the effects of task complexity on measures of accuracy and lexical variety in efl writing nihal...
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THE EFFECTS OF TASK COMPLEXITY ON MEASURES OF
ACCURACY AND LEXICAL VARIETY IN EFL WRITING
THE EFFECTS OF TASK COMPLEXITY ON MEASURES OF
ACCURACY AND LEXICAL VARIETY IN EFL WRITING
Nihal Gökgöz, Marmara University, [email protected]
Assoc. Prof. Derin Atay, Marmara University, [email protected]
Nihal Gökgöz, Marmara University, [email protected]
Assoc. Prof. Derin Atay, Marmara University, [email protected]
Four main approachesFour main approaches
Tasks provide social context
the use of meaningful language
attention to input noticing
IL development input processing
Tasks provide social context
the use of meaningful language
attention to input noticing
IL development input processing
Attention to Input and The Cognition Hypothesis
Attention to Input and The Cognition Hypothesis
Task demands
Cognitive resources
Learning mechanisms
Performance effects
More cognitively demanding tasks
More attention to input/output and noticing/rehearsal in memory
More rule and instance learning/stage shifts/ proceduralization/ cue strengthening
More incorporation of input/ more modification of input
TASK COMPLEXITYCognitive factors
TASK CONDITIONInteractive factors
TASK DIFFICULTYLearner factors
Resource-directing
+ / - few elements+ / - no reasoning demands+ / - here & now
Participation variables
open / closed convergent / divergentone-way / two-way flow
Affective variables
motivationconfidenceanxiety
Resource-dispersing
+ / - planning+ / - single task+ / - prior knowledge
Participant variables
same/different genderfamilar/unfamiliar personpower/solidarity
Ability variables
Working memoryAptitudeProficiency
The Triadic Componential Framework
The Triadic Componential Framework
Predictions of the Cognition Hypothesis
Predictions of the Cognition Hypothesis
Increase in complexity along resource-directing variables Less fluent More accurate More complex
Increase in complexity along resource-dispersing variables Less fluent Less accurate Less complex
Increase in complexity along resource-directing variables Less fluent More accurate More complex
Increase in complexity along resource-dispersing variables Less fluent Less accurate Less complex
Research on cognitive task featuresResearch on cognitive task features
1. Here-and-now 2. Number of elements
3. Pre-task and online planning time
4. Prior knowledge and reasoning demands
1.1. Iwashita Iwashita et et al.al. 2001 2001
2.2. Rahimpour, Rahimpour, 19971997
3.3. Robinson, Robinson, 19951995
4.4. Gilabert, 2007Gilabert, 2007
1. Kuiken & Vedder, 2007
2. Robinson, 2001
1.1. Crookes, Crookes, 1989;1989;
2.2. Ellis,1987Ellis,19873.3. Foster & Foster &
Skehan, Skehan, 1991997,19987,1998
4.4. Yuan & Yuan & Ellis, 2003 Ellis, 2003
1. Robinson, 2001a
2. Lee, 20023. Kuiken &
Vedder, 2007
Previous findingsPrevious findingsPrevious findingsPrevious findingsPlanning time studies: Here-and-Now / There-and-Then
1.1. Fluency increases (Foster & Fluency increases (Foster & Skehan, 1996; Skehan & Skehan, 1996; Skehan & Foster, 1997; Ortega, 1999; Foster, 1997; Ortega, 1999; Yuan & Ellis, 2003)Yuan & Ellis, 2003)
2.2. Higher structural complexity Higher structural complexity (Foster & Skehan, 1996; (Foster & Skehan, 1996; Ortega, 1999; YuanOrtega, 1999; Yuan& & Ellis, Ellis, 2003; only a trend in Skehan & 2003; only a trend in Skehan & Foster, 1997)Foster, 1997)
3.3. No significant effects on No significant effects on lexical complexity: (Ortega, lexical complexity: (Ortega, 1999; Yuan & Ellis, 2003).1999; Yuan & Ellis, 2003).
4.4. Mixed results for accuracy:Mixed results for accuracy: higher accuracy (Foster & higher accuracy (Foster &
Skehan, 1997)Skehan, 1997)no differences (Foster & no differences (Foster & Skehan, 1996; YSkehan, 1996; Yuanuan & Ellis, & Ellis, 2003)2003)mixed results (Ortega, 1999)mixed results (Ortega, 1999)
1.1. Fluency decreases: (Robinson, Fluency decreases: (Robinson, 1995; Rahimpour, 1997)1995; Rahimpour, 1997)
2.2. Increased lexical complexity: Increased lexical complexity: (Robinson, 1995; Rahimpour, (Robinson, 1995; Rahimpour, 1997)1997)
3.3. No differences in structural No differences in structural complexity: (Robinson, 1995; complexity: (Robinson, 1995; Rahimpour,Rahimpour,1997)1997)
4.4. Higher accuracy: (Robinson, Higher accuracy: (Robinson, 1995; Rahimpour, 1997; 1995; Rahimpour, 1997; Iwashita Iwashita et alet al.).)
Previous findings cont.Previous findings cont.
Prior knowledge Number of elements, reasoning demands
1.1.Lexical richness on the complex Lexical richness on the complex version version 2.2.Greater fluency on the simple versionGreater fluency on the simple version3.3.No effects of complexity on accuracy No effects of complexity on accuracy (Robinson, 2001)(Robinson, 2001)
1. No significant effects supporting the claims of the Cognition Hypothesis (Lee, 2002)
2. Complex speech production on the complex version (specific measures) Robinson, 2007
3. No effects of task complexity on accuracy, fluency and complexity (general measures) Robinson, 2007
Impetus for the study Impetus for the study
Absence of certain criteria when grading and sequencing tasks
Students’ not being able to reach the desired level (in terms of accuracy, lexical and grammatical range)
Students’ failure in meeting the complex demands of real life tasks
No studies in Turkey concerning task complexity
Absence of certain criteria when grading and sequencing tasks
Students’ not being able to reach the desired level (in terms of accuracy, lexical and grammatical range)
Students’ failure in meeting the complex demands of real life tasks
No studies in Turkey concerning task complexity
Research questionsResearch questions
Does task complexity influence accuracy, in terms of types of errors?
Does task complexity influence lexical variation, in terms of word frequency?
Does the influence of task complexity on accuracy and lexical variation differ according to the level of proficiency?
Does task complexity influence accuracy, in terms of types of errors?
Does task complexity influence lexical variation, in terms of word frequency?
Does the influence of task complexity on accuracy and lexical variation differ according to the level of proficiency?
Experimental designExperimental design
Setting: Participants: Procedure:Turkish Private UniversityPreparatory school2007-8 Academic year
125 participants63 in lower level:B162 in higher level:B2
vocabulary test Tasks (40 minutes)
Data instrumentData instrument
Complex task condition Non-complex task condition
6 requirements
Presence of a garden
A quiet location
Located in (the vicinity of) the center
The possibility of doing exercise
Swimming facilities
Includes breakfast
3 requirements
•A quiet location
• Located in (the vicinity of) the center
•Swimming facilities
Bed and Breakfast in Turkey (complex task condition)Bed and Breakfast in Turkey (complex task condition)
You are planning to go on holiday with a Turkish friend, and want to spend two weeks together in July or August. You have decided to go to a Bed and Breakfast. Your friend has already surfed the internet and made a first selection. S/he picked five addresses, in Bodrum, Kaş, Çeşme, Ayvalık region and on Cunda Island, and is now asking for advice. The guesthouse or apartment you choose, however, has to satisfy a number of conditions. These criteria are:
Presence of a garden A quiet location Located in (the vicinity of) the center The possibility of doing exercise Swimming facilities Includes breakfast
You are planning to go on holiday with a Turkish friend, and want to spend two weeks together in July or August. You have decided to go to a Bed and Breakfast. Your friend has already surfed the internet and made a first selection. S/he picked five addresses, in Bodrum, Kaş, Çeşme, Ayvalık region and on Cunda Island, and is now asking for advice. The guesthouse or apartment you choose, however, has to satisfy a number of conditions. These criteria are:
Presence of a garden A quiet location Located in (the vicinity of) the center The possibility of doing exercise Swimming facilities Includes breakfast
None of the five addresses your friend sent you meets all of the criteria. A carefully considered choice has to be made, however. Read the five descriptions carefully, then write a letter of at least 150 words in which you explain which Bed and Breakfast you think is most suitable and fits the conditions best. Keep in mind that your text does not have to reflect your personal preferences. Write a letter in which you try to convince your friend that your choice is right and support it with arguments. You have 40 minutes to write the text. Use of a dictionary is permitted.
1. Karia Bodrum
Location : Located on a commercial street at the center of city.
Description : In the dynamic heart of Bodrum, within walking distance of marina.
Attractive 2-story hotel, 6 rooms with private bathrooms, terrace with view,
babysitting, fitness center, no swimming pool but easy transportation to many
beaches around.
Breakfast : No breakfast served
None of the five addresses your friend sent you meets all of the criteria. A carefully considered choice has to be made, however. Read the five descriptions carefully, then write a letter of at least 150 words in which you explain which Bed and Breakfast you think is most suitable and fits the conditions best. Keep in mind that your text does not have to reflect your personal preferences. Write a letter in which you try to convince your friend that your choice is right and support it with arguments. You have 40 minutes to write the text. Use of a dictionary is permitted.
1. Karia Bodrum
Location : Located on a commercial street at the center of city.
Description : In the dynamic heart of Bodrum, within walking distance of marina.
Attractive 2-story hotel, 6 rooms with private bathrooms, terrace with view,
babysitting, fitness center, no swimming pool but easy transportation to many
beaches around.
Breakfast : No breakfast served
2. Barbarossa Hotel Kas
Location : Antalya, Kas. Located in the coast of Kas which is 160 kilometres from Dalaman and 180 kilometres from Antlaya airports. Description : The hotel is ideally situated 1 minute from the sea front and in the lively town centre with its many shops, bars and restaurants. Free pick-up service from bus station to our hotel. Garden, swimming pool.
Breakfast : No breakfast served
3. Cesme Bed and Breakfast
Location : Cesme, Ilıca, Izmir.
Description : At a considerable distance from the city center, but situated directly next to the coast and sea front, with a lot of activity, even at night. Attractively priced, young and dynamic, open day and night, free parking, fitness, beach activities, bicycles available for guests, reduced entrance fees and shuttle bus to and from the clubs, special discounts for young guests and groups.
Breakfast : Comprehensive breakfast buffet, between 8.30 and 10.30.
2. Barbarossa Hotel Kas
Location : Antalya, Kas. Located in the coast of Kas which is 160 kilometres from Dalaman and 180 kilometres from Antlaya airports. Description : The hotel is ideally situated 1 minute from the sea front and in the lively town centre with its many shops, bars and restaurants. Free pick-up service from bus station to our hotel. Garden, swimming pool.
Breakfast : No breakfast served
3. Cesme Bed and Breakfast
Location : Cesme, Ilıca, Izmir.
Description : At a considerable distance from the city center, but situated directly next to the coast and sea front, with a lot of activity, even at night. Attractively priced, young and dynamic, open day and night, free parking, fitness, beach activities, bicycles available for guests, reduced entrance fees and shuttle bus to and from the clubs, special discounts for young guests and groups.
Breakfast : Comprehensive breakfast buffet, between 8.30 and 10.30.
4. Kayahan Hotel Ayvalık
Location : Sarimsakli Beach, situated on the Aegean coast on the beautiful Sarimsakli beach.
Description : 3-star hotel offers its own private beach and family accommodation, ideally located for those seeking to spend a quiet holiday on the beach, but with shops, bars and restaurants conveniently located in close proximity.
Breakfast : Breakfast service, between 7.00 and 8.30.
5. Hotel Cunda
Location : Ayvalık, Cunda Island
Description : 800 metres from the center of the island, for those looking for peace, fully restored farmhouse with garden in quiet region which hasn’t been discovered by mass-tourism yet. We have two rooms for our guests on the top floor, with a total of 4/5 beds the bathroom is shared between both bedrooms.
Breakfast : Guests can prepare their own breakfast; not included.
4. Kayahan Hotel Ayvalık
Location : Sarimsakli Beach, situated on the Aegean coast on the beautiful Sarimsakli beach.
Description : 3-star hotel offers its own private beach and family accommodation, ideally located for those seeking to spend a quiet holiday on the beach, but with shops, bars and restaurants conveniently located in close proximity.
Breakfast : Breakfast service, between 7.00 and 8.30.
5. Hotel Cunda
Location : Ayvalık, Cunda Island
Description : 800 metres from the center of the island, for those looking for peace, fully restored farmhouse with garden in quiet region which hasn’t been discovered by mass-tourism yet. We have two rooms for our guests on the top floor, with a total of 4/5 beds the bathroom is shared between both bedrooms.
Breakfast : Guests can prepare their own breakfast; not included.
Data AnalysisData Analysis
Independent variables Dependent Variables
Task complexity Lexical Variety
Proficiency level Accuracy: Appropriateness
Grammar
Lexicon
Orthography
Other
Independent variables Dependent Variables
Task complexity Lexical Variety
Proficiency level Accuracy: Appropriateness
Grammar
Lexicon
Orthography
Other
Coding for accuracyCoding for accuracy
Errors per T-unit (E/T):E/T is an accuracy ratio which is the calculation of the total number of errors divided by the total number of T-units. T-Unit: one main clause with all subordinate
clauses attached to it (Hunt, 1965)
Errors per T-unit (E/T):E/T is an accuracy ratio which is the calculation of the total number of errors divided by the total number of T-units. T-Unit: one main clause with all subordinate
clauses attached to it (Hunt, 1965)
Coding for lexical varietyCoding for lexical variety
Lexical proficiency analysis (Laufer &Nation,1995) Lexical frequency profile (LFP): “the percentage of words
a learner uses at different vocabulary frequency levels in her writing- or, put differently relative proportions of words from different frequency levels” (p.311).
The Compleat Lexical Tutor (Cobb, 1998) Lexical variation was operationalized by the way of a type-
token ratio which does not ignore the text length: the total number of different word types divided by the square root of two times the total number of words (Carroll, 1967).
Lexical proficiency analysis (Laufer &Nation,1995) Lexical frequency profile (LFP): “the percentage of words
a learner uses at different vocabulary frequency levels in her writing- or, put differently relative proportions of words from different frequency levels” (p.311).
The Compleat Lexical Tutor (Cobb, 1998) Lexical variation was operationalized by the way of a type-
token ratio which does not ignore the text length: the total number of different word types divided by the square root of two times the total number of words (Carroll, 1967).
Prof. Task N Error Type Lexical frequency
Level complexity
Appropriateness Grammar Lexicon Orthography Other Frequency < 2000
M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD
B1 Complex 32 1.13 0.87 9.81 5.42 1.66 1.61 1.34 1.55 0.69 0.89 48.53 8.78
B1 Non-complex 31 1.03 0.98 10.68 6.90 1.42 1.43 1.29 1.67 0.45 0.62 47.58 10.83
B2 Complex 31 0.55 0.72 11.03 5.13 2.35 1.53 2.42 1.72 0.35 0.66 57.42 12.17
B2 Non-complex 31 1.26 0.81 11.10 6.31 2.29 1.61 3.19 2.48 0.19 0.40 52.12 11.09
ResultsResults
ResultsResultsAppropriateness Errors Plot
Group
B1B2
Me
an
s
1,4
1,2
1,0
,8
,6
,4
Complexity
non complex
complex
Appropriateness Errors Plot
Group
B1B2
Me
an
s
1,4
1,2
1,0
,8
,6
,4
Complexity
non complex
complex
Grammar Errors Plot
Group
B1B2
Me
an
s
11,2
11,0
10,8
10,6
10,4
10,2
10,0
9,8
9,6
Complexity
non complex
complex
Lexicon Errors Plot
Group
B1B2
Me
an
s
2,6
2,4
2,2
2,0
1,8
1,6
1,4
1,2
Complexity
non complex
complex
Orthography Errors Plot
Group
B1B2
Me
an
s
3,5
3,0
2,5
2,0
1,5
1,0
Complexity
non complex
complex
ResultsResults
Other Errors Plot
Group
B1B2
Me
an
s
,8
,7
,6
,5
,4
,3
,2
,1
Complexity
non complex
complex
Other Errors Plot
Group
B1B2
Me
an
s
,8
,7
,6
,5
,4
,3
,2
,1
Complexity
non complex
complex
Lexical Frequency Plot
Group
B1B2
Me
an
s
58
56
54
52
50
48
46
Complexity
non complex
complex
DiscussionTask complexity and accuracy
DiscussionTask complexity and accuracy
No significant effects, except for appropriateness errors, were found supporting the claim that more cognitively complex version of the task (along the dimensions explained in the study) results in greater accuracy.
Appropriateness error was the only error type influenced by increasing cognitive complexity of the task.
No significant effects, except for appropriateness errors, were found supporting the claim that more cognitively complex version of the task (along the dimensions explained in the study) results in greater accuracy.
Appropriateness error was the only error type influenced by increasing cognitive complexity of the task.
Discussion Task complexity and lexical frequency
Discussion Task complexity and lexical frequency
No significant results were found supporting the Cognition Hypothesis or Limited Attentional Capacity Model.
Although general means and standard deviations show that complex task condition in both proficiency levels yield to more frequent words used, the results did not indicate a significant effect of complexity on lexical frequency.
However, it can be discussed that there is a trend towards Limited Attentional Capacity Model which claims that cognitively less complex tasks result in lexical richness.
No significant results were found supporting the Cognition Hypothesis or Limited Attentional Capacity Model.
Although general means and standard deviations show that complex task condition in both proficiency levels yield to more frequent words used, the results did not indicate a significant effect of complexity on lexical frequency.
However, it can be discussed that there is a trend towards Limited Attentional Capacity Model which claims that cognitively less complex tasks result in lexical richness.
DiscussionDiscussion
Task complexity and proficiency level: Unexpected results Higher proficiency level produced more
errors than lower proficieny level did. The effect of the syllabus at that time Less accurate but more complex language ???
Task complexity and proficiency level: Unexpected results Higher proficiency level produced more
errors than lower proficieny level did. The effect of the syllabus at that time Less accurate but more complex language ???
Examples of learner errorsExamples of learner errors
B2-higher proficiency group
1. You want to go to a hotel which include garden, private beach, fitness and good breakfast service.
2. This hotel involved what we want.
3. We also go walking in Forest which Antalya has a lot.
4. So I think Barbarossa Hotel Kas is the only hotel which include everything we want among these five hotels.
5. I don’t like the other hotels because these haven’t provide our criteria.
6. It has number of option to eat.
B2-higher proficiency group
1. You want to go to a hotel which include garden, private beach, fitness and good breakfast service.
2. This hotel involved what we want.
3. We also go walking in Forest which Antalya has a lot.
4. So I think Barbarossa Hotel Kas is the only hotel which include everything we want among these five hotels.
5. I don’t like the other hotels because these haven’t provide our criteria.
6. It has number of option to eat.
Examples of learner errors cont.Examples of learner errors cont.
B1-lower proficiency group
1. You can because there isn’t fitness center in this hotel.
2. We can breakfast with clear weather.
3. The hotel which is in Kas.
4. I make plan holiday for us.
5. I asked to travel management, how is your prefers.
6. I know we going vacation together this summery.
B1-lower proficiency group
1. You can because there isn’t fitness center in this hotel.
2. We can breakfast with clear weather.
3. The hotel which is in Kas.
4. I make plan holiday for us.
5. I asked to travel management, how is your prefers.
6. I know we going vacation together this summery.
Implications and suggestions for future research
Implications and suggestions for future research
Inconclusive results: difficulty of operationalization of task complexity
More studies to test writing production Longitudinal studies where a continuous treatment
which involves gradually increased cognitive complexity of tasks is applied may contribute to the understanding of causal relationships of the variables of the research better.
Inconclusive results: difficulty of operationalization of task complexity
More studies to test writing production Longitudinal studies where a continuous treatment
which involves gradually increased cognitive complexity of tasks is applied may contribute to the understanding of causal relationships of the variables of the research better.
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