the biology and management of rainforest pigeons w · rainforest pigeons also rely on rainforests...
TRANSCRIPT
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The biology and management of rainforest pigeons
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Harry F. Recher, Elizabeth M. Date
and Hugh A. Ford
ii
Authors
Dr. Harry F. Recher received his Ph.D. from Stanford University in California where he studied the ecology of migratory waders. After post-doctoral studies at the University of Pennsylvania and Princeton University he came to Australia as lecturer in biology at the University of Sydney. In 1968 he joined the ecology section of The Australian Museum where he conducted studies and surveys of forest fauna throughout eastern New South Wales. Presently he is an Associate Professor in the Department of Ecosystem Management at the University of New England, Armidale. His research is primarily concerned with the ecology and management of forest wildlife. In 1994 Dr Recher received the Serventy Medal from the Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union for his contributions to Australian ornithology
Dr. Elizabeth M. Date is a Research Fellow in the Department of Ecosystem Management at the University of New England, Armidale. She completed a B.Sc. (Hons) at the University of Queensland in 1982 and received her Ph.D. in 1988 from McGill University in Canada. Her doctoral work focused on the learning of songs by passerine birds, but since returning to Australia, she has studied the ecology and behaviour of forest birds with an emphasis on endangered species.
Dr. Hugh A. Ford is an Associate Professor in the Department of Zoology at the University ofNew England, Armidale. He received his Ph.D. in 1973 from the University of Stirling and came to Australia in 1973 as a post-doctoral Fellow in the Department of Zoology at the University of Adelaide. He joined the Department of Zoology at the University of New England in 1977. He and his students have been particularly concerned with plant-bird interactions and the ecology of forest and woodland bird communities. In 1993 Dr. Ford was awarded the Serventy Medal by the Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union for his contribution to Australian ornithology.
Acknowledgments
Our research was supported by grants from the National Rainforest Conservation Program and the Australian Research Council. Simon Ferrier assisted with the selection of survey sites and data analysis. Many people assisted with fieldwork or provided us with their observations of rainforest pigeons. We owe a particular debt of gratitude to Bill Alley, Heather Boulton, Mary Brewer, Jim & Pat Challis, Stephen Debus, Belinda Dettman, Mark Eldridge, Phil Gilmour, Carol Helman, Harry Hines, Deenie James, Morton Kaveney, Ian Kerr, Bill Lane, Kay & Arthur Lloyd, Julie & Bob Mcleod, David Milledge, Esmae & Jack Mulholland, Nan & Hugh Nicholson, Pat & Tom Offord, David Page, Phillip & Michelle Paige, Oailan Pugh, Alan Rayward, Paul Recher, David Stewart,
Ron Smith, Bill Tubbenhauer, Alison Siliakis, David Waterhouse, Beth Williams and Jack Willows.
Editing and production: Dr Leighton C. Llewellyn. Anne Perry drew the cover figure and assisted with proof reading.
Published l:ry the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, PO Box 1967, Hurstville, NSW 2220. Telephone (02) 5856444 Fax (02) 5856555. © NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service March 1995.
This book is copyright. Copyright for the entire contents is vested in the authors. Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of private study, criticism or review as permitted under the Copyright Act, no part may be reproduced, stored in a retrieVal system or transmitted in any form or l:ry any means, electronic, mechanical or otherwise without prior written permission. Enquiries should be made to the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service.
The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily represent those of the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service or the Government of New South Wales. ~).n.~e~ M k~~ffii,an-made 1 00% recycled paper. ~N 6~'73ltr' M34 0
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Preface
One of the fundamental responsibilities of the National Parks and Wildlife Service is the conservation of the native fauna and flora of New South Wales. While successive governments have devoted a great deal of attention to the reservation of wildlife habitat in national parks and nature reserves (which today still only constitute less than 5% of the State), very little attention has been paid to the conservation of fauna and flora outside these areas. Even when areas are reserved, the conservation of plants and animals may still require active management to maintain or enhance populations. Wildlife management initiatives to date have concentrated principally on species which are agricultural or economic pests, those which have commercial value such as in the avicultural trade, and those which have a high public profile. Many of the native plants and animals which are part of our extraordinary biological heritage are at risk, threatened or endangered. The Regent Parrot, the Plains~wanderer, the Yellow~footed Rock~wallaby and the Corroboree Frog and a number of plant species are some whose survival has been neglected and are currently endangered in New South Wales.
The Service has initiated a program to assemble available biological information that is pertinent to management of such species and groups of species and to identify important criteria for their management, which aims to ensure that they do not suddenly become extinct but continue to be a part of the biological diversity of Australia.
Appropriately qualified people are being contracted to compile reports on the biology and status of these selected species or groups of species, and to suggest management options for consideration by the National Parks and Wildlife Service.
These reports constitute a valuable contribution to our knowledge of wildlife, and will be published and promoted to increase public awareness.
In association with the Species management reports and based on their content, Draft management plans and/or Recovery Plans may be produced. These will identify management strategies and actions that should be implemented to ensure their survival. Comments will be sought on these draft plans where appropriate, and following revision, they will be considered for adoption by the Service and will form the basis of future management.
This report on rainforest pigeons will help in effective management of this species group, which has come under threat because of extensive rainforest clearing particularly in the northeast of the state where they were probably most abundant. It has highlighted the lack of knowledge of some species in this group, but will certainly help significantly in the management of remaining habitat. The need for careful management of native and exotic food sources has also been highlighted.
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Plate 1. A patch of cool temperate rainforest surrounded by wet sclerophyll forest near Pt Lookout, New England National Park.
Plate 2. Taken from the Lismore-Bangalow road showing pastoral land with some Camphor Laurel in the background being used as shade trees for stock. 200 years ago it would have shown continuous subtropical rainforest of the former 'Big Scrub'.
Plate 3. Subtropical rainforest in Big Scrub Floral Reserve.
Plate 4. A young Camphor Laurel stand (ca. 15 years old) invading abandoned pastoral land in the lower Terania Creek Valley.
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Summary
Eight species of rainforest pigeons occur in New South Wales. These are the Wompoo Ptilinopus magnificus, Rose-crowned P. regina, Superb P. superbus, Topknot Lopholaimus antarcticus, White-headed Columba leucomela, Brown Macropygia amboinensis, and Wonga Leucosarcia cyanoleuca Pigeons and the Emerald Dove Chalcophaps indica. All are dependent on the fruits or seeds of rainforest trees and shrubs and some move long distances in search of food (Blakers et al. 1984, Date et al. 1991, Frith 1982).
Although extensive areas of rainforest are protected in state forests and national parks, rainforest pigeons also rely on rainforests and rainforest remnants outside the reserve system to find food. This is particularly so outside the breeding season when many pigeons move to lower elevations and south along the coast and dividing range where there are relatively few reserves with the kinds of habitats and food plants they require. Exotic plants, such as Camphor Laurel Cinnamomum camphora, Lantana Lantana camara and Privet Ligustrum lucidum and L. sinense, have become an important part of the diets of rainforest pigeons in New South Wales. The development of coastal regions for agriculture and housing, eradication of exotic fruit bearing plants, and the growth of tourism has the potential to affect the long-term survival of rainforest pigeons despite the extensive reserve system at higher elevations and the protection of pigeon breeding areas.
Additional steps are required to conserve and manage habitats used by rainforest pigeons outside reserves to ensure adequate feeding areas are maintained and to prevent disturbance by human visitors. The immediate objective is to protect remnant rainforests and replace exotic fruit trees as a major food source for pigeons with native rainforest species.
The components of the program for the management of rainforest pigeons are: * protection of rainforest remnants from burning, clearing, pesticides and grazing
among other adverse human and agricultural activities.
* restoration and rehabilitation of rainforest vegetation, particularly at mid and low elevations, by expanding the area and number of remnants through the planting of appropriate native fruit-bearing species.
* management of exotic vegetation used by rainforest pigeons so that as exotic species are removed, they are replaced by appropriate native species, so that a continuity of food supply is ensured.
* maintenance and extension of vegetation corridors to provide a network of habitat along which rainforest pigeons can move with minimum risk of predation and accidental
death (e.g., by collision with windows and vehicles). * monitoring and regulation of human use of rainforest reserves. * monitoring of the distribution and abundance of rainforest pigeons. * public education and involvement including advice on the restoration of rainforest
remnants, planting of appropriate fruit-bearing natives, house and garden design to reduce risk of accidents to flying birds.
The factors affecting rainforest pigeon distribution and abundance are broadly similar throughout the State. The program proposed can therefore be viewed as a Statewide initiative, but emphasis should be in northeastern New South Wales and perhaps the Illawarra District where rainforest pigeons were historically most abundant.
Group profile
Phylum: Class: Order: Family: Genera: Species:
Chordata Aves Colunnbiformes Columbidae Ptilinopus, Lopholaimus, Columba, Macropygia, Leucosarcia, and Chal.cophaps. Wompoo Pigeon Ptilinopus magnificus, Rose-crowned Pigeon P. regina, Superb Pigeon P. superbus, Topknot Pigeon Lopholaimus antarcticus, Whiteheaded Pigeon Columba leucomela, Brown Pigeon Macropygia amboinensis, Wonga Pigeon Leucosarcia cyanoleuca, and Emerald Dove Chal.cophaps indica.
Habitat type: Rainforest and scrubs, moist eucalypt forest, littoral rainforest.
Distribution: World- Wompoo, Superb and Brown Pigeons and the Emerald Dove are found north of Australia in New Guinea and, except for the Wompoo, on islands in Indonesia, Polynesia and the Philippines. The Emerald Dove also occurs on the Indian subcontinent.
Australia- generally occur in forested habitats in eastern Australia from southeastern New South Wales to Cape York; Rose-crowned, Brown and Superb Pigeons are vagrants to Tasmania and Victoria; Rose-crowned Pigeon and Emerald Dove also occur in northwestern Australia and the Wonga Pigeon is a breeding resident in Victoria.
New &uth Wales· coastal eastern New South Wales and along the Great Dividing Range. Centre of abundance in NSW and main breeding habitats for all species except the Superb Pigeon are in the northeast of the State. There are no confirmed breeding records of the Superb Pigeon in New South Wales. The Rose-crowned and Superb Pigeons are vagrants to Sydney and the southeast of the state. Although originally described from a bird collected at Wollongong, the Wompoo Pigeon is only a rare vagrant as far south as Sydney. The Wonga Pigeon extends to the Snowy Mountains. The Emerald Dove is a breeding resident on Lord Howe Island.
Present status: In New South Wales the species of rainforest pigeons are variously migratory and sedentary with some species moving to lower elevations along the coast in winter and returning to d1e highlands in spring and summer. Rose-crowned Pigeons move into NSW during the spring and summer from southeastern Queensland where iliey winter. Topknot, Superb and Whiteheaded Pigeons move long distances along the coast and ranges in search of food. With the exception of the Superb Pigeon, all species have been confirmed as breeding in New South Wales. All species have declined in abundance throughout the State following habitat clearing and fragnnentation. However, there are indications of an increase in abundance for Topknot, White-headed and Superb Pigeons with more individuals being recorded in
(Cont.)
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Group Profile (Cont .. )
the central and southern parts of the State since 1989. The Wompoo, Superb and Rose-crowned Pigeons are listed in Schedule 12 of the New South Wales National Parks & Wildlife Act as 'vulnerable and rare' and are viewed as endangered within the State. Apart from the Christmas Island subspecies of the Emerald Dove C. indica nata/is none is considered endangered or of special concern at a national level (Garnett 1992).
Future status in NSW: The abundance of each species depends on the extent of suitable habitat and the availability of winter food resources. Continued clearing of rainforest fragments at middle and lower elevations and along the coast will particularly threaten the sedentary Wompoo Pigeon and the rare Superb Pigeon. Presently, Topknot and White-headed Pigeons rely on Camphor Laurel Cinnamomum camphora, an exotic tree, for winter food. Control or eradication of Camphor Laurel could adversely affect the abundance of these two species. As ground foragers, the Wonga Pigeon and Emerald Dove are potentially at risk of predation from the introduced European Fox Vulpes vulpes and Feral Cats Felis catus and to disturbance and competition for food from Feral Pigs Sus scrofa.
Estimated populations in NSW: The number of Topknot Pigeon is estimated to exceed 70,000 individuals. Numbers of Brown Pigeon exceed 15,000 birds, while those ofWompoo and White-headed Pigeons probably exceed 7000. The number of W onga Pigeons throughout the State is probably in the order of 4000 - 5000 birds with the number of Rose-crowned Pigeons being about 1600- 2000. Superb Pigeons number fewer than 500 individuals and possibly less than 100. There are no data on which to estimate the abundance of Emerald Dove, but it is generally of regular occurrence and/or common. The Lord Howe Island population of the Emerald Dove has been estimated at between 10 and 100 individuals (Fullagar et al. 1974).
Status and estimated populations outside NSW: There are no estimates of the population sizes of any rainforest pigeons outside NSW, but it is generally considered that, apart from some island populations, none of the species occurring in NSW is endangered outside the state. Wonga Pigeons are abundant in Victoria, while the others are abundant in Queensland.
Key planning areas: All eastern and coastal NPWS Districts.
Key references: Crome (1975), Date et al. (1991, 1992), Frith (1982), Innis (1989)
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Contents
Preface Ul
Summary Vl
Group profile vii
1 Introduction 3 Problem statement 5
2 Status 6 3 Biology 14
Morphology 14 Habitat 14 Breeding 16 Food and foraging 17 Distribution and seasonal movements 22
4 Biology~individual species 24 Wompoo Pigeon 24
Rose-crowned Pigeon 25 Superb Pigeon 28 Topknot Pigeon 29 Brown Pigeon 30 White-headed Pigeon 31 Emerald Dove 32 Wonga Pigeon 33
5 Management 34 Introduction 34 Corridors and stepping stones 35 Reserves and rainforest pigeons 36 Disturbance by people 36 Future threats: conclusions from research 39 Protection, restoration and rehabilitation 40 Staff 43
6 Monitoring and research 44 Surveys of abundance and distribution 44 Effects of human disturbance 45
7 Public education ' 46
8 Role of other organisations 47 Federal Government 47
Australian Heritage Commission 47 State Government (NSW) 47
Department of Planning 47 Conservation and Land Management 47 State Forests 47 NSW Agriculture 48
Local Government 48 1
q:
Other organisations 48 9 Bibliography 49
Figures Figure 1. Predicted areas of habitat in Border Ranges, Nightcap and
Mt. Warning National Parks for the Wompoo, Rose-crowned, Topknot, White-headed, Brown and Wonga Pigeons. 12
Figure 2. The percent distribution by vegetation type of sightings of Wompoo, Rose-crowned, Topknot, White-headed, Brown and Wonga Pigeons compared with the percent distribution of vegetation types among the 109 survey sites. 18
Figure 3. The percent distribution by elevation category of sightings ofWompoo, Rose-crowned, Topknot, White-headed, Brown and Wonga Pigeons compared with the percent distribution of elevation categories among the 109 survey sites. 19
Figure 4. Relative monthly abundances of rainforest pigeons in north-eastern NSW at four elevational ranges; coastal, lowland, middle and highland. 26
Plates Plate 1. A patch of cool temperate rainforest surrounded by wet
sclerophyll forest near Pt Lookout, New England National Park. iv
Plate 2. Taken from the Lismore-Bangalow road showing pastoral land with some Camphor Laurel in the background being used as shade trees for stock. iv
Plate 3. Subtropical rainforest in Big Scrub Floral Reserve. v Plate 4. A young Camphor Laurel stand (ca. 15 years old) invading
abandoned pastoral land in the lower Terania Creek valley. v
Tables Table 1. Estimated population size of rainforest pigeons in the
Caldera area of north-eastern NSW. 7 Table 2. The distribution and frequency of occurrence of rainforest
pigeons in eastern Australia obtained by the Royal Australasian Ornithological Union in its survey of Australian birds from 1980 to 1982. 9
Table 3. Sex and plumage differences of Australian rainforest pigeons. 15 Table 4. Habitat preferences of rainforest pigeons in Australia. 16 Table 5. Breeding seasons of rainforest pigeons in eastern Australia. 20 Table 6. Breeding biology of Australian rainforest pigeons. 21 Table 7. Recommendations for track closures to reduce the
disturbance of foraging pigeons. 38
Appendix 1. Food sources of rainforest pigeons. 56 2
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1 .. Introduction
Eight species of rainforest pigeons occur in New South Wales. These are the Wompoo Ptilinopus magnificus, Rose-crowned P. regina, Superb P. superbus, Topknot Lopholaimus antarcticus, White-headed Columba leucomela, Brown Macropygia amboinensis, and Wonga Leucosarcia cyanoleuca Pigeons and the Emerald Dove Chalcophaps indica. All are relatively large and boldly or brightly coloured birds that immediately attract the attention of people. Rainforest pigeons rely on the fruits or seeds of rainforest trees and shrubs and some move long distances in search of food (Blakers et al. 1984, Date et al. 1991, Frith 1982). The Wompoo, Rose-crowned, Superb and Topknot Pigeons are obligate frugivores, while the White-headed and Brown Pigeons, which are mainly fruit-eaters also take seeds (Crome 1975, Frith 1982; Innis 1989, Date et al. 1991). The Wonga Pigeon and Emerald Dove are ground foragers which feed on fruit, seeds and ground invertebrates.
Early accounts (Frith 1952, 1957, 1982) suggest that most of these pigeons were formerly abundant and widespread in moist forests along the coast and the neighbouring ranges. The greatest numbers probably occurred in the subtropical lowland rainforests of the Illawarra District near Wollongong and the subtropical and temperate rainforests of the Richmond, Clarence, Tweed, Nymboida, and Orara River Valleys in northeastern New South Wales. As these extensive rainforests were cleared for farming in the 19th century, the numbers of pigeons declined and concern developed for their survival. All "pigeons and doves of every species" were protected under the Bird Protection Act (1901) (L. Llewellyn pers. comm.), but this allowed hunting in season. Pigeons were declared protected fauna in 1948 under the Fauna Protection Act ( 1948) and it became illegal to hunt them for food or sport. Whether due to protection from hunting, increased awareness of rainforest fauna, or because some rainforests were allowed to regenerate, or because of the spread of fruiting exotics, pigeons appeared to have become more abundant since the 1950s. An increase in the abundance of Topknot and White-headed Pigeons was associated with the spread of Camphor Laurel on derelict farmland in northeastern New South Wales and Camphor Laurel fruits became an important winter food for these species (Frith 1982, Date et al. 1991). Recent observations of increased numbers of White-headed Pigeons in the central and southern parts of the State are during the fruiting periods of Camphor Laurel and Privet Ligustrum lucidum and L. sinense (Cooper 1990). These are probably birds that moved out of the higher elevations of the northern part of the state after breeding and began moving south in summer.
National parks with extensive rainforest were established in the late 1970s and 80s and rainforest logging was phased out in state forests. As these initiatives coincided with the regions where pigeons were most abundant, the future of rainforest pigeons appeared secure. However, the 1980s was also a time of rapid growth and development on the North Coast and new concerns were expressed for the survival
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of rainforest pigeons. For much of the year rainforest pigeons are forced to find food outside established parks and reserves (Date et al. 1991). Even when food is available in reserves, there was some concern that pigeons might be disturbed by the increased numbers of people coming to visit the parks (G. Holloway pers. comm.).
Some observers argued that pigeon numbers were declining and that the National Parks & Wildlife Service needed to take action to protect them (G. Holloway pers. comm.). It was suggested that the numbers of people allowed to visit parks used by the pigeons should be restricted and that walking tracks and other facilities should not proceed until it could be shown that they would not affect the use of these areas by pigeons. It was also argued that rainforest remnants outside the parks and reserves system should be protected (e.g., Date & Recher 1991; Hunter 1991; Lott & Duggin 1993).
The seriousness of these concerns can not be disputed. The expansion of tropical fruit and nut farms in northeastern New South Wales, the expansion of residential developments and the growth of tourism along the coast have the potential to affect native wildlife, including rainforest pigeons. However, it could not be shown that pigeon numbers were decreasing or that pigeons were necessarily disturbed by people using rainforest parks for recreation. Simply, there were no data, no numbers, to support allegations of disturbance and declining numbers. In fact, there was little quantitative information on the biology of rainforest pigeons in New South Wales on which plans for the management and conservation of the species could be based.
Accordingly the National Parks & Wildlife Service (NSW) commissioned a study at the University of New England, Armidale as part of the National Rainforest Conservation Program (Dyne 1991) to investigate the status of rainforest pigeons in northeastern New South Wales (Date et al. 1992). The objective of the study was to determine whether there was any evidence of a decline in pigeon numbers and whether or not any species were threatened. As part of the study, the distribution, abundance and movements of pigeons in northeastern New South Wales, their feeding and nesting requirements, and whether they were disturbed by people visiting nesting and feeding areas was to be investigated. This information was then to be used to advise the Service on the conservation and management of rainforest pigeon populations not only in the northeastern region but throughout the State.
In this report we present the results of our studies. The status of each of the species is discussed and the potential effects of development and tourism on pigeon numbers is evaluated using the information obtained on their movements, feeding and habitat requirements. The purpose of the report is to assist the New South Wales National Parks & Wildlife Service to develop a plan for the management of rainforest pigeons in New South Wales.
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Problem statement
Eight species of rainforest pigeon occur in New South Wales. The pigeons are a conspicuous component of the rainforest avifauna and may be important for the dispersal of rainforest seeds.
Although extensive areas of rainforest are protected in state forests and national parks, some species of rainforest pigeons travel long distances outside the reserve system to find food. This is particularly so outside the breeding season when many pigeons move to lower elevations and south along the coast and dividing range where there are relatively few reserves with the kinds of habitats and food plants they require. The development of coastal regions for agriculture and housing and the growth of tourism has the potential to affect the long~term survival of rainforest pigeons despite the extensive reserve system at higher elevations and the protection of breeding areas.
Additional steps are required to conserve and manage habitats used by rainforest pigeons outside reserves to ensure adequate feeding areas are maintained and to prevent disturbance by human visitors. The immediate objective is to protect remnant rainforests and replace non~agricultural, exotic fruit trees as a major food source for pigeons with native rainforest species.
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2. Status
The Wompoo, Superb and Rose~crowned Pigeons are listed in Schedule 12~ Endangered Fauna of the New South Wales National Parks & Wildlife Act (1974) as 'vulnerable and rare species' in New South Wales. Estimates of abundance based on the frequency of occurrence and distribution of species from the Caldera Region in northeastern New South Wales that were obtained during this study (Date et al. 1992, in prep. b) are used here as a minimum estimate of the population sizes of rainforest pigeon in New South Wales (Table 1). The estimates suggest that only the Rose~crowned and Superb Pigeons are sufficiently rare to be considered endangered. However, Wompoo, Superb and Rose~crowned Pigeons have the most restricted habitat and food requirements and are therefore particularly vulnerable to changes in their habitats. They should continue to be listed as 'endangered' in the 'vulnerable and rare' category of Schedule 12. A survey of the distribution and abundance of the Emerald Dove is required to accurately determine its status which cannot be accurately determined from results indicated in Table 1.
Another measure of the abundance of rainforest pigeons is the frequency with which each species was recorded during the national study of bird distributions coordinated by the Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union early in the 1980s (Table 2) (Blakers et al. 1984). In this program volunteer observers reported all records of birds, including rainforest pigeons, in 1 o squares across the continent. Breeding records were analysed separately (Table 2). The latitudinal distribution of species can be analysed to show where rainforest pigeon species were recorded most frequently. Table 2 presents information on the latitudinal distribution of rainforest species (breeding and non~ breeding) and the percent of 1 o squares in which each species was recorded on more than 1 in 10 visits (10% frequency of occurrence) by observers and on more than 4 in 10 visits (40%). White~Headed, Topknot and Brown Pigeons were the most frequently recorded species and were recorded on more than 10% of visits in more than 50% of the squares, and on more than 40% of visits in more than 20% of squares, within their latitudinal range (Table 2). The Wonga Pigeon had the narrowest latitudinal range (23~39°S) and is a more southern species than the other rainforest pigeons. The main part of its breeding distribution (24~38°S) is in New South Wales. The Superb Pigeon was recorded over the widest latitudinal range (9~41°), but, along with the Rose~crowned Pigeon (17~19°), has a northern breeding distribution (12~19°) (Table 2). The Superb Pigeon has not been recorded breeding south of northern Queensland, but the Rose~crowned Pigeon nests in northeastern New South Wales (Date pers obs., Frith 1982; Morris 1993a). They are also the most conspicuous of the rainforest pigeons. The Wompoo Pigeon was the least frequently recorded species in the national survey.
As only one individual was observed during counts, an estimate of abundance of the Emerald Dove was not obtained during the survey of rainforest pigeons in
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Table 1. Estimated population sizes of rainforest pigeons in the Caldera Area of northeastern New South Wales. The area of suitable habitat for each species of pigeon was calculated from information on the distribution and area of forest types. The area of suitable habitat actually occupied was calculated from the proportion of the number of one hectare survey sites occupied by each species of pigeon divided by the number of sites sampled in habitats suitable for that species. Population sizes for each pigeon species were then estimated by dividing the number of individuals detected during surveys by the number of one hectare sites occupied to obtain a measure of population density and multiplying by the total area of habitat predicted to be occupied. The procedure assumes that the density of birds is even throughout the area of habitat occupied and is intended only to provide an index of numbers. As the table indicates, only a small proportion of the suitable habitat for each species is occupied. Area is in hectares. (Adapted from Date et al1992)
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Species No. Area Area %of Estimated individuals/ of suitable of suitable suitable population hectare habitat habitat habitat size
occupied occupied
Wompoo 1.3 26742 4828 18 6700
Rose-crowned 1.2 7133 1320 19 1600
Superb 0 0 0 - 0
Topknot 13.1 21795 5525 25 72100
White-headed 1.4 18756 5049 27 6900
Brown 0.5 29114 11524 40 5800
Emerald 0.4 1171 167 14 70
Wonga 1.0 14779 2189 15 2200
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northeastern New South Wales (Table 1). The frequency with which the Emerald Dove was recorded during the Atlas Program of the RAOU suggests that it has a wide latitudinal distribution within which it is regularly recorded. However, as a ground~foraging species, the Emerald Dove may be vulnerable to increasing predation from the European Fox and Cats. Predation by European Foxes and disturbance and food competition from Feral Pigs may also be a concern in the longterm conservation and management of the Wonga Pigeon, another ground~foraging species.
Within New South Wales rainforest pigeons occur in rainforest, littoral rainforest, and moist eucalypt forest from the Queensland to Victorian borders (Blakers et al. 1984, Frith 1982). All species are most abundant in northeastern New South Wales from the Border Ranges south to Dorrigo and Coffs Harbour. This is largely the modem distribution of subtropical and warm temperate rainforests, although moist eucalypt forests (wet sclerophyll) are also important habitat. Prior to the clearing and fragmentation of rainforests for farming in the 19th century, rainforest pigeons were also abundant along the central coast of New South Wales and the Illawara District near Wollongong (Blakers et al. 1984, Frith 1982), although there were probably fewer species in the southern than northern areas.
Although formerly occurring in the Illawarra District (Frith 1982), the Wompoo is presently restricted to central and northeastern New South Wales. The Rose~ crowned and Superb Pigeons occur in southern and central New South Wales as vagrants and are most abundant along the Queensland coast (Blakers et al. 1984, Frith 1982, Morris 1993a). There appears to be an influx of Rose~crowned Pigeons into northeastern New South Wales from Queensland in late spring and summer and a return movement in autumn (Frith 1982), but Frith ( 1982) cautions that this species is very difficult to detect outside the breeding season when calling is at a minimum. Superb Pigeons disperse widely during the autumn and winter with the majority of records for central and southern New South Wales occurring between March and August (Morris 1993a). Topknot Pigeons are resident in northeastern and.central New South Wales (see Morris 1993 b,c) with large numbers now recorded most years south of Sydney in the Illawarra District (see annual bird reports in Australian Birds for details). Large numbers of White~ headed Pigeons also move into central New South Wales and the Illawarra during the winter and spring, but are absent from this area from November to April (Morris 1990). There are an increasing number of records of White-headed Pigeons in the southeastern part of the State (see Australian Birds). Wonga Pigeons are resident in appropriate forest habitats throughout eastern New South Wales including the Snowy Mountains (Morris et al. 1981). During the RAOU's survey of Australian birds (Blakers et al. 1984), Brown Pigeons and Emerald Dove were recorded most frequently north of Newcastle (32°S) (Table 2). The Brown Pigeon is recorded regularly, and is probably
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he n
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r o
f 1
° sq
uare
s w
ithi
n th
at l
atit
udin
al
rang
e in
whi
ch e
ach
spec
ies
was
rec
orde
d o
n>
10%
and
>40
% o
f vi
sits
, co
mpa
red
with
the
tot
al n
umbe
r o
f 1°
squa
res
in t
he l
atit
udin
al r
ange
. (F
rom
Bla
kers
et a
l. 19
84) N
ON
-BR
EE
DIN
G
BR
EE
DIN
G
LA
TIT
UD
E
LA
TIT
UD
E
NO
. S
QU
AR
ES
N
O.
SQ
UA
RE
S
TO
TA
L
SP
EC
IES
L
AT
ITU
DE
L
AT
ITU
DE
10
% r
ep.
>40
% r
ep
>10
% r
ep.
>40
% r
ep.
NO
. ra
te
rate
R
EC
OR
DS
Wom
poo
10
-33
1
0-2
9
10
-27
1
2-2
1
13/4
1 4/
41
684
=32
%
=10
%
Ros
e-9
-34
1
7-
19
10
-30
1
0-2
5
33/6
4 8/
64
572
crow
ned
=52
%
=13
%
Sup
erb
9-4
1
12
-19
9
-22
1
0-
16
13/3
1 3/
31
273
42%
=
10%
Top
knot
1
2-3
7
15
-26
1
5-3
5
15
-31
27
/50
13/5
0 80
8 =
54%
=
26%
' W
hite
-1
5-3
7
16
-32
1
5-3
4
15
-32
22
/34
9/34
62
3 he
aded
=
65%
=
26%
Bro
wn
12
-38
1
2-3
5
12
-37
1
2-3
2
31/6
3 13
/63
2163
=
50%
=
21%
Em
eral
d 1
0-3
6
12
-29
1
0-3
2
12
-29
32
/69
9/69
12
11
Dov
e =
46%
=
13%
Won
ga
23
-39
2
4-3
8
23
-38
3
0-3
8
27/5
6 5!
56
1819
=
48%
=
9%
resident, in small numbers (1 to 10 individuals) at locations as far south as the Bega River Valley. It is rare or absent south of Bega (Blakers et al. 1984, Recher et al. 1980, 1991).
Apart from the dispersal of young, Brown and Wonga Pigeons and the Emerald Dove are sedentary with minimal local movements of individuals. Innis (1989) and Frith (1982) also consider the Wompoo Pigeon to be sedentary with only local foraging movements. However, in northeastern New South Wales there is a movement of Topknot and White-headed Pigeons into highland rainforests during spring. This may also be true for Wompoo Pigeons (Date et al. 1991, 1992), but as with Rosecrowned Pigeons (Frith 1982), the apparent movement ofWompoo Pigeons may be the result of small numbers and seasonal differences in detectability. Altitudinal movements of rainforest pigeons occur in response to the delayed ripening of fruit at higher altitudes with the birds following the availability of food resources and returning to lower elevations and the coast in late summer as fruit becomes available there (Date et al. 1991, Frith 1982). Topknot and White-headed Pigeons form large flocks which move long distances in search of food (Date et al. 1991, Frith 1982, Innis 1989). They move south along the coast and dividing range and large flocks can be seen on the Central Coast and in the Illawarra District in winter where the birds respond to a variety of fruiting plants including figs, Camphor Laurel, Privet, and palms.
Although rainforest pigeons may be less abundant than they were prior to the extensive clearing and fragmentation of coastal and lowland rainforests for agriculture (Frith 1982) and residential development, numbers of most species are relatively high (Table 1). Moreover, there are indications of an increase in abundance of White-headed, Topknot, Brown and Superb Pigeons since the 1950s (Frith 1982) and particularly in the last decade (see for example Morris 1993 a,b,c; also Date et al. 1992, in prep. a,b).
Rainforest pigeons are now seen more frequently than they were in the 1970s and the numbers of Topknot and White-headed Pigeons may have begun to increase much earlier than 1970 (Frith 1982). However, the changes in abundance are not even (Date et al. 1992, in prep. a,b). Numbers appear to be unchanged in the larger rainforest fragments, especially those which are continuous with other forest habitats, but have increased in regenerating rainforest and exotic vegetation at middle to low elevations away from the coast (Date et al. 1991, 1992, in prep. a,b). At the same time it appears that fewer pigeons are being seen in small and isolated sites of mature littoral rainforest along the north coast of New SouthWales.
The precise reasons for the changes in the abundances of rainforest pigeons are not clear and it is likely that a combination of factors are responsible. Increases in
10 abundance are likely to be associated with an increase in the area of habitat and
•
9
:g
L
food plants as tree cover is re-established on abandoned or marginal farmlands. This includes the planting of fruit and berry bearing ornamentals and fruit trees in residential and agricultural areas accompanied by the spread of these plants as weeds (e.g .. , Coffee Coffea arabica, Loquat Eriobotrya japonica, Guava Psidium guajava) along roads, forest edges and in vegetation remnants (Dunphy 1991). The increased abundance of Topknot and White-headed Pigeons is associated with the spread of Camphor Laurel on abandoned farmland on the North Coast. Following a shift in feeding habits during the 1950s (Frith 1982, p. 135), Camphor Laurel is now an important winter food for both these pigeons (Date et al. 1991, 1992; Frith 1982; Hoskin 1991; Morris 1993 b,c). Brown Pigeons also have greater food resources in the weedy regrowth of Lantana Lantana camara, Inkweed Phytolacca octandra, and Tobacco Bush Solanum mauritianum along the edges of roads, fields and regenerating forest. Frith (1982, p. 150) describes how the weedy growth that accompanied the clearing of rainforests initially benefited the Brown Pigeon with its numbers greatly increasing and then decreasing as pasture grasses took over. The spread of Privet and Camphor Laurel along with other fruiting weeds and ornamentals may be the most significant factor explaining the increasing abundance of White-headed, Topknot and Superb Pigeons on the Central Coast and in the Illawarra District.
Decreased hunting pressure since the 1940s, when hunting was officially prohibited, may be another factor in increasing pigeon abundances. Decreases in abundance in coastal areas are associated with an expansion of residential, urban and agricultural developments that reduce the area of habitat and further isolate rainforest fragments. As rainforest pigeons nest above the ground (Frith 1982), and with the exceptions of the Emerald Dove and Wonga Pigeon, most forage exclusively in trees and shrubs, they are not subject to predation by European Foxes and Cats to the same extent as ground-nesting and foraging birds.
There is an uneven distribution of nature conservation reserves in northeastern New South Wales (Recher 1976, 1994) (see Whitehouse 1990 for an interesting explanation of how this occurred). Most national parks are at high elevations or are on the coast. Those on the coast are small or have relatively little habitat suitable for rainforest pigeons (Date et al. 1991, 1992, in prep. a,b). Apart from some very small rainforest remnants, there are few nature conservation reserves at middle and low elevations inland from the coast. This is the region most intensively developed for agriculture. In a survey of the Border Ranges, Nightcap and Mt Warning National Parks it was found that there were extensive areas of habitat suitable for Wompoo, Topknot, White-headed and Brown Pigeons, but only limited areas for Rose-crowned and Wonga Pigeons and Emerald Doves (Date et al. 1991, 1992, in prep. a,b, Fig. 1). Topknot and White-headed Pigeons, and possibly Wompoo, Superb, Rose-crowned and Brown Pigeons, require habitat at different elevations at different times of the year; for nesting and feeding during the breeding season and
11
!
l 12
~ UOMPOO
II rose -c ro'"'ned
fiD topknot @] uh i te-headed
Border Ranges
~ ~ Mt. Warning
~-~~-~ ---------------~---'--------------~
Figure l. Predicted areas of habitat in Border Ranges, Nightcap and Mt Warning National Parks for the Wompoo, Rose-crowned, Topknot, White-headed, Brown and Wonga Pigeons. The solid-shaded areas for Rose-crowned and Wonga Pigeons also represent predicted areas of overlap in habitat with Wompoo and Brown Pigeons respectively. The cross-hatched area for Topknot and White-headed Pigeons represents the predicted area of overlap between these two species. (After Date et al. in prep. b).
l
for feeding outside the breeding season (Date et al. 1991, 1992, in prep. a,b., Frith 1982). For all species suitable habitat along the coast and at low and middle elevations may be limiting regardless of the extent of suitable habitat in national parks and state forests at higher elevations.
Overall the numbers of rainforest pigeons appear to be stable or increasing slightly (Date et al. 1991, 1992, in prep. a,b, Frith 1982; Morris 1993 a,b,c for example). However, all species are vulnerable to changes in the area of suitable habitat including weedy regrowth. The expansion of residential, urban and tourist development on the coast and the conversion of rainforest and weedy regrowth to exotic fruit and nut plantations reduces the area of habitat available to rainforest pigeons. To some extent this may be compensated for by programs of rainforest regeneration and the planting of native and ornamental fruiting trees and shrubs. Pigeon abundance will be sensitive to the absolute area of suitable habitat and the degree of isolation of rainforest fragments at lower elevations and along the coast by pastures, orchards and urbanization. Sedentary species, such as the Wompoo and Wonga Pigeons, those which do not move across cleared areas (Wonga Pigeon), and those with narrow habitat and food requirements (Wompoo, Rose~crowned and Superb Pigeons) may be at greatest risk from these changes.
13
14
3. Biology
The information in this section is detailed in Date et al. (1992) and Frith (1982) (see also Crome 1975, Innis 1989; Reader's Digest 1976).
Morphology
The eight species of rainforest pigeon in New South Wales differ in size and appearance. The largest is the Topknot Pigeon weighing over 500 gms (Table 3 ). The smallest is the Rose~crowned Pigeon weighing just over 100 gms (Table 3). All species are brightly or boldly coloured; there are excellent colour plates in Frith (1982) and good photographs,of all the species in Reader's Digest (1976). Males tend to be slightly bigger than females, but the difference can not be picked in the field. Males also tend to be more brightly coloured than females, but only the female Superb Pigeon which lacks the purple crown and red~ brown collar of the male and the much browner female Brown Pigeon are easily told from the males in the field (Table 3). Juveniles are distinguished from adults by duller plumage (Wompoo, Superb and White~headed Pigeons, Emerald Dove), a duller iris and/or eye~ring (Rose~crowned, Superb, Topknot, and Brown Pigeons), or by having slightly differently coloured plumage (Wompoo and Wonga Pigeons, Emerald Dove) (Table 3).
Habitat
Although a wide range of habitats are used by rainforest pigeons, they depend on rainforests and rainforest plants for the major part of their food (Table 4, Appendix 1 ). Rainforests have a high proportion of plants which bear fleshy fruits that are attractive to pigeons. In many instances the plants rely on pigeons, other fruit~eating birds and fruit~eating mammals for the dispersal of their seeds. Pigeons move seasonally between the different kinds of rainforest and different locations according to the availability of food. Movements may be over long distances as in the case of Topknot and White~headed Pigeons or more local as in the case of Wonga Pigeons and Emerald Doves.
The habitats used during the year include warm temperate, subtropical and tropical rainforest, littoral rainforest, depauperate rainforests along watercourses and in gullies, palm forests and wet sclerophyll or eucalypt forests with a rainforest understorey (Table 4 ). Most pigeons show preference for subtropical rainforest types at elevations <600m a.s.l. (Fig.2 & 3). Also important are forest edges, roadsides, gardens and fields regenerating with native and exotic rainforest plants, such as Camphor Laurel. Camphor Laurel thickets have assumed particular importance as a winter food supply for Topknot and White~headed Pigeons.
Tab
le 3
. Si
ze a
nd p
lum
age
diff
eren
ces
of A
ustr
alia
n ra
info
rest
pig
eons
. Pl
umag
e di
mor
phis
m r
efer
s to
dif
fere
nces
in
plum
age
colo
urs
and
patt
erns
be
twee
n ad
ult
mal
es a
nd fe
mal
es,
whi
le j
uven
ile
plum
age
refe
rs t
o bi
rds
usua
lly l
ess
than
one
yea
r ol
d in
com
pari
son
to m
atur
e in
divi
dual
s.
(Ada
pted
from
Bla
kers
et a
l. 19
84 a
nd F
rith
198
2).
-U1
Wei
ght
(g)
Len
gth
(mm
)
Plu
mag
e D
imor
phis
m
Juve
nile
P
lum
age
Wom
poo
328
350-
400
No,
bu
t f.
dull
er
dulle
r,
blot
ched
--
Ros
e-S
uper
b cr
owne
d
112
122
200-
245
220-
240
Som
etim
es,
Yes
, f.
gree
n cr
own
dull
er b
row
n
gree
ner,
si
mil
ar t
o iri
s du
ller
f.,
dul
ler
iris
-
SP
EC
IES
Top
knot
B
row
n W
hite
-E
mer
ald
Won
ga
head
ed
Dov
e
518
183
426
172
491
405-
460
380-
435
380-
420
230-
255
360-
385
No,
but
f.
Sli
ght,
f. Y
es,
f. Y
es,
f. N
o
grey
er
brow
ner
dull
er
dull
er
cres
t du
ller
du
ller
da
rker
, br
owne
r,
smal
ler,
ir
is,
dull
er
feat
hers
'V
' in
dist
inct
iri
s du
ller
ey
e ri
ng
dull
bar
red
--
--------
--
~-=-
---
.;;:;bil-~<T. -<:f7E:-</flf'<'--""":~~""""'!'""'":'7r~;r~"" ~~-zp-p:-=.-:~,.,.._=-.::::-
•• y~
,,,,, !I! ~ I :
16
Table 4. Habitat preferences of rainforest pigeons in Australia. (From Crome 1975; Frith 1982; Innis 1987).
General Summer Autumn Winter Spring
Wompoo lowland rainforest lowland & gorge & wherever lowland & and near streams highland fig lowland palm fruit trees highland fig
communities communities occur communities
Rose-crowned lowland larger, lowland & gorge & northern laurel lowland & denser rainforest highland fig lowland palm & basswood highland fig
communities communities forests communities
Superb mesophyll vine & lowland & ? ? lowland & adjacent wet highland fig highland fig sclerophyll communities communities
Topknot forage anywhere lowland & Camphor Laurel Camphor Laurel lowland & higland fig lowlands lowlands highland fig communities communities
White-headed in or near rainforest lowland & Camphor Laurel Camphor Laurel lowland & where fruit trees higland fig highland fig occur, prefer edge communities communities & lower trees (forest edge) (forest edge)
Brown rainforest & sclerophyll figs as for general habitat preferences figs where fruit trees & berry (forest edge) (forest edge) bushes occur, secondary growth & forest edges
Emerald ---------------edge & undergrowth of dense rainforest & other dense habitat------------------
Wonga ----------deep & edge dense coastal rainforest, scrubs & some drier inland scrub ------------
Breeding
There are only limited data on the breeding biology of Australian rainforest pigeons. Emerald Doves and Brown Pigeons appear to nest opportunistically when food is available with a peak of breeding activity from spring to midsummer and may nest throughout the year (Table 5). Topknot, White-headed and Wonga Pigeons nest from winter (depending on food availability) to summer (Table 5). The other species nest primarily in spring and summer (September-February) (Table 5). Little nesting appears to occur during autumn (Table 5). The duration of the breeding season and the months in which nesting occurs differ between the northeastern and southern
l
parts of the geographic range of each species (Table 5); nesting begins earlier and extends over a longer period in the north and at lower elevations than in the south and at higher elevations (Date et al. 1992, Frith 1982).
Rainforest pigeons produce at most one or two young per nesting (Frith 1982) (Table 6). Nests are simple in construction, but are usually well concealed in dense vegetation above the ground. If people are nearby, the birds will not approach the nest. Incubation periods are between 14 and 24 days, but the time taken to fledge young varies significantly between species (7 to 27 days) (Table 6). It is not known how long the young of most species remain dependent on their parents after they leave the nest, with estimates of fledgling periods being less than 12 days for Emerald Dove to more than 100 days for Topknot Pigeons (Table 6).
Pigeons produce crop milk upon which the young are fed by both parents (Frith 1982). Therefore, it is possible for the foraging and nesting sites of breeding pigeons to be well separated. For example, Superb and Topknot Pigeons forage in rainforest, but usually nest in eucalypt forest on ridges above their foraging areas. Nests of all species have been found in a variety of rainforest, wet sclerophyll and edge habitats including weedy tree regrowth and gardens.
Food and foraging
The principal foods of rainforest pigeons are the fleshy pericarps of fruits and berries of rainforest trees and shrubs (Crome 1975; Date et al. 1991,1992; Frith 1982; Innis 1989) (Appendix 1). Wompoo, Rose~crowned, Superb and Topknot Pigeons are almost entirely dependent on rainforest fruits and berries whereas Emerald Doves, and Brown, White-headed and Wonga Pigeons also feed on seeds. The latter species have a muscular gizzard, much like a chicken, but other rainforest pigeons do not and seeds that are ingested with fruit pass through undigested. As a result, the purely frugivorous species are believed to be important in the dispersal of the•seeds of rainforest trees and shrubs. They also disperse the seeds of exotic fruit bearing plants.
The fruits of figs (Moraceae), quandongs (Elaeocarpaceae), laurels (Lauraceae), basswoods (Araliaceae) and palms (Archontophoenix cunninghamiana, Livistonia australe) are important in the diets of rainforest pigeons in northeastern New South Wales (Date et al. 1991,1992; Frith 1982; Innis 1989) (Appendix 1). In the absence of detailed studies of pigeon foraging behaviour there appears to be considerable overlap in the diets of pigeons in New South Wales, but in northeastern Queensland rainforest pigeons tend to select different plant species on which to feed (Crome 1975). This is also true of rainforest pigeons in New Guinea where species select different sized fruits and forage in different parts of the canopy according to the weight and agility of the species (Diamond 1975, Frith et al. 1976). In broad terms
17
\[~
lr 1'~ I
, kA
4!iiliiM
&i:1IT
&B ,g
,h;;J
F<'c>
';
.......
00
>-
70
60
50
~40
L...J
::::
:> 0 L.
..J e:
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~
20
10 0
I A
l o
._
o._
a.
. c
'--2
E
E ·
c; ~
__
.C
l>
Q)'-
-v
..
.0
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. _
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>-.
(/"
) ~EO-DID
....
0 "
0 u
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MP
OO
I il
a..
o..
.o..
.ca
; 2
E
E ·2
u
::o 2
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o -o
cv
(f)
'..
~ 0
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u u
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OS
E-c
RO
WN
ED
I J
CL
CL
CI..
.CQ
j 2
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E ·2
c::;
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2 ~ c~
5i§g-o~
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NO
T
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l)l
Cl.
..C
...C
LC
,_
2
E
E ·
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ITE-
HEA
DED
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C..
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CQ
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E ·2
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::o 2
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0 u
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OW
N
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a..
o..
.ca
; o
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E ·
c; c
::;
..!::::;
(l
) v
~(/)
-g
E ==
g -a
9J
en
'--~
0 u
"' W
ON
GA
0 ve
geta
tion
type
bird
de
tect
ion
s
Fig
ure
2. T
he
perc
ent d
istr
ibut
ion
by v
eget
atio
n ty
pe o
f sig
htin
gs o
fWom
poo
(n=
12),
Ros
e-cr
owne
d (n
=5)
, Top
knot
(n=
18),
Whi
te
head
ed (
n=14
), B
row
n (n
=38
) an
d W
onga
(n=
8) P
igeo
ns c
ompa
red
wit
h th
e pe
rcen
t dis
trib
utio
n of
veg
etat
ion
type
s am
ong
the
109
surv
ey s
ites.
Dat
a w
ere
no
t av
aila
ble
for
Supe
rb P
igeo
n.
Onl
y th
e di
stri
buti
on o
f sig
htin
gs o
f Whi
te-h
eade
d Pi
geon
s w
as s
igni
fica
ntly
di
ffer
ent f
rom
the
dis
trib
utio
n of
veg
etat
ion
type
s (p
<O.O
l),
the
rest
wer
e no
t sig
nifi
cant
(p>
0.05
). (
Aft
er D
ate
et a
l. in
pre
p. b)
.
j
I
80
70
60
>-5
0
u :z
w 54
0
w
0::
....
....
~
30
20
10 0
00
00
0
00
0
n c.
o O
"l m
V
I
I A
0
0
00
n
c.o
WO
MP
OO
00
00
0
00
0
n c.o
m
m
VI
I A
88
n
c.o
00
00
0
.0
00
t"]
<.0
0
1 0
)
V
I I
A
00
0
0
n c.
o
RO
SE
-cR
OW
NE
D
TO
PK
NO
T
00
00
0
00
0
n c.
o m
m
V
I
I A
88
n
c.o
00
00
0
00
0
n c.
o m
m
V
I
I A
0
0
00
n
c.o
WH
ITE
-HE
AD
ED
B
RO
WN
00
00
0
00
0
n c.o
m
m
V
I I
1\
00
0
0
n c.o
WO
NG
A
0 el
evat
ion
cate
gory
• bi
rd d
etec
tions
Fig
ure
3. T
he p
erce
nt d
istr
ibut
ions
by
elev
atio
n ca
tego
ry o
f sig
htin
gs o
fWom
poo
(n=
l2),
Ros
e-cr
owne
d (n
=5)
, Top
knot
(n=
18),
W
hite
-hea
ded
(n=
14),
Bro
wn
(n=
38)
and
Won
ga (
n=8)
Pig
eons
com
pare
d w
ith
the
perc
ent d
istr
ibut
ion
of e
leva
tion
cat
egor
ies
amon
g th
e 10
9 su
rvey
site
s. D
ata
wer
e no
t av
aila
ble
for
Sup
erb
Pig
eon.
No
ne
of th
e di
stri
buti
ons
of si
ghti
ngs
was
sig
nifi
cant
ly d
iffe
rent
from
th
at o
f the
ele
vati
on c
ateg
orie
s (p
>0.
05).
(A
fter
Dat
e et
al.
in p
rep.
b.) .
......
\0
..r7:
" • .5Z,77~~:-:s.=---""'"--;--~""'-
=-""-.,.-;;;-~--v::>:-~---"-~--:-
... ~
N
0
Tab
le 5
. B
reed
ing
seas
ons
of R
ainf
ores
t P
igeo
ns i
n E
aste
rn A
ustr
alia
. A
ster
isks
sho
w f
requ
ency
of n
esti
ng;*
inf
requ
ent,
**fr
eque
nt a
nd r
egul
ar,*
** a
bund
ant,
pea
k ne
stin
g se
ason
.~ i
ndic
ates
no
nest
ing
was
rec
orde
d. (
Ada
pted
from
Fri
th 1
952,
19
82 w
ith
addi
tion
al i
nfor
mat
ion
obta
ined
from
R.A
.O.U
. N
est R
ecor
d S
chem
e).
SE
AS
ON
Spec
ies
Sta
te
Sum
mer
A
utum
n W
inte
r S
prin
g B
reed
ing
(Dec
-Feb
) (M
ar-M
ay)
(Jun
e-A
ug)
(Sep
t-N
ov)
Hab
itat
Wom
poo
N.Q
ld
**
-*
***
Dee
p ra
info
rest
,pre
f.
NS
W
**
--
* o
n c
oast
or
stre
ams.
Ros
e-cr
owne
d N
.Qld
. **
* -
* **
D
ense
vin
es i
n de
nse
NS
W
***
--
**
rain
fore
st .
Sup
erb
N.Q
ld
**
* -
***
Oft
en i
n ha
rdw
ood
away
fro
m r
ainf
ores
t.
Top
knot
N
.Qld
. -
--
**
On
tall,
d~ r
idge
s N
SW
**
-
***
***
abov
e ra
in o
rest
.
Whi
te-h
eade
d N
.Qld
-
-**
**
* D
ense
scr
ub i
n or
nea
r N
SW
**
*
***
***
rain
fore
st.
Bro
wn
N.Q
ld.
**
-*
***
No
t res
tric
ted
to
NS
W
**
* *
***
rain
fore
st.
Em
eral
d N
.Qld
. **
-
* *
Rai
nfor
est
or s
cler
ophy
llous
hab
itat
, N
SW
**
*
* **
* la
rge
bran
ches
, vi
nes,
tre
efem
s, p
alm
fr
onds
, ep
iphy
tes.
Won
ga
NS
W
**
* *
***
Rai
nfor
est o
r sh
lero
phyl
lous
tre
es
Vic
-
-**
* **
of
ten
in o
pen
situ
atio
ns &
on
ridg
es.
j
~~
Tab
le 6
. B
reed
ing
Bio
logy
of
Aus
tral
ian
Rai
nfor
est
Pig
eons
. In
form
atio
n ab
out
nest
siz
e, t
he n
umbe
r o
f eg
gs l
aid
or
clut
ch s
ize,
the
len
gth
of
the
incu
bati
on,
nest
ling
and
fle
dgli
ng p
erio
ds,
and
the
tim
ing
of
the
bree
ding
sea
son
for
rain
fore
st p
igeo
ns i
s li
mit
ed b
y t
he s
mal
l nu
mbe
r o
f ne
sts
that
ha
ve b
een
foun
d an
d th
e st
ill
few
er n
ests
tha
t ha
ve b
een
foll
owed
fro
m t
he l
ayin
g o
f eg
gs t
o w
hen
the
youn
g fl
edge
and
lea
ve t
he n
est.
The
in
form
atio
n in
thi
s ta
ble
is b
ased
in p
art
on f
ield
rec
ords
and
in
part
on
obse
rvat
ions
of
nest
ing
in c
apti
vity
. T
he l
engt
h o
f th
e br
eedi
ng s
easo
n is
for
th
e m
ain
nest
ing
seas
on i
n ea
ster
n A
ustr
alia
and
wou
ld d
iffe
r in
tim
ing
and
dura
tion
wit
h la
titu
de a
nd e
leva
tion
. If
con
diti
ons
are
favo
urab
le,
som
e bi
rds
may
nes
t out
side
the
tim
es s
how
n. (
Ada
pted
fro
m B
lake
rs e
t al.
1984
; F
rith
198
2).
SP
EC
IE
S
Wom
poo
Ros
e-S
uper
b T
opkn
ot
Bro
wn
Wh
ite-
Em
eral
d W
onga
cr
owne
d he
aded
D
ove
Nes
t 15
0 50
-70
70
250
max
. 15
0-20
0 12
5-20
0 18
0 15
0-25
0 D
iam
eter
(m
m)
50-7
0 th
ick
50 t
hick
15
thi
ck
Clu
tch
Siz
e 1
1 1
1 1
(2)
1 2
2
Incu
bati
on
? 16
-18
14
22-2
4 16
-18
19-2
2 14
-16
17
Per
iod
(day
s)
Nes
tlin
g ?
11-1
4 7
+
21+
?
21-2
2 ?
26-2
7 P
erio
d (d
ays)
Fle
dgli
ng
? ?
50
100-
130
< 7
0 >
60
<
12
? P
erio
d (d
ays)
Bre
edin
g Ju
n-
Jan
Au
g-
Feb
S
ept
-Mar
Ju
n-
Jan
Au
g-
Jan
Jun
e-M
ar
Oct
-F
eb
Jun
-Ja
n S
easo
n
---
--
---
--
--
---
----
-
N
,......
I
".,.-~~~~-=-;;c--~""-=----
~,;:'=-__,-
-~~~.;;;;,.-,:::--~~;~--~
J
22
the smaller pigeons feed on smaller sized fruits and can forage further out on branches than the larger species (Crome 1975). This probably occurs in New South Wales, but, as mentioned, the necessary studies have not been done.
Pigeons also appear to be conservative in their diets and are reluctant to feed on new species. Feeding on the fruits and seeds of Camphor Laurel represented a significant addition to the diet of Topknot and White~headed Pigeons (Frith 1982). White~ headed Pigeons began feeding on Camphor Laurel soon after it became established in the 19th century, but Topknots did not use Camphor Laurel until the 1950s (Frith 1982). Camphor Laurel and other exotic fruit bearing species are now important food resources for rainforest pigeons (Date et al. 1991, 1992; Frith 1982; Innis 1989). The seeds of introduced weeds, such as Lantana, Wild Tobacco, Phytolacca octandra, and Physalis sp., are important in the diet of Brown Pigeons and may allow these birds to extend their distribution and travel between rainforest remnants.
Wonga Pigeons and Emerald Doves are primarily ground foragers, while the White~ headed Pigeon forages mainly in trees, but occasionally takes seeds and fruit from the ground, especially Camphor Laurel. The other pigeons forage entirely in trees and shrubs.
Distribution and seasonal movements
Brown, Wompoo, and Wonga Pigeons, and the Emerald Dove are mainly sedentary or locally nomadic (Date et al. 1991; Frith 1982; Innis 1989). In northeastern New South Wales they occur at high (>300m a.s.l.), middle (200~300 m a.s.l.) and low elevations (<200m a.s.l.) (Date et al. 1991, 1992). With the exception of the Wonga Pigeon which extends to the Great Dividing Range and the Snowy Mountains, in central and southern New South Wales, they are otherwise reported mainly from coastal and low elevation sites (see annual reports in Australian Birds for examples). All other rainforest pigeons disperse over longer distances moving along the coast and ranges, and from high to low elevations with the seasons (Date et al. 1991,1992; Frith 1982; Innis 1989). There is evidence of more frequent long distance dispersal of Superb Pigeons in recent years (e.g .. Morris 1993 a,b,c).
Most Rose~crowned Pigeons appear to leave New South Wales in autumn migrating as far north as northeastern Queensland (Frith 1982). They return in the spring. Some Topknot Pigeons may also move from northeastern Queensland south to New South Wales in the spring and north again in autumn.
In summer Topknot Pigeons move along the coast as far south as Victoria, and flocks of 50 or more birds are common from the Central Coast south to the Illawara District (e.g .. Morris 1993 b,c). White~headed and Rose~crowned Pigeons also move
..
..J
south in summer. Although neither White,headed or Rose,crowned Pigeons are common south of Newcastle and the Hunter Valley, White,headed Pigeons may be extending their range south (e.g .. Morris 1993c). Recher (pers. obs.) often sees White,headed Pigeons along the lower Hawkesbury River. Although rare, Wompoo Pigeons may also move south in the summer with individuals recorded in recent years from the Dorrigo Plateau south to Sydney (Date et al. 1992; Frith 1982; Hoskin 1991, Cooper 1989).
In northeastern New South Wales some pigeon species move seasonally between the coast and the mountains (Date et al. 1991, 1992). Rose,crowned Pigeons are present at all elevations in spring, summer and autumn. The few individuals that remain during the winter are found at low elevations and in coastal habitats. Wompoo Pigeons are recorded at high elevations in spring and early summer, but disappear in late summer. They are present at middle to low elevation sites throughout the year, but occur at coastal sites only in winter. The small number of records for Superb Pigeons for northeastern New South Wales are during the spring, summer and autumn at middle and low elevations (Date et al. 1992). In contrast, records in Morris (1993a) for central and southeastern New South Wales are mostly (28 of 31) from lower elevations and coastal habitats from late summer (March) to late winter (August).
Because of their large size, abundance and flocking behaviour, the seasonal movements of White,headed and Topknot Pigeons are especially noticeable (Date et al. 1991, 1992). These pigeons are most abundant at high elevations during the late spring and early summer, at middle elevations during the autumn and at low elevations during the winter. They are absent from lower elevations at other times.
The movements of rainforest pigeons north and south along the coast and from high to low elevations appear to be in response to the ripening of the rainforest and exotic fruits on which they feed (Crome 1975; Date et al. 1991, 1992: Frith 1982; Innis 1989). Nesting appears to occur at all elevations that the species frequent and may be a response to an abundance of food.
1
23
I I I
I 4. Biology ... individual species
Unless otherwise indicated, these accounts are based on information in Blakers et al. (1984), Crome (1975), Date et al. (1991, 1992), Frith (1982), Innis (1989) and Morris et al. (1981). The plant species used by the different pigeons are presented in Appendix 1.
Wompoo Pigeon (Ptilinopus magnificus)
Other names: Wompoo Fruit-dove, Magnificent Fruit Pigeon, Purple-breasted Fruit Pigeon
Distribution: Historically in eastern Australia from the Illawarra District north through Cape York, islands in the Torres Strait, and New Guinea to about 800 m a.s.L Presently extremely rare or absent from the part of its range south of Coffs Harbour and the Dorrigo Plateau in New South Wales. The last recorded sighting in the lllawarra was at Port Kembla in the 1920s.
Movements: Sedentary or locally nomadic. In northeastern New South Wales it is present at middle and lower elevations throughout the year, moving into higher elevation rainforest in spring and early summer where it is absent during autumn and winter (Fig. 4a).
Habitat: Confined to rainforest and adjoining wet sclerophyll habitats. Most commonly encountered in mature forest, but uses remnant vegetation.
Feeding: An obligate frugivore, the Wompoo Pigeon uses a wide variety of rainforest fruits including palms, figs, laurels, Lilly-Pillys, White Cedar Melia
. azaderach, and Lawyer Vine Smilex australis. Most foraging is done high in the forest canopy.
Reproduction: In northeastern New South Wales nesting extends from late winter (August) to midsummer (January). The nest is a simple stick platform on which a single egg is laid. Nests are generally below 10m and may be within 2m of the ground.
Abundance: There are no estimates of abundance outside New South Wales. The New South Wales' population probably exceeds 7,000 individuals. The Wompoo Pigeon was considered uncommon (1,000-10,000 individuals) by Morris et al. (1981).
Status in New South Wales: The Wompoo Pigeon is listed in the National Parks and Wildlife Act as vulnerable and rare. Its status as an endangered species is
· 24 based on the relatively small population, its requirements for mature rainforest and the small amount of this habitat that remains, particularly at lower elevations.
Rose .. crowned Pigeon (Ptilinopus regina)
Other names: Rose,crowned Fruit,dove, Red,crowned Pigeon
Distribution: Eastern and northeastern Australia from about ·Port Stephens in New South Wales north to Cape York and west to the Kimberleys wherever there is rainforest. Also occurs north of Australia on the Banda and Kai islands and the Lesser Sunda islands. Vagrant to New Guinea in the north and Tasmania in the south.
Movements: Considered to be a partial migrant in northeastern New South Wales and southern Queensland with most of the population moving north in winter. Southern vagrants occur mainly in winter. Elsewhere sedentary or locally nomadic. Occurs at all elevations in northeastern New South Wales during spring, summer and autumn with some birds found in remnant vegetation at low elevations and on the coast in winter (Fig. 4b).
Habitat: The Rose,crowned pigeon is restricted to rainforest habitats in southern and eastern Australia. In northeastern Australia it can be found in eucalypt woodland with scattered small patches of rainforest and also in mangrove forest, where it breeds.
Feeding: An obligate frugivore, the Rose,crowned Pigeon forages mainly in the canopy of mature trees. It eats a wide variety of fruits including figs, Lilly,Pilly Eugenia smithii, and laurels (Lauraceae) and has been recorded feeding on the fruits of exotics such as Lantana and Wild Tobacco.
Reproduction: Nests during spring (October, November) and summer (December, february) in northeastern New South Wales. The nest is a simple platform of sticks and vines placed mainly in dense vegetation within 6 m of the ground, but may be as high as 30 m. A single egg is laid.
Abundance: The New South Wales population is estimated at 1,600,2,000 individuals. No estimates available for other parts of its distribution. Considered moderately common (10,000, 100,000 individuals) by Morris et al. (1981).
Status in New South Wales: Listed as vulnerable and rare in the National Parks and Wildlife Act in New South Wales. Its endangered status is based on its small population size and restriction to rainforest habitats which have been greatly reduced in area by clearing.
25
26
a) WOMPOO PIGEON
20~--------~----------------------------------------------~
~ h1gh
• m1d
(/) IIIII low UJ 15
t:( --o- coast :;E ~ (/) w 10 w (.) z <( 0 z 5 :::> co <(
Aug Sept OCt Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul
b) ROSE-CROWNED PIGEON
(/) 20 w t:( ~ i= 15 (/) w w (.) z 1 0 <( 0 z :::> a:l 5 <(
0 Aug Sept OCt Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul
Figure 4. Relative monthly abundances of rainforest pigeons in northeastern New South Wales at four elevational ranges; coastal (<lOOm), lowland (100-200m), middle (200-300m), highland (>300m). The highest of the monthly counts from sites within each elevational range was used to plot the numbers of a) Wompoo, b) Rose-crowned, c) Topknot and d) White-headed pigeons (After Date et al. 1991).
c) TOPKNOT PIGEON
1500 2000 750 3500 200~----------------------------,---------~--------------~-------,
en w 1<(150
:::?! i= en w wtoo 0 z <( Cl z :::> 50 ll) <( _j if ' ------- A
I i ~-,/ ~/__l "-' 0
Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul
d) WHITE-HEADED PIGEON
35
en 3o w ~
~ 25 1-t3 20 w 0 z 15 <( Cl z 10 :::> ll) <(
5
0 Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul
Spring Summer Autumn Winter
Figure 4. (Cont.)
-.;1
27
[::: :::: ::\, \ill 1::: ,, 1111 11:::
28
Superb Pigeon (Ptilinopus superbus)
Other names: Superb Fruit,dove, Purple,crowned Pigeon
Distribution: From about Rockhampton north through Cape York to New Guinea, the Solomons and islands of the eastern parts of the Indonesian Archipelago. Vagrant in southeastern Australia south to Tasmania.
Movements: Primarily sedentary or locally nomadic with irregular irruptive dispersal outside its normal range. May be a regular migrant to southeastern Australia.
Habitat: Rainforest, but may nest in nearby eucalypt forest.
Feeding: An obligate frugivore that forages primarily in the canopy of mature trees. In northern Queensland laurels were the most important source of fruit, but figs, palms and a wide range of other plants were used.
Reproduction: There are no confirmed breeding records south of northeastern Queensland where nesting may occur from June to February depending on location. A single egg is laid on a stick platform nest placed mostly within 10m of the ground.
Abundance: There are no estimates of abundance outside New South Wales where the numbers of birds are certainly fewer than 500 and possibly less than 100, almost all of which would be vagrants from the north. Morris et al. ( 1981) list the Superb Pigeon as a scarce (100 ,1,000 individuals) migrant or visitor.
Status in New South Wales: Considered endangered in New South Wales where the Superb Pigeon is listed as vulnerable and rare in the National Parks and Wildlife Act. Its endangered status is based on the small population size and limited areas of rainforest suitable for this species.
1 I
f \,
[
\
'!
Topknot Pigeon (Lopholaimus antarcticus)
Other names: Flock Pigeon
Distribution: Eastern Australia from southeastern New South Wales to Cape York. It is a vagrant to Victoria and Tasmania.
Movements: A nomadic species with pronounced seasonal movements from high to low elevations and along the coast in response to the availability of fruiting trees. In northeastern New South Wales the Topknot Pigeon occurs at high elevations in late spring and early summer where it breeds, moving to lower elevations in autumn and winter (Fig. 4c). Southward movements are most common during the summer. Recently it has been present in coastal environments on the Central Coast throughout the year (Morris 1993c), but northern birds may winter on the Central Coast.
Habitat: Occurs in tropical, subtropical and temperate rainforests and wet sclerophyll forest. Uses remnant rainforest including paddock trees.
Feeding: A frugivorous species taking a wide range of rainforest fruits and berries including figs, palms, Lilly~Pilly, Ironwood Cryptocarya microneura and Pigeon~berry Ash Elaeocarpus kirtonii. It feeds extensively on the fruits of the introduced Camphor Laurel.
Reproduction: Nests from winter (June) to summer (December). Few nests have been reported and these were mainly high in the canopy (20m+). A single egg
is laid.
Abundance: Forms large and conspicuous flocks that formerly exceeded 2,000~ 3,000 birds. Most flocks now contain fewer than 200 individuals, but the New South Wales population is estimated to exceed 70,000 individuals. Estimates of numbers for Queensland are not available. Described as moderately common (10,000 ~ 100,000 individuals) by Morris et al. (1981).
Status in New South Wales: An abundant and widely distributed species along the coast in New South Wales that appears to have partially recovered from its initial decline following the extensive clearing of rainforests earlier this century.
29
i }Ill' 11111
~: : : ~: : :
30
Brown Pigeon (Macropygia amboinensis)
Other names: Brown Cuckoo~dove, Pheasant Pigeon, Brownie
Distribution: Eastern Australia, from Victoria north to the Philippines, Borneo, Sumatra and nearby islands.
Movements: Locally nomadic. Birds tn northeastern New South Wales occurred at low, middle and high elevations throughout the year with no evidence of seasonal changes in distribution.
Habitat: Rainforest and moist eucalypt forest. Most frequently encountered along forest edges, along tracks and in weedy clearings. Abundant in early regrowth and regenerating rainforest.
Feeding: Often found feeding in low shrubs and small trees, but also forages in the canopy of mature trees, the Brown Pigeon takes a variety of fruits and seeds including figs, Native Raspberries Rubus spp., and Celery Wood Tzeghemopanax spp .. Exotic species, such as Lantana, Privet, and Wild Tobacco are important food sources.
Reproduction: In northeastern New South Wales the main breeding season is spring and summer (September~ January), but nesting also occurs in autumn and winter.
Abundance: The population in New South Wales exceeds 15,000 individuals. There are no estimates for other areas. Morris et al. (1981) consider the Brown Pigeon to be common(> 100,000 individuals).
Status in New South Wales: An abundant and widely distributed species in New South Wales that possibly benefits from habitat disturbance by logging and track construction. It is abundant north of about Newcastle, but uncommon further south.
I ,
White .. headed Pigeon (Columba leucomela)
Other names: Baldy Pigeon
Distribution: Eastern Australia from the Bega River Valley in New South Wales to Cooktown, Queensland.
Movements: Locally nomadic with evidence of a southward dispersal from late summer (March) to spring (October). In northeastern New South Wales White~ headed Pigeons are abundant at high elevations in spring and summer moving to middle and lower elevations in autumn and winter (Fig. 4d).
Habitat: Rainforest, moist eucalypt forest, Camphor Laurel thickets and road edges.
Feeding: The White~headed Pigeon feeds on fruits and seeds. As well as foraging in the canopy, it is often encountered feeding on the forest floor or under trees along roads and in gardens. Native laurels are an important food source and the introduced Camphor Laurel is possibly the most important winter food for this species. White~headed Pigeons also feed on Lilly~Pilly, Wild Tobacco, Blush Walnut Beilschmiedia elliptica and Privet.
Reproduction: The main breeding season is spring (September) through summer (December), but nesting may occur in any season. The nest is usually a simple platform of twigs and vines on which a single egg is laid. Nests are placed in dense vegetation from 2 to 20m above the ground.
Abundance: The New South Wales population exceeds 7,000 individuals. There are no estimates of abundance for Queensland. Listed as moderately common (10,000 ~ 100,000 individuals) by Morris et al. (1981).
Status in New South Wales: An abundant and widely distributed species east of the divide that has probably benefited from the regeneration of abandoned fields and road edges by rainforest plants and the proliferation of Camphor Laurel and Privet. The increased incidence of the White~ headed Pigeon south of Sydney may be the result of the increasing abundance of these two introduced weeds.
31
32
Emerald Dove (Chalcophaps indica)
Other names: (Jreen,winged Pigeon, Green Dove, Little Green Pigeon, Common Emerald Dove
Distribution-: Various sub,species occur from eastern and northeastern Australia through New Guinea, Indonesia and the Philippines to Taiwan, Southeast Asia, Ceylon and eastern India. In eastern Australia the Emerald Dove occurs from Cape York to Narooma on the southeast coast of New South Wales. It also occurs on Lord Howe Island and Norfolk Island.
Movements: The Emerald Dove is sedentary or locally nomadic, though its presence on oceanic islands suggests that long distance movements (dispersal) also occur.
Habitat: The Emerald Dove occurs in a wide range of forest and shrub habitats including rainforest, littoral rainforest, eucalypt forest, paperbark forest, Callitris scrub, heathlands, monsoon forest, and the edges of mangroves.
Feeding: This is a ground,foraging species that feeds primarily on seeds, but also takes fruits and invertebrates. Fruits and seeds eaten include those of Lantana, Wild Tobacco, wattles Acacia spp., White Cedar and figs.
Reproduction: Nesting occurs throughout the year, but peaks from spring (September) to midsummer (December). A platform nest is built from 4 to 11 m above the ground and two eggs are laid.
Abundance: There are no estimates of abundance for mainland Australia, but the Lord Howe Island population has been estimated at 10 to 100 individuals (Fullagar et al. 1974). Considered to be moderately common (10,000, 100,000 individuals) in New South Wales by Morris et al. (1981).
Status in New South Wales: A widely distributed and moderately abundant bird throughout its range in northeastern New South Wales and on Lord Howe Island. Nonetheless rainforest clearing has depressed its numbers and the species may prove vulnerable to predation by Cats and European Foxes. It is less common south of Newcastle. It is confined to lowland forest on Lord Howe Island.
1
"'
Wonga Pigeon (Leucosarcia cyanoleuca)
Other names: Wonga Wonga
Distribution: Eastern Australia from near Melbourne in Victoria to Rockhampton in Queensland.
Movements: The Wonga Pigeon is sedentary.
Habitat: Rainforest and moist eucalypt forest are the principal habitats of the Wonga Pigeon, but it is also encountered in open, dry eucalypt forest, heathland and Brigalow Acacia harpophyUa scrub.
Feeding: The Wonga Pigeon is a ground foraging species that takes seeds, fruits and invertebrates. Seeds and fruits taken include those of Native Cherry Exocarpos cupressiformis, Ash Quandong Eleocarpos reticulatus, sedges (Cyperaceae), Inkweed, wattles Acacia spp., White Cedar, and Lilly~Pilly.
Reproduction: Breeding occurs throughout the year, but mainly from winter (June) to summer (December). A substantial nest is constructed from 2 to 16 or more metres above the ground in which two eggs are laid.
Abundance: In New South Wales the number ofWonga Pigeons is probably in the vicinity of 4,000~5,000 birds. There are no estimates from Victoria or Queensland. This is the only rainforest pigeon that is probably more abundant in the southern than in the northern part of its distribution. Described as moderately common (10,000 ~ 100,000 individuals) by Morris et al. (1981).
Status in New South Wales: A common and widely distributed bird throughout its range in the State, but clearing, particularly at lower elevations along the coast, have reduced numbers. As a ground foraging species, the Wonga Pigeon is potentially vulnerable to predation from Cats and European Foxes.
:!;,
II
33
34
5 .. Management
Introduction
The broad management objectives for the conservation of rainforest pigeons are to increase their abundance in New South Wales and create an environment whereby species can progressively occupy former habitats throughout New South Wales. The greatest problem in achieving these objectives is the limited area of rainforest and feeding habitat at low elevations. Disturbance of pigeons by people using rainforest reserves is a less important issue, but may become more serious as the human population and tourism on the coast increases. This is exacerbated by the small remaining area of good habitat for pigeons.
Ultimately it will be necessary to integrate management plans between Queensland and New South Wales, but in the immediate future the birds in New South Wales can be considered separately.
Although considerable areas of rainforest have been reserved or excluded from logging in New South Wales, there is no overall plan for the management of rainforest ecosystems. Ultimately the conservation and management of rainforest pigeons depends on the statewide management of rainforest environments. To this extent the management program proposed here for rainforest pigeons needs to be seen as part of a broader program with the objective of restoring and rehabilitating rainforest ecosystems and their associated flora and fauna throughout the state.
The components of the program for the management of rainforest pigeons are:
*
*
*
*
*
protection of rainforest remnants from burning, clearing, pesticides and grazing among other adverse human and agricultural activities.
restoration and rehabilitation of rainforest vegetation by expanding the area and number of remnants through the planting of appropriate native fruit,bearing species.
management of exotic vegetation used by rainforest pigeons so that as exotic species are removed, they are replaced by appropriate native species.
maintenance and extension of vegetation corridors to provide a network of habitat along which rainforest pigeons can move with minimum risk of predation and accidental death (e.g., by hitting windows).
monitoring and regulation of human use of rainforest reserves.
*
*
*
monitoring of the distribution and abundance of rainforest pigeons
public education and involvement including advice on the restoration of rainforest remnants, planting of appropriate fruit~bearing natives, house and garden design to reduce risk of accidents to flying birds, and by developing techniques to protect fruit orchards that do not threaten pigeons and other native fauna
staff, reporting and review
The factors affecting rainforest pigeon distribution and abundance are broadly similar throughout the State. The program proposed can therefore be viewed as a statewide initiative, but emphasis should be in northeastern New South Wales and perhaps the Illawarra District where rainforest pigeons were historically most abundant.
Corridors and stepping stones
Historically Australian rainforests occurred as patches of varying sizes dispersed among wider expanses of eucalypt forest (Baur 1957; Date et al. 1991; Floyd 1990). Patches such as the Big Scrub (Jeans 1991) and the Illawara were quite extensive, but others were much smaller and more isolated. At high elevations, many rainforests remain dispersed among extensive eucalypt forests, but at lower elevations clearing for agriculture isolated the habitats most used by rainforest pigeons (Date et al. 1991, 1992; Frith 1982). Most rainforest remnants at lower elevations are now small and isolated by pasture or plantations (Jeans 1991; Lott & Duggin.1993). For pigeons, such as the Topknot and White~headed, which commonly fly long distances above the forest, movements between patches is probably no more difficult than before European settlement. For the other species, some of which are relatively sedentary and which seldom leave dense cover, movements between patches of otherwise suitable habitat that are isolated by cleared land may be more restrictive than when forest habitats were continuous. Wonga Pigeons are especially affected by clearing and habitat fragmentation.
There is some evidence that Wompoo and Rose~crowned Pigeons move between rainforest remnants at night (Crome pers comm., Date et al. 1991, 1992; Frith 1982). Morris (1993a) comments that frugivorous pigeons are well known to move at night. However, continuity or closeness of habitat providing forest cover may be vital for the movements of some rainforest pigeons (Date et al. 1991, 1992; Innis 1989). The increased occurrence of rainforest pigeons in remnant vegetation (Date et al. 1991, 1992) may indicate that changes in the landscape from one dominated by broad
35
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pastures for dairy cattle to one with extensive orchards and increased tree cover has resulted in an overall improvement of habitat for rainforest pigeons at middle to low elevations in northeastern New South Wales. The apparent increase in pigeon numbers in recent years lends support to this idea.
Reserves and rainforest pigeons
There are extensive rainforest reserves in both state forests and national parks in northeastern New South Wales (Date et al. 1991, 1992; Hitchcock 1991). However, most reserves are at high elevation and are used by some rainforest pigeons for only part of the year (Date et al. 1991, 1992, in prep. a,b). Rainforest conservation reserves at low elevations in northeastern New South Wales are small and isolated (Lott & Duggin 1993). This is also the situation in conservation reserves south of Port Stephens and the Dorrigo Plateau. Throughout New South Wales most habitat in coastal national parks is heathland or eucalypt forest unsuited to rainforest birds.
Surveys of the distribution and abundance of rainforest pigeons through the year in northeastern New South Wales showed distinct seasonal movements of pigeons between elevations, but also indicated that there were extensive areas of apparently suitable habitat at higher elevations that were little used (Date et al. 1991, 1992). As there was no difference in the occurrence of pigeons between unlogged and previously logged habitat (Date et al. 1992, in prep. a,b), the absence of pigeons from suitable habitat suggests that other factors are limiting the abundance of rainforest pigeons at higher elevations. Probably the limiting factor is the relative scarcity of suitable habitat and food resources at middle and low elevations (Date et al. 1991, 1992, in prep. a,b).
Disturbance by people
Some rainforest pigeons visit towns, caravan parks, and gardens or feed along the edge of busy roads (for examples of this behaviour see reports in Australian Birds). In this sense rainforest pigeons are tolerant of people and may be expected to increase their association with people as tree cover increases and more rainforest plants are planted in suburban and rural gardens and along roads. However, pigeons are wary and sensitive to the approach of people on foot (Date et al. 1992, Recher pers. obs.).
Rainforests are attractive and many conservation reserves are being developed to encourage human use for recreation and nature study. Thus, the disturbance of pigeons by people becomes a management issue in rainforest reserves. This is particularly so at lower elevations where such reserves are small and isolated. Observations of foraging pigeons show that they stop feeding and take flight when people approach as close as 15m (Brown Pigeons) or when they are as far away as
45m (Wonga Pigeons) (Date et al. 1992). Pigeons may be foraging as low as 10m above the ground (Rose-crowned Pigeons) or as high as 40m (Superb Pigeons) when disturbed.
Birds which are resident in reserves used by people tend to adapt to their presence (Recher pers. obs.) and are less likely to be disturbed by people than birds which move long distances and only encounter people occasionally or which are continually using new foraging sites. The capacity of rainforest pigeons to adapt to people is illustrated by reports we have received of pigeons nesting in residential gardens. However, as rainforest pigeons are at least locally nomadic, in most situations they are unlikely to have the opportunity to adapt to the presence of people and will continue to take flight or to stop feeding at relatively long distances when people approach.
There are indications that the numbers of rainforest pigeons in northeastern New South Wales are limited by the extent of remnant rainforest and food trees at low elevations (Date et al. 1991, 1992; Frith 1982; Innis 1989). If pigeons using these remnants are frequently disturbed by people, the effect may be to limit or reduce their numbers further. While more research on the interactions between people and pigeons is required, the information available indicates that the use of rainforest reserves at lower elevations needs to be managed so as to minimise the disturbance to feeding or nesting pigeons.
Management of reserves to minimise the impact of visitors on pigeons and other wildlife is best approached by providing. well-formed and marked tracks or paths and educating people to keep to the formed surface. Most people do this willingly, particularly in forest and shrub environments, if advised of the reasons. Birds and other animals will quickly adjust to the presence of people on well-used tracks and can become quite tame. However, situations may develop where tracks pass through seasonal feeding or breeding areas that attract pigeons and other birds which do not have the opportunity to adjust to human disturbance. In these situations it may be necessary to close such tracks or to allow access only under supervision or from blinds. Depending on circumstances, tracks may only need to be closed for part of the day (e.g., if foraging is an early morning or evening activity) or for a few days or weeks until the birds depart (Table 7).
Flexibility in management, coupled with appropriate visitor education programs, is required. Hunting, which is illegal, and other forms of disturbance or predation appear to have relatively minor effects on the abundance of rainforest pigeons. However, the presence of people can attract nest predators such as Pied Currawong Strepera graculina, Torresian Crow Corvus orru and Australian Raven C. coronoides by the provision of food scraps. Prohibition and education against feeding native wildlife and adequate garbage disposal in reserves is therefore essential. 37
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Table 7. Recommendations for track closures to reduce disturbance of foraging pigeons (adapted from Date et al. 1992).
Site Track Tree Species Pigeon Species Months
Nightcap Protestor's bangalow Topknot, White~ January, NP Falls palm headed, Wompoo, February,
Rose~crowned March
Old loggers' bangalow Topknot, White~ January, track palm headed, Wompoo, February,
Rose~crowned March
Border Booyong bangalow Topknot, White~ December, Ranges walk palm headed, Wompoo, January, NP between Rose~crowned February
Rosewood loop &Sheep Stn. camp ground
Mt. Lyre bird bangalow Topknot, White~ January, Warning Lookout palm headed, Wompoo, February, NP Rose~crowned March
main track bangalow Topknot, White~ January, palm headed, Wompoo February,
Rose~crowned March (some years)
Victoria rainforest Ficus Wompoo, Rose~ June, July Park track only watkinsiana crowned (variable) NR
Iluka NR rainforest Ficus obliqua Topknot, Rose~ June, July, track F. rubiginosa crowned August
rainforest Acronychia Topknot, Rose~ October, track littoralis crowned November
NB. Where closures occur their effectiveness should be monitored.
I.
Future threats: conclusions from research
While none of the rainforest pigeons in New South Wales is threatened with immediate extinction, and only the Superb, Wompoo and Rose~crowned Pigeons are listed in Schedule 12 Endangered Fauna of the National Parks & Wildlife Act as vulnerable and rare, all rainforest pigeons are vulnerable to the continued degradation of rainforest habitats at lower elevations through agricultural and urban expansion. Most habitats in conservation reserves are not used by pigeons during the winter and pigeon abundance is determined by the limited extent of winter habitat at lower elevations (Date et al. 1991, 1992).
Among the factors affecting pigeons at lower elevations and along the coast are:
1. increased urbanisation, road traffic, and tourism on the coast which is accompanied by the clearing and fragmentation of coastal vegetation including patches of remnant rainforest. An unusual hazard accompanying increased residential development is the increased frequency of pigeons being killed by flying into windows.
2. increased use of rainforest reserves for recreation and by tourists.
3. increased horticultural activities, including tropical fruits and nuts, which are accompanied by land clearing and may result in the increased use of pesticides and herbicides. It is unlikely that any rainforest pigeon will become an agricultural pest, but they may increase their use of agricultural areas as these become more densely vegetated. Already many rainforest pigeons are killed by nets placed over fruiting trees to discourage flying foxes.
4. degradation of rainforest remnants by burning and grazing by domestic stock.
5. the removal of exotic plants used by pigeons for food, e.g .. Camphor Laurel, Lantana and Privet, without replacement by appropriate native fruits or seeds.
6. an increase in the numbers of nest predators such as currawongs, ravens and crows in areas inhabited or visited by people (e.g .. recreation areas). Pied Currawongs may also become a problem in large, more remote conservation reserves as they continue to increase in numbers.
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Protection, restoration and rehabilitation
The highest priority in the management of rainforest pigeons is the protection, restoration and rehabilitation of rainforest vegetation in agricultural and coastal districts (Date & Recher 1991; Date et al. 1991,1992). This is necessary to ensure an altitudinal spread of resources along the coast, as food is not always available in high elevation conservation reserves.
The rainforest re~rve system at middle and low elevations should be extended to increase the diversity of food plants and rainforest habitats and to replicate habitats as insurance against catastrophic losses (e.g. cyclone damage) within the reserve network. The extension of the reserve network is essential to provide a buffer against the loss of remnant vegetation on private lands associated with changes in agriculture and continued urbanization and tourism development. The reserve system also needs to be developed as a buffer against long~term climate changes, including the likelihood of a southward shift in cyclones and higher sea levels, associated with the greenhouse effect.
Restoration and rehabilitation of remnant rainforest vegetation should be encouraged in agricultural and urban districts along the coast. Date and Recher ( 1991 ) made a number of recommendations for the management of rainforest remnants in agricultural areas on the north coast of New South Wales. Their recommendations are equally valid in central and southern parts of the State. Date and Recher (1991) recommended that, as a major initiative, existing remnants should be fenced to exclude domestic stock and to reduce the risk of burning along the edges. Remnants should also be buffered against other disturbances, such as the spraying of herbicides and insecticides, fire, and uncontrolled human intrusion, by establishing a buffer zone around remnants and either preventing access or restricting it to established paths. As part of the buffering process, the connectivity between remnants and large areas of native vegetation should be enhanced by planting appropriate linking vegetation along roads, but most importantly along drainage lines (see Hobbs & Hopkins 1991; Hobbs & Saunders 1993a; Lefroy et al. 1993; Recher 1993 and papers in Hobbs & Saunders 1993b, Saunders and Hobbs 1991, and Saunders et al. 1987, 1993 for discussion on the importance of remnant vegetation and corridors in the agricultural landscape). Date & Recher (1991) also suggested improving the quality of remnants by the control of weeds and the enrichment of the native vegetation by planting appropriate local rainforest species. They also pointed to the importance of monitoring the health of remnants and of involving the public in monitoring and rainforest management programs. In a major review of the conservation significance and viability of subtropical rainforest remnants in northeastern New South Wales, Lott and Duggin (1993) presented detailed ecological information on all the major remnants and recommended
40 conservation and management priorities.
The restoration and rehabilitation of rainforest remnants needs to incorporate the twin elements of weed control and eradication and the planting of indigenous vegetation (Lott & Duggin 1993; also see papers in Phillips 1991). The present abundance of White~ headed, Brown, Superb and Topknot Pigeons may depend on the availability of exotic plants, such as Camphor Laurel, Privet, Wild Tobacco, and Lantana, that bear fruit during the winter in agricultural and coastal districts. Programs to rehabilitate and restore native rainforest therefore need to be phased in over a number of years so that a continuity of food resources for rainforest pigeons is maintained. Priority should be given to planting winter~fruiting native species such as laurels, Lilly~Pilly and Syzygium coriantum.
The costs and likely difficulties associated with restoration and rehabilitation programs suggests that it may be more efficient to emphasise the restoration and rehabilitation of ecological functions and processes using a mixture of native and exotic species (Hobbs & Saunders 1993a; Recher 1993 ). Costs can be spread by using rainforest plants in windbreaks, as shelter and shade for stock, and as cash crops (e.g., timber, seed, bush tucker).
An important extension role for the National Parks & Wildlife Service (NSW) is the provision of information on rainforest rehabilitation and restoration procedures. Part of this information should include advice on fruiting trees and shrubs used by rainforest birds. A detailed list of fruit~ bearing rainforest plants used by rainforest pigeons is presented in Appendix 1. A restoration program should have as an objective the creation of a variety of rainforest types, appropriate to each district, that provide fruits specific to the diets of the less abundant and smaller rainforest pigeons (e.g., Rose~crowned Pigeon) in ways that reduce possible competition from the more abundant, larger and flocking Topknot and White~headed Pigeons. In simple terms this means planting a variety of fruit and seed bearing plants that include species with small as well as large fruits, shrubs and vines as well as canopy trees, single trees as well as mass plantings. Such plantings can also be used to increase the population sizes of rare and endangered plant species, many of which could probably be of value to pigeons as a source of food. Examples of such species (from Hunter 1991) are Diospyros mabacea, Elaeocarpus williamsianus, SyZYgium paniculatum and Cryptocarya foetida.
Restoration and rehabilitation programs therefore need to create physically diverse plant communities with multiple layers of vegetation. This does not exclude the value of planting individual fruiting trees and there is considerable merit in establishing (and retaining!) individual trees, especially figs, or small groups of fruiting species where space is limiting or where it is otherwise inappropriate to establish larger patches of vegetation. Single trees are used by a variety of rainforest animals even when isolated by cleared land and are an important 'landscape and
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nature conservation resource' (Kooyman 1991). Figs and other shade trees retained in paddocks ('paddock trees') when the original rainforest was cleared may be nearing the end of their lives and unless a replanting program commences quickly, an important source of fruit at lower elevations may be lost. Under natural conditions, strangler figs only develop late in rainforest succession.
Floyd (1991) recognises four stages of rainforest succession following heavy disturbance; herbs and soft~wooded shrubs, pioneers and secondary shrubs, nomads and short~lived trees, and finally maturity dominated by long~ lived trees. Floyd (1991) provides comprehensive lists of species for each stage of succession in subtropical, dry, warm temperate and cool temperate rainforests in New South Wales. Kooyman (1991) describes the process of succession for subtropical rainforest and recommends procedures to be followed in subtropical rainforest rehabilitation and reforestation. Each stage in the successional process in all rainforest types includes fruit and seed bearing plants used by rainforest pigeons, but as the successional process may take hundreds of years under natural conditions (Hopkins et al. 1976), it may be necessary to accelerate events and introduce the plants of the final successional stages early in the regeneration process. Kooyman (1991) (see also papers in Phillips 1991) provides lists of species appropriate for rainforest regeneration and rehabilitation many of which provide fruit and seed for rainforest pigeons and other fauna. Some native and exotic fruiting plants used by rainforest pigeons are listed in Appendix 1.
While single trees are of value, ideally restored or rehabilitated rainforest remnants should be a minimum of one hectare in area or 100 metres in width. This is necessary to reduce edge effects and provide shelter for feeding birds and particularly for solitary species such as Superb, Rose~crowned and Wompoo Pigeons. Increasing the size, number and connectivity of rainforest patches to form a network of rainforest (and exotic) vegetation will enhance the overall suitability of habitat in agricultural and urban districts (see papers in Hobbs & Saunders 1993b, Saunders & Hobbs 1991, Saunders et al. 1987, 1993).
Retention, restoration and rehabilitation of remnant and exotic vegetation along fence lines and streams is a cost effective and ecologically beneficial way to increase linkages between patches of remnant vegetation. Priority should be given to protecting and restoring vegetation along streams (Hobbs & Hopkins 1991;Recher 1993). While useful, vegetation along roads has the risk of increased mortality from vehicle traffic, particularly for ground and shrub foragers. Residential gardens can also be valuable, but need to be planned to reduce the risk of pigeons striking windows.
The restoration and rehabilitation of rainforest is important throughout eastern New 42 South Wales, but the most urgent needs are at middle and lower elevations in
l
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northeastern New South Wales where clearing and habitat fragmentation has been the greatest and where there is considerable population growth and residential development. In northeastern New South Wales the priority areas are the coast and the Richmond, Tweed, Clarence, Nymboida and Orara Valleys. Other important regions are the eastern part of the Liverpool Ranges in the Hunter Valley, the central coast ( Gosford, Wyong) north to Port Stephens and Forster, the foreshores of the tributaries feeding the Hawkesbury~ Nepean River, and the Illawarra District. South of the Illawarra District protection from logging and, as far as possible fire, should continue to be given to rainforest gullies in state forests.
Staff
To be successful, programs of rainforest protection and restoration and management of visitors to reserves require education and interpretation programs presented by trained staff. Consideration should be given to establishing a rainforest management unit with overall responsibility for the integration of rainforest conservation and management programs between reserves and with land owners and other land management authorities. This unit should have policy development, education and research responsibilities.
43
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6. Monitoring and research
Although none of the rainforest pigeons is immediately threatened with extinction and most species may be increasing in abundance, it is necessary to confirm these trends. Long~term population data are required from a range of elevations and vegetation types. Summer and winter surveys of pigeons abundances should therefore be undertaken in each of the major rainforest reserves along an elevation transect from the coast to the escarpment. A parallel program of monitoring the use of smaller rainforest remnants by rainforest birds should also be conducted, while reports of rainforest pigeons along the central and southern coasts should be collated in a standard manner.
Surveys of abundance and distribution
As there are considerable difficulties in accurately counting pigeons, surveys should maximise the number of sample sites and obtain frequency of occurrence or presence/absence data (Date et al. 1992, Recher 1989). The survey conducted by Date (Date et al. 1992) provides a model on which to establish a long~term monitoring program. Date surveyed 109 sites of 1 ha each in northeastern New South Wales. The sites were selected using the New South Wales National Parks & Wildlife Service's Environmental Resource Mapping System (ERMS), a geographical information system, to select sites by their vegetation association, elevation and logging history. The sample was stratified and constrained by access by vehicle or foot along established tracks. Nineteen associations at three elevational ranges (<300m, 300~600m, and > 600m) were sampled seasonally and the presence or absence of pigeons recorded. This approach established the types of vegetation and the elevational range used by rainforest pigeons seasonally and was used to estimate pigeon abundances and the adequacy of the existing reserve system. An additional 18 sites were monitored monthly or weekly for a period of one year using volunteer observers and the presence or absence of pigeons recorded. Opportunistic records were obtained from another seven locations. At eight of the 18 sites, Terania Creek, Broken Head, Davis Scrub, Victoria Park, Woolgoolga Creek, Wilson's Creek, Moonee Beach and Eltham, records of pigeons had been collected for periods of two months to 10 years prior to the survey conducted by Date (Date et al. 1992). These 25 sites were mostly rainforest remnants at middle and lower elevations and therefore of particular importance to rainforest pigeons.
Continued survey work is required to monitor and confirm long~term trends in pigeon abundances. As a priority, this work should focus on northeastern New South Wales where rainforest pigeons are most abundant and there is the greatest extent of suitable habitat. However, improvements to the Service's geographical information system which was used to locate Date's census sites have been considerable and a review of sites should be undertaken before commencing a monitoring program. As
I.
there was no difference between logged and unlogged sites in terms of the presence or absence of pigeons, the sites may only need to be stratified by elevation and vegetation association. It is only necessary to record the presence or absence of rainforest pigeons by species. The sites selected should include the 18 locations where monthly data were collected. The latter locations should continue to be surveyed monthly for the presence or absence of rainforest pigeons using a network of volunteers. After an initial survey of 12 months when monthly counts are conducted, the higher elevation sites only need to be sampled at longer intervals (say every 5 years). Working with organisations such as the Northern NSW Branch of the Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union, it should not prove difficult to establish a volunteer program with the Service acting as coordinator and filing the data collected on its GIS system.
Such a survey program could be extended to other parts of the State. Priority areas are the Port Stephens~ Forster District north of Newcastle, the Central Coast, the Liverpool Ranges, and the Illawarra District. As each of these regions is smaller in area and has a smaller elevational range than the northeast, it would be best to establish surveys in these localities on permanent census plots that were visited monthly. Examples of suitable locations include the littoral rainforests at Seal Rocks and Mungo Brush, remnant rainforests in the Liverpool Range and Central Coast, Mt Keira and other rainforest remnants in the Illawarra District.
Monitoring programs could also collect data on food sources and their seasonal availability with an emphasis on the use of exotic plants as well as native species. These data are needed to refine restoration and rehabilitation procedures.
Effects of human disturbance
Interactions between people visiting or using rainforest reserves and remnants and rainforest birds need to be monitored. It is possible that rainforest birds will progressively adapt to an increased human presence, as appears to be happening in the heavily visited rainforest centre in the Darrigo National Park, but it is also possible that human visitors will exclude birds from important food resources. These effects are potentially most serious at lower elevations, during winter, and in smaller reserves and remnants. On an experimental basis, the numbers of people using reserves or parts of reserves that have an abundance of fruit used by frugivorous birds should be manipulated to measure the effects on bird numbers.
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7. Public education
. The protection, rehabilitation and restoration of rainforest remnants in agricultural and urban districts requires a program of public education. The value of remnants to wildlife, as well as their benefits to agriculture, tourism and regional amenity, needs to be emphasised and presented in ways easily understood by the wider community (see Ehrlich 1993; Goss & Chatfield 1993; Hobbs & Saunders 1993b). Involvement of schools in pigeon surveys could be an effective way to communicate with land owners and simultaneously obtain distribution and abundance data. The production of a cassette of pigeon calls and a video for schools to assist in pigeon awareness and identification could prove cost effective. Part of the costs, at least, could be recovered by sales to the public.
Where reserves or parts of reserves are closed to prevent human disturbance of feeding birds, interpretation material needs to be made available to explain the purpose of the management program. Signs should direct visitors to alternative areas. A possibility that should be explored is the provision of observation blinds or hides where people could observe pigeons and other rainforest fauna without disturbing them. Appropriate plantings of fruit-bearing plants can be used to attract pigeons to the vicinity of blinds.
8. Role of other organisations
Several authorities have responsibilities that affect the conservation and management of rainforest pigeons in New South Wales.
Federal Government
Australian Heritage Commission
The Australian Heritage Commission maintains the Register of the National Estate including areas such as Lord Howe Island and the rainforest parks of northeastern New South Wales that have been accepted as areas of World Heritage. The Commission advises the Federal Government on activities that may affect the values of areas listed under the National Estate or as World Heritage. Potentially the Federal Government could act to protect such areas even where State Governments desire to proceed with developments that would adversely affect National Estate and World Heritage sites.
State Government (New South Wales)
Department of Planning
As the State's premier planning authority, the Department of Planning has important responsibilities in advising Local Government in the development of State Environmental Planning Policies and Regional Environmental Plans. It is also responsible for Environmental Impact Assessment processes including the final assessment of EIS's prepared by State Forests and other public and private bodies. These responsibilities confer on the Department of Planning the power to conserve, restore and properly manage rainforest remnants important to rainforest pigeons not only on Crown Lands, but also on freehold land.
Conservation and Land Management
The Department of Conservation and Land Management is responsible for conserving and managing the State's soil resources (Soil Conservation Service), administering and disposing of Crown Lands not administered by other departments or authorities, and the management of State Recreation Areas. Its many activities and decisions directly or indirectly affect areas of native and exotic vegetation of importance to rainforest pigeons.
State Forests
Although rainforest logging is no longer practised in state forests, they do contain 47
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considerable areas of rainforest and coastal palm forest as well as moist eucalypt forest, all of which are important to rainforest pigeons. Management of these habitats on a sustainable basis is therefore important to the overall conservation of rainforest pigeons.
NSW Agriculture
Agriculture can have a major effect on the retention, restoration and management of rainforest remnants. The extent to which remnant native vegetation or areas of exotic vegetation are retained and/or fenced in agricultural districts and whether or not reafforestation is practised may largely be determined by advice given to land owners by agricultural officers. The same is also true in regards to the use of herbicides, pesticides and fire in ways that impinge on remnant vegetation and the associated fauna.
Local Government
Local government is responsible for local development and contributes significantly to the preparation of regional development plans. The decisions of local government in respect to development applications affecting forest habitats, the protection of trees, retention of open space, environmental protection zones, and amenity plantings among other activities and responsibilities can have and have had a major impact on the amount and quality of habitat retained for rainforest pigeons in both residential and agricultural zones. This is particularly so in coastal districts where residential and tourist development has been and will continue to be the greatest. Local government may also be responsible for the management of rainforest remnants including some, that are important to rainforest pigeons.
Other Organisations
Many non-government groups play an active role in promoting the conservation and proper management of remnant vegetation. This includes Landcare and Greening Australia groups as well as such organisations as the Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union, the National Parks Association, the Big Scrub Environment Center, the Total Environment Centre, the Northeast Forest Alliance and the Southeast Forest Alliance. Organisations such as these are a valuable source of volunteer workers for everything from rainforest regeneration programs (see Phillips 1991 for examples) and public education activities to the collecting of scientific data in field surveys. Universities are also important in these regards and in addition to the conduct of basic research provide a pool of students for assistance with surveys, education programs, and seasonal ranger duties.
9. Bibliography
Adam, P. 1987. New South Wales Rainforests. The Nomination for the World Heritage List. N.S.W. National Parks & Wildlife Service, Sydney.
Baur, G. N. 1957. Nature and distribution of rainforests in New South Wales. Australian journal of Botany 5:190-233.
Blakers, M., S. J. J. E Davies & P. N. Reilley. 1984. The Atlas of Australian Birds. Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union/Melbourne University Press, Melbourne.
Cleland, J. B. 1911. Examination of contents of stomachs and crops of Australian birds. Emu 11:79-95.
Clough, A. R. 1979. The distribution and composition of some coastal rainforests in the Myall Lakes district of New South Wales. MSc. Thesis, The University of Newcastle, NSW.
Cooper, R. M. 1989. N.S.W. bird report for 1985. Australian Birds 22:24.
Cooper, R. M. 1990. N.S.W. bird report for 1986. Australian Birds 23:83.
Cooper, R. P. 1962. A revision of the distribution of the Brown pigeon. Emu 61: 253-69.
Crome, F. H. J. 1975a. Notes on the breeding of the Purple-crowned Pigeon. Emu 75:189-98.
Crome, F. H. J. 1975b. The ecology of fruit pigeons in tropical northeastern Queensland. Australian Wildlife Research 2:155-85.
Date, E. M. & R. E Recher. 1991. The role of rainforest remnants in nature conservation. pp. 26-30. In. S. Phillips (ed.). Rainforest Remnants NSW National Parks & Wildlife Service, Lismore.
Date, E. M., H. E Recher & H. A. Ford. 1991. Frugivorous pigeons, stepping stones, and weeds in northeastern New South Wales. pp. 241-245. In. D. A. Saunders & R. J. Hobbs (eds) . .Nature Conservation 2: The Role of Corridors. Surrey Beatty & Sons, Chipping Norton.
Date, E. M., H. E Recher & H. A. Ford. 1992. Status of Rainforest Pigeons in Northeastern New South Wales: Final Report and Management Recommendations. National Parks & Wildlife Service (NSW), Internal Report.
il II
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50
Date, E. M., H. E Recher & H. A. Ford. a) The conservation and ecology of rainforest pigeons in northern New South Wales. I. Recent trends in abundance. (In prep.).
Date, E. M., H. E Recher & H. A. Ford. b) The conservation and ecology of rainforest pigeons in northern New South Wales. II. Adequacy of reserves for conserving rainforest pigeons. (In prep.).
Diamond, J. 1975. Assembly of species communities. pp. 342A44. In. M. L. Cody & J. M. Diamond (eds). Ecology and Evolution of Communities. Belknap Press, Cambridge,MA
Dunphy, M. 1991. Rainforest weeds of the Big Scrub. pp. 85~93. In. S. Phillips (ed.). Rainforest Remnants NSW. ~ational Parks & Wildlife Service, Lismore.
Dyne, G. R. 1991. Contribution of The National Rainforest Conservation Program to rainforest rehabilitation in Australia. pp. 57 ~60. ln. S. Phillips ( ed.). Rainforest Remnants NSW. National Parks & Wildlife Service, Lismore.
Ehrlich, P.R. 1993. Communication: how can ecologists get their message out? pp. 295~ 301. In. D. A. Saunders, R. J. Hobbs & Paul Ehrlich (eds). Nature Conservation 3: Reconstruction of fragmented ecosystems. Surrey Beatty & Sons, Chipping Norton.
Floyd, A. G. 1990. Australian Rainforests in New South Wales. Vol I & II. Surrey Beatty & Sons, Chipping Norton.
Floyd, A. G. 1991. Natural regeneration of rainforest in N.S.W. pp. 20~25. ln. S. Phillips (ed.). Rainforest Remnants NSW. National Parks & Wildlife Service, Lismore.
Frith, H. J. 1952. Notes on the pigeons of the Richmond River, New South Wales. Emu 52:89~99.
Frith, H. J. 1957. Food habits of the topknot pigeon. Emu 57:341~5.
Frith, H. J. 197 6 a. The destruction of the Big Scrub. Parks and Wildlife 2:7 ~ 12.
Frith, H. J. 1976 b. The Wildlife. pp. 13~20. ln. R. Monroe & N. Stephens (eds). The Border Ranges: A Land Use Conflict in Regional Perspective. Royal Society of Queensland, Brisbane.
Frith, H. J. 1982. Pigeons and Doves of Australia. Rigby, Sydney
Frith, H. J., F. H.]. Crome & T. 0. Wolfe. 1976. Food of fruit,pigeons in New Guinea. Emu 76:49,58.
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Gogerley, J. F. H. 1925. Early breeding of the Topknot Pigeon (Lopholaimus antarcticus). Emu 24:276,7.
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Goodwin, D. 1967b. Australian pigeons: their affinities and status. Emu 66:319,36.
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Hindwood, K. A. 1953a. The Purple,crowned Pigeon in south,eastern Australia and Tasmania. Emu 53:303A.
Hindwood, K. A. 1953b. The Purple,crowned Pigeon in south,eastern Australia. Emu 59:219,20.
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51
Hobbs, R. J. & A. J. M. Hopkins. 1991. The role of conservation corridors in a changing climate. pp. 281~90. In. D. A. Saunders & R. J. Hobbs (eds). Nature Conservation 2: The Role of Corridors. Surrey Beatty & Sons, Chipping Norton.
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Committee, Adelaide.
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27.
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54 Norton.
I .
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.......
55
56
APPENDIX 1 (Some food plants additional to those recorded by authors below are reported in text)
Food Sources of the Wompoo Pigeon.
WOMPOO
NENSW (Frith 1982 Holmes 1987)
Sth.Qld (Innis 1987)
Summer (Dec-Feb)
Ficus macrophy!la F. fraseri F. rubiginosa F. watkin.siana Pennantia cunninghamii Solanum mauritianum
Ficus macrophy!la F. fraseri Diospyros pentamera Cryptocarya obooata c. bidwiUii C. sp. aff. cunninghamiana Ehretia acuminata Cissus antarctica Archontophoenix
cunninghamiana Tetrastigma nitens Sloanea woollsii Cayratia clemaddea
Nth Qld. Pathos loureirii (Crome 1975) Terminalia.sericocarpa
Antirhea tenuiflora Gmelina fasciculiflora Symplocos stawellii
P.N.G. (Frith et al.
1976)
N eolitsea d.ealbata
Calamus sp. Caryotasp. Ficus albipila F. wassa F. spp. Ci11110.momUm sp. Litseasp. Cryptocarya sp. Cayratia sp. Cissus sp. Vitexsp. T erminalia sp. Linociera sp. spp. of Euphorbiaceae
Autumn (Mar-May)
Ficus macrophylla F. fraseri F. watkinsiana Melia a.zedarach Diospyros pentamera Acmena brachyandra P olyscias elegans Pennantia cunninghamii Solanum mauritianum
Ficus macrophy!la Cryptocarya obooata Endiandra discolor Neolitseadealbata Ehretia acuminata Cissus antarctica Cayratia eurynema Tetrastigma nitens Archontophoenix
cunninghamiana Morinda moorei
Kissodendron australianum Cissus hypoglauca Ficus destruens N eolitsea dealbata Cananga odorata Cryptocarya mackinnoniana
Ficus benja.mina F. spp. Litseasp. Neolitseasp Terminaliasp. Eugenia/Acmena sp Sy:zygium sp spp. of Annonaceae
Winter {June-Aug)
Melia a.zedarach Ficus macrophylla F. fraseri F. rubiginosa F. watkin.siana Diospyros pentamera Acmena brachyandra Polyscias elegans Acronychia oblongifolia
Ficus macrophylla Melia a.zedarach Oleapaniculata Acmena brachyandra Galbulimima belgraveana
Elaeocarpus grandis Cryptocarya mackinnoniana c. ci11110.momifolia Endiandra mueUeri E. hypotephra Litsea leef eana L. bindoniana T~eghemopanax murrayi T. elegans
Caryotasp. Planchone!la sp. Hypserpa sp. Cananga odorata Polyalthia sp. Ci11110.momum/Litsea sp spp. of Liliaceae spp. of Philesiaceae spp. of Euphorbiaceae spp. of Ebenaceae
Spring (Sept-Nov)
Ficus macrohpy!la F.fraseri F. rubiginosa F. watkinsiana Diospyros pentamera Acmena brachyandra Acronychia oblongifolia
Ficus macrophylla F. platypoda F. superba F. watkin.siana F. obliqua Diospyros pentamera Olea paniculata Cryptocarya
erythroxylon Halfordia kendack Cissus sterculiifolia Elaeocarpus grandis E. kirtonii Diploglottis
cunninghamii Pennantia cunninghamii
Cryptocarya hyposochia C. ci11110.momifolia Endiandra mueUeri Cinnamomum l.aubatii Ficus destruens F. virens P lanchone!la oboooidae Dysoxylum micranthum Tetrasynandra laxiflora Notothixos subaureus M yris tica mueUeri
Calamus sp. Caryotasp. Ficus drupai F. virens F. glaberrima Cryptocarya sp. Cinnamomum sp. Litsea/N eolitseasp. Erythroxylum sp. Gomphandra sp. Elaeocarpus sp. Terminaliasp. Planchonella sp. spp. ofMyristicaceae
Food Sources of the Rose .. crowned Pigeon.
ROSE-CROWNED Summer (Dec-Feb) Autumn (Mar-May) Winter (June-Aug) Spring (Sept-Nov)
NENSW Ficus macrophylla Ficus macrophylla Ficus macrophylla Ficus macrophylla (Frith 1982, F. obliqua F.obliqua F. obliqua F. obliqua Holmes 1987) F. rubiginosa F. superba F. rubiginosa F. rubiginosa
F. superba Archontophoenix F. superba F. superba Litsea leefeana cwminghamiana Lantana camara Litsea leefeana Archontophoenix CinMmomum camp/wra Solanum mauritianum Archontophoenix
cunninghamiana Diploglottis austTalis Phytolacca octandra cunninghamaina CinMmomum camphora Endiandra mueUeri CinMmomum camphora Ci= camp/wra Cinnamomum virens Piper nooae-hollandiae Diploglottis austTalis Ehretia acuminata Beilschmiedia eUiptica Piper nooae-hollandiae Cryptocarya spp Lantana camara Lantana camara Piper nooae-hollandiae Solanum mauritianum Solanum mauritianum Lantana camara Phytolacca octandra Phytolacca octandra Solanum mauritianum Phytolacca octandra
Sth.Qld Ficus macrophylla Ficus macrophylla Ficus macrophylla Ficus macrophylla (Innis 1987) F.fraseri F. platypcxla. F.platypcxla. F. platypcxla.
F. platypcxla. Piper nooae-hollandiae F. superba F. superba F. superba Archontophoenix Olea paniculata Ehretia acuminata F. obliqua cunninghamiana I xora beckleri Elaeocarpus kirtonii Ehretia acuminata Ehretia acuminata Cryptocarya erythroxylon Sloanea woollsii Endiandra discolor Endiandra discolor Cissus sterculiifolia Geitonoplesium cymosum Cryptocarya Cryptocarya Diploglottis
cunninghamiana cunninghamiana cunninghamii N eolitsea dealbata N eolitsea dealbata Piper nooae-hollandiae Piper nooae-hollandiae Archontophoenix Schizomera ooata
cunninghamiana Cissus antarctica Euroschinus falcata TetTastigma nitens Elaeocarpus grandis Cayratia eurynema E. kirtonii Geitonoplesium cynosum
I ,
NthQld. T.eghemopanax elegans T.eghemopanax elegans Ficus destruens (Crome 1975) Archontophoenix alexandrae Endiandra hypotephra Endiandra hypotephra
E.mueUeri E.mueUeri Litsea leefeana Litsea leefeana Linociera ramiflora Linociera ramiflora Dendrophthoe falcata Dendrophthoe falcata
Elaeocarpus largiflorens .
N.T. No seasonal data: Ficus spp (Frith, 1982) Buchanania sp.
Parinaria corymbosum Diospyros ferrea ]asminum didyrnum Gmelina dalrympleana Fagraea racemosa Euodia eUeryana
57
....
58
Food Sources of the Superb Pigeon.
SUPERB
NthQld. (Crome 1975)
P.N.G. (Frirh et al. 1976)
Summer (Dec-Feb)
Pilidiostigma tropicum T erminalia sericocarpa Symplocos paucistamineus S. stawellii Canthium coprosmoides Ficus destruens Kissadendron australianum Flagellaria sp. Cissus sterculifol.ia AceratUm megalospermum Alphitonia petriei
No seasonal data
Autumn (Mar-May)
Cissus hypoglauca Glochidion ferdinandi Neolitseadealbata Kissadendron australianum Cryptocarya macki1lf1.011iana
Ficus albipila F. benja.mina Archontophoenix sp. Calamus sp. Livistona sp. Cinnamomum sp. Litsea sp. Neolitsea sp. Cryptoco.rya sp. Canarium australasicum Cananga odorata Syzygium sp. Vitex cofassus
Winter (June-Aug)
Archontophoenix alexandre Cryptocarya cinnamomifol.ia Endiandra muelleri Litsea leef eana Tetrasynandra laxiflora Elaeocarpus grandis T12ghemopanax murrayi Embeliasp.
Spring (Sept-Nov)
Litsea leefeana L. bindoniana Cryptocarya hypospadia Dysoxylum micranthum P othos loureirii Tetrasynandra laxiflora AceratUm megalospermum Pipersp. M yristica muelleri Elaeocarpus
largiflorens
Food Sources of the Topknot Pigeon.
TOPKNOT Summer (Dec-Feb) Autumn (Mar-May) Winter (June-Aug) Spring (Sept-Nov)
NENSW Ficus rubigioosa F. watkin.siana Ficus stephanocarpa Ficus rubigioosa (Frith 1957, F. stephanocarpa F. infectoria F. infectoria F. stephanocarpa Frith 1982; F. watkin.siana Archontophoenix F. macrophylla F. eugenioides Holmes 1987 Archontophoenix cunninghamiana Elaeocarpus bauerleni F. stenocarpaa
cunninghamiana Cryptocarya spp. E. grandis Piper nooae-hoUandiae Cryptocarya spp. Cryptocarya obooa.to. Melia azedarach Historically, coastal: Livistona australis Acrnena smithii Cinnamomum oliveri Duboisia m yoporoides Piper nooae-hoUandiae Elaeocarpus bauerleni C. camphora Livistona australia
E. grandis Livistona australis Archontophoenix Ha/fordia drupifera Doryphora sassafras cunninghamiana Hedycarya angustifolia N eolitsea australiensis Livistona australis Cinnamomum camphora Piper nooae-hoUandiae Schizomeria ova.to. Hemicyclia australasia Glochidion ferdinandi Diospyros pentamera Acronychia sp.
Sth.Qid Ficus macrophylla Cinnamomum camphora Cryptocarya erythroxylon Ficus macrophylla (Innis 1987) F. platypoda Archontophoenix Cinnamomum camphora F. platypoda
F. superba cunninghamiana Olea Jxmiculata Olea Jxl.niculata Archontophoenix Cryptocarya obooa.to. Galbulimima belgraveana Diospyros penta.mera
cunninghamiana N eolitsea dealba.to. Polyscias elegans Malaisia scandens Diospyros penta.mera Endiandra discolor Ficus superba Acrnena brachyandra Strychnos axillaris P olyscias elegans Cissus sterculiifolia Elaeocarpus kirtonii Elaeocarpus grandis Sloanea woolsii Beilschmiedia Cissus antarctica obtusifolia c. hypogla.uca Cayratia eurynema
NthQid. Cryptocarya mackinnoniana (Crome 1975) Elaeocarpus grandis
59
60
Food Sources of the White-headed Pigeon.
WHITEHEADED
NENSW (Frith 1982; Holmes 1987)
Sth. Q'ld (Innis 1987)
NthQ'ld
Summer (Dec-Feb)
Alphitonia excelsa/petriei Acmena smithii Glochidion ferdinandi Calamus mueUeri Cinnamomum camphora
Piper nowe-hollandiae Sarcomelicope
simplicifolia Cinnamomum oliveri Litsea reticulata
Autumn (Mar-May)
Melia azedarach Alphitonia excelsa/petriei Acmena smithii Glochidion ferdinandi Calamus mueUeri Cinnamomum camphora Pittosporum sp. Beilschmiedia eUiptica
Neolitsea dealbata Canarium australasicum Morinda jasminoides Cryptocarya obovata
Litsea leefeana Neolitsea dealbata
Winter (June-Aug)
Melia azedarach Alphitonia excelsa/petriei Acmena smithii Glochidion ferdinandi Calamus mueUeri Cinnamomum camphora Acronychia sp.
Neolitsea dealbata
Litsea leef eana Neolitsea dealbata Cryptocarya cinnamomifolia
Cinnamomum la.ubatii
Spring (Sept-Nov)
Alphitonia excelsa/petriei
Acmena smithii G!ochidion ferdinandi Calamus mueUeri Litsea leefeana Acronychia sp.
Piper novae-hollandiae Olea paniculata
I·
Food Sources of the Brown Pigeon.
BROWN
NENSW (Frith 1982; Holmes 1987)
Sth.Qld (Innis 1987)
Summer (Dec-Feb)
Ficus macrophylla F. obliqua Aphananthe philippinensis Claoxylon aus trale Omalanthus populifolius Wiks troemia indica Lantana camara Phywlacca octandra Cissus sp. Physalis sp. Solanum mauritianum S. aviculare Rubus sp.
Ficus fraseri Trema aspera Claoxylon aus trale Geijera salicifolia S treblus pendulinus ]asminum didymum Ehretia acuminata Euodia micrococca
Autumn (Mar-May)
Ficus macrophylla F. obliqua Aphananthe philippinensis C laoxylon aus trale Trema aspera Polyscias elegans P. murrayi Solanum seaforthianum S. mauritianum Omalanthus populifolius Phywlacca octandra Wikstroemia indica Physalis sp. Lantana camara
Ficus fraseri Trema aspera Claoxylon aus trale Geijera salicifolia Steblus pendulinus Polyscias elegans P. murrayi Solanum mauritianum
Winter (June-Aug)
Ficus macrophylla F. obliqua Kissodendron sp. Trema aspera Polyscias elegans P.murrayi Solanum seaforthianum S. mauritianum Phywlacca octandra Wikstroemia indica Physalis sp. Lantana camara T~eghemopanax spp.
Ligustrum lucidum L. sinense Polyscias elegans Solanum mauritianum
Cayratia euryr~ema Archontophoenix cunninghamiana
Nth Qld. Solanum torvum Kissodendron australianum (Crome 1975) Kissodendron australianum Glochidion ferdinandi
N owthixos subaureus N owthixos subaureus Elaeocarpus grahamii Solanum torvum
N eolitsea dealbata Hibbertia scandens Cissus hypoglauca
T~eghemopanax elegans T. murrayi Omalanthus populifolius Euodia xanthoxyloides
Spring (Sept-Nov)
Ficus macro ph ylla F.obliqua Solanum mauritianum Lantana camara Phywlacca octandra Physalis sp.
Olea paniculata Pennantia cunninghamii Solanum steUigerum S. mauritianum Geijera salicif alia Tinospora smilacina Acacia melanoxylon Claoxylon australe
Nowthixos subaureus Omalanthus populifolius Pathos loureirii Ascertum megalospermum Solanum torvum Freycinetia excelsa Breynia stipitata
61
Notes
62