IKGM 1 MODULE

ILMU KESEHATAN LINGKUNGAN DAN GIZI

PROBLEM BASED LEARNING

1st SCENARIO

THE TOXICITY OF CADMIUM TO ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN

By GROUP 12:

FACULTY OF DENTISTRY

AIRLANGGA UNIVERSITY

SURABAYA

2012

Karissa Navita Saragih 021211133064

Eva Ningrum Witcahyo 021211133065

Farasaty Utami 021211133066

Devita Anindya Putri 021211133067

Bhramanti Cahya C. 021211133068

Rezety Rexy Larindy 021211133069

Qurrata Dini Amaliyah 021211133070

Fauzi Sholeh 021211133071

Tazkiatul Ulya 021211133072

Yohana V M Hutapea 021211133073

Eggi Devina Ekaputri 021211133074

Fira Rahmadiyanti 021211133075

Arselia Siti Sabrina 021211133076

Nanda Ajeng Saraswati 021211133077

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PREFACE

Praise be to God, for the abundance of blessings, mercy and guidance of this paper

entitled The Toxicity of Cadmium to Environment and Human can be completed on time. This

paper was made as a condition to fulfill the group task of subject IKGM 1 (Ilmu Kesehatan Gizi

Masyarakat 1) in the first semester at the Faculty of Dentistry University of Airlangga.

On this occasion, the author does not forget to say thanks and appreciations as much as

possible to:

1. Dr. Titiek Berniyanti, drg., M.Kes. as the head lecturer and scenario maker.

2. Lidia Martina Santosa, drg., MS. as scenario maker.

Also to all doctor and people who had give contribution for completed this paper.

Finally, may God always give abundant blessings and grace for all of us. Thank you for

your attention. Criticisms and suggestion are needed to improve this paper.

Surabaya, December 2012

Writers

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ABSTRACT

THE TOXICITY OF CADMIUM TO ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN

Many people probably never know about this element name. Cadmium is one of toxin

element that can cause disease to human. This element comes from industry waste. The problem

is come when industry waste pollute the environment near them. Cadmium will dissolve in the

soil and water then will be absorbed by plants and animals. As we know, plants and animals are

our main source of nutrition by becoming our food. When we ate food with cadmium, the effect

doesnt directly show. But, the cadmium will be accumulated in our body and then harmed it.

Because of this fact, we want to explain to you how the environment pollutant, specially

Cadmium, harmed our body. The food that we ate not only become our energy source but also

become the disease source.

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TABLE OF CONTENT

PREFACE i

ABSTRACT ii

TABLE OF CONTENT ... iii

CHAPTER I: PRELIMINARY 1

1.1 Background 1

1.2 Learning Issue 2

1.3 Keywords 2

1.4 Method 2

1.5 Problem Discussion 2

1.6 Hypothesis 3

1.7 Objectives 3

1.7.1 General Instructive Objectives .... 3

1.8 Specific Instructive Objectives 3

1.9 Purpose 3

1.10 Benefit 3

CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW 4

2.1 Food 4

2.1.1 Nutrition 4

2.1.1.1 Carbohydrates 4

2.1.1.2 Proteins 4

2.1.1.3 Vitamin 4

2.1.1.4 Minerals 4

2.1.1.5 Lipid 5

2.2 Oxidative Stress 5

2.2.1 Chemical and Biological Effect 5

2.3 Antioxidant Status ........................................................... 6

2.4 Human Biological Process 6

2.4.1 Digestive System 6

2.4.1.1 Digestive Process 6

2.4.2 Transportation System 8

2.4.2.1 The Cardiac Cycle 8

2.4.2.2 Blood Pressure 9

2.4.3 Excretion System 9

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2.4.3.1 Respiration System 9

2.4.3.2 Kidney ... 10

2.5 Environment Pollutant ... 11

2.5.1 Types of Pollution ... 11

2.5.2 POPs ... 14

2.5.2.1 Impact to Human ... 15

2.5.3 Cadmium ... 16

2.5.3.1 Source ... 16

2.5.3.2 Function ... 17

2.5.3.3 Environmental Exposure ... 17

2.5.3.3.1 How It Works ... 17

2.5.3.3.2 Effect in Ecosystem ... 18

2.5.3.4 Human Exposure ... 20

2.5.3.4.1 Process ... 20

2.5.3.4.2 Media in Entered Human Body ... 21

2.5.3.4.3 Cadmium Body Handling ... 23

2.5.3.4.4 Symptoms ... 24

2.5.3.4.5 Overcome and Prevention Cadmium-Effect ... 26

CHAPTER III: DISCUSSION ... 28

3.1 Concept Mapping ... 28

3.2 Problem Discussion ... 29

CHAPTER IV: CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION .. 36

4.1 Conclusion .. 36

4.2 Suggestion .. 36

CHAPTER V: EXERCISE .. 37

REFERENCES 40

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CHAPTER I

PRELIMINARY

1.1 Background

Food is source of human energy. Without it, human cant survive and cant live.

Many types of food could be chose. But, we must really careful to choose the good for

health. For this problem, we must really know what type of food that we can eat to

survive and to have a healthy life. Like vegetables, fruits, oatmeal, fish, meat, lots of

water, etc. Why this is important? Its because our healthy life depend in what we eat.

After we find things that important to eat, we sometimes forget about the

environment near us. Our healthy life also depends on our environment. Why

environment determine our health? Because of the environment is the mean for the living

of foods that we eat. If our environment got polluted, our food will also get polluted.

When our food get polluted, our body indirectly also got polluted.

We could also get direct toxin exposure from the environment. Because, the

environment we live contains good substances and harmful substances for our body.

Many chemical and organic substances are toxic to human body.

One of the harmful substances is Cadmium (Cd) that usually used in mine, battery,

industry, etc. People usually dont know about this hazardous element. Because of its

used in process of industry. It will be dangerous if it already contaminated environment

near it. The leaked waste industry to environment caused it polluted.

When people got cadmium exposure, it will also give direct effect to human body.

It can cause several irritation and more symptoms.

With its ability to dissolve in water and soil will bring more problems. It will

spread to another species include plants and animals, also to another environment and the

most important, to people near the polluted area.

Cadmium will accumulate in plants and animals that human used to eat. By eating

plants and animals contain cadmium, the cadmium will store in our body, but it doesnt

give a direct effect. After it is accumulated in our body, to one point where the body cant

hold it, our organs begin to malfunction.

Cadmium will accumulate in several organs in human body and caused

malfunction. In this paper we will explain how and what the effect of this condition to

human body. By knowing everything about Cadmium, we will also give you way to

prevent our self from cadmium exposure.

We hope that from our paper, reader will know more about the hazard of Cadmium

and will more alert to this hazardous substance. We really open to every critics and

suggestion to improve and give more knowledge to us and to another reader.

Thank you for reading and enjoy reading.

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1.2 Learning Issue

Nutrition and life style can modulation a chronic disease. Bad diet (consumption

fatty food and low in fruit and vegetable) and easygoing life style without exercising will

decrease life quality. Foods contribute in decrease healthy life by become source of

toxicity environment pollutants. Most pollutants soluble in lipid and mostly fatty food

contain higher persistent organic pollutants (POPs) than the vegetable in it. Nutrition can

cause lipid milieu, oxidative stress and antioxidant status in cell. This condition will

influence biological process as an environment pollutant effects in causing disease and

malfunction. It is clear that nutrition can cause toxicity environment pollutants.

1.3 Keywords

1. Cadmium

2. Nutrition

3. Life Style

4. Bad Diet

5. Environment Pollutants

6. POPs

7. Lipid

8. Oxidative Stress

9. Antioxidant

10. Biological Process

11. Toxicity

1.4 Method

Brainstorming and discussing the scenario in a 14-members group. Scientific

references, such as, dental journal, textbooks, and internet, are needed to add some

additional relevant information. Tutor worked as the scenario maker and facilitator in

discussion.

1.5 Problem Discussion

1. What is Cadmium?

2. What is the source of Cadmium?

3. Can Cadmium contaminate food? If can how it works? What is the effect?

4. Can Cadmium contaminate environment? How it works?

5. How the effect of Cadmium to food and environment affect human?

6. What the relation Cadmium with human activity?

7. How do we overcome the Cadmium effect?

8. How to prevent the Cadmium effect in human body?

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1.6 Hypothesis

1. Environment pollutant exposures affect human health.

2. Food is one main source of toxic.

3. Cadmium is one toxic chemical to human body

4. The impact of cadmium contaminated-food will interrupt our biological process and

influenced our health.

1.7 Objectives

1.7.1 General Instructional Objectives

To discuss nutrition role as an important variable in learning human diseases related

with environment exposure.

1.7.2 Specific Instructional Objectives

To discuss and find how Cadmium can be a pollutant and contaminated food nutrition

and environment and how it is affecting human body.

1.8 Purpose

The purposes from solving this issue are we able to:

1. Identify the problem

2. Explain how the Cadmium can contaminated food and environment

3. Explain the factors how Cadmium harm human body

4. Know the impact of cadmium-food-contain to our body

5. Find the solution about this problem

1.9 Benefit

The benefits from solving this issue are we know how:

1. Cadmium contaminated.

2. To prevent cadmium-environment-exposure to human food.

3. To avoid cadmium effect.

4. To live a healthy life without cadmium.

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CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Food

2.1.1 Nutrition

Nutrition is the science that studies food and how food nourishes our bodies and

influences our health. It encompasses how we consume, digest, metabolize, and store

nutrients and how these nutrients affect our bodies. Nutrition science also studies the factors

that influrnce our eating patterns, makes recommendations about the amount we should eat of

each type of food, and addresses issues related to food safety and the global food supply.

2.1.1.1 Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are the primary source of fuel for our active bodies,

particulary for the brain. They provide 4 kcal per gram. Many carbohydrates are

fiber-rich;that is they contain nondigestible parts of plants that offer a variety of

health benefits. Many are also rich in pythochemicals; plant chemicals that are

thought to reduce our risk for cancer and heart disease. Carbohydrates

encompass a wide variety of foods such as grains, legumens (including lentils,

dry beans, and peas), seeds, nuts, milk, etc.

2.1.1.2 Proteins

Proteins can provide energy but they are not a primary source of energy

for our bodies. Protein play a major role in building new cells and tissues,

maintaining the structure and strength of bone, repairing damaged structures ,

and assisting in manybody function. The variety of food are meats and daily

products.

2.1.1.3 Vitamin

Vitamin is referred to as micronutrients because we need relatively small

amounts of them to support normal health and body functions.Vitamin play a

critical role in building and maintaining healthy bone, blood, and muscle tissue,

supporting the immune system so we can fight illlness and disease, and

maintaining healthy vision. Vitamins are exist in a variety of foods, from animal

products, nuts, and seed to fruits and vegetables

2.1.1.4 Minerals

All minerals maintaining their structure no matter what enviroment they

are in. This means that the calcium in our bones is the same as the calcium in the

milk we drink, and the sodium in our cells in our cells is the same as the sodium

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in table salt. They are classified into two groups according to the amounts we

need in our diet and how much of the mineral is found in our bodies.

2.1.1.5 Lipid

When lipids join with proteins and carbohydrates, they create plant and

animal cells. According to the Wisegeek website, lipids serve three main

purposes:

1) energy storage

2) cell membrane development

3) acting as a component to hormones and vitamins in the body.

Additionally, lipids are found in adipose fat, a type of connective tissue

which acts as energy storage, and as a sort of "soft shield" around vital organs.

To an extent, adipose fat also retains body heat in extremely cold temperatures.

2.2 Oxidative Stress

Oxidative stress reflects an imbalance between the systemic manifestation of reactive

oxygen species and a biological system's ability to readily detoxify the reactive intermediates or

to repair the resulting damage. Disturbances in the normal redox state of cells can cause toxic

effects through the production of peroxides and free radicals that damage all components of the

cell, including proteins, lipids, and DNA. Further, some reactive oxidative species act as cellular

messengers in redox signaling. Thus, oxidative stress can cause disruptions in normal

mechanisms of cellular signaling. In humans, oxidative stress is thought to be involved in the

development of many diseases or may exacerbate their symptoms. These include cancer,

Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, atherosclerosis, heart failure, myocardial infarction,

Schizophrenia, Bipolar disorder, fragile X syndrome, Sickle Cell Disease, lichen planus,

vitiligo, autism, and chronic fatigue syndrome. However, reactive oxygen species can be

beneficial, as they are used by the immune system as a way to attack and kill pathogens. Short-

term oxidative stress may also be important in prevention of aging by induction of a process

namedmitohormesis.

2.2.1 Chemical and Biological Effect

Chemically, oxidative stress is associated with increased production of oxidizing

species or a significant decrease in the effectiveness of antioxidant defenses, such

as glutathione. The effects of oxidative stress depend upon the size of these changes, with a

cell being able to overcome small perturbations and regain its original state. However, more

severe oxidative stress can cause cell death and even moderate oxidation can

trigger apoptosis, while more intense stresses may cause necrosis.

Production of reactive oxygen species is a particularly destructive aspect of

oxidative* stress. Such species include free radicals andperoxides. Some of the less reactive

of these species (such as superoxide) can be converted by oxidoreduction

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reactions with transition metals or other redox cycling compounds (including quinones) into

more aggressive radical species that can cause extensive cellular damage. The major portion

of long term effects is inflicted by damage on DNA.

Most of these oxygen-derived species are produced at a low level by normal aerobic

metabolism. Normal cellular defense mechanisms destroy most of these. Likewise, any

damage to cells is constantly repaired. However, under the severe levels of oxidative stress

that cause necrosis, the damage causes ATP depletion, preventing controlled apoptotic death

and causing the cell to simply fall apart.

2.3 Antioxidant Status

Antioxidants are molecules that prevent oxygen molecules to interact with other molecules

in a process called oxidation. In the body, antioxidants combined with potentially damaging

molecules called free radicals, preventing it from damaging cell membranes, DNA, and protein

in the cell.

Potentially damaging species (reactive oxygen, nitrogen and chlorine species) arise as by-

products of metabolism and as physiological mediators and signal molecules. Levels of these

species are controlled by the antioxidant defense system. Several components of this system are

micronutrients (e.g. vitamins C and E) or are dependent upon dietary micronutrients (e.g. CuZn

and Mn superoxide dismutase). The antioxidant defense, act as a coordinate system where

deficiencies in one component may affect the efficiency of the others. Oxidative stress may be

an important factor in infection if micronutrients are deficient.

The role of antioxidants in the body is complex and not fully understood. It worked with

the free radicals that cant react with other molecules. In that way, antioxidants help slow or

prevent cell-cell damage.

The damage caused by free radicals is thought to cause or contribute to various diseases,

such as heart disease, cancer, Alzheimer's disease, age-related vision perunan, and other aging

signs. However, there is no evidence to suggest cause and to effect relationship between the

consumption of antioxidants in the prevention of disease.

Some common examples of antioxidants that are important for human health are vitamins

A, C, E, beta-carotene, and selenium.

2.4 Human Biological Process

2.4.1 Digestive System

The human digestive system breaks down the food you consume, using as much of

the nutrients as possible to fuel the body. After the energy is extracted from food through

digestion and metabolism, the remainder is excreted, or removed.

2.4.1.1 The digestive process

Imagine biting into a big, juicy cheeseburger. The enzyme in your saliva

salivary amylase is there to start digesting the carbohydrates, most likely those in the

bun. Go ahead and take a real bite. Chew slowly so that your teeth can break down some

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of that food. Swallow and pay attention to the feeling of the bits of food being squeezed

down your esophagus into your stomach. That action is called peristalsis, and it occurs

throughout your entire digestive tract.

Once the cheeseburger bits are in your stomach, they are referred to as a bolus.

The bolus is drowned in gastric juice, which is made up of the enzyme pepsin and

hydrochloric acid (HCl).

If you eat too much, your stomach produces more acid, and the contents of your

overly full stomach can be forced back up into the esophagus, which runs in front of the

heart, giving you heartburn.

The enzyme and acid act to break down the food and release the nutrients. The

carbohydrates, protein, and fat in foods you consume all are important for proper

nutrition (its excesses of them that get you in trouble!), but they must be in their smallest

forms to be used by each cell. This final stage in digestion occurs in the small intestine.

Digested food from the stomach is pumped into the small intestine, which gets

flooded with fluid and enzymes from the liver (bile) and the pancreas (pancreatic

amylase, trypsin, and lipase).

Those chemicals help to break the molecules from the digesting food into its

smallest components. The smallest form of carbohydrate is glucose, which is a sugar

molecule. Proteins can be reduced to amino acids; fats can be reduced to fatty acids and

glycerol. The smallest forms of the nutrients pass through the walls of the small intestine

and are absorbed into the bloodstream.

The useable nutrients are absorbed into the bloodstream from the small intestine.

The leftover material continues on to the large intestine, where fecal matter (feces, or

poop) is created. The large intestine absorbs water and some electrolytes from the

leftover material, and that water is returned to the body to prevent dehydration. If too

much water is absorbed, constipation occurs; if too little water is absorbed, diarrhea

occurs.

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Once the feces are created, they pass to the colon, where they are stored. When

the colon is full, a signal is sent to your brain telling you that you need to relax your anal

sphincter and release the feces.

Important, useful molecules pass through the walls of the small intestine into the

bloodstream. The bloodstream carries those molecules throughout the entire body. Every

nook and cranny are supplied by blood capillaries, so every nook and cranny receive

nutrients from the food you digested.

The walls of capillaries are very, very thin. Just outside of the capillary walls is a

fluid called interstitial fluid. This fluid fills every space between every cell in the body,

cushioning and hydrating the cells, and serving as part of the matrix through which

nutrients and wastes are passed.

The nutrients gained from digested food diffuse through the capillary walls,

across the interstitial fluid, and are absorbed by the cells. At the same time, waste

produced by the cells metabolic processes diffuses out of the cell, across the interstitial

fluid, and into the capillary, where it can be carried to the kidney for excretion.

2.4.2 Transportation System

Human hearts, as well as the hearts and circulatory systems of some other mammals,

are complex. They need to have a higher blood pressure to get the blood circulated

throughout their entire bodies. Blood pressure is a force that sends the blood through the

circulatory system.

2.4.2.1 The cardiac cycle

Every minute of your life, your heart pumps about 70 times. Every minute of

your life, your heart pumps the entire amount of blood that is in the body 5 liters,

which is equivalent to 2-1/2 big bottles of soda. The heart never stops working from the

time that it starts to beat when humans are nothing but wee little embryos in their

mothers wombs until the moment they die.

The 8/10th of a second that a heart beats is called the cardiac cycle. During that

0.8-second period, the heart forces blood into the blood vessels plus it takes a quick nap.

Heres what happens in those 0.8 seconds:

The left and right atria contract.

The left and right ventricles contract.

The atria and ventricles rest.

When the atria and ventricles are resting, the muscle fibers within them are not

contracting, or squeezing. Therefore, the relaxed atria allow the blood within them to

drain into the ventricles beneath them. This period of relaxation in the heart muscle is

called diastole.

With most of the blood from the atria now in the ventricles, the atria contract to

squeeze any remaining blood down into the ventricles. Then, the ventricles immediately

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contract to force blood into the blood vessels. This period of contraction in the heart

muscle is called systole.

2.4.2.2 Blood pressure

If the terms systole and diastole sound familiar, it is probably because you have

heard the terms systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure. In a blood pressure

reading, such as the normal value of 120/80 mm Hg, 120 is the systolic blood pressure, or

the pressure at which blood is forced from the ventricles into the arteries when the

ventricles contract; 80 is the diastolic blood pressure, the pressure in the blood vessels

when the muscle fibers are relaxed. The mm Hg stands for millimeters of mercury (Hg

is the chemical symbol for mercury).

If your blood pressure is 140/90 mm Hg, which is the borderline value between

normal and high, that means your heart is working harder to pump blood through your

body (140 versus 120), and it is not relaxing as well between pumps (90 versus 80).

A blood pressure reading of 140/90 mm Hg indicates that something is causing

your heart to have to work at a much higher level all the time to keep blood flowing

through your body, which stresses the heart. The something that may be the culprit

could be any of the following:

A hormonal imbalance

A dietary problem, such as too much sodium or caffeine

A mechanical problem in the heart

A side effect of medication

Blockages in the blood vessels

The high pressure in the pipes also may lead to damage. Physical damage from

high blood pressure is part of a hypothesis of how fibrous plaques are formed in coronary

arteries.

2.4.3 Excretion System

2.4.3.1 Respiration System

The breathing process in humans: inhalation and exhalation.

When you inhale (breathe in), air enters through the nostrils (the openings to the

nose), and flows through the nasal cavity. Inside the nasal cavity, hair, cilia, and mucus

trap dust and dirt particles, purifying the air that enters the lungs. Occasionally, you must

cough and either spit or swallow to move the trapped particles out of your throat.

Every cell in your body needs oxygen for its metabolic processes, so oxygen is

vital to proper functioning. Without it, you die. So, breathe deeply and make sure that

those blood cells carry it to every nook and cranny of your body.

The other motion that happens when you breathe in is that the diaphragm muscle

contracts, which allows your ribcage to move upward and outward. Because the lungs

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have more room when your chest is expanded, they open up and air rushes in to fill the

space.

When your lungs fill, the air passes through all the branches of the bronchi into

the tiniest air sacs, which are called alveoli. The alveoli are the structures where oxygen

and carbon dioxide exchange.

When you exhale, the diaphragm muscle relaxes and moves back up. This action

causes the ribcage to move downward and inward, minimizing the size of the lungs. This

bellows-type movement increases the pressure inside the now-smaller lungs, which

forces (or pulls) air up out of the lungs. In the exhaled air is carbon dioxide that was

deposited by the red blood cells.

2.4.3.2 Kidney

In humans, the kidneys are the organs that produce urine. There are two kidneys,

one on each side of your back, just below the ribs. Like most organs in the body, the

function of the kidneys is closely tied to its structure.

Each kidney has three distinct areas:

The renal cortex, which is the outer layer

The renal medulla, which is the middle layee

The renal pelvis, which becomes a ureter

Each kidney contains more than 1 million nephrons, which are microscopic

tubules that make urine. Each nephron contributes to a collecting duct, which carries the

urine into the renal pelvis. From there, the urine flows down the ureter, which is the tube

that connects the kidney to the bladder.

Each of the million tiny nephrons in the kidney is a mass of even tinier tubules,

as shown in the figure. The main part of the nephron consists of the proximal (near) and

distal (far) convoluted tubules, which become the nephrons collecting duct.

Structure of the kidneys and the nephrons inside the kidneys.

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At the beginning of the proximal convoluted tubule is a ball-like structure made

up of the glomerulus, which is the site where the nephrons tubule intermingles with a

capillary, and the glomerular capsule (also called Bowmans capsule).

In the glomerulus, the transfer of waste products from the bloodstream takes place

through the capillary wall into the tip of the proximal convoluted tubule. Also at this site,

any materials that are filtered by the nephron and are to be returned to the bloodstream

are reabsorbed from the glomerulus through the capillary wall so that they can be

recirculated.

Venules (smallest veins) join the capillaries (smallest arteries), and together, they

join the renal vein, which carries blood away from the kidney.

Urine is spurted from the ureter into the top of the bladder continuously. The

bladder holds a maximum of about 1 pint of urine, but you begin to feel the need to

urinate when it is only one-third full. When the bladder is two-thirds full, you start to feel

really uncomfortable.

Urine leaves the body through the urethra, which is a tube at the bottom of the

bladder that opens to the outside of the body. It is held closed by a sphincter muscle.

When you want to start urinating, that sphincter muscle relaxes, opening the urethra and

letting the urine flow out.

2.5 Environment Pollution

Environmental pollution is any discharge of material or energy into water, land, or air

that causes or may cause acute (short-term) or chronic (long-term) detriment to the Earth's

ecological balance or that lowers the quality of life. Pollutants may cause primary damage, with

direct identifiable impact on the environment, or secondary damage in the form of minor

perturbations in the delicate balance of the biological food web that are detectable only over long

time periods

2.5.1 Types of pollution

1. Thermal Pollution

2. Pesticide Pollution

3. Radiation Pollution

4. Noise Pollution

5. Air Pollution

6. Water Pollution

Water pollution is the introduction into fresh or ocean waters of chemical,

physical, or biological material that degrades the quality of the water and affects the

organisms living in it. This process ranges from simple addition of dissolved or

suspended solids to discharge of the most insidious and persistent toxic pollutants

(such as pesticides, heavy metals, and nondegradable, bioaccumulative, chemical

compounds).

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Conventional

Conventional or classical pollutants are generally associated with the direct input

of (mainly human) waste products. Rapid urbanization and rapid population increase

have produced sewage problems because treatment facilities have not kept pace with

need. Untreated and partially treated sewage from municipal wastewater systems and

septic tanks in unsewered areas contribute significant quantities of nutrients,

suspended solids, dissolved solids, oil, metals (arsenic, mercury, chromium, lead,

iron, and manganese), and biodegradable organic carbon to the water environment.

Conventional pollutants may cause a myriad of water pollution problems. Excess

suspended solids block out energy from the Sun and thus affect the carbon dioxide-

oxygen conversion process, which is vital to the maintenance of the biological food

chain. Also, high concentrations of suspended solids silt up rivers and navigational

channels, necessitating frequent dredging. Excess dissolved solids make the water

undesirable for drinking and for crop irrigation.

Although essential to the aquatic habitat, nutrients such as nitrogen and

phosphorus may also cause overfertilization and accelerate the natural aging process

(eutrophication) of lakes. This acceleration in turn produces an overgrowth of aquatic

vegetation, massive algal blooms, and an overall shift in the biologic community--

from low productivity with many diverse species to high productivity with large

numbers of a few species of a less desirable nature. Bacterial action oxidizes

biodegradable organic carbon and consumes dissolved oxygen in the water. In

extreme cases where the organic-carbon loading is high, oxygen consumption may

lead to an oxygen depression: (less than 2 mg/l compared with 5 to 7 mg/l for a

healthy stream) is sufficient to cause a fish kill and seriously to disrupt the growth of

associated organisms that require oxygen to survive

Nonconventional

The nonconventional pollutants include dissolved and particulate forms of

metals, both toxic and nontoxic, and degradable and persistent organic carbon

compounds discharged into water as a by-product of industry or as an integral part of

marketable products. More than 13,000 oil spills of varying magnitude occur in the

United States each year. Thousands of environmentally untested chemicals are

routinely discharged into waterways; an estimated 400 to 500 new compounds are

marketed each year. In addition, coal strip mining releases acid wastes that despoil

the surrounding waterways. Nonconventional pollutants vary from biologically inert

materials such as clay and iron residues to the most toxic and insidious materials such

as halogenated hydrocarbons (DDT, kepone, mirex, and polychlorinated biphenyls--

PCB). The latter group may produce damage ranging from acute biological effects

(complete sterilization of stretches of waterways) to chronic sublethal effects that

may go undetected for years. The chronic low-level pollutants are proving to be the

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most difficult to correct and abate because of their ubiquitous nature and chemical

stability

7. Land Pollution

Land pollution is the degradation of the Earth's land surface through

misuse of the soil by poor agricultural practices, mineral exploitation, industrial

waste dumping, and indiscriminate disposal of urban wastes.

Soil Misuse

Soil erosion--a result of poor agricultural practices--removes rich humus

topsoil developed over many years through vegetative decay and microbial

degradation and thus strips the land of valuable nutrients for crop growth. Strip

mining for minerals and coal lays waste thousands of acres of land each year,

denuding the Earth and subjecting the mined area to widespread erosion

problems. The increases in urbanization due to population pressure presents

additional soil-erosion problems; sediment loads in nearby streams may increase

as much as 500 to 1,000 times over that recorded in nearby undeveloped stretches

of stream. Soil erosion not only despoils the Earth for farming and other uses, but

also increases the suspended-solids load of the waterway. This increase interferes

with the ecological habitat and poses silting problems in navigation channels,

inhibiting the commercial use of these waters.

Solid Waste

Additional solid wastes accumulate from mining, industrial production,

and agriculture. Although municipal wastes are the most obvious, the

accumulations of other types of wastes are the most obvious, the accumulations of

other types of waste are far greater, in many instances are more difficult to

dispose of, and present greater environmental hazards.

The most common and convenient method of disposing of municipal solid

wastes is in the sanitary landfill. The open dump, once a common eyesore in

towns across the United States, attracted populations of rodents and other pests

and often emitted hideous odors; it is now illegal. Sanitary landfills provide better

aesthetic control and should be odor-free. Often, however, industrial wastes of

unknown content are commingled with domestic wastes. Groundwater infiltration

and contamination of water supplies with toxic chemicals have recently led to

more active control of landfills and industrial waste disposal. Careful

management of sanitary landfills, such as providing for leachate and runoff

treatment as well as daily coverage with topsoil, has alleviated most of the

problems of open dumping. In many areas, however, space for landfills is running

out and alternatives must be found.

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2.5.2 POPs

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are toxic chemicals that adversely affect human

health and the environment around the world. Because they can be transported by wind and

water, most POPs generated in one country can and do affect people and wildlife far from

where they are used and released. They persist for long periods of time in the environment

and can accumulate and pass from one species to the next through the food chain. To address

this global concern, the United States joined forces with 90 other countries and the European

Community to sign a groundbreaking United Nations treaty in Stockholm, Sweden, in May

2001. Under the treaty, known as the Stockholm Convention, countries agreed to reduce or

eliminate the production, use, and/or release of 12 key POPs, and specified under the

Convention a scientific review process that has led to the addition of other POPs chemicals

of global concern.

Many POPs were widely used during the boom in industrial production after World

War II, when thousands of synthetic chemicals were introduced into commercial use. Many

of these chemicals proved beneficial in pest and disease control, crop production, and

industry. These same chemicals, however, have had unforeseen effects on human health and

the environment.

Many people are familiar with some of the most well-known POPs, such as PCBs,

DDT, and dioxins. POPs include a range of substances that include:

1. Intentionally produced chemicals currently or once used in agriculture, disease

control, manufacturing, or industrial processes. Examples include PCBs, which have

been useful in a variety of industrial applications (e.g., in electrical transformers and

large capacitors, as hydraulic and heat exchange fluids, and as additives to paints and

lubricants) and DDT, which is still used to control mosquitoes that carry malaria in

some parts of the world.

2. Unintentionally produced chemicals, such as dioxins, that result from some industrial

processes and from combustion (for example, municipal and medical waste

incineration and backyard burning of trash).

Studies have linked POPs exposures to declines, diseases, or abnormalities in a

number of wildlife species, including certain kinds of fish, birds, and mammals. Wildlife also

can act as sentinels for human health: abnormalities or declines detected in wildlife

populations can sound an early warning bell for people. Behavioral abnormalities and birth

defects in fish, birds, and mammals in and around the Great Lakes, for example, led scientists

to investigate POPs exposures in human populations.

It also requires Parties to take appropriate measures so that POPs wastes are managed

in an environmentally sound manner. This includes both destruction and disposal techniques.

Although remediation of contaminated sites is not required, any such remediation must be

performed in an environmentally sound manner.

15

2.5.2.1 Impact in Human

In people, reproductive, developmental, behavioral, neurologic, endocrine, and

immunologic adverse health effects have been linked to POPs. People are mainly

exposed to POPs through contaminated foods. Less common exposure routes include

drinking contaminated water and direct contact with the chemicals. In people and other

mammals alike, POPs can be transferred through the placenta and breast milk to

developing offspring. It should be noted, however, that despite this potential exposure,

the known benefits of breast-feeding far outweigh the suspected risks.

A number of populations are at particular risk of POPs exposure, including people

whose diets include large amounts of fish, shellfish, or wild foods that are high in fat and

locally obtained. For example, indigenous peoples may be particularly at risk because

they observe cultural and spiritual traditions related to their diet. To them, fishing and

hunting are not sport or recreation, but are part of a traditional, subsistence way of life, in

which no useful part of the catch is wasted. In remote areas of Alaska and elsewhere,

locally obtained subsistence food may be the only readily available option for nutrition.

In addition, sensitive populations, such as children, the elderly, and those with

suppressed immune systems, are typically more susceptible to many kinds of pollutants,

including POPs. Because POPs have been linked to reproductive impairments, men and

women of child-bearing age may also be at risk.

Although scientists have more to learn about POPs chemicals, decades of

scientific research have greatly increased our knowledge of POPs impacts on people and

wildlife. Laboratory studies have shown that low doses of certain POPs adversely affect

some organ systems and aspects of development. Studies also have shown that chronic

exposure to low doses of certain POPs can result in reproductive and immune system

deficits. Exposure to high levels of certain POPs chemicals - higher than normally

encountered by humans and wildlife - can cause serious damage or death.

Epidemiological studies of exposed human populations and studies of wildlife might

provide more information on health impacts. However, because such studies are less

controlled than laboratory studies, other stresses cannot be ruled out as the cause of

adverse effects.

POPs can be deposited in marine and freshwater ecosystems through effluent

releases, atmospheric deposition, runoff, and other means. Because POPs have low water

solubility, they bond strongly to particulate matter in aquatic sediments. As a result,

sediments can serve as reservoirs or "sinks" for POPs. When sequestered in these

sediments, POPs can be taken out of circulation for long periods of time. If disturbed,

however, they can be reintroduced into the ecosystem and food chain, potentially

becoming a source of local, and even global, contamination.

16

2.5.2 Cadmium

Cadmium (Latin name cadmia) is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the

symbol Cd and atomic number 48, atomic weight 112.4, a melting point of 321 C, the

boiling point of 767 C and have a kind of 8.65 g / cm 3 (Widowati et al, 2008). Cadmium is

a silvery white metal, soft, shiny, insoluble in alkaline, it reacts and produces cadmium oxide

when heated. Cadmium (Cd) is generally found in combination with chlorine (Cd Chloride)

or sulfur (Cd sulphites). Cadmium form a Cd 2 + which is unstable. Because of its

properties, Cd is widely used as a stabilizer in the manufacture (polyvini & clorida). Cd

obtained in various types of mining waste mixed metals such as Cd Pb, and Zn. Metal

cadmium (Cd) is usually always in the form of a mixture with other metals, especially in the

mining of lead and zinc (Darmono 1995). Thus, Cd can be found in well water in the

sediment and in the water supply.

Metal cadmium (Cd) has a very wide spread in nature. Based on physical properties,

cadmium (Cd) is a soft, ductile metal, such as silver white white. Metals will lose kilapnya

when in wet or damp air, and quickly be damaged if the steam is ammonia (NH 3 ) and sulfur

hydroxide (SO 2 ). Based on its chemical properties, metal cadmium (Cd) in the formation of

compounds generally have a number of valence 2 + , which have very little valence number 1

+ . When you put in a solution containing OH ions, the ions Cd 2 + will experience the

deposition process. The precipitate formed from ions Cd 2 + in solution OH usually in the

form of white hydrated compounds (Palar, 2004).

Cadmium is generally found in combination with other elements such as Oxigen

(Cadmium Oxide), clorine (Cadmium Chloride) or sulfur (Cadmium Sulfide). Most of

Cadmium (Cd) is a byproduct of the casting zinc, lead or copper Cadmium is widely used

various industries, especially metal plating, pigments, batteries and plastic.Cadmium is a

toxic metal commonly found in industrial jobs, metal Cadmium is used extensively in

electroplating process. Cadmium is also found in the paint industry.

2.5.2.1 Source

Cadmium is found naturally in the earths crust, soil, natural water and metal productions.

Cigarette smoke is another source of cadmium exposure. Traces of cadmium

can be found in tobacco plants. Most people who smoke have about twice as much

cadmium in their bodies as nonsmokers.

Cadmium is emitted into the atmosphere from natural sources, mainly volcanic

activities from anthropogenic sources. and Metal production (drying of zinc concentrates

and roasting, smelting, and refining of ores) is the largest source of anthropogenic

atmospheric cadmium emissions, followed by waste incineration and by other sources,

including the production of nickel-cadmium batteries, fossil fuel combustion, and

generation of dust by industrial processes such as cement manufacturing (Kazantzis

1987).

The largest sources of cadmium in landfills are smelters, iron and steel plants,

electroplating wastes, and battery production. Mine tailings generated as the result of zinc

mining also have the potential to transfer cadmium to the ambient environment.

17

Cadmium never occurs in nature in its elemental form. It is always found in a

compound with another element. The most common natural compounds of Cadmium are

Cadmium Sulfide, Cadium Carbonate, and Carbon Oxide. Carbon Sulfide, also known as

the mineral Greenockite, is the most well known source of Cadmium. Cadmium is also

found in the Earth's Crust in amounts of about .1 to .2 ppm, a very smallamount. Most of

the Cadmium that is obtained is through a processknown as Zinc refinement, which uses

their differing melting points.

Cadmium occurs in nature primarily in association with lead and zinc ores and is

released near mines and smelters processing these ores.

2.5.2.2 Function

Most cadmium used is obtained as a by-product (formed while making something

else) from smelting (melting) zinc, lead, or copper ores. The cadmium by-product is

mostly used in metal plating and to make pigments, batteries, and plastics.

Cadmium is mainly used as an anticorrosion coating in electroplating, as an

alloying metal in solders, as a stabilizer in plastics (organic cadmium), as a pigment, and

as a component of nickel-cadmium batteries. Cadmium production may use by-products

and wastes from the primary production of zinc.

Cadmium is very commonly used as a sacrificial anode to protect iron and steel

from corroding and is also used in nickel-cadmium batteries. Cadmium is highly toxic so

it should be used and handled with great caution.

Cadmium's s most known to be used in Nicad, or Nickel-Cadium rechargeble

batteries, which is the second most widely used battery, seen in airplanes, telephones,

power tools, cd players, computers, and even radar stations. In this battery, Cadmium

takes the form of Cadmium hydroxide. Cadmium is also used in coatings, pigments,

plastics, and in alloys. The most commonly formed alloys are with silver, copper, and

zinc mainly because Cadmium lowers the melting point allowing them to be suitable for

the hard soldering of metals. In past years, Cadmium was used in electroplating of steel

to protect from corrosion; however, that is not as common.

Industrially cadmium is used as a pigment in paints and plastics, in electroplating,

and in making alloys and alkali storage batteries (e.g., nickel-cadmium batteries).

2.5.2.3 Environmental Exposure

2.5.2.3.1 How It Works

Cadmium and cadmium compounds are, compared to other heavy metals,

relatively water soluble. They are therefore also more mobile in e.g. soil, generally

more bioavailable and tend to bioaccumulate.

Cadmium is readily accumulated by many organisms, particularly by

microorganisms and molluscs where the bioconcentration factors are in the order

of thousands. Soil invertebrates also concentrate cadmium markedly. Most

organisms show low to moderate concentration factors of less than 100.

In animals, cadmium concentrates in the internal organs rather than in

muscle or fat. It is typically higher in kidney than in liver, and higher in liver than

in muscle. Cadmium levels usually increase with age.

18

Cadmium waste streams from the industries mainly end up in soils. The

causes of these waste streams are for instance zinc production, phosphate ore

implication and bio industrial manure. Cadmium waste streams may also enter the

air through (household) waste combustion and burning of fossil fuels. Because of

regulations only little cadmium now enters the water through disposal of

wastewater from households or industries.

Another important source of cadmium emission is the production of

artificial phosphate fertilizers. Part of the cadmium ends up in the soil after the

fertilizer is applied on farmland and the rest of the cadmium ends up in surface

waters when waste from fertilizer productions is dumped by production

companies.

2.5.2.3.2 Effect in Ecosystem

Birds and mammals

Chronic cadmium exposure produces a wide variety of acute and chronic

effects in mammals similar to those seen in humans. Kidney damage and lung

emphysema are the primary effects of high cadmium in the body. Certain marine

vertebrates contain markedly elevated cadmium concentrations in the kidney,

which, although considered to be of natural origin, have been linked to signs of

kidney damage in the organisms concerned.

Seabirds in general are known to accumulate high levels of cadmium.

Kidney damages have been reported in wild colonies of pelagic sea birds having

cadmium level of 60-480 g/g in the kidney. Seabirds and marine mammals in

Greenland have high levels of cadmium, but researchers have found no evidence

of effects in a study of selected ringed seal specimens with very high cadmium

levels in their kidneys.

Mammals can tolerate low levels of cadmium exposure by binding the

metal to a special protein that renders it harmless. In this form, the cadmium

accumulates in the kidney and liver. Higher levels of exposure, however, lead to

kidney damage, disturbed calcium and vitamin D metabolism, and bone loss. The

body takes decades to remove cadmium from its tissues and organs

Microorganisms

Cadmium is toxic to a wide range of microorganisms as demonstrated by

laboratory experiments. However, the presence of sediment, high concentrations

of dissolved salts or organic matter in the test vessels all reduces the toxic impact.

The main effect is on growth and replication. The most affected soil

microorganisms are fungi, some species being eliminated after exposure to

cadmium in soil. There is selection for resistant strains of microorganisms after

19

low exposure to the metal in soil.

Other aquatic organisms

In aquatic systems, cadmium is most readily absorbed by organisms

directly from the water in its free ionic form Cd (II). The acute toxicity of

cadmium to aquatic organisms is variable, even between closely related species,

and is related to the free ionic concentration of the metal. Cadmium interacts with

the calcium metabolism of animals. In fish it causes lack of calcium

(hypocalcaemia), probably by inhibiting calcium uptake from the water. However,

high calcium concentrations in the water protect fish from cadmium uptake by

competing at uptake sites. Effects of long-term exposure can include larval

mortality and temporary reduction in growth. Zinc increases the toxicity of

cadmium to aquatic invertebrates. Sublethal effects have been reported on the

growth and reproduction of aquatic invertebrates; there are structural effects on

invertebrate gills. There is evidence of the selection of resistant strains of aquatic

invertebrates after exposure to cadmium in the field. The toxicity is variable in

fish, salmonoids being particularly susceptible to cadmium. Sublethal effects in

fish, notably malformation of the spine, have been reported. The most susceptible

life stages are the embryo and early larva, while eggs are the least susceptible.

In studies of lake trout exposed to different levels of cadmium, researchers

found that cadmium affected foraging behavior, resulting in lower success at

catching prey. Decreased thyroid function as a result of cadmium exposure has

also been documented. Both responses indicate a low response threshold for

cadmium caused behavioural changes.

Other terrestrial organisms

Cadmium affects the growth of plants in experimental studies, although no

field effects have been reported. Stomatal opening, transpiration, and

photosynthesis have been reported to be affected by cadmium in nutrient

solutions, but the metal is taken up into plants more readily from nutrient

solutions than from soil. Terrestrial plants may accumulate cadmium in the roots

and cadmium is found bound to the cell walls. Terrestrial invertebrates are

relatively insensitive to the toxic effects of cadmium, probably due to effective

sequestration mechanisms in specific organs. Terrestrial snails are affected

sublethally by cadmium; the main effect is on food consumption and dormancy,

but only at very high dose levels. Cadmium even at high dosage does not lethally

affect birds, although kidney damage occurs. Cadmium has been reported in field

studies to be responsible for changes in species composition in populations of

microorganisms and some aquatic invertebrates. Leaf litter decomposition is

greatly reduced by heavy metal pollution, and cadmium has been identified as the

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most potent causative agent for this effect.

2.5.2.4 Human Exposure

2.5.2.4.1 Process

Cadmium enters your body through eating, drinking or breathing. Some

cadmium stays in your body, some is breathed out, and some leaves the body as

waste. If you do not eat foods containing enough iron or other nutrients, more

cadmium may remain in your body. Most of the cadmium in your body is stored in

your kidney and liver. It can stay there for many years. Your body can change

cadmium to a harmless form. However, too much cadmium can make it difficult

for your liver and kidneys to process it, and that leads to dangerous health effects.

Cigarettes contain cadmium, and smokers inhale cadmium when they

smoke. Breathing secondhand smoke is not believed to be a main source of

exposure to cadmium. For people who do not smoke, food is the most common

source of cadmium. Fruits and vegetables, especially grains, potatoes, and leafy

vegetables like spinach, grown in soils with high levels of cadmium may contain

elevated levels of cadmium. Shellfish and organ meats like liver or kidney also

contain more cadmium than other foods.

An exposure to significantly higher cadmium levels occurs when people

smoke. Tobacco smoke transports cadmium into the lungs. Blood will transport it

through the rest of the body where it can increase effects by potentiating cadmium

that is already present from cadmium-rich food.

Other high exposures can occur with people who live near hazardous

waste sites or factories that release cadmium into the air and people that work in

the metal refinery industry. When people breathe in cadmium it can severely

damage the lungs. This may even cause death.

If a community or home has extremely soft water, small amounts of

cadmium may move from metal water lines into drinking water. If you use

ceramicware or cadmium-plated metal containers such as ice cube trays, pitchers,

or bowls to prepare or store food and drinks, some cadmium may move into the

food or drinks. Also, hobbyists who make jewelry, stained glass, or work with

paints containing cadmium may be exposed.

The amount of cadmium that enters the body depends on how a person is

exposed. Cadmium compounds are not easily absorbed by the skin. When you eat

food or drink water containing cadmium, only a small amount is absorbed by the

body. Poor nutrition may increase how much cadmium the body absorbs. Very

small cadmium particles may reach the air sacs deep within the lungs. If cadmium

is a gas or fume, it is even more easily absorbed. Once in the body, cadmium is

stored mainly in the bone, liver, and kidneys.

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2.5.2.4.2 Media in Entered Human Body

Hydrogenated or hardened vegetable oils. Cadmium is used as a catalyst

to harden or hydrogenate vegetable oils to make products such as margarine,

commercial peanut butter, vegetable shortening and related items. Every time you

eat these products, you will get a little more cadmium that is a residue from this

type of food processing.

An industrial contaminant. Cadmium is widely used in industry as a

plating material, in galvanizing, the semiconductor industry, inks, dyes and many

other applications. It is a very hard, tough metal and it actually hardens and

toughens the body and even the personality to some degree. This is why Dr. Eck

sometimes called it the pseudo-masculine element.

Brake linings. Cadmium is still used in millions of brake linings of

automobiles, buses, trains and airplanes. This cadmium wears off the brake lining

and spews into the air, adding millions of pounds of cadmium compounds to our

environment each year. Other materials could be used, but cadmium works well,

so it is still used in most vehicles.

Water contamination. Cadmium also finds its ways into water supplies

and especially into irrigation water and sewage sludge. From there it gets into the

food and into drinking water supplies all over the world today.

Cigarette Papers. Cadmium may be added to cigarette papers and those

used to roll joints for smoking marijuana because, as I understand it, cadmium may

keep the paper from going out once it is lit. A small amount of cadmium may also

be added to some papers to make them stiffer or for other reasons.

Congenital cadmium. Cadmium passes easily through the placenta in

utero and enters developing fetuses. This is why many children are born with

behavioral or developmental disorders today. Cadmium is thus transmitted from

generation to generation

Shellfish and most fish. Cadmium is found in most foods today,

especially shellfish from coastal waters. These foods should be avoided by

everyone on planet earth. It is unfortunate that many people are virtually forced to

live on these foods if they are in poor nations and live by the sea. They are highly

contaminated with industrial pollutants, one of which is cadmium. Others include

mercury, of course, arsenic, and lead.

Junk or refined foods. Cadmium is also found in many other foods.

These include, but are not limited to junk or refined foods of all kinds. The causes

of the cadmium problems are:

1. Modern hybrid and genetically modified foods such as wheat and soy

products, in particular, are already low in zinc, chromium and selenium today.

This allows the absorption and uptake of more cadmium by thousands of

enzymes.

22

2. Refining of flour and sugar then removes much more of the zinc, selenium,

magnesium and chromium. This is done for many reasons, including

commercial exploitation of these valuable trace minerals, now in high demand

in China and elsewhere. These minerals, however, especially zinc, reduce the

absorption of cadmium in our bodies. They also compete with cadmium for

enzyme binding sites in the body, thereby protecting a person from cadmium

toxicity to some extent.

3. When zinc, chromium and other minerals are removed from food, much more

cadmium is absorbed. Eating foods that are low in zinc and chromium, such

as vegetarian diets, and fruit, in particular, may worsen cadmium toxicity.

Eating meat, for this reason, is protective against cadmium because of its

higher content of zinc and other trace minerals such as selenium.

4. Hydrogenation of vegetable oils adds a little cadmium, as explained above.

5. Wrapping papers and plastics used in packaging refined foods may add a little

cadmium.

6. Other. Cadmium may be used in other aspects of food processing, such as

plating on equipment or inks, dyes and lubricants used on and around food

processing equipment.

Coffee and tea, especially strong coffees. These beverages are the major

sources of cadmium for many people around the world who do not live by the sea

or eat a lot of fish and seafood. The coffee and other beans, or leaves of tea

contain some, and the water they are made with contains more. This is why these

are not as healthful products as they once were, before the planet became polluted

with cadmium.

For this reason, cultures that use strong beverages such as these are not

doing well in many cases. This includes parts of Europe where cappuccinos and

lattes are popular, and the Middle East, where strong coffee and even strong tea is

the norm. These foster violence among the people, as we see today.

Other Foods. Cadmium has contaminated most water supplies in the

United States and other industrialized nations. Its presence is very subtle and may

not even be detected unless the instruments are quite sensitive.

Combined with low zinc in the soil and extensive refining of flour, in

particular, excessive cadmium has contributed to the epidemic of heart disease,

cancer and diabetes that now dominate the spectrum of illnesses in the Western

world.

Zinc Deficiency. This is a common cause for cadmium problems. Zinc is

extremely protective against cadmium absorption in the intestines and protective

against the incorporation of cadmium into many enzymes in the body.

This is an important reason why zinc is recommended for everyone on

their nutritional balancing programs. Many doctors fail to realize the great need

23

for zinc today - for many, many reasons. All nutrition programs and regimens of

diet should contain extra zinc for this reason alone, not to mention a half dozen

others.

Zinc deficiency may be due to over a hundred factors. Among the most

important ones are diets of refined foods, congenital low zinc (born low in zinc),

vegetarian diets, and most of all stress from any source. Others are eating zinc-

deficient food, which includes most of it. Organic food is best but is no

guarantee. Vegetarian and fruitarian types of diets are particularly low in zinc.

Other reasons for zinc deficiency are foods that deplete zinc. This

includes all sugars, including fruits and juices. This is a reason we do not

recommend much juice.

Zinc-depleting habits such as drinking alcohol, drug use, especially

marijuana, the use of any stimulant such as caffeine, and anything that sets off a

fight-or-flight response in the body such as anger, rage or fear will deplete zinc.

2.5.2.4.3 Cadmium Body Handling

Once taken up by the blood, the majority of cadmium is transported bound

to proteins, such as Albumin and Metallothionein.

The first organ reached after uptake into the GI-blood is the liver. Here

cadmium induces the production of Metallothionein. After consecutive hepatocyte

necrosis and apoptosis, Cd-Metallothionein complexes are washed into sinusoidal

blood. From here, parts of the absorbed cadmium enter the entero-hepatical cycle

via secretion into the biliary tract in form of Cadmium-Glutathione conjugates.

Enzymatically degraded to cadmium-cysteine complexes in the biliary tree,

cadmium re-enters the small intestines .

The main organ for long-term cadmium accumulation is the kidney . Here

the half-life period for cadmium is approx. 10 years. A life-long intake can

24

therefore lead to a cadmium accumulation in the kidney, consequently resulting in

tubulus cell necrosis.

The blood concentration of cadmium serves as a reliable indicator for a

recent exposition, while the urinary concentration reflects past exposure, body

burden and renal accumulation. Excretion of Cadmium takes place via faeces and

urine.

Cadmium accumulates in kidneys, where it damages filtering mechanisms.

This causes the excretion of essential proteins and sugars from the body and

further kidney damage. It takes a very long time before cadmium that has

accumulated in kidneys is excreted from a human body.

2.5.2.4.4 Symptoms

Human uptake of cadmium takes place mainly through food. Foodstuffs

that are rich in cadmium can greatly increase the cadmium concentration in

human bodies. Examples are liver, mushrooms, shellfish, mussels, cocoa powder

and dried seaweed.

An exposure to significantly higher cadmium levels occurs when

people smoke. Tobacco smoke transports cadmium into the lungs. Blood will

transport it through the rest of the body where it can increase effects by

potentiating cadmium that is already present from cadmium-rich food.

Other high exposures can occur with people who live near hazardous

waste sites or factories that release cadmium into the air and people that work in

the metal refinery industry. When people breathe in cadmium it can severely

damage the lungs. This may even cause death.

Cadmium is first transported to the liver through the blood. There, it is

bond to proteins to form complexes that are transported to the kidneys. Cadmium

accumulates in kidneys, where it damages filtering mechanisms. This causes the

excretion of essential proteins and sugars from the body and further kidney

damage. It takes a very long time before cadmium that has accumulated in

kidneys is excreted from a human body.

Acute intoxication

The respiratory system is affected severely by the inhalation of cadmium-

contaminated air: Shortness of breath, lung edema and destruction of mucous

membranes as part of cadmium-induced pneumonitis are described. As already

reported in 1942, intake of cadmium-contaminated food causes acute

gastrointestinal effects, such as vomiting and diarrhoea.

Kidney damage

Kidney damage has long since been described to be the main problem for

patients chronically exposed to cadmium . As mentioned above, cadmium reaches

25

the kidney in form of cadmium-metallothionein (Cd-MT). Cd-MT is filtrated in

the glomerulus, and subsequently reabsorbed in the proximal tubulus. It then

remains in the tubulus cells and makes up for the major part of the cadmium body

burden. The amount of cadmium in the kidney tubulus cells increases during

every person's life span. A perturbance of the phosphor and calcium metabolism

as a result of this phenomenon is in discussion [20]. An increasing cadmium load

in the kidney is also discussed to result in a higher calcium excretion, thus leading

to a higher risk of kidney stones.

The urinary cadmium excretion was shown to correlate with the degree of

cadmium induced kidney damage: A urinary excretion of 2.5 micrograms

cadmium per gram creatinine reflects a renal tubular damage degree of 4%. The

primary markers of kidney damage however, are the urinarily excreted 2-

microglobulin, N-acetyl--D-glucosaminidase (NAG), and retinol-binding-protein

(RBP). The ChinaCad-Study showed significantly higher values for urinary 2-

Microglobulin and RBP in people with high blood cadmium concentration than in

people with normal values. In the first group, both glomerular and tubular

damages where observed. It has been discussed whether or not tubular damage is

reversible. The general opinion today however is, that it's irreversible.

Effects of cadmium in reproductive biology

Cadmium appears to interfere with the ovarian steroidogenic pathway in rats.

Piasek et al. evaluated the direct effects of in vitro cadmium exposure on

steroidogenesis in rat ovaries.

The most affected were productions of progesterone and testosterone. Low

dosages of cadmium are reported to stimulate ovarian progesterone biosynthesis,

while high dosages inhibit it. Maternal exposure to cadmium is associated with

low birth wight and an increase of spontaneous abortion. Some evidence exists

also that cadmium is a potent nonsteroidal estrogen in vivo and in vitro. Studies in

rats showed that cadmium precipitates enhanced mammary development and

increased uterine wight.

Bone damage and the Itai-Itai-disease

Several studies in the 20th

Century showed a connection between cadmium

intoxication and bone damage, e.g. in workers exposed to cadmium-polluted fume

and dust.

Cadmium could also be shown to be associated with occurrences of Itai-Itai,

a disease under witch patients show a wide range of symptoms such as: low grade

of bone mineralization, high rate of fractures, increased rate of osteoporosis, and

intense bone associated pain. An epidemic occurrence of the Itai-Itai disease was

observed in the Jinzu river basin (Japan) in the 1940s. In a study on this occasion,

patients where found to show the characteristic symptoms after having eaten rice,

grown on fields irrigated with highly cadmium polluted water. Also pseudo

26

fractures characteristic of osteomalacia and severe skeletal decalcification could

be observed. Criticism of this study came up because of the fact that the majority

of the patient collective was made up of women in the post-menopause.

Underlying osteoporosis, possibly enhanced by cadmium intoxication, was

suggested to be the actual reason for the observed symptoms.

Carcinogenity

There is some proof that cadmium can cause cancer. Waalkes et al. have

shown that a subcutaneous injection of cadmium chloride can induce prostate

cancer in Wistar rats. This group also postulated that high doses of cadmium can

cause severe testicular necrosis in rats, followed by a higher incidence of

testicular interstitial tumors. In contrast to laboratory data though,

epidemiological studies could not convincingly prove cadmium to be a cause of

prostate cancer.

Other health effects that can be caused by cadmium are:

- Diarrhoea, stomach pains and severe vomiting

- Bone fracture

- Reproductive failure and possibly even infertility

- Damage to the central nervous system

- Damage to the immune system

- Psychological disorders

- Possibly DNA damage or cancer development

2.5.2.4.5 Prevention and Solution Cadmium-Effect

Several antidotes may be used. An antidote is a substance taken to stop the

effects of a poison. You may also treated for the general symptoms of

poisoning.

If you inhale cadmium, immediately move to fresh air. Seek medical help.

If you eat cadmium, wash your mouth out with water. Use ipecac syrup or

some other means to make you

vomit. Ipecac syrup, found in most drug stores, should be in each

medicine cabinet in case of emergencies.

If you touch cadmium, wash with soap and water for at least 15 minutes.

If cadmium gets in your eyes, wash your eyes with clean water for at least

15 minutes.

No smoking or at least reduce the number of cigarettes consumed. As

described previously, taking ten cigarettes a day can lead to the body

should precipitate cadmium exceeding the threshold within 11 years (if not

exposed to cadmium through other substances). By reducing cigarette

27

consumption, at least in the time required will be longer and not consume

cigarettes will deliver better health for us.

Trying minimal use of fertilizer containing low Cadmium. In choosing a

fertilizer, we need to be smarter in identifying what are the contents

contained in the fertilizer, if not, then it is not likely we will be poisoned

by cadmium through the produce from our own garden.

Eat balanced calcium, iron, protein, and zinc . By doing a balanced diet,

the body will be stronger and less vulnerable to hazards Cadmium.

Keep objects containing Cadmium from small children. Given the number

of products that are contaminated with Cadmium, we also need to be

smarter to pick out toys for our children and also pay attention to the way

children play, do not let them biting or doing things that allow them

exposure to Cadmium.

If you have a well, check Cadmium levels in the well. Especially if the

well was very smelly metal, because it indicates the possibility of

Cadmium contaminated wells.

If working in an area exposed to Cadmium, communicate with the

HSE. There Cadmium of possible we bring our bodies are exposed to

when working to the house, so communicating with the HSE on this issue

is very important.

Know the danger.

Be alert to the potential for cadmium poisoning in children. Do not let

children suck on charms or jewelry or any metal parts of toys. Cadmium

is not easily absorbed by the skin, but may also be in the air. Do not allow

children to play with batteries, particularly nickel-cadmium batteries.

Recognize the results of cadmium in the human body.

Review the literature showing that cadmium causes cancer, degenerative

bone loss, respiratory problems and potential renal failure. Like lead

poisoning, cadmium poisoning hinders brain development in the young.

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CHAPTER III

DISCUSION

3.1 Concept Mapping

Disease

Liver Kidneys Bone

Consumed high

mineral food

contain

Antidotes from

Hospital

Checked your well

cadmium-levels

Dont let children

play with nickel-

cadmium batteries

Not smoking

Use low-cadmium

fertilizer

Lung Damage

Kidneys Damage

Cancer

Acute intoxication

Low birth weight

Bone damage and

Itai Itai disease

Foods

Cigarettes

Ceramic Ware

Electroplating of Steel

Pigments

Plastic

Batteries

Alloys

Nature

Cadmium Industry

Environment

Water Soil

Air

Human

Body Handling Prevention and

Solution

Stored in

Drink Water

Fish

Aquatic

Organisms

Animals

Mushrooms

Plants

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3.2 Problem Discussion

3.2.1 Cadmium

Cadmium is a silver colored metal that is a by-product of smelting zinc, copper and lead. It is used primarily in batteries, solder, and metal plating.

Its generally found in combination with other elements such as Oxigen (Cadmium Oxide), clorine (Cadmium Chloride) or sulfur (Cadmium Sulfide). Most of

Cadmium (Cd) is a byproduct of the casting zinc, lead or copper.

Cadmium is a toxic metal commonly found in industrial jobs.

3.2.2 Source of Cadmium

Cadmium comes from nature. Cadmium is found naturally in the earths crust, soil, natural water and metal

productions.

Cigarette smoke is another source of cadmium exposure. Traces of cadmium can be found in tobacco plants.

The largest sources of cadmium in landfills are smelters, iron and steel plants, electroplating wastes, and battery production.

Cadmium never occurs in nature in its elemental form. It is always found in a compound with another element. The most common natural compounds of

Cadmium are Cadmium Sulfide, Cadmium Carbonate, and Carbon Oxide.

Most of the Cadmium that is obtained is through a process known as Zinc refinement, which uses their differing melting points.

Cadmium occurs in nature primarily in association with lead and zinc ores and is released near mines and smelters processing these ores.

3.2.3 Cadmium in Environment

Cadmium compounds are, compared to other heavy metals, relatively water soluble. They are therefore also more mobile in e.g. soil, generally more bioavailable and tend

to bioaccumulate.

Cadmium is readily accumulated by many organisms, particularly by microorganisms and molluscs where the bioconcentration factors are in the order of thousands.

Soil invertebrates also concentrate cadmium markedly. Most organisms show low to moderate concentration factors of less than 100.

In animals, cadmium concentrates in the internal organs rather than in muscle or fat. Cadmium levels usually increase with age. Cadmium waste streams from the industries mainly end up in soils. The causes of

these waste streams are for instance zinc production, phosphate ore implication and

bio industrial manure.

Because of regulations only little, cadmium now enters the water through disposal of wastewater from households or industries.

Another important source of cadmium emission is the production of artificial

30

phosphate fertilizers.

It also gives effect in ecosystem, such as: o Birds and mammals

Chronic cadmium exposure produces a wide variety of acute and chronic effects

in mammals similar to those seen in humans. Kidney damage and lung

emphysema are the primary effects of high cadmium in the body. Certain marine

vertebrates contain markedly elevated cadmium concentrations in the kidney,

which, although considered to be of natural origin, have been linked to signs of

kidney damage in the organisms concerned.

o Microorganisms

The main effect is on growth and replication. The most affected soil

microorganisms are fungi, some species being eliminated after exposure to

cadmium in soil. There is selection for resistant strains of microorganisms after

low exposure to the metal in soil.

o Other aquatic organisms

In aquatic systems, cadmium is most readily absorbed by organisms

directly from the water in its free ionic form Cd (II).

Cadmium interacts with the calcium metabolism of animals. In fish it

causes lack of calcium (hypocalcaemia), probably by inhibiting calcium uptake

from the water.

Effects of long-term exposure can include larval mortality and temporary

reduction in growth.

Zinc increases the toxicity of cadmium to aquatic invertebrates.

Cadmium affected foraging behavior, resulting in lower success at

catching prey. Decreased thyroid function as a result of cadmium exposure has

also been documented.

Both responses indicate a low response threshold for cadmium caused

behavioural changes.

o Other terrestrial organisms

Stomatal opening, transpiration, and photosynthesis have been reported to

be affected by cadmium in nutrient solutions, but the metal is taken up into plants

more readily from nutrient solutions than from soil.

Terrestrial plants may accumulate cadmium in the roots and cadmium is

found bound to the cell walls.

Terrestrial invertebrates are relatively insensitive to the toxic effects of

cadmium, probably due to effective sequestration mechanisms in specific organs.

Terrestrial snails are affected sublethally by cadmium; the main effect is

31

on food consumption and dormancy, but only at very high dose levels.

Cadmium has been reported in field studies to be responsible for changes

in species composition in populations of microorganisms and some aquatic

invertebrates.

Leaf litter decomposition is greatly reduced by heavy metal pollution, and

cadmium has been identified as the most potent causative agent for this effect.

3.2.4 Cadmium in Food

Cadmium can contaminate the food. Human uptake of cadmium takes place mainly through food. Foodstuffs that are rich in cadmium can greatly increase the cadmium concentration

in human bodies.

Examples are liver, mushrooms, shellfish, mussels, cocoa powder and dried seaweed.

It is come from contaminated environment that polluted animals. The growth plant in cadmium polluted soil and water will accumulate in its fruits. Fruits and vegetables, especially grains, potatoes, and leafy vegetables like spinach,

grown in soils with high levels of cadmium may contain elevated levels of

cadmium.

Shellfish and organ meats like liver or kidney also contain more cadmium than other foods.

The packaging of food used cadmium-contain plastic. Hydrogenated or hardened vegetable oils. Coffee and tea also with the water that used to it. Low zinc and chromium contain-food. Poor nutrition may increase how much cadmium the body absorbs.

3.2.5 Cadmium and Human

Character o Cadmium enters your body through eating, drinking or breathing.

o Some cadmium stays in your body, some is breathed out, and some leaves the

body as waste.

o If you do not eat foods containing enough iron or other nutrients, more

cadmium may remain in your body. Most of the cadmium in your body is

stored in your kidney and liver.

o Your body can change cadmium to a harmless form. However, too much

cadmium can make it difficult for your liver and kidneys to process it, and that

leads to dangerous health effects.

32

o Other high exposures factories that release cadmium into the air and when

people breathe in cadmium it can severely damage the lungs. This may even

cause death.

o The amount of cadmium that enters the body depends on how a person is

exposed.

o Once in the body, cadmium is stored mainly in the bone, liver, and kidneys.

Process Cadmium is first transported to the liver through the blood. There, it is

bond to proteins to form complexes that are transported to the kidneys. Cadmium

accumulates in kidneys, where it damages filtering mechanisms. This causes the

excretion of essential proteins and sugars from the body and further kidney damage. It

takes a very long time before cadmium that has accumulated in kidneys is excreted

from a human body.

Cadmium Body Handling

o Once taken up by the blood, the majority of cadmium is transported bound to

proteins, such as Albumin and Metallothionein.

o The first organ reached after uptake into the GI-blood is the liver.

o The main organ for long-term cadmium accumulation is the kidney

33

o The blood concentration of cadmium serves as a reliable indicator for a recent

exposition.

o Excretion of Cadmium takes place via faeces and urine.

o Cadmium accumulates in kidneys, where it damages filtering mechanisms.

This causes the excretion of essential proteins and sugars from the body and

further kidney damage.

o It takes a very long time before cadmium that has accumulated in kidneys is

excreted from a human body.

Disease Acute intoxication

The respiratory system is affected severely by the inhalation of cadmium-

contaminated air: Shortness of breath, lung edema and destruction of mucous

membranes as part of cadmium-induced pneumonitis are described. As already

reported in 1942, intake of cadmium-contaminated food causes acute

gastrointestinal effects, such as vomiting and diarrhoea.

Kidney damage

Kidney damage has long since been described to be the main problem for

patients chronically exposed to cadmium . As mentioned above, cadmium reaches

the kidney in form of cadmium-metallothionein (Cd-MT). Cd-MT is filtrated in

the glomerulus, and subsequently reabsorbed in the proximal tubulus. It then

remains in the tubulus cells and makes up for the major part of the cadmium body

burden. The amount of cadmium in the kidney tubulus cells increases during

every person's life span. An increasing cadmium load in the kidney is also

discussed to result in a higher calcium excretion, thus leading to a higher risk of

kidney stones.

Effects of cadmium in reproductive biology

Cadmium appears to interfere with the ovarian steroidogenic pathway in rats.

Piasek et al. evaluated the direct effects of in vitro cadmium exposure on

steroidogenesis in rat ovaries.

The most affected were productions of progesterone and testosterone. Low

dosages of cadmium are reported to stimulate ovarian progesterone biosynthesis,

while high dosages inhibit it. Maternal exposure to cadmium is associated with

low birth wight and an increase of spontaneous abortion.

Bone damage and the Itai-Itai-disease

Several studies in the 20th

Century showed a connection between cadmium

intoxication and bone damage, e.g. in workers exposed to cadmium-polluted fume

and dust.

Cadmium could also be shown to be associated with occurrences of Itai-Itai,

a disease under witch patients show a wide range of symptoms such as: low grade

34

of bone mineralization, high rate of fractures, increased rate of osteoporosis, and

intense bone associated pain. An epidemic occurrence of the Itai-Itai disease was

observed in the Jinzu river basin (Japan) in the 1940s. In a study on this occasion,

patients where found to show the characteristic symptoms after having eaten