FOUR WHEEL STEERING MECHANISM

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree of

DIPLOMAIN

MECHANICAL ENGINEERINGBY

Under the guidance of -----------------------------

2006-2007

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

Register number: _________________________

This is to certify that the project report titled “FOUR WHEEL STEERING MECHANISM” submitted by the following students for the award of the degree of bachelor of engineering is record of bonafide work carried out by them.

Done by

Mr. / Ms_______________________________

In partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree in

Diploma in mechanical EngineeringDuring the Year –(2004-2005)

_________________ _______________Head of Department Guide

Coimbatore –641651.Date:

Submitted for the university examination held on ___________

_________________ ________________ Internal Examiner External Examiner

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

At this pleasing moment of having successfully completed our project, we wish to convey our sincere thanks and gratitude to the management of our college and our beloved chairman …………………………..………… ………………, who provided all the facilities to us.

We would like to express our sincere thanks to our principal ………………………………………, for forwarding us to do our project and offering adequate duration in completing our project.

We are also grateful to the Head of Department Prof. …………………………………….., for her constructive suggestions & encouragement during our project.

With deep sense of gratitude, we extend our earnest & sincere thanks to our guide …………………………………………………….., Department of EEE for her kind guidance & encouragement during this project.

We also express our indebt thanks to our TEACHING and NON TEACHING staffs of

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,……………………….(COLLEGE NAME).

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FOUR WHEEL STEERING MECHANISM

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CONTENTS---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CONTENTS

ADKNOWLEDGEMENT

SYNOPSIS

1. INTRODUCTION

2. FOUR WHEEL STEERING MECHANISM

3. I.G ENGINE

4. BEARING WITH BEARING CAP

5. SPROCKET WITH CHAIN DRIVE

6. TURBINE WITH BLOWER ARRANGEMENT

7. WORKING PRINCIPLE

8. DESIGN AND DRAWINGS

9. LIST OF MATERIAL

10. COST ESTIMATION

11. ADVANTAGES

12. APPLICATIONS AND DISADVANTAGES

13. CONCLUSION

BIBLIOGRAPHY

PHOTOGRAPHY

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Chapter-1-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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SYNOPSIS---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-1

SYNOPSIS

The progress of automobiles for transportation has been intimately associated with

the progress of civilization. The automobile of today is the result of the accumulation of

many years of pioneering research and development.

An attempt has been made in this project; the Automobile four wheels to be act as

a steering so that the u turn is occur very easily when compare to ordinary vehicle. Our

fore most aim in selecting this project is to use four wheel steering mechanism for

motorized by using. It is also good with regard to economical considerations and

automobile applications.

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Chapter-2-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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INTRODUCTION---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER 2

INTRODUCTION

1. FRONT WHEEL MECHANISM:-

RACK AND PINION STEERING:-

Rack-and-pinion steering is quickly becoming the most common type of steering

on cars, small trucks and SUVs. It is actually a pretty simple mechanism. A rack-and-

pinion gear set is enclosed in a metal tube, with each end of the rack protruding from the

tube. A rod, called a tie rod, connects to each end of the rack.

The pinion gear is attached to the steering shaft. When you turn the steering

wheel, the gear spins, moving the rack. The tie rod at each end of the rack connects to the

steering arm on the spindle (see diagram above).

The rack-and-pinion gear set does two things:

It converts the rotational motion of the steering wheel into the linear motion

needed to turn the wheels.

It provides a gear reduction, making it easier to turn the wheels.

On most cars, it takes three to four complete revolutions of the steering wheel to

make the wheels turn from lock to lock (from far left to far right). The steering ratio is

the ratio of how far you turn the steering wheel to how far the wheels turn. For instance,

if one complete revolution (360 degrees) of the steering wheel results in the wheels of the

car turning 20 degrees, then the steering ratio is 360 divided by 20, or 18:1. A higher ratio

means that you have to turn the steering wheel more to get the wheels to turn a given

distance. However, less effort is required because of the higher gear ratio.

Generally, lighter, sportier cars have lower steering ratios than larger cars and

trucks. The lower ratio gives the steering a quicker response -- you don't have to turn the

steering wheel as much to get the wheels to turn a given distance -- which is a desirable

trait in sports cars. These smaller cars are light enough that even with the lower ratio, the

effort required to turn the steering wheel is not excessive.

2. BACK WHEEL MECHANISM:-

The back wheel is coupled by the front wheel steering mechanism for motorized with

the help of motorized joint.

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Chapter-3-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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I.C ENGINE---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER 3

3. BACK WHEEL MECHANISM:-

1. D.C MOTOR WITH RACK AND PINION ARRANGEMENT:-

D.C MOTOR:-

12 VOLT/40 RPM/90 WATTS PERMANENT MAGNET GEARED MOTOR:-

DESCRIPTION OF DC MOTOR

An electric motor is a machine which converts electrical energy to mechanical energy. Its action is based on the principle that when a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a magnetic force whose direction is given by Fleming’s left hand rule.

When a motor is in operation, it develops torque. This torque can produce

mechanical rotation. DC motors are also like generators classified into shunt wound or

series wound or compound wound motors.

FLEMING’S LEFT HAND RULE:

Keep the force finger, middle finger and thumb of the left hand mutually

perpendicular to one another. If the fore finger indicates the direction of magnetic field

and middle finger indicates direction of current in the conductor, then the thumb indicates

the direction of the motion of conductor.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF DC MOTOR:

Figure I show a uniform magnetic field in which a straight conductor carrying no

current is placed. The conductor is perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field.

In figure II the conductor is shown as carrying a current away from the viewer, but

the field due to the N and S poles has been removed. There is no movement of the

conductor during the above two conditions. In figure III the current carrying conductor is

placed in the magnetic field. The field due to the current in the conductor supports the

main field above the conductor, but opposes the main field below the conductor.

Movement of

Conductor

Magnetic flux current carrying Conductor

The result is to increase the flux density in to the region directly above the

conductor and to reduce the flux density in the region directly below the conductor. It is

found that a force acts on the conductor, trying to push the conductor downwards as

N S

shown by the arrow. If the current in the conductor is reversed, the strengthening of flux

lines occurs below the conductor, and the conductor will be pushed upwards (figure-IV).

Now consider a single turn coil carrying a current as shown in the above figure. in view of the reasons given above, the coil side A will be forced to move downwards, whereas the coil side B will be forced to move upwards. The forces acting on the coil sides A and B will be of same magnitude. But their direction is opposite to one another. As the coil is wound on the armature core which is supported by the bearings, the armature will now rotate. The commutator periodically reverses the direction of current flow through the armature. Therefore the armature will have a continuous rotation.

A simplified model of such a motor is shown in figure VI. The conductors are

wound over a soft iron core. DC supply is given to the field poles for producing flux.

The conductors are connected to the DC supply through brushes

Let's start by looking at the overall plan of a simple 2-pole DC electric motor. A

simple motor has 6 parts, as shown in the diagram below.

An armature or rotor

A commutator

Brushes

An axle

A field magnet

A DC power supply of some sort

An electric motor is all about magnets and magnetism: a motor uses magnets to

create motion. If you have ever played with magnets you know about the fundamental

law of all magnets: Opposites attract and likes repel.

So if you have 2 bar magnets with their ends marked north and south, then the

North end of one magnet will attract the South end of the other. On the other hand, the

North end of one magnet will repel the North end of the other (and similarly south will

repel south). Inside an electric motor these attracting and repelling forces create rotational

motion.

In the diagram above and below you can see two magnets in the motor, the

armature (or rotor) is an electromagnet, while the field magnet is a permanent magnet

(the field magnet could be an electromagnet as well, but in most small motors it is not to

save power).

RACK AND PINIAN ARRANGEMENT:

The block is the impartent part of the unit as it houses the rack and pinion. This

block converts linear motion into rotary motion.

Rack and pinion gear system is used to transmit rotary motion into linear motion.

The rack is a portion of a gear having an infinite pitch diameter and the line of action is

tangent to the pinion.

Pinion:

This is a gear wheel which is provided to get mesh with rack to convert the linear

motion into rotary motion. They are made up of Cast iron.

Rack:

Rack teeth are cut horizontally about the required length. This is made up of Cast

iron.

BATTERIES

INTRODUCTION:

In isolated systems away from the grid, batteries are used for storage of excess

solar energy converted into electrical energy. The only exceptions are isolated sunshine

load such as irrigation pumps or drinking water supplies for storage. In fact for small

units with output less than one kilowatt. Batteries seem to be the only technically and

economically available storage means. Since both the photo-voltaic system and batteries

are high in capital costs. It is necessary that the overall system be optimized with respect

to available energy and local demand pattern. To be economically attractive the storage

of solar electricity requires a battery with a particular combination of properties:

(1) Low cost

(2) Long life

(3) High reliability

(4) High overall efficiency

(5) Low discharge

(6) Minimum maintenance

(A) Ampere hour efficiency

(B) Watt hour efficiency

We use lead acid battery for storing the electrical energy from the solar panel for

lighting the street and so about the lead acid cells are explained below.

2.1 LEAD-ACID WET CELL:

Where high values of load current are necessary, the lead-acid cell is the type most

commonly used. The electrolyte is a dilute solution of sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄). In the

application of battery power to start the engine in an auto mobile, for example, the load

current to the starter motor is typically 200 to 400A. One cell has a nominal output of

2.1V, but lead-acid cells are often used in a series combination of three for a 6-V battery

and six for a 12-V battery.

The lead acid cell type is a secondary cell or storage cell, which can be recharged.

The charge and discharge cycle can be repeated many times to restore the output voltage,

as long as the cell is in good physical condition. However, heat with excessive charge

and discharge currents shortends the useful life to about 3 to 5 years for an automobile

battery. Of the different types of secondary cells, the lead-acid type has the highest

output voltage, which allows fewer cells for a specified battery voltage.

2.2 CONSTRUCTION:

Inside a lead-acid battery, the positive and negative electrodes consist of a group

of plates welded to a connecting strap. The plates are immersed in the electrolyte,

consisting of 8 parts of water to 3 parts of concentrated sulfuric acid. Each plate is a grid

or framework, made of a lead-antimony alloy. This construction enables the active

material, which is lead oxide, to be pasted into the grid. In manufacture of the cell, a

forming charge produces the positive and negative electrodes. In the forming process,

the active material in the positive plate is changed to lead peroxide (pbo₂). The negative

electrode is spongy lead (pb).

Automobile batteries are usually shipped dry from the manufacturer. The

electrolyte is put in at the time of installation, and then the battery is charged to from the

plates. With maintenance-free batteries, little or no water need be added in normal

service. Some types are sealed, except for a pressure vent, without provision for adding

water.

The construction parts of battery are shown in figure.

CONTROL UNIT -89C52

In our project 89C52 Microcontroller is used as a control unit.

INTRODUCTION ABOUT MICRO CONTROLLER:

A microcontroller consists of a powerful CPU tightly coupled with memory

(RAM, ROM or EPROM), various I/O features such as serial port(s), parallel port(s),

Timer/Counter(s), Interrupt controller, Data Acquisition interfaces-Analog to Digital

Converter (ADC), Digital to Analog Converter (DAC), everything integrated onto a

single silicon chip.

It does not mean that any micro controller should have above said features on-

chip. Depending on the need and area of application for which it is designed, the on-chip

features present in it may or may not include all the individual sections said above. Any

micro computer system requires memory to store a sequence of instructions making up a

program, parallel port or serial port for communicating with an external system,

timer/counter for control purposes like generating time delays, baud rate for the serial

port, apart from the controlling unit called the Central Processing Unit.

MEMORY ASSOCIATED WITH AT-89C52:

PROGRAM MEMORY:

A program memory is a block of memory, which can be used to store a sequence

of program codes (by using special EPROM / PROM programmers). It can only be read

from and not written into, under normal operating conditions.

There can be up to 64 k bytes of program memory in AT-89C52. in ROM and

EPROM versions of the MCS-351 family of devices, the lower 4K are provided on-chip

whereas in ROM fewer versions, all program memory is external.

In ROM and EPROM versions of this device, if the special control signals EA

(External Access enable) is strapped off Vcc, and then program fetches to addresses 0000

to 0FFF are directed to the internal ROM. The program fetch will be from external

memory, where EA* is grounded.

After reset, the CPU begins execution from address location 0000 of the program

memory.

Figure shows a map of the AT-89C52-program memory

FFFF FFFF 1000 OR 0FFF 0000 0000

DATA MEMORY:

Data memory is the Read/Write memory. Hence, it can be both read from and

written into. AT-89C52 has got 128 bytes of internal data memory and 64K of external

data memory.

FF 80 FFFF 7F AND 0000 00

60K Bytes Internal

4 K Bytes Internal

64 K Bytes External

SFRS DIRECT

ADDRESSSING ONLY

DIRECT AND

INDIRECT ADDRESS

ING

64 K Bytes External

INTERNAL DATA MEMORY:

Internal data memory addresses are one byte wide, which includes 128 bytes of

on-chip RAM plus a number of special Function Registers. The 128 bytes of RAM can

be accessed either by direct addressing (MOV data address) or by indirect addressing

(MOV @ R i ).

The lowest 32bytes (00-1F) of on-chip RAM are grouped into 4 banks of 8

registers each. Program instructions call out these registers as R0 through R7 > Bits 3

and 4 (PSW.3 and PSW.4) in register program status word (PSW) select which register

bank is n use. This allows more efficient use of code space, since register instructions are

shorter than instructions that use direct addressing.

Reset initializes the stack pointer register to 7 and its incremented once to start

from locating 08, which is register R0 of second register bank. Hence, in order to use

more than one register bank, the stack pointer should be initialized to a different location

of RAM if it is not used for data storage.

The next 16 bytes (20-2F) from a block of bit addressable memory space, which

can also byte addressed.

Bytes 30 through 7F are available to the user as data RAM. However, is the stack

pointer has been initialized to this area, enough number of bytes should be left a side to

prevent stack overflow.

I/O STRUCTURE OF AT-89C52:

AT-89C52 has four 8-bit parallel ports (hence 8*4=32 I/O lines are available). All

four parallel ports are bi-directional. Each line consists of a latch, an output driver and an

input buffer.

The four ports are named as port 0 (po), port 1 (p1), port 2 (p2) and port 3(p3).

They are bit addressable and has to be represented in the form PX.Y is i.e. bit Y of port X

while using bit addressing mode. PX.0 is the LSB (least significant Bit) of port x and

px.7 is the MSB (Most Significant Bit) of that port.

Out of the four ports, port 0 and port 2 are used in accesses to external memory.

All the port 3 pins are multifunctional. Port 3 is an 8-bit bidirectional with internal pull-

ups

Port pin Alternate Functions

P3.0 RXD (Serial input port)

P3.1 TXD (Serial output port)

P3.2 INTO (External Interrupt 0)

P3.3 INT1 (External Interrupt 1)

P3.4 T0 (Timer 0 External input)

P3.5 T1 (Timer 1 External Input)

P3.6 WR (External Data memory write strobe)

P3.7 RD (External Data memory Read Strobe)

PORT 0:

Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bi-directional I/O port. It is also the multiplexed low

order address and data bus during access to external memory.

It also receives the instruction bytes during EPROM programming and outputs

instruction bytes during program verification. (External pull-ups are required during

verification). Port 0 can sink (and operation and source) eight LS TTL input.

PORT 1:

Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional with internal pull-ups. It receives the low order

address byte during EPROM program verification. The port-1 output buffers can

sink/source four LS TTL inputs.

PORT 2:

Port 2 is an 8-bit bi-directional with external pull-ups. It emits the high order

address byte during accesses to external memory.

It also receives, these high-order address bits during EPROM programming

Verification. Port 2 can sink/source four LS TTL inputs.

RST:

While the oscillator is running a high on this pin for two machine cycles resets the

device. A small external pull down resistor (8.2k) from RST to Vss permits power on

reset when a capacitor (10 micro frequencies) also connected from this pin to Vcc.

ALE/PROG:

Address latch enable is the output for latching low byte of the address, during

access 10 external memory. ALE is activated at a constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator

frequency except during an external data memory access at which time one ALE pulse is

skipped. ALE can sink/source eight LS TTL inputs. This pin is also the program pulse

input (PROG) during EPROM programming.

PSEN:

Program Store Enable is the read strobe to external program memory. PSEN is

activated twice each machine cycle, during fetches form external program memory.

PSEN is not activated during fetches from internal program memory. PSEN can

sink/source 8 LS TTL inputs.

EA/Vpp:

When external access enable (EA) is held high, the AT-89C52 execute out of

internal program memory (Unless the program counter exceeds OFF (H)). When EA is

held low, the AT-89C52 H executes only out of external program memory. This pin also

receives the 21 Volts programming. Supply Voltage (Vpp) during EPROM

programming. This pin should not be floated during normal.

XTAL1:

It is inputs to the inverting amplifier that forms the oscillator. XTAL1 should be

grounded when an external oscillator is used.

XTAL 2:

It is Outputs to the inverting amplifier that forms the oscillator, and input to the

internal clock generator, receives the external oscillator signal when an external oscillator

is used.

Vss - Circuit ground potential

Vcc - Supply Voltage during Programming Verification and normal

Operation.

TIMERS/COUNTERS:

AT-89C52 has two 16-bit timer/counter 0, and timer/counter 1. They can be

configured in any of the four operating modes, which are selected by bit-pars (m1, 0) in

register TMOD (Timer/counter Mode control). Modes 0, 1 and 2 are the same for the

timer/counters. Mode 3 is different.

FEATURES OF AT-89C52:

Now a days an 8-bit AT-89C52/8031/8751 and 16 bit 8097 micro controllers

available in the form of kits. Its special features are summarized as:-

4k Bytes of Flash

128 Bytes of RAM

32 I/O lines

A five vector two level interrupt architecture.

A full duplex serial port

On chip Oscillator and clock circuitry.

ADDRESSING MODES:

The AT-89C52 instructions operate on data stored in internal CPU registers,

external memory or on the I/O ports. There are a number of methods (modes) in which

these registers, memory (internal or external) and I/O Ports (Internal / External) can be

addressed, called addressing modes. This section gives a brief summary of the various

types of addressing modes available in AT-89C52.

These Modes are:

Immediate

Direct

Indirect

Register

Register Specific

Indexed

IMMEDIATE ADDRESSING:

In this mode, the data to be operated upon is in the location immediately following

the opcodes. For example, the instruction,

MOV A, # 41

-Loads the accumulator with the hex value 41.

‘//’ Signifies IMMEDIATE ADDRESSING.

DIRECT ADDRESSING:

In direct addressing, the operand is specified by an 8-bit address field in the

instruction. For example, the instruction,

INC 20

Increments the contents of the On-Chip data address 20 by one.

INDIRECT ADDRESSING:

In indirect addressing, the instruction specifies a register, which contains the

address of the operand. Both internal and external RAM can be indirectly addressed.

The address register for 8-bit address can be R0 or R1 of the selected register bank

or the stack pointer. The address register for 16-bit address can only be the 16-bit “data

pointer” register, DPTR. For example, the instruction,

MOVX @DPTR, A

-Writes the contents of the accumulator to the address held by the DPTR register.

RESISTOR ADDRESSING:

The register banks, containing resistors R0 through R7, can be accessed by certain

instructions, which carry a 3-bit register specification within the opcode of the

instruction. Instructions that access the registers this way are code efficient, since this

mode eliminates an address byte.

When the instruction is executed, one of the eight resistors in the selected bank at

the execution time by two bank select bits is selected at the execution time by the two

bank select bits in the PSW. For example, the instruction,

MOV A, R0

-Copies the contents of the resistor R0 (of the selected bank) to the accumulator.

INDEXED ADDRESSING:

Only program memory can be accessed with indexed intended for reading look-up

tables in program memory. A 16-bit base resistor (Either DPTR or the Program counter)

points to the base of the table and accumulator is set up with the table entry number. The

address of the table entry in program memory is formed by adding the accumulator data

to the base pointer. The instruction,

MOVC A,@A+DPTR

This function reads the contents of program memory, whose address is obtained

by adding the content of DPTR and accumulator copies it to the accumulator.

1 40

2 39

3 38

4 37

5 36

6 35

7 34

8 33

9 32

10 31

11 30

12 29

13 28

14 27

15 26

16 25

17 24

18 23

19 22

20 21

PIN DIAGRAM OF AT89C52: PDIP

P1.0 Vcc

P1.1 P 0.0(AD 0)

P1.2 P 0.1 (AD 1)

P1.3 P 0.2 (AD 2)

P1.4 P 0.3 (AD 3)

P1.5 P 0.4 (AD 4)

P1.6 P 0.5 (AD 5)

P1.7 P 0.6 (AD 6)

RST P 0.7 (AD 7)

(R X D) P3.0 EA / VPP

(T X D) P3.1 ALE/PROG

(INT 0) P3.2 PSEN

(INT 1) P3.3 P2.7 (A 15)

(T 0) P3.4 P2.6 (A 14)

(T1) P3.5 P2.5 (A 13)

(WR) P3.6 P2.4 (A 12)

(RD) P3.7 P2.3 (A 11)

XTAL 2 P2.2 (A 10)

XTAL 1 P2.1 (A 9)

RAM ADDRRESISTOR

RAM PORT 0LATCH

PORT 2LATCH

FLASH

PORT 0 DRIVERS PORT 2 DRIVERS

B REGISTER ACC

STACK POINTER

PROGRAM ADDRESS REGISTER

TMP 2 TMP 1 BUFFER

PC INCREME

N-TER

INTERRUPT SERIAL PORT AND TIMER BLOCKS

PSW PROGRAM COUNTER

DPTRTIMING AND

CONTROL

INSTRUCT-ION

REGISTER

PORT 1 LATCH

PORT 3 LATCH

PORT 1 DRIVERS PORT 3 DRIVERSOSC

GND P2.0 (A 8)

PLCC

P 0. 0 – P 0 . 7 P2.0 – P2.7

Vcc

GND

ALU

PSENALE/PROGEA/Vpp

RST

P1.0 – P1.7 P3.0 – P3.7

ACCUMULATOR:

Accumulator is the Accumulator register mnemonics for Accumulator. Specific

instruction however, refer to the Accumulator simply A.

B REGISTER:

The B register is used during multiply and divide operations. For other

instructions can be treated as another scratch pad register.

PROGRAM STATUS WORD:

The PSW resistor contains program status information. The program status word

(PSW) contains several status bits that reflect the current state of the CPU. The PSW

resides in SFR space. It contains the carry bit, the auxiliary carry 9for BCD operations),

the two register bank select bits, the overflow flag a parity bit and two user definable

status flags. The carry bit other than serving the functions of a carry bit in arithmetic

operations, also serves as the ‘Accumulator’ for a number of Boolean operations. The bits

and RSI are used to select one of the register bans. A number instruction refers of their

RAM location R0 through R7. The selection of which the four banks is being referred to

is made on the bass of the bits RS0 and RS1 execution time.

The lower 32B are grouped into 4 banks of 8 resistors. Program instructions call

out there resistors as R0 through R7 bits in the PSW select which register is n use. The

parity bit reflects the number is in the accumulator. P=1 if the accumulator contains an

old number of 1 s and p=0 if the accumulator contains an even number of 1 s. Thus the

number of 1 s in the accumulator plus P is always even. Two bits in the PSW are

uncommitted and may be used as general-purpose status flags.

PROGRAM STATUS WORD OF AT89C52 DEVICES:

7F (H)

2F (H)20 (H)

Bank-3 1F (H)18 (H)

Bank-2 17 (H)10 (H)

Bank-1 0F (H)08 (H)

Bank-0 07 (H)00 (H)

THE LOWER 128 BYTES OF INTERNAL RAM

Bit addressable Space

Bit address 0-7F (H)

Bank Select Bit 11

In PSW

C AC FO RS1 RS0 OV P

Parity of accumulator by hard ware to 1 bit if it contains an old number of 1 s otherwise set to 0

User Definable Flag

Overflow Flag set by Arithmetic Operation

Resistor Bank Select bit- 0

Carry flag receives carry out from bit-1 of ALU

operation

Auxiliary carry flag receives carry out from bit-

1 of addition operands

General Purpose Status Flag

Register Bank Select bit-1

10 4 Banks of 8

resistors

R0 - R7

01

00

STACK POINTER:

The stack pointer resistor is 8-bit wide. It is incremented before data is stored

during PUSH and CALL execution while the stack may where in on-chip RAM. The

stack pointer is initialized to 07(H) after a reset. This causes the stack to begin at location

08(H).

DATA POINTER:

The data pointer (DPTR) consists of a high byte (DPH) and a low byte (DPL).

Its intended function is to hold a 16-bit address. It may be manipulated as a 16-bit resistor

or 08 two independent bit registers. Ports 0 to 3 – p0, p1, p2 and p3 are the SFR latches

for ports 0, 1, 2, and 3 respectively.

SERIAL DATA BUFFER:

The serial data buffer is actually two separate resistors transmit buffer and a

receive buffer resistor. When data is moved to SBUF, it goes to the transmit buffer where

it is held for serial transmission. (Moving a byte to SBUF is what initiates the

transmission) When data is moved from SBUF, it comes from the receive buffer.

TIME RESISTORS:

Resistors pairs (TH0, TL), (TH1, TL1) and (TH2, TL2) are the 16-bits counting

resistors for the interrupt system, the timer counters and the serial port.

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Chapter-4

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BEARING WITH BEARING CAP---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER 4

BEARING WITH BEARING CAP

The bearings are pressed smoothly to fit into the shafts because if hammered the

bearing may develop cracks. Bearing is made upon steel material and bearing cap is mild

steel.

INTRODUCTION

Ball and roller bearings are used widely in instruments and machines in

order to minimize friction and power loss.  While the concept of the ball bearing

dates back at least to Leonardo da Vinci, their design and manufacture has become

remarkably sophisticated. This  technology  was  brought  to  its  p resent  state  o f

perfection  only  after  a  long  period  of research and development.  The benefits of

such specialized research can be obtained when it is possible to use a standardized

bearing of the proper size and type.  However, such bearings cannot be used

indiscriminately without a careful study of the loads and operating conditions.  In

addition, the bearing must be provided with adequate mounting, lubrication and

sealing. Design engineers have usually two possible sources for obtaining

information which they can use to select a bearing for their particular application:

a)  Textbooks

b)  Manufacturers’

Catalogs Textbooks are excellent sources; however, they tend to be overly

detailed and aimed at the student of the subject matter rather than the practicing

designer.  They, in most cases, contain information on how to design rather than

how to select a bearing for a particular application. Manufacturers’ catalogs, in

turn, are also excellent and contain a wealth of information which relates to the

products of the particular manufacturer.  These catalogs, however, fail to provide

alternatives – which may divert the designer’s interest to products not

manufactured by them. Our Company, however, provides the broadest selection of

many types of bearings made by different manufacturers.  

For this reason, we are interested in providing a condensed overview of the

subject matter in an objective manner, using data obtained from different texts,

handbooks and manufacturers’ literature.  This information will enable the reader

to select the proper bearing in an expeditious manner. If the designer’s interest

exceeds the scope of the presented material, a list of references is provided at the

end of the Technical Section. At the same time, we are expressing our thanks and

are providing credit to the sources which supplied the material presented here.

Construction and Types of Ball Bearings

A ball bearing usually consists of four parts:  an inner ring, an outer ring, the balls

and the cage or separator.

 To increase the contact area and permit larger loads to be carried, the balls run in

curvilinear grooves in the rings.  The radius of the groove is slightly larger than the radius

of the ball, and a very slight amount of radial play must be provided.  The bearing is thus

permitted to adjust itself to small amounts of angular misalignment between the

assembled shaft and mounting.  The separator keeps the balls evenly spaced and prevents

them from touching each other on the sides where their relative velocities are the greatest.

Ball bearings are made in a wide variety of types and sizes.  Single-row radial bearings

are made in four series, extra light, light, medium, and heavy, for each bore, as illustrated

in Fig. 1-3(a), (b), and (c).

100 Series 200 Series 300 Series Axial Thrust Angular Contact Self-aligning

Bearing Fig. 1-3 Types of Ball Bearings

The heavy series of bearings is designated by 400.  Most, but not all,

manufacturers use a numbering system so devised that if the last two digits are multiplied

by 5, the result will be the bore in millimeters.  

The digit in the third place from the right indicates the series number. Thus,

bearing 307 signifies a medium-series bearing of 35-mm bore.  For additional digits,

which may be present in the catalog number of a bearing, refer to manufacturer’s details.

 Some makers list deep groove bearings and bearings with two rows of balls.  For

bearing designations of Quality Bearings &

Components (QBC), see special pages devoted to this

purpose. The radial bearing is able to carry a

considerable amount of axial thrust.  However, when

the load is directed entirely along the axis, the thrust type of bearing should be used.  The

angular contact bearing will take care of both radial and axial loads.  The self-aligning

ball  bearing  will  take  care  of  large amounts  of  angular  misalignment.   An increase

in radial capacity may be secured by using rings with deep grooves, or by employing a

double-row radial bearing. Radial bearings are divided into two general classes,

depending on the method of assembly.  These are the Conrad, or no filling-notch type,

and the maximum, or filling-notch type.  In the Conrad bearing, the balls are placed

between the rings as shown in Fig. 1-4(a).  Then they are evenly spaced and the separator

is riveted in place.    In  the  maximum-type  bearing,  the  balls  are a (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

100 Series Extra Light 200 Series Light 300 Series Medium Axial Thrust Bearing

Angular Contact Bearing Self-aligning Bearing Fig. 1-3  Types of Ball Bearings Fig. 1-4

Methods of Assembly        for Ball Bearings (a) Conrad or non-filling notch type (b)

Maximum or filling notch type

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-5-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

SPROCKET WITH CHAIN DRIVE---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER 5

SPROCKET AND CHAIN DRIVE

This is a cycle chain sprocket. The chain sprocket is coupled with another

generator shaft. The chain converts rotational power to pulling power, or pulling power to

rotational power, by engaging with the sprocket.

The sprocket looks like a gear but differs in three important ways:

1. Sprockets have many engaging teeth; gears usually have only one or two.

2. The teeth of a gear touch and slip against each other; there is basically no slippage in a

sprocket.

3. The shape of the teeth is different in gears and sprockets.

Figure Types of Sprockets

Engagement with Sprockets:

Although chains are sometimes pushed and pulled at either end by cylinders,

chains are usually driven by wrapping them on sprockets. In the following section, we

explain the relation between sprockets and chains when power is transmitted by

sprockets.

1. Back tension

First, let us explain the relationship between flat belts and pulleys. Figure 2.5

shows a rendition of a flat belt drive. The circle at the top is a pulley, and the belt hangs

down from each side. When the pulley is fixed and the left side of the belt is loaded with

tension (T0), the force needed to pull the belt down to the right side will be:

T1 = T0 3 eµu

For example, T0 = 100 N: the coefficient of friction between the belt and pulley, µ

= 0.3; the wrap angle u = ¼ (180).

T1 = T0 3 2.566 = 256.6 N

In brief, when you use a flat belt in this situation, you can get 256.6 N of drive

power only when there is 100 N of back tension.

For elements without teeth such as flat belts or ropes, the way to get more drive

power is to increase the coefficient of friction or wrapping angle. If a substance, like

grease or oil, which decreases the coefficient of friction, gets onto the contact surface, the

belt cannot deliver the required tension.

In the chain's case, sprocket teeth hold the chain roller. If the sprocket tooth

configuration is square, as in Figure 2.6, the direction of the tooth's reactive force is

opposite the chain's tension, and only one tooth will receive all the chain's tension.

Therefore, the chain will work without back tension.

Figure Flat Belt Drive

Figure Simplified Roller/Tooth Forces

But actually, sprocket teeth need some inclination so that the teeth can engage and

slip off of the roller. The balances of forces that exist around the roller are shown in

Figure 2.7, and it is easy to calculate the required back tension.

Figure The Balance of Forces Around the Roller

For example, assume a coefficient of friction µ = 0, and you can calculate the back

tension (Tk) that is needed at sprocket tooth number k with this formula:

Tk = T0 3 sin ø k-1 sin(ø + 2b) Where:

Tk= back tension at tooth k

T0 = chain tension

ø = sprocket minimum pressure angle 17 64/N(š)

N = number of teeth

2b = sprocket tooth angle (360/N)

k = the number of engaged teeth (angle of wrap 3 N/360); round down to the nearest

whole number to be safe

By this formula, if the chain is wrapped halfway around the sprocket, the back

tension at sprocket tooth number six is only 0.96 N. This is 1 percent of the amount of a

flat belt. Using chains and sprockets, the required back tension is much lower than a flat

belt. Now let's compare chains and sprockets with a toothed-belt back tension. Although

in toothed belts the allowable tension can differ with the number of pulley teeth and the

revolutions per minute (rpm), the general recommendation is to use 1/3.5 of the allowable

tension as the back tension (F). This is shown in below Figure 2.8. Therefore, our 257 N

force will require 257/3.5 = 73 N of back tension.

Both toothed belts and chains engage by means of teeth, but chain's back tension is

only 1/75 that of toothed belts.

Figure 2.8 Back Tension on a Toothed Belt

Chain wear and jumping sprocket teeth

The key factor causing chain to jump sprocket teeth is chain wear elongation (see

Basics Section 2.2.4). Because of wear elongation, the chain creeps up on the sprocket

teeth until it starts jumping sprocket teeth and can no longer engage with the sprocket.

Figure 2.9 shows sprocket tooth shape and positions of engagement. Figure 2.10

shows the engagement of a sprocket with an elongated chain.

In Figure 2.9 there are three sections on the sprocket tooth face:

a: Bottom curve of tooth, where the roller falls into place;

b: Working curve, where the roller and the sprocket are working together;

c: Where the tooth can guide the roller but can't transmit tension. If the roller, which

should transmit tension, only engages with C, it causes jumped sprocket teeth.

The chain's wear elongation limit varies according to the number of sprocket teeth

and their shape, as shown in Figure 2.11. Upon calculation, we see that sprockets with

large numbers of teeth are very limited in stretch percentage. Smaller sprockets are

limited by other harmful effects, such as high vibration and decreasing strength;

therefore, in the case of less than 60 teeth, the stretch limit ratio is limited to 1.5 percent

(in transmission chain).

Figure 2.9 Sprocket Tooth Shape and Positions of Engagement

Figure 2.10 The Engagement Between a Sprocket and  an Elongated Chain

In conveyor chains, in which the number of working teeth in sprockets is less than

transmission chains, the stretch ratio is limited to 2 percent. Large pitch conveyor chains

use a straight line in place of curve B in the sprocket tooth face.

Figure 2.11 Elongation Versus the Number of Sprocket Teeth

A chain is a reliable machine component, which transmits power by means of tensile

forces, and is used primarily for power transmission and conveyance systems. The

function and uses of chain are similar to a belt. There are many kinds of chain. It is

convenient to sort types of chain by either material of composition or method of

construction.

We can sort chains into five types:

Cast iron chain.

Cast steel chain.

Forged chain.

Steel chain.

Plastic chain.

Demand for the first three chain types is now decreasing; they are only used in

some special situations. For example, cast iron chain is part of water-treatment

equipment; forged chain is used in overhead conveyors for automobile factories.

In this book, we are going to focus on the latter two: "steel chain," especially the

type called "roller chain," which makes up the largest share of chains being produced,

and "plastic chain." For the most part, we will refer to "roller chain" simply as "chain."

NOTE: Roller chain is a chain that has an inner plate, outer plate, pin, bushing, and roller.

In the following section of this book, we will sort chains according to their uses,

which can be broadly divided into six types:

1. Power transmission chain.

2. Small pitch conveyor chain.

3. Precision conveyor chain.

4. Top chain.

5. Free flow chain.

6. Large pitch conveyor chain.

The first one is used for power transmission; the other five are used for

conveyance. In the Applications section of this book, we will describe the uses and

features of each chain type by following the above classification.

In the following section, we will explain the composition of power transmission

chain, small pitch chain, and large pitch conveyor chain. Because there are special

features in the composition of precision conveyor chain, top chain, and free flow chain,

checks the appropriate pages in the Applications section about these features.

Basic Structure of Power Transmission Chain

A typical configuration for RS60-type chain is shown in Figure 1.1.

Connecting Link

Figure 1.1 The Basic Components of Transmission Chain

This is the ordinary type of connecting link. The pin and link plate are slip fit in

the connecting link for ease of assembly. This type of connecting link is 20 percent lower

in fatigue strength than the chain itself. There are also some special connecting links

which have the same strength as the chain itself. (See Figure 1.2)

Tap Fit Connecting Link

In this link, the pin and the tap fit connecting link plate are press fit. It has fatigue

strength almost equal to that of the chain itself. (See Figure 1.2)

Offset Link

An offset link is used when an odd

number of chain links is required.

It is 35 percent lower in fatigue

strength than the chain itself. The

pin and two plates are slip fit.

There is also a two-pitch offset

link available that has fatigue strength as great as the chain itself. (See Figure 1.3)

Figure 1.2 Standard Connecting Link (top)

  and Tap Fit Connecting Link (bottom)

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-6-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Figure 1.3 Offset Link

TYPES OF STEERING MECHANISM---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER 6

TYPES OF STEERING MECHANISM

1. Power Rack-and-pinion Steering

2. Re-circulating-ball Steering

3. Power Steering

1. Power Rack-and-pinion:-

When the rack-and-pinion is in a power-steering system, the rack has a slightly different design.

Part of the rack contains a cylinder with a piston in the middle. The piston is

connected to the rack. There are two fluid ports, one on either side of the piston.

Supplying higher-pressure fluid to one side of the piston forces the piston to move, which

in turn moves the rack, providing the power assist.

We'll check out the components that provide the high-pressure fluid, as well as

decide which side of the rack to supply it to, later in the article. First, let's take a look at

another type of steering.

2. Re-circulating-ball Steering:-

Re-circulating-ball steering is used on many trucks and SUVs today. The linkage that

turns the wheels is slightly different than on a rack-and-pinion system.

The re-circulating-ball steering gear contains a worm gear. You can image the

gear in two parts. The first part is a block of metal with a threaded hole in it. This block

has gear teeth cut into the outside of it, which engage a gear that moves the pitman arm

(see diagram above). The steering wheel connects to a threaded rod, similar to a bolt that sticks into the hole in

the block. When the steering wheel turns, it turns the bolt. Instead of twisting further into the block the way a

regular bolt would, this bolt is held fixed so that when it spins, it moves the block, which moves the gear that

turns the wheels.

Instead of the bolt directly engaging the threads in the block, all of the threads are

filled with ball bearings that recirculation through the gear as it turns. The balls actually

serve two purposes: First, they reduce friction and wear in the gear; second, they reduce

slop in the gear.

Slop would be felt when you change the direction of the steering wheel -- without

the balls in the steering gear, the teeth would come out of contact with each other for a

moment, making the steering wheel feel loose. Power steering in a re-circulating-ball

system works similarly to a rack-and-pinion system. Assist is provided by supplying

higher-pressure fluid to one side of the block.

3. Power Steering:-

There are a couple of key components in power steering in addition to the rack-

and-pinion or recirculation-ball mechanism.

Pump

The hydraulic power for the steering is provided by a rotary-vane pump (see

diagram below). This pump is driven by the car's engine via a belt and pulley. It contains a set of retractable

vanes that spin inside an oval chamber.

As the vanes spin, they pull hydraulic fluid from the return line at low pressure

and force it into the outlet at high pressure. The amount of flow provided by the pump

depends on the car's engine speed. The pump must be designed to provide adequate flow

when the engine is idling. As a result, the pump moves much more fluid than necessary

when the engine is running at faster speeds.

The pump contains a pressure-relief valve to make sure that the pressure does not

get too high, especially at high engine speeds when so much fluid is being pumped.

Rotary Valve

A power-steering system should assist the driver only when he is exerting force on

the steering wheel (such as when starting a turn). When the driver is not exerting force

(such as when driving in a straight line), the system shouldn't provide any assist. The

device that senses the force on the steering wheel is called the rotary valve.

The key to the rotary valve is a torsion bar. The torsion bar is a thin rod of metal

that twists when torque is applied to it. The top of the bar is connected to the steering

wheel, and the bottom of the bar is connected to the pinion or worm gear (which turns the

wheels), so the amount of torque in the torsion bar is equal to the amount of torque the

driver is using to turn the wheels. The more torque the driver uses to turn the wheels, the

more the bar twists.

The input from the steering shaft forms the inner part of a spool-valve assembly.

It also connects to the top end of the torsion bar. The bottom of the torsion bar connects

to the outer part of the spool valve. The torsion bar also turns the output of the steering

gear, connecting to either the pinion gear or the worm gear depending on which type of

steering the car has.

The input from the steering shaft forms the inner part of a spool-valve assembly.

It also connects to the top end of the torsion bar. The bottom of the torsion bar connects

to the outer part of the spool valve. The torsion bar also turns the output of the steering

gear, connecting to either the pinion gear or the worm gear depending on which type of

steering the car has.

As the bar twists, it rotates the inside of the spool valve relative to the outside.

Since the inner part of the spool valve is also connected to the steering shaft (and

therefore to the steering wheel), the amount of rotation between the inner and outer parts

of the spool valve depends on how much torque the driver applies to the steering wheel.

When the steering wheel is not being turned, both hydraulic lines provide the same

amount of pressure to the steering gear. But if the spool valve is turned one way or the

other, ports open up to provide high-pressure fluid to the appropriate line. It turns out that

this type of power-steering system is pretty inefficient. Let's take a look at some advances

we'll see in coming years that will help improve efficiency.

The Future of Power Steering

Since the power-steering pump on most cars today runs constantly, pumping fluid

all the time, it wastes horsepower. This wasted power translates into wasted fuel.

You can expect to see several innovations that will improve fuel economy. One of

the coolest ideas on the drawing board is the "steer-by-wire" or "drive-by-wire" system.

These systems would completely eliminate the mechanical connection between the

steering wheel and the steering, replacing it with a purely electronic control system.

Essentially, the steering wheel would work like the one you can buy for your

home computer to play games. It would contain sensors that tell the car what the driver is

doing with the wheel, and have some motors in it to provide the driver with feedback on

what the car is doing. The output of these sensors would be used to control a motorized

steering system. This would free up space in the engine compartment by eliminating the

steering shaft. It would also reduce vibration inside the car.

General Motors has introduced a concept car, the Hy-wire, that features this type

of driving system. One of the most exciting things about the drive-by-wire system in the

GM Hy-wire is that you can fine-tune vehicle handling without changing anything in the

car's mechanical components -- all it takes to adjust the steering is some new computer

software. In future drive-by-wire vehicles, you will most likely be able to configure the

controls exactly to your liking by pressing a few buttons, just like you might adjust the

seat position in a car today. It would also be possible in this sort of system to store

distinct control preferences for each driver in the family.

In the past fifty years, car steering systems haven't changed much. But in the next

decade, we'll see advances in car steering that will result in more efficient cars and a

more comfortable ride.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-7-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

WORKING PRINCIPLE---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER 7

WORKING PRINCIPLE

FRONT WHEEL MECHANISM:-

RACK AND PINION STEERING:-

Rack-and-pinion steering is quickly becoming the most common type of steering

on cars, small trucks and SUVs. It is actually a pretty simple mechanism. A rack-and-

pinion gear set is enclosed in a metal tube, with each end of the rack protruding from the

tube. A rod, called a tie rod, connects to each end of the rack.

The pinion gear is attached to the steering shaft. When you turn the steering

wheel, the gear spins, moving the rack. The tie rod at each end of the rack connects to the

steering arm on the spindle (see diagram above).

The rack-and-pinion gear set does two things:

It converts the rotational motion of the steering wheel into the linear motion

needed to turn the wheels.

It provides a gear reduction, making it easier to turn the wheels.

On most cars, it takes three to four complete revolutions of the steering wheel to

make the wheels turn from lock to lock (from far left to far right). The steering ratio is

the ratio of how far you turn the steering wheel to how far the wheels turn. For instance,

if one complete revolution (360 degrees) of the steering wheel results in the wheels of the

car turning 20 degrees, then the steering ratio is 360 divided by 20, or 18:1. A higher

ratio means that you have to turn the steering wheel more to get the wheels to turn a

given distance. However, less effort is required because of the higher gear ratio.

Generally, lighter, sportier cars have lower steering ratios than larger cars and

trucks. The lower ratio gives the steering a quicker response -- you don't have to turn the

steering wheel as much to get the wheels to turn a given distance -- which is a desirable

trait in sports cars. These smaller cars are light enough that even with the lower ratio, the

effort required to turn the steering wheel is not excessive.

4. BACK WHEEL MECHANISM:-

The back wheel is coupled by the front wheel steering mechanism for motorized with

the help of linking mechanism for motorized and universal joint.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-8-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

DESIGN AND DRAWINGS---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER 8

DESIGN AND DRAWINGS

DESIGN OF D.C. MOTOR

Torque in a motor:

By the term torque, it is meant the turning or twisting moment of a force about an

axis. It is measured by the product of the force and the radius at which this force acts.

For an armature of a motor, to rotate about its centre, a tangential force is

necessary. This force is developed with in the motor itself.

Torque (T) = ½ ( Ia / A ) BDC Z Newton meters

Using the relation,

B = φ / a

= φ / ( Π D / P ) ł= φ x P / ( Π Dł )

T = ½ x (Ia / A) x Z x φ x {P/ (ΠDł) } x Dł= φ Z P Ia / ( 2ΠA ) Newton meters

= 0.159 x φ x Z x Ia X (P/A) Newton meters

= 0.162 x φ x Z x Ia x (P/A) Kg-m

The torque given by the above equation is the developed torque in the machine.

But the output torque is less than the developed torque due to friction and windage losses.

DESIGN OF BALL BEARING

Bearing No. 6204

Outer Diameter of Bearing (D) = 47 mm

Thickness of Bearing (B) = 14 mm

Inner Diameter of the Bearing (d) = 20 mm

r₁ = Corner radii on shaft and housing

r₁ = 1 (From design data book)

Maximum Speed = 14,000 rpm (From design data book)

Mean Diameter (dm) = (D + d) / 2

= (47 + 20) / 2

dm = 33.5 mm

Spring index (C) = ( D /d )

= 12 / 2

C = 6

WALL STRESS FACTOR

Ks = 4C – 1 + 0.654C – 4 C

= (4 X 6) -1 + 0.65(4 X 6 )-4 6

Ks = 1.258

DESIGN OF RACK AND PINION

DESIGN OF PINION

From PSG design data book (page no.7.18)

dmin > { (0.59/ σcmax) х [[Mt]/((1/E1)+(1/E2)) 2]}(1/3) _________________ (1)

Where,

σcmax = maximum contact compressive stress N/m2

E1, E2 = Young’s modulus N/m2

Mt = Torque N-m

E1 = E2 = 1.1х106 N/m2

Calculation of σcmax

σcmax = HB х CB х Kcl ________________ (2)

Where,

HB = Brinell hardness number

CB = coefficient depends on hardness

Kcl = life factor

Kcl = {[1 x 107]/N} 1/6 _______________ (3)

N = 60 x n x T

Where

n = rpm

N = life in no. Of cycles

T = life in hours.

= 8000 hours.

From P.S.G design data book (page no.2.4),

CB = 20

HB = 200

Substituting the values of N, n, T in the equation [3],

The value of kcl is obtained as 1.139.

Kcl = 1.139.

Substituting the values in equation [2]

σcmax = 20 x 200 x 1.1309

= 4520 x105 N/m2

Calculation of Mt

Mt = 97420 x (Kw/n). ____________ (4)

For power calculation

Centrifugal force, fc = m ω2 r ____________ (5)

M = 0.2Kg

W = m x g

= 2Πn/60

R = 1m

Substituting the values of m, ω, r in equation [4]

fc = 0.216 N.

Downward force, fd = m x g

= 0.2 x 9.81

= 1.962N.

Centrifugal force, f = fc + fd

= 0.216 + 1.962

= 2.178N

Torque = f x r = 2.178 x 1

= 2.178Nm.

Power = Torque x angular velocity.

= 2.178 x 1.05

= 2.28w

Substituting the value of kw and n in equation in [4],

Mt = 22.21

[Mt] = 1.4 x Mt

= 1.4 x 22.21

= 31.1 N-m

Substituting the values of σcmax, [Mt], E1,E2 in equation [1],

The minimum diameter of the pinion is calculated to be 23.07mm.

We have taken the standard diameter of pinion as 34mm.

Specification Of Pinion

Material : cast-iron

Outside diameter : 34mm

Circular pitch : 4.7mm

Tooth depth : 3.375mm

Module : 1.5mm

Pressure angle : 21

Pitch circle diameter : 31mm

Addendum : 1.5mm

Dedendum : 1.875mm

Circular tooth Thickness : 2.355mm

Fillet radius : 0.45mm

Clearance : 0.375mm

Design of rack

Pitch circle diameter of the gear is = 31mm

Circumference of the gear is = pitch circle diameter

= 31

= 97.38mm

The dimension is for 360 for one rotation

For two rotations (Approx.) the rack minimum length is 194.76 mm

3.3.1 Specification Of Rack

Minimum length of the teeth : 194.76 mm. Here : 215 mm used.

Material : cast iron

Module : 1.5mm

Cross-section : 2015mm

Teeth on the rack is adjusted for 215mm

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-9--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

LIST OF MATERIALS--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-9

LIST OF MATERIALS

Sl. No.PARTS

Qty. Material

i. Frame Stand 1 Mild Steel

ii. Steering Arrangement 1 M.S

iii. Wheel 4 Rubber

iv. Bearing with Bearing Cap 1 M.S

v. Dc motor 1 copper

vi Chain with Sprocket 1 M.S

viii. Connecting Tube 1 meter Plastic

ix. Bolt and Nut - M.S

x Sheet 2 Plastic

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-10-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

COST ESTIMATION---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-10

COST ESTIMATION

1. MATERIAL COST:-

Sl. No.PARTS

Qty. Material Amount (Rs)

i. Frame Stand 1 Mild Steel

ii. Steering Arrangement 1 M.S

iii. Wheel 4 Rubber

iv. Bearing with Bearing Cap 1 M.S

v. Dc motor 1 copper

vi Chain with Sprocket 1 M.S

viii. Connecting Tube 1 meter Plastic

ix. Bolt and Nut - M.S

x Sheet 2 Plastic

TOTAL =

2. LABOUR COSTLATHE, DRILLING, WELDING, GRINDING, POWER HACKSAW, GAS CUTTING:

Cost =

3. OVERHEAD CHARGES

The overhead charges are arrived by “Manufacturing cost”

Manufacturing Cost = Material Cost + Labour cost

=

=

Overhead Charges = 20% of the manufacturing cost

=

TOTAL COST

Total cost = Material Cost + Labour cost + Overhead Charges

=

=

Total cost for this project =

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-11-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

ADVANTAGES---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-11

ADVANTAGES

Free from wear adjustment.

Less skill technicians is sufficient to operate.

It gives simplified very operation.

Installation is simplified very much.

Less time

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-12-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

APPLICATIONS AND DISADVANTAGES

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-11

APPLICATIONS AND DISADVANTAGES

APPLICATIONS

Automobile application

DISADVANTAGES

1. Additional cost is required

2. Additional space is required to install this arrangement in vehicles

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-13-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CONCLUSION---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER 13

CONCLUSION

This project work has provided us an excellent opportunity and experience, to use

our limited knowledge. We gained a lot of practical knowledge regarding, planning,

purchasing, assembling and machining while doing this project work. We feel that the

project work is a good solution to bridge the gates between institution and industries.

We are proud that we have completed the work with the limited time successfully.

The FOUR WHEEL STEERING MECHANISM FOR MOTORIZED is working

with satisfactory conditions. We are able to understand the difficulties in maintaining the

tolerances and also quality. We have done to our ability and skill making maximum use

of available facilities.

In conclusion remarks of our project work, let us add a few more lines about our

impression project work. Thus we have developed an “FOUR WHEEL STEERING

MECHANISM” which helps to know how to achieve low cost automation. The

application of pneumatics produces smooth operation. By using more techniques, they

can be modified and developed according to the applications.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

BIBLIOGRAPHY---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

BIBLIOGRAPHY

AUTOMOBILE ENGG. - N.M AGGARWAL

S.K.KATARIA & SONS

ADVANCES IN AUTOMOBILE ENGG. - S.SUBRAMANIAM

ALLIED PUBLISHERS LTD.

THEORY & PERFORMANCE OF - J.B.GUPTA

ELECTRICAL MACHINES S.K.KATARIA & SONS

PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICAL

ENGINEERING AND ELECTRONICS - V.K.METHTA

CYBER REFERANCE

www.visionengineer.com

www.tpup.com

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PHOTOGRAPHY---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

PHOTOGRAPHY