATED

• IF VALIDATED MEASURES ARE USED NO NEED FOR VALIDITY TEST ONLY TEST RELIABILITY

HOYPOTHESIS TESTING EXAMPLE

• EXAMINE CRONBACH ALPHA FOR MEASURES

• FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF THE VARIABLES

• DESCRIBE MEAN,STANDARD DEVIATION OF MEASURES

• PEARSON’S CORREL.COEFFICIENT• RESULTS OF HYPOTHESES

EXAMPLE CONT…

• RELIABILITY:CRONBACH ALPHA 0.82, MEASURES INTERNALLY CONSISTANT, CORRELATED

• FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF PERSONAL DATA E.G.DEPT WISE % RESPONDENTS

• DESCRIPTIVE STATS MAX,MIN,MEAN,STD DEV.,VARIANCE OF VARIABLES E.G JOB SAT AVERAGE,ITL LOW,

• INFERENTIAL STATS:PEARSON CORRELATION,BELOW 0.59 MEASURES VALIDITY-IF>0,75 VARIABLES NOT DISTINCT

EXAMPLE CONT…

• E.G. ITL IS NEGATIVELY CORREL TO JOB SAT,EQUITY,JOB ENRICH

• HYPOTHESIS TEST 1:NO DIFFERENCE BET.MEN AND WOMEN IN PERCEIVED EQUITY Ho:Uw=Um t-Test TCAL=0.75<T

• DF=171,SIG.0.05 T=1.96 H0 ACCEPTED• HYPOTHESIS 2:JOB SATISFACTION

IRRESPETIVE OF SHIFTS1,2,3 H0:U1=U2=U3 INTERVAL SCALE ANOVA T.

EXAMPLE CON…

• FCAL=3.327FCRIT=3 H REJECTED,SIG=0.04 D=3-1=2,DF=171-12-4=159

• HYPOTHESIS 3:NO DIFFERENCE IN ITL OF EMPLOYEES AT 5 JOB LEVELS H0:U1=U2=U3=U4=U5ANOVA TEST- fcal1.25<fcrit2.37 H0 ACCEPTED p=.03 k=5-1,171-4=167

• HYPOTHESIS 4:SHIFTS WORKED AND EMPLOYEE STATUS CHI SQUARE TEST SINCE NOMINAL VARIABLE X^2=2.16 <2.7 H0accepted df=2,sig.0.25

EXAMPLE CONT.

• HYPOTHESIS 5:4 VARIABLES DO NOT SIGNIFICANTLY EXPLAIN VARIANCE IN ITL-MULTIPLE CORREL ANALYSIS R CORREL.OF VARIABLES 0.58,R^2=0.3 VARIANCE

SIG..001,DF4=5-1,DF156=160-4 F=2.4 FCAL=16.7>FCRIT HO REJECTED

HELP IN CHOICE OF TEST

• THE TYPE OF TEST DEPENDS ON HYPOTHESIS,SCALE,COST AND BENEFIT

• EXPERT SYSTEMS HELP CHOOSE APPROPRIATE PROCEDURE AND TESTS E.G.STAT NAVIGATOR,

• THEY ALSO HELP IN RESEARCH DESIGN

RESEARCH PROPOSAL OUTLINE

• PURPOSE• SPONSOR USES • RESEARCH BENEFITS• TYPES OF PRPOSALS• STRUCTURING PROPOSALS • PROBLEM STATEMENT• RESEARCH OBJECTIVES• LITERATURE REVIEW• BENEFITS OF STYDY• RESEARCH DESIGN• D ATA ANALYSIS 135

PROPOSAL OUTLINE..

• NATURE/FORM OF RESULTS• QUALIFICATION OF RESEARCHER• BUDGET• SCHEDULE• FACILITIES/SPECIAL RESOURCES• PROJECT MANAGEMENT• BIBLIOGRAPHY• APPENDICES• MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENT• EVALUATING THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL

PURPOSE OF PROPOSAL

• THE PROPOSAL INDICATES:• SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH PROBLEM• RELATED RESEARCH OF OTHERS• DATA NEEDED,METHODS OF

COLLECT.,ANALYSIS,INTERPRET.• PURPOSE,DESIGN AND FITNESS TO

RESAERCH• BASIS TO EVALUATE RESULTS• WORKPLAN ,TIME AND BUDGET ESTIMATES

TYPES OF PROPOSALS-COMPLEXITY

• STUDENT TERM PAPER,THESIS,DOCTORAL THESIS

• INTERNAL EXPLORATION,SMALL SCALE OR LARGE SCALE STUDY

• EXTERNAL EXPLORATORY,SMALL TO LARGE SCALE CONTRACT

• GOVT SPONSORED STUDY NEEDS ALL MODULES

• DOCTORAL THESIS DOES NOT NEED SUMMARY,RES.QUALIFICATIONS,

BUDGET,PROJECT MANAGEMENT,

STRUCTURE OF PROPOSAL

• EXECUTIVE SUMMARY:INFO ABSTRACT FOR EXECUTIVE EVALUATION STATING PROBLEM,OBJECTIVES,BENEFITS OF RESAERCH APPROACH

• PROBLEM STATEMENT:STATE PROBLEM, BACKGROUND,CONSEQUENCES, IMPORTANCE,BENEFITS OF STUDY

• RESEARCH OBJECTIVES:PURPOSE OF RESAERCH QUESTION/HYPOTHESIS SPONSOR SPECIFIC CONCRETE AND ACHIEVABLE GOALS LISTED IN ORDER OF IMPORTANCE

STRUCTURE CON…

• LIT.REVIEW:HISTORICALLY SIGNIFICANT,RECENT,RELATED RESEARCH,DATA,REPORTS AS BASIS OF PROPOSED STUDY,DISCUSS

• IMPORTANCE/BENEFITS OF STUDY:A FEW PARAS HOW STUDY WOULD BENEFIT THE SPONSOR

• RESEARCH DESIGN:TECHNICAL DETAILS OF PHASES OF THE PROJECT,SAMPLE SELECTION,DATA COLL.METHODS,INSTRUMENTS, ANALYSIS PROCEDURE

STRUCTURE CON…

• DATA ANALYSIS:FOR COMPLEX RESEARCH STUDIES -METHODS/TESTS

• NATURE/FORM RESULTS:TO SEE IF OBJECTIVE OF STUDY,CONTRACTUAL STATEMENT ACHIEVED, CONCLUSIONS, ACTION PLANS,PLANS,MODELS

• RESEARCHER QUALIFICATIONS: ACACDEMIC,RELEVANT EXPER. ENTIRE RESUME IF SPCIFICALLY ASKED

• BUDGET:1-2 PAGES SUB HEADINGS NEED.• SCHEDULE:MAJOR PHASES,DURATION,

MILESTONES,COMPLETION-PERT PLAN.

STRUCTURE CON…• PROJECT MANAGEMENT:TEAM ORG

RESPONSIBILITIES,CONTROL PROCEDURES,REPORTING ,COMPETENCY

• BIBLIOGRAPHY:STANDARD FORMAT RESEARCH AND QUOTATIONS

• APPENDICES:GLOSSARY,SAMPLE OF MEASURING INSTRUMENT

• EVALUATION:CRITERIA ESTABLISHED BEFORE PROPOSAL RECEIVED,NEATLY PRESENTED,LOGICALLY ORGANIZED,GUIDELINES FOR BUDGET,SCHEDULE,EASILY UNDERSTOOD PROBLEM STATEMENT

STATISTICS –OUT LINE

• DESCRIPTIVE STATS• FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION• MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY• MEASURES OF DISPERSION• INFERENTIAL STATS• CORRELATION ANALYSIS REGRESSION

ANALYSIS• TESTS OF RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VARIABLES

143• TEST OF SIGNIFICANT MEAN DIFFERENCES

BETWEEN GROUPS

DESCRIPTIVE STATS• CHARACTERISTICS OF CENTRAL

TENDENCY,DISPERSION,SHAPE DESCRIBE DISTRIBUTIONS

• DISTRIBUTION:THE VALUES ALONGWITH FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE

• STANDARD NORMAL DISTRIBUTION:MOST PHENOMENA TEND TO CLUSTER AROUND MEAN-INVERTED BELL SHAPED CURVE

• MEAN:ARITHMATIC AVERAGE-FOR INTERVAL AND RATIO DATA

• MEDIAN:MIDPOINT OF A DISTRIBUTION –ORDINAL DATA

DESCRIPTIVE CONT…• MODE:MOST FREQUENTLY OCCURRING

VALUE-NOMINAL DATA• VARIANCE:AVERAGE OF SQUARED

DEVIATION SCORES FROM DISTRIBUTION’S MEAN

• STANDARD DEVIATION:SQUARE ROOT OF VARIANCE

• RANGE:DIFFERENCE BET.LARGEST AND SMALLEST SCORE IN A DISTRIBUTION-ORDINAL DATA

• INTER QUARTILE RANGE DIFF BETW.FIRST AND THIRD QUARTILE OF DITRIBUTION-ORDINAL DATA

STATISTICAL TESTS• PROCEDURE:• STATE NULL HYPOTHESIS• CHOOSE THE STATS TEST:DEPENDS ON

EFFICIENCY,POPULATION,SAMPLE DRAW,SCALE

• SELECT LEVEL OF SIGNIFICANCE:0.001-0.1-WITHIN RANGE

• COMPUTE THE CALCULATED DIFFERENCE VALUE:APPROPRIATE SIGNIFICANCE TEST E.G. t TEST,CHI SQUARE TEST ETC.

STATISTICAL CON…

• OBTAIN THE CRITICAL VALUE FROM TABLES FOR REGION OF REJECTION/ACCEPTANCE OF NULL HYPOTHESIS

• MAKE THE DECISION:FOR MOST TESTS IF CALCULATED VALUE IS LARGER THAN CRITICAL VALUE WE REJECT NULL HYPOTHESIS

STATIST.TESTS CONT..

• STAT.TEST SIGNIFICANCE OF CHANGE/DIFFERENCE IF DIFF DOES NOT REPRESENT SAMPLING FLUCTUATION ONLY

• NON PARAMETRIC TESTS FOR NOMINAL AND ORDINAL DATA-CHI SQUARE

• PARAMETRIC TESTS FOR INTERVAL/RATIO SCALES AND RELIABLE ,INDEPENDENT OBSERVATIONS, POPULATION NORMAL DISTRIBUTION, EQUAL VARIANCES OF POPULATION

INFERENTIAL STATS

• TO KNOW FROM ANALYSIS THE RELATIONSHIP BETW.VARIABLES, DIFFERENCE AMONG VARIABLES FROM SUBGROUPS,HOW SEVERAL IVs MIGHT EXPLAIN THE VARIANCE IN A DV

• MEASURING DEGREE OF RELATIOSHIP BETWEEN 2 VARIABLES IS CORRELATION ANALYSIS

• USING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN A KNOWN VARIABLE AND AN UNKNOWN VARIABLE TO ESTIMATE THE UNKNOWN IS REGRESSION ANALYSIS

PEARSON PROD.CORRELATION

• SHOWS DIRECTION,STRENGHT,SIGNIFICANCE OF REL. OF 2 VARIABLES

• +1 TO –1,SIGNIFICANCE 0.001-0.1

• r= SUM [X-x][Y-y]/[N-1].Sx.Sy

• FOR SMALL SAMPLES SAMPLING ERROR BELOW r=0.5

T-TEST OF SIGNIFICANCE

• WHEATHER r IS CHANCE DEVIATION FROM A POPULATION

• FOR INDEPEND.SAMPLE,NORMAL DISTRIBUTION,BIVARIATE

• Ho:P=0 NO CORRELATION• t=r/square root[1-r^2]/n-2=0.93/1-0.86/8^1/2=7.03• CRITICAL VALUE df 2 and p=0.005

CALCULATED VALUE>2*CRIT.VALUE,NULL HYPOTHESIS REJECTED

CHI SQUARE TEST

• USED TO FIND RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN NOMINAL VARIABLES

• BY SMALL SAMPLE SIZE CHI SQUARE=SUM[O-E]^2/E. O=OBSERVED E=ESTIMATED VALUE

• E.G 4 RETIRE.PLANS [P]INDEPENDENT OF 3CLASSES OF EMPLOYEES df=[4-1][3-1]=6

• CALCULATED VALUE28.08>CRITICAL VALUE 12.593

• NULL HYPOTHESIS REJECTED

LINEAR REGRESSION PHI T.• CHI SQUARE BASED BIVARIATE T.• WHEN OBSERVED VALUES OF X TAKEN TO

ESTIMATE CORRESPON. Y VALUES IT IS SIMPLE REGRESSION

• BY MORE THAN ONE VARIABLES IT WOULD BE MULTIPLE REGRESSION.

• E.G. CORRELATION OF JOB ACCIDENT AND SMOKING PHI=SQUARE ROOT CHI SQUARE/N=SQUARE ROOT 6.11257/60=0.305

• MODERATE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VARIABLES

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE• WHEN 2 OR MORE POPULATION MEANS

HYPOTHESIS IS TESTED FOR ANOVA ,WHEATHER TWO DIFFERENT SAMPLE MEANS COME FROM THE SAME POPULATION

• F DISTRIBUTION VARIES WITH df ACCOUNT FOR ENUMERATOR AND DENOMINATOR.

• E.G RECOVERY DAYS NOT INFLUENCED BY 3 TYPES TREATMENTS IN 4 HOSPITALS:COMP.VAL.TREATM. O.99<3.98,FOR HOSPITALS O.63<3.54 ACCEPT Ho

MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS• FOR COMPLETE BUSINESS PROBLEMS MULTIPLE

IV AND DV E.G.BUYER PREFERENCES/PRODUCT OPTIONS USE MANOVA,MULTIPLE REGRESS.OR

DISCRIMINATORY TECHNIQUESFOR INTERDEPENDENT VARIABLES USE :FACTOR

ANALYSIS,CLUSTER ANALYSIS,MULTIDIMENSION SCALING

FOR METRIC DATA USE SCALES :INTERVAL AND RATIO

FOR NONMETRIC DATA USE NOMINAL AND ORDINAL SCALES

MULTPLE REGRESSION

• FOR DESCRIPTION,HYPOTHESIS TEST AND FOR ESTIMATING

• Y=Bo+B1.X1+B2.X2+…Bn+Xn WHERE Bs ARE REGRESSION COEFFICIENTS

• E.G.HAS ANN FAMILY INCOME X1,FAMILY SIZE X2,FAMILY LOCATION X3INFLUENCE ON ANN FAMILY FOOD SPENDING Y

• IF B1=0.6 B2=0.2 X1 HAS 3TIMES INFLUENCE ON Y THAN X2

DISCRIMANT ANALYSIS• FIND PREDICTORS FOR BEST ANALYSIS OF

SUBSETS• JOINS NOMINAL DV WITH I OR MORE

INTERRVAL/RATIO SCALED VARIABLES• Di=do+d1.x1+d2.x2+….dp.xp

e.g.ADMINISTRATOR SUCCESSFUL OR NOT[Di],ability to work with others[x1],motivation for administration[x2],professional skill[x3] Di=o+0.6 x1+0.45x2+0.3x3 x1 is more important than x2,x3

• MANOVA USED TO DIFFERENTIATE RELATIONOF 2 OR MORE DV AND FACTORS

INTERDEPENDENT TECH.

• FACTOR ANALYSIS:REDUCE MANY FACTORS TO MANAGEABLE WITH OVERLAPPING CHARACTERISTICS

• REPLACE DEPENDENT RELATIONSHIPS TO MATRIX OF INTERRELATIONSHIPS BY PRINCIPAL COMPONENT ANALYSIS

• TRANSFORM SET OF VARIABLES TO NEW SET VARIABLES,NOT CORRELATED PRINCIPAL COMPONENT

• SECOND COMPONENT AND LINEAR COMBINATION TILL 100% VARIANCE IS ACCOUNTED FOR