Educational Psychology:Educational Psychology:Theory and PracticeTheory and Practice

Chapter 9 & 12Chapter 9 & 12

Chapter 9: Organizing QuestionsChapter 9: Organizing Questions

• What are Elements of Effective Instruction beyond a Good Lesson?

• How are Students Grouped to Accommodate Achievement Differences?

• What Is Mastery Learning?• What are Some Ways of Individualizing Instruction?

Quality of InstructionQuality of Instruction

1. Lesson must make Sense

• Lessons MUST be Organized

• Lessons MUST have Examples, Demonstrations, Pictures & Diagrams

2. Teacher MUST Monitor Achievement

• Teacher MUST use Appropriate Pace of Instruction

Appropriate Levels of InstructionAppropriate Levels of Instruction

Students have different levels of:– Prior Knowledge– Skills– Motivation – Learning Rates – Learning Styles

Teachers Must Adapt Instruction to meet the needs of all of their Students

Incentive/Motivation Incentive/Motivation

• Learning is Work Work

• Students Need Recognition/Reward so that they will Exert Maximum Effort to Learn

• Praise, Stars, Checks, Prizes …………

Time Time

Time for Instruction depends on:

1. Amount of Time Teachers Schedule for instruction.

2. The Time they Actually Teach.

Classroom Management & Discipline Strategies affect Time for Instruction

Untracking/Mixed Ability Grouping

UntrackingUntracking = Placing Students in Mixed Ability Groups

Stresses holding students to High Standards

Providing them with Extra Extra Assistance when needed

Success for EveryEvery Child through the use of:

Cooperative Learning

Project-Based Learning

Mastery Learning

Based on the Work of Carroll

Bloom Suggests:

Provide Students with AdditionalAdditional Time & Instruction needed to ....

Achieve Mastery Criterion Mastery Criterion

Assumes:Assumes: All Students can Learn Essential Skills

Individualizing InstructionIndividualizing Instruction

Tailoring Tailoring Instruction to a Student’s Needs Instruction to a Student’s Needs

Types of Individualized InstructionTypes of Individualized Instruction

1. Peer Tutoring & Cross-Age Tutoring 1. Peer Tutoring & Cross-Age Tutoring

2. Adult Tutoring 2. Adult Tutoring

3. Technology 3. Technology

Computer-Based Computer-Based Instructional ResearchInstructional Research

1. Moderate-Moderate-Sized Positive Effects on Achievement for Computer Based Instruction (CBI)

2. Children Working TogetherWorking Together Produce Better Results—Pairs Working

Together is Effective

3. BoysBoys Spend More Time on Computers

4. Basic Instruction NOTNOT Provided by Computers

5. Computer Use is SmallSmall Proportion of Instructional Time—Play a Minor —Play a Minor Role. Role.

6. Computer LiteracyComputer Literacy is Taught in Many Schools

Organizing Questions Ch. 12Organizing Questions Ch. 12

• Who Are Learners With Exceptionalities?• What Are Mainstreaming and Inclusion?

Percentage of Children Ages 3 to 21 Served under IDEA, Part B, by Disability during the

2000-2001 School Year

Students with Learning Disabilities

Learning DisabilitiesLearning Disabilities (LD):

disorders impedingimpeding academic progress of people who are NOT

Learning DisabilitiesLearning Disabilities (LD):

disorders impedingimpeding academic progress of people who are NOT

Mentally Retarded Mentally Retarded Emotionally Disturbed Emotionally Disturbed

Identifying Students with Learning Identifying Students with Learning Difficulties Difficulties

• IDEA 2004IDEA 2004 New EmphasisNew Emphasis for Identifying Students with LD

• IDEA 2004IDEA 2004 New EmphasisNew Emphasis for Identifying Students with LD

• Response to InterventionResponse to Intervention---RTI• Response to InterventionResponse to Intervention---RTI

─ Ability to Profit from Increasingly Intensive Instruction.

─ Ability to Profit from Increasingly Intensive Instruction.

─ Immediate, Preventive Services.─ Immediate, Preventive Services.

─ More Research Is Needed to Evaluate this Practice—RTI.

─ More Research Is Needed to Evaluate this Practice—RTI.

Some Characteristics of Students with LDSome Characteristics of Students with LD

1. Normal Intelligence OROR Even Giftedness.

2. Discrepancy between Intelligence and Performance.

3. Attention Deficit OrOr High Distractibility.

4. Hyperactivity OROR Impulsiveness.

5. Poor Motor Coordination and Special Relation Ability.

6. Difficulty Solving Problems.

7. Immature Social Skills.

1. Normal Intelligence OROR Even Giftedness.

2. Discrepancy between Intelligence and Performance.

3. Attention Deficit OrOr High Distractibility.

4. Hyperactivity OROR Impulsiveness.

5. Poor Motor Coordination and Special Relation Ability.

6. Difficulty Solving Problems.

7. Immature Social Skills.

Some Some DisturbingDisturbing Facts of Students with Facts of Students with Learning Disabilities Learning Disabilities

1. Tend to have LowerLower Academic Self-Esteem.

2.2. BoysBoys are More Likely than Girls to be Labeled as Learning Disabled.

3.3. OverrepresentedOverrepresented in Special Education Classes are: African Americans, Latinos and Children from Families in which the Head of the Household has NOT Attended College.

1. Tend to have LowerLower Academic Self-Esteem.

2.2. BoysBoys are More Likely than Girls to be Labeled as Learning Disabled.

3.3. OverrepresentedOverrepresented in Special Education Classes are: African Americans, Latinos and Children from Families in which the Head of the Household has NOT Attended College.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

• Difficulties maintaining attention because of a limited ability to concentrate.

• Difficulties maintaining attention because of a limited ability to concentrate.

• Impulsive actions, Attention Deficits, and Sometimes Hyperactive Behavior.

• Impulsive actions, Attention Deficits, and Sometimes Hyperactive Behavior.

• Acting before thinking • Acting before thinking

• Inattentiveness & difficulty sitting still. • Inattentiveness & difficulty sitting still.

Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders

Any of the following are conditions of emotional and behavioralemotional and behavioral disorders:

Any of the following are conditions of emotional and behavioralemotional and behavioral disorders:

3. Inability to learn cannot cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors. 3. Inability to learn cannot cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors.

4. Inability to establish interpersonalinterpersonal relationships with peers & teachers. 4. Inability to establish interpersonalinterpersonal relationships with peers & teachers.

5. InappropriateInappropriate behavior under normal circumstances. 5. InappropriateInappropriate behavior under normal circumstances.

6. Tendency to develop physical symptoms, pains, and fears related to personal/school problems.

6. Tendency to develop physical symptoms, pains, and fears related to personal/school problems.

1. Aggressive Behavior. 1. Aggressive Behavior.

2. Withdrawn and Immature Behavior. 2. Withdrawn and Immature Behavior.

Students with Sensory, Physical, and Health Impairments

Sensory Impairments: problems with the ability to see/hear OR receive information through the body’s senses

Sensory Impairments: problems with the ability to see/hear OR receive information through the body’s senses

Physical DisordersPhysical Disorders

1. Cerebral Palsy1. Cerebral Palsy

2. . Spina BifidaSpina Bifida

3. Spinal Cord Injury

4. Muscular Dystrophy

Health Disorders

1. AIDS1. AIDS2. Seizure Disorders

3. Diabetes

4. Cystic Fibrosis4. Cystic Fibrosis

5. Sickle Cell Anemia

Students with Sensory, Physical, and Health Impairments—

Hard of Hearing

• Range from CompleteComplete Deafness to Problems that

can be Alleviated with a Hearing Aid.

• Classification lassification depends on measures required to correct the problem.

Individualized Education Program (IEP)

• ProgramProgram Tailored to the Needs of a Learner with Exceptionalities.

• ProgramProgram Tailored to the Needs of a Learner with Exceptionalities.

• Prepared by School Professionals.• Prepared by School Professionals.

• SignedSigned by Parents/Caregivers—school is therefore HELD Accountable for Promised Services.

• SignedSigned by Parents/Caregivers—school is therefore HELD Accountable for Promised Services.

• Parents/Caregivers MUST be Informed of Any Changes in the Program.

• Parents/Caregivers MUST be Informed of Any Changes in the Program.

Array of Special Education Services

• Often Organized from Least to Most Restrictive. • Often Organized from Least to Most Restrictive.

1. General Education Classroom Placement. 1. General Education Classroom Placement.

2. Collaboration with Consulting Teachers and Other Professionals.

2. Collaboration with Consulting Teachers and Other Professionals.

3. Resource Room Placement. 3. Resource Room Placement.

4. Special-Education Class Placement with Part- Time Inclusion.

4. Special-Education Class Placement with Part- Time Inclusion.

5. Self-Contained Special Education 5. Self-Contained Special Education

6. Related Services. 6. Related Services.

Least Restrictive EnvironmentLeast Restrictive Environment

SeparateSchool

Separate Class

General Education Class

Resource Room

Inclusion

• InclusionInclusion (once called mainstreaming):

─ Placing Students with Special Needs in General Education Classes for at LEAST Part of the Day.

• Full Inclusion:Full Inclusion:

─ Students with Disabilities/At Risk receive ALL their Instruction in a General Education Class.

─ Support Services are Brought to the Student.

• InclusionInclusion (once called mainstreaming):

─ Placing Students with Special Needs in General Education Classes for at LEAST Part of the Day.

• Full Inclusion:Full Inclusion:

─ Students with Disabilities/At Risk receive ALL their Instruction in a General Education Class.

─ Support Services are Brought to the Student.

Inclusion—Continued • Research DemonstratedResearch Demonstrated that Inclusion is Successful when the

Following Activities are used:

1. Cooperative Learning.

2. Buddy Systems.

3. Peer Tutoring.

4. Computer Instruction.

5. Modification in Lesson Presentation—Adapting Instruction.

6. Extended Time for Activities and Tests.

7. Regular Training in Social Skills.

8. Teaching Learning Strategies and Metacognitive Strategies.

9. Special Education Teams—General Education Teacher is Involved in all the Conferences for the Student with Disabilities.

• Research DemonstratedResearch Demonstrated that Inclusion is Successful when the Following Activities are used:

1. Cooperative Learning.

2. Buddy Systems.

3. Peer Tutoring.

4. Computer Instruction.

5. Modification in Lesson Presentation—Adapting Instruction.

6. Extended Time for Activities and Tests.

7. Regular Training in Social Skills.

8. Teaching Learning Strategies and Metacognitive Strategies.

9. Special Education Teams—General Education Teacher is Involved in all the Conferences for the Student with Disabilities.

Gifted and Talented Students

Giftedness: Students with Abilities in a Wide Range of Activities—including the Arts.

Giftedness: Students with Abilities in a Wide Range of Activities—including the Arts.

Characteristics of Gifted & Talented Students:Characteristics of Gifted & Talented Students: Characteristics of Gifted & Talented Students:Characteristics of Gifted & Talented Students:

2. 2. Academically superior. 2. 2. Academically superior.

3. 3. May learn to read early..3. 3. May learn to read early..

4. 4. High academic achievement. 4. 4. High academic achievement.

5. 5. High self-concepts.5. 5. High self-concepts.

6. 6. May suffer from perfectionism. 6. 6. May suffer from perfectionism.

11.. Strong Motivation. Strong Motivation.

Gifted and Talented Students

Education of Gifted & Talented Students: Education of Gifted & Talented Students:

2. Curriculum Compacting. 2. Curriculum Compacting.

3. Use of General Exploratory Activities.3. Use of General Exploratory Activities.

4.4. Group Training Activities. 4.4. Group Training Activities.

11.. Acceleration Versus Enrichment Programs Acceleration Versus Enrichment Programs

5. Individual and Small-Group Investigations of Real Problems.

5. Individual and Small-Group Investigations of Real Problems.

Suggestion:Suggestion: Infuse Activities from Above into the Regular Curriculum for ALL Students—eliminating the need to physically separate GT Students from their Peers.

Suggestion:Suggestion: Infuse Activities from Above into the Regular Curriculum for ALL Students—eliminating the need to physically separate GT Students from their Peers.