HISTORICAL AND HISTORICAL AND SOCIOCULTURAL INFLUENCES SOCIOCULTURAL INFLUENCES

ON AFRICAN AMERICAN ON AFRICAN AMERICAN EDUCATIONEDUCATION

Carol D. LeeCarol D. LeeDiana T. Slaughter-DefoeDiana T. Slaughter-Defoe

Presented ByPresented ByJames E. MonroeJames E. Monroe

In this presentation I will discuss how culture and In this presentation I will discuss how culture and political status on the schooling experience and political status on the schooling experience and educational achievement influence African educational achievement influence African American education.American education.

MAJOR EDUCATIONAL MAJOR EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS IN SCHOOLSPROBLEMS IN SCHOOLS

• There were several studies published during the Regan-There were several studies published during the Regan-Bush years (1980-1992).Bush years (1980-1992).

• Theses studies indicated that African Americans, Theses studies indicated that African Americans, particularly males from lower socioeconomic backgrounds, particularly males from lower socioeconomic backgrounds, are disproportionately represented in the grade retention, are disproportionately represented in the grade retention, school suspension and drop-out rates of public schools.school suspension and drop-out rates of public schools.

• Since the beginning of public schooling in the United States, Since the beginning of public schooling in the United States, African American children have been labeled, and even African American children have been labeled, and even misclassified and tracked, relative to educational standing, misclassified and tracked, relative to educational standing, as a combined result of inequitable resource allocations.as a combined result of inequitable resource allocations.

• The studies of the Chicago Panel on Public School Policy The studies of the Chicago Panel on Public School Policy and Finance.and Finance.

• Project Head StartProject Head Start

• The Chicago School Reform ActThe Chicago School Reform Act

HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CRITICAL CONTEMPORARY CRITICAL CONTEMPORARY

ISSUESISSUES• J.D. Anderson (1988) states that “there have been essential J.D. Anderson (1988) states that “there have been essential

relationships between popular education and the politics of relationships between popular education and the politics of oppression. Both schooling for democratic citizenship and oppression. Both schooling for democratic citizenship and schooling for second-class citizenship have been basic schooling for second-class citizenship have been basic traditions in American education”.traditions in American education”.

• Freedman’s Bureau Freedman’s Bureau

• England liberal classical curriculumEngland liberal classical curriculum

• Industrial educationIndustrial education

• Critiqued the limitations of both models.Critiqued the limitations of both models.

• Atlanta Exposition in 1895Atlanta Exposition in 1895

• By 1933, 66% of Black high school students in the south By 1933, 66% of Black high school students in the south were being educated in county training schools based on were being educated in county training schools based on the industrial model.the industrial model.

• By 1935 many of these schools were phased out because of By 1935 many of these schools were phased out because of more stringent licensing requirements for those preparing more stringent licensing requirements for those preparing to teach, and the evolution of a public, though segregated, to teach, and the evolution of a public, though segregated, school system in the South.school system in the South.

• DuBois’s critique of Black education spanned a period from DuBois’s critique of Black education spanned a period from 1903 through 1960.1903 through 1960.

• By 1930 the Black college still mimicked curriculum and By 1930 the Black college still mimicked curriculum and social organization patterns found in predominantly White social organization patterns found in predominantly White colleges.colleges.

AFRICAN AMERICAN AFRICAN AMERICAN ACHIEVEMENT IN EDUCATIONACHIEVEMENT IN EDUCATION

• J.D. Anderson (1984) offers an extensive review of data J.D. Anderson (1984) offers an extensive review of data documenting the evolution of African American documenting the evolution of African American achievement in education for Reconstruction through the achievement in education for Reconstruction through the 1980s.1980s.

• From the Reconstruction era through the dawn of the 20From the Reconstruction era through the dawn of the 20thth century, literacy rates were measures using census data on century, literacy rates were measures using census data on school enrollment.school enrollment.

• By 1930 high school enrollment became the benchmark.By 1930 high school enrollment became the benchmark.

• According to the Bureau of Education in 1917, in 1915, 90% According to the Bureau of Education in 1917, in 1915, 90% of African American schoolchildren lived in the South, with of African American schoolchildren lived in the South, with only 64 public secondary schools available for Blacks.only 64 public secondary schools available for Blacks.

• Introduction of the standardized IQ TestingIntroduction of the standardized IQ Testing

• From 1954 on, college enrollment and, later, graduation From 1954 on, college enrollment and, later, graduation rates were added as a measure of educational rates were added as a measure of educational achievement.achievement.

• The motivation for schooling within the African American The motivation for schooling within the African American community was elevated in relationship to the economic community was elevated in relationship to the economic and political benefits achievable from schooling.and political benefits achievable from schooling.

• In 1982 the jobless rate among African American teenagers In 1982 the jobless rate among African American teenagers was reported at 50% in contrast with 16.5% in 1954.was reported at 50% in contrast with 16.5% in 1954.

• In the decades immediately following Reconstruction, In the decades immediately following Reconstruction, literacy rates were measured by percentages of school-age literacy rates were measured by percentages of school-age children enrolled in school.children enrolled in school.

• The period form 1860 to 1880 reveals the greatest rate of The period form 1860 to 1880 reveals the greatest rate of increase in rates of literacy within the African American increase in rates of literacy within the African American community, from a 2% literacy rate in 1860 to a 34% community, from a 2% literacy rate in 1860 to a 34% literacy rate in 1880.literacy rate in 1880.

• Thus between 1880 an 1990, although there was a 25% Thus between 1880 an 1990, although there was a 25% increase in the number of school age children within the increase in the number of school age children within the African American community.African American community.

• There was a decrease in the percentage of Black school-age There was a decrease in the percentage of Black school-age children enrolled in school.children enrolled in school.

• Illiteracy rates in the Black community decreased Illiteracy rates in the Black community decreased drastically, from 70% in 1880, to 44% in 1900, and to 19% drastically, from 70% in 1880, to 44% in 1900, and to 19% by 1910, as defined by rates of school enrollment.by 1910, as defined by rates of school enrollment.

• By 1910 school enrollment for Blacks and Whites in the By 1910 school enrollment for Blacks and Whites in the North and West were nearly the same.North and West were nearly the same.

• Between 1917 and 1931 records the greatest increase in Between 1917 and 1931 records the greatest increase in high school enrollment.high school enrollment.

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka 19541954

• The bench marks that served as measures of educational The bench marks that served as measures of educational achievement began to shift.achievement began to shift.

• Greater opportunity for college enrollment among African Greater opportunity for college enrollment among African Americans.Americans.

• The greatest increase in high school completion, college The greatest increase in high school completion, college enrollment, and college graduation rates within the African enrollment, and college graduation rates within the African American community occurred between 1960 and 1980.American community occurred between 1960 and 1980.

• Between 1966 and 1976 there was a 275% increase in Between 1966 and 1976 there was a 275% increase in Black student college enrollment.Black student college enrollment.

• Blacks were more likely to enroll in two-year colleges than Blacks were more likely to enroll in two-year colleges than four-year institutions.four-year institutions.

• College enrollment and gradation rates decreased between College enrollment and gradation rates decreased between 1980 and 1986, and thereafter increased to slightly more 1980 and 1986, and thereafter increased to slightly more increased to slightly more than the 1980 level.increased to slightly more than the 1980 level.

• Around the 1920s, standardized test data began to be used as Around the 1920s, standardized test data began to be used as a measure of educational achievement in the United States.a measure of educational achievement in the United States.

• IQ testing was used from its inception into the United States IQ testing was used from its inception into the United States to justify claims of native mental inferiority among African to justify claims of native mental inferiority among African Americans.Americans.

• Foreman (1932) and Horace Mann BondForeman (1932) and Horace Mann Bond

• Studied test scores of African American, children enrolled in Studied test scores of African American, children enrolled in Black schools in Jefferson County, Alabama, operated by the Black schools in Jefferson County, Alabama, operated by the Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad Company.Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad Company.

• Foreman and Bond found that average scores for these Black Foreman and Bond found that average scores for these Black children at the third grade were consistent with national children at the third grade were consistent with national norms.norms.

• They concluded that better educational and social They concluded that better educational and social environments had a positive effect on educational environments had a positive effect on educational achievement of African American children.achievement of African American children.

• They challenge the assumptions of Black intellectual They challenge the assumptions of Black intellectual inferiority fostered by mainstream research on standardized inferiority fostered by mainstream research on standardized testing and Blacks.testing and Blacks.

• Dreeben and Gamoran (1986) found that when black and Dreeben and Gamoran (1986) found that when black and non-black first graders are exposed to similar instruction, non-black first graders are exposed to similar instruction, they do comparably well.they do comparably well.

• Irvine and Irvine (1983) assert that any discussion of Irvine and Irvine (1983) assert that any discussion of discrepancies in educational achievement between Black discrepancies in educational achievement between Black and White students must address the consequences of the and White students must address the consequences of the 1954 Supreme Court decision that called for the 1954 Supreme Court decision that called for the desegregation of public schooling.desegregation of public schooling.

• Pupil to teacher interactions and relationships.Pupil to teacher interactions and relationships.• Picott (1976) collected data that indicated a 90% reduction Picott (1976) collected data that indicated a 90% reduction

in the number of black principals in the South between the in the number of black principals in the South between the years 1964 and 1973.years 1964 and 1973.

• The number and percentage of African American teachers The number and percentage of African American teachers in some northern districts, such as Chicago, increased in some northern districts, such as Chicago, increased significantly after 1954.significantly after 1954.

• The concluded that the factors influencing student The concluded that the factors influencing student achievement prior to the Brown decision were reflective of achievement prior to the Brown decision were reflective of an interaction between pupil ability and social class. an interaction between pupil ability and social class.

BLACK STUDIES, AFROCENTRICITY, BLACK STUDIES, AFROCENTRICITY, AND MULTICULTURAL AND MULTICULTURAL

EDUCATION:FOUNDATIONSEDUCATION:FOUNDATIONS

• Banks (1992) and Karenga (1992) acknowledge the Banks (1992) and Karenga (1992) acknowledge the interrelationships among Black students within the interrelationships among Black students within the university, the conceptual frameworks of Afrocentricity, and university, the conceptual frameworks of Afrocentricity, and multicultural education.multicultural education.

• The struggle for Black studies began in the 1960’s and was The struggle for Black studies began in the 1960’s and was influenced by the radicalism of the civil rights movement, influenced by the radicalism of the civil rights movement, the antiwar movement, the antiwar movement, and the the antiwar movement, the antiwar movement, and the student movement.student movement.

• Leadership of the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Leadership of the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) trained thousands of Black students as Committee (SNCC) trained thousands of Black students as well as White students in social and political activism.well as White students in social and political activism.

• The first Black Studies program and department was The first Black Studies program and department was founded under the leadership of Nathan Hare.founded under the leadership of Nathan Hare.

• The model for Black studies established by Hare included The model for Black studies established by Hare included the call to bring both the college to the community and the the call to bring both the college to the community and the community to the college increasing the enrollemnt of community to the college increasing the enrollemnt of Black students as well as their representation in decision Black students as well as their representation in decision making bodies.making bodies.

• By 1969 most of the major universities and colleges had By 1969 most of the major universities and colleges had agreed to the establishement of some form of Black agreed to the establishement of some form of Black studies.studies.

• Initially there was resistance on the part of many Initially there was resistance on the part of many historically Black college to organize Black studies historically Black college to organize Black studies programs and departments, but after universities such as programs and departments, but after universities such as Harvard, Yale, and Columbia had established such Harvard, Yale, and Columbia had established such programs.programs.

• R. Allen (1974) reported that by 1971 at least 500 colleges R. Allen (1974) reported that by 1971 at least 500 colleges and universites had established Black studies programs.and universites had established Black studies programs.

• By 1974 the number had dropped to 200. By 1974 the number had dropped to 200.

CULTURAL CONTEXTS CULTURAL CONTEXTS INFLUENCING AFRICAN INFLUENCING AFRICAN AMERICAN EDUCATIONAMERICAN EDUCATION

• How African American culture has been used to improve How African American culture has been used to improve teaching and learning for Black students.teaching and learning for Black students.

• Black English or African American EnglishBlack English or African American English

• Orlando Taylor (1992) argues that there are both standard Orlando Taylor (1992) argues that there are both standard and vernacular forms of Black English.and vernacular forms of Black English.

• Black English is not a deficit but a difference, and proactive Black English is not a deficit but a difference, and proactive research that builds upon the identified strengths of Black research that builds upon the identified strengths of Black English.English.

• In the late 1960s and early 1970s there were many funded In the late 1960s and early 1970s there were many funded educational programs to implement curriculum aimed at educational programs to implement curriculum aimed at compensating for what was termed “cultural deprivation,” compensating for what was termed “cultural deprivation,” largely reflected in the language uses displayed by many largely reflected in the language uses displayed by many African American children.African American children.

• Attempts were made to organized what were called Attempts were made to organized what were called “dialect” readers based assumption that the phonology and “dialect” readers based assumption that the phonology and syntax of Black English interfered with the abilities of Black syntax of Black English interfered with the abilities of Black children to learn to read.children to learn to read.

• A review of the research shows mixed results, with no clear A review of the research shows mixed results, with no clear advantage to the use of dialect readers and no substantive advantage to the use of dialect readers and no substantive support for the claim that use of Black English interfered support for the claim that use of Black English interfered with learning to read.with learning to read.

• In addition to the research on using specific characteristics In addition to the research on using specific characteristics of Black English to teach and learn academic skills related of Black English to teach and learn academic skills related to literacy, there is also a body of research that considers to literacy, there is also a body of research that considers the socializing effects of competency in Black English and the socializing effects of competency in Black English and the implications of that socializing for schooling.the implications of that socializing for schooling.

• Delpit (1986, 1988) warned that misunderstandings often Delpit (1986, 1988) warned that misunderstandings often occurred in classrooms when teachers used an indirect occurred in classrooms when teachers used an indirect communicative and teaching style with African American communicative and teaching style with African American children.children.

• Ogbu (1987) and Fordham (1988) have argued that African Ogbu (1987) and Fordham (1988) have argued that African American students sometimes develop an oppositional American students sometimes develop an oppositional attitude toward school in part because they equate success attitude toward school in part because they equate success in school with “acting White.”in school with “acting White.”

• This possibility of learning to act White as a prelude to This possibility of learning to act White as a prelude to success in school is inevitably tied to learning to speak success in school is inevitably tied to learning to speak standard English and potentially divorcing oneself from standard English and potentially divorcing oneself from appropriate use of Black English.appropriate use of Black English.

• Marsha Taylor (1982) stresses that “in Black Language, Marsha Taylor (1982) stresses that “in Black Language, attention is paid not only to what is said but how it is said, attention is paid not only to what is said but how it is said, where it is said, and who is doing the “saying”where it is said, and who is doing the “saying”

CULTURAL VARIABLES IN CULTURAL VARIABLES IN LEARNING AND TEACHING LEARNING AND TEACHING

MATHEMATICSMATHEMATICS• Too little attention has been paid to the implications of Too little attention has been paid to the implications of

African American cultural knowledge and/or experiences for African American cultural knowledge and/or experiences for learning and teaching mathematics.learning and teaching mathematics.

• Orr (1987) argues that African American English serves as a Orr (1987) argues that African American English serves as a barrier impending Black children’s understanding of certain barrier impending Black children’s understanding of certain mathematical concepts that she claims are counter mathematical concepts that she claims are counter intuitively expressed in Black English.intuitively expressed in Black English.

• Stigler and Barnes (1989) argue that culture may influence Stigler and Barnes (1989) argue that culture may influence mathematical understanding and practices through cultural mathematical understanding and practices through cultural tools, cultural practices, and cultural institutions. tools, cultural practices, and cultural institutions.

• Both Tate and Secada (1993) encourage teachers to Both Tate and Secada (1993) encourage teachers to engage students in problem solving that is situated in the engage students in problem solving that is situated in the real life struggles of the communities in which students live.real life struggles of the communities in which students live.

Three Major ProjectsThree Major Projects• The Algebra ProjectThe Algebra Project

• Moses explicitly states that he started The Algebra Project to Moses explicitly states that he started The Algebra Project to empower African American, Hispanic, and other “minority” empower African American, Hispanic, and other “minority” youth to master the rudiments of algebra, which serves as the youth to master the rudiments of algebra, which serves as the gatekeeper to the study of higher mathematics and sciences.gatekeeper to the study of higher mathematics and sciences.

• The Algebra Project introduces an extensive study of algebra in The Algebra Project introduces an extensive study of algebra in the middle grades in order to prepare students, predominantly the middle grades in order to prepare students, predominantly African American, to enter high school ready for advanced African American, to enter high school ready for advanced mathematics.mathematics.

• It uses the structure of an urban transit system as a metaphor It uses the structure of an urban transit system as a metaphor for the directionality of positive and negative numbers in for the directionality of positive and negative numbers in algebra.algebra.

• The project draws on culturally specific norms by consciously The project draws on culturally specific norms by consciously encouraging students to express a descriptive representation of encouraging students to express a descriptive representation of algebraic problems using African American English, Spanish, algebraic problems using African American English, Spanish, Creole, or whatever the indigenous language of the student Creole, or whatever the indigenous language of the student may be.may be.

• The Math Workshop ProgramThe Math Workshop Program

• Tresiman discovered that African Americans students Tresiman discovered that African Americans students entering the university who had been high achievers in high entering the university who had been high achievers in high school were not faring well in calculus.school were not faring well in calculus.

• Tresiman observed that Asian American students often Tresiman observed that Asian American students often worked cooperatively in study groups for calculus.worked cooperatively in study groups for calculus.

• Math Workshop Program foster cooperative learning.Math Workshop Program foster cooperative learning.

• Abdulalim Shabazz, Black mathematician at Atlanta Abdulalim Shabazz, Black mathematician at Atlanta University between (1956 and 1963) trained 109 African University between (1956 and 1963) trained 109 African Americans students who received master’s degrees in Americans students who received master’s degrees in mathematics.mathematics.

• Shabazz explicitly states that his approach links a sense of Shabazz explicitly states that his approach links a sense of social activism, social responsibility, and cultural social activism, social responsibility, and cultural awareness, and includes a history of African and African awareness, and includes a history of African and African American contributions to the history of mathematics.American contributions to the history of mathematics.

MAJOR POLICIES AND STRATEGIES TO MAJOR POLICIES AND STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE AFRICAN AMERICAN IMPROVE AFRICAN AMERICAN

EDUCATION CULTURAL PARADIGMEDUCATION CULTURAL PARADIGM• Musical patterns, language patterns, family socializationMusical patterns, language patterns, family socialization

• Shade (1983, 1986) found Blacks to be more spontaneous, Shade (1983, 1986) found Blacks to be more spontaneous, flexible, open minded, and less structured in their flexible, open minded, and less structured in their perceptions of people, thoughts and events.perceptions of people, thoughts and events.

• One conclusion has been that the mismatches between the One conclusion has been that the mismatches between the styles of learning exhibited by African American students styles of learning exhibited by African American students and the behavioral expectations and pedagogical styles of and the behavioral expectations and pedagogical styles of schools result in low levels of achievement among African schools result in low levels of achievement among African American students.American students.

• Slavin and Oickle (1981) have found that African American Slavin and Oickle (1981) have found that African American students appear to achieve at higher levels when students appear to achieve at higher levels when cooperative learning instructional strategies are used.cooperative learning instructional strategies are used.

• Parents chose African American impendent schools for a Parents chose African American impendent schools for a variety of reasons.variety of reasons.

• 48% for the learning environment.48% for the learning environment.

• 29% for academic reason,29% for academic reason,

• 12% for religious education12% for religious education

• 7% for the cultural emphasis,7% for the cultural emphasis,

• 4% were concerned about cost.4% were concerned about cost.

• Council of Independent Black Institutions (CIBI)Council of Independent Black Institutions (CIBI)

• African American and African historical experiences.African American and African historical experiences.

• Change the content of curriculum and textbooks used by all Change the content of curriculum and textbooks used by all children.children.

• Focus the organization of certain schools on supporting Focus the organization of certain schools on supporting explicit development of African American males.explicit development of African American males.

• The following criticisms have been summarized by Hilliard:The following criticisms have been summarized by Hilliard:– No significant history of Africans in most academic discipline No significant history of Africans in most academic discipline

before the slave trade,before the slave trade,– No people historyNo people history– No history of Africans in the African Diaspora,No history of Africans in the African Diaspora,– No presentation of the cultural unity among Africans and the No presentation of the cultural unity among Africans and the

descendants of Africans in the African Diaspora,descendants of Africans in the African Diaspora,– Little to no history of the resistance of African people to the Little to no history of the resistance of African people to the

domination of Africans through slavery, colonization, and domination of Africans through slavery, colonization, and segregation apartheid,segregation apartheid,

– The history of African people that is presented fails to explain The history of African people that is presented fails to explain the common origin and elements in systems of oppression that the common origin and elements in systems of oppression that African people have experienced, especially during he last 400 African people have experienced, especially during he last 400 years.years.

• New York State Board of RegentsNew York State Board of Regents

• Portland OregonPortland Oregon

• The Portland African American Baseline EssaysThe Portland African American Baseline Essays

• African-centered all male academicsAfrican-centered all male academics

• African American Immersion project African American Immersion project

EL FINEL FIN