manual educational psychology

Educational Psychology CP 105

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HEART Trust / NTA

VOCATIONAL TRAINING DEVELOPMENT INSTITUTE(VTDI)

EDUCATION AND TRAINING

NO. OF CREDITS: 3

COURSE CODE CP 1O5

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page

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Prepared by Ruby Bramwell

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INTRODUCTION 6

Expectation of Students 7

Course Aim and Course Outcomes 7

Course Schedule 8

Required Text and Supplementary Texts 11

Learning and Teaching Approaches 11

Method of Assessment 11

MODULE 1 THE TEACHER AND EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Overview and Objectives 12WEEK1 Session 1. Definition of Key Terms/Introduction 14

What is teaching? 17What is learning? 18

What is pedagogy? 22

What is andragogy? 22

WEEK 2

Session 2 The Expert Teacher 23

What makes a good teacher? 27

What is the task of the teacher? 27

Can good teaching be taught? 28

Who is an Intentional teacher? 29

What key behaviours are associated with outstanding teachers? 30

Developing as a teacher? 31

Session 3 Research in Educational Psychology 32How do we know what we know in Educational Psychology? 40

REFERENCES 43

MODULE 2 THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

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__________________________________________________________________________________Overview and Objectives 44

WEEK 3

Session 4 The Meaning of Development 45

Piaget’s Cognitive Development 46

Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Perspective 51

WEEK 4

Session 5 PERSONAL, SOCIAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory 56

Session 6 MORAL DEVELOPMENT – Jean Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg 58

REFERENCES 62

MODULE 3 APPROACHES TO LEARNING

Overview and Objectives 63

WEEK 5-6

Session 7 UNDERSTANDING LEARNING

Classical Conditioning 64

B.F. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning 67

Premack Principle 68

Intrinsic and Intrinsic Reinforcers 69

Immediacy of Consequences 70

Shaping 70

Extinction 71

Schedule of Reinforcement 71

The role of Antecedents 72

Session 8 Applied Behaviour Analysis (Behaviour Modification) 73

WEEK 7Session 9 COGNITIVE APPROACH TO LEARNING

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__________________________________________________________________________________What is the information – processing model? 75

Short – term or Working Memory 77

Long -term memory 77

What causes people to remember or forget? 77

How do meta-cognitive skills help students learn? 78

WEEK 8Session 10 SOCIAL COGNITIVE AND CONSTRUCTIVIST VIEWS OF LEARNING

Modelling and Observational learning 79

Constructivist Views of Learning 80

Creating a Constructivist Classroom 81

Applying Cognitive Constructivism in the Classroom 82

Constructivist Teaching Methods 84

REFERENCES 88

MODULE 4 MOTIVATION IN TEACHING AND CLASSROOM BEHAVIOUR

MANAGEMENT

Overview/Objectives 89

WEEK 9

Session 11

Motivation 90

Theories of Motivation 93

Social Learning Approaches to Motivation 99

Motivation as Growth 101

WEEK 10

Session 12 Classroom Management in Perspective 106

Characteristics of Effective Classroom Managers 109

What are some Strategies for Managing Routine misbehavior 112

Session 13 Using Applied Behavior Analysis 113

Seven Principles for the effective and humane use of Punishment 115

REFERENCES 118

MODULE 5 EXCEPTIONALITIES AND CLASSROOM INCLUSION

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Overview/Objectives 119

WEEK 11

Session 14 Who are learners with exceptionalities? 120

Understanding Intelligence 121

Week 12

Session 15 Characteristics of students with learning disabilities 129

Characteristics of gifted and talented students 135

Week 13

Session 16 The teacher’s role in the inclusive classroom 137

Lesson planning for inclusion

WEEKS 14-15 FINAL ASSESSMENT

REFERENCES

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Module 1: The Teacher and Educational Psychology CP 105

__________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTION

Welcome to Educational Psychology. This course is designed to introduce psychological principles, theories,

and methodologies to issues of teaching and learning in schools. It focuses on human growth and development

in educational settings and involves the study of such questions as: How do people learn? How do the

characteristics of the learner (individual differences, personality, cultural background,) influence learning? How

can classrooms and schools be organized to facilitate learning? What are the most effective ways to teach?

How should teachers approach classroom management and discipline? How can principles of developmental,

social, and cognitive psychology be applied to education? It includes topics like child development, learning,

motivation and creating learning environments.

This course consists of five (5) modules. At the beginning of each session is a brief overview of the course

along with the course objectives. The course objectives highlight what learners should achieve. Each module

covers major areas of competencies and comprises an overview that specifies knowledge, performance and

attitudinal requirements.

Learners will be assessed, based on the Competency Based Education and Training strategies. It therefore,

becomes necessary for learners to participate in all activities. Participants are also encouraged to purchase a

copy of the prescribed text and to read other Educational Psychology texts for additional information.

Remember this manual is just a skeleton of your course and does not eliminate the reading from other sources.

I trust you will find this manual informative and useful. If you have any queries and/or corrections do not

hesitate to make contact at the address given below:

Ruby L. Bramwell (Mrs.)

Vocational Training Development Institute

6 Gordon Town Road Kingston 6

Telephone # 9771700 - 5 EXT 2108

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__________________________________________________________________________________EXPECTATIONS OF STUDENTS

Participants are expected to display the attitudes that will best facilitate their progress in the course. It is

expected that all students should be punctual, attend classes regularly and participate as is required by the

lecturer or the formulated class groups. It is important, that work be submitted on time and that students who

have good reason to be absent take the initiative to update themselves on the class they missed, collect all

materials that were established and complete the required assignments. If assignments are to be completed on

time and with the required level of accuracy and quality, working groups must be willing to meet and do

extensive work outside of contact time. Only students who participate in group presentations in their assigned

groups will be awarded grades. All students are expected to submit their best work

COURSE AIM

The goal of this course is to provide students with an understanding of ways educational and psychological

principles are beneficial in working with others in a teaching, advising, or counselling capacity.

COURSE OUTCOMES

At the end of this course, participants should be able to:

demonstrate knowledge of Educational Psychology and effective teaching interactions

demonstrate understanding of the processes by which people learn

define learning and compare and contrast the factors that cognitive, behavioral, and humanistic

theorists believe influence the learning process, giving specific examples of how these principles could

be used in the classroom.

demonstrate understanding of theories of motivation and differentiate between the different theories

develop and internalise appropriate attitudes towards teaching, learning and learners

discuss the major components and techniques of classroom planning, management and instruction that

have been addressed in the study of the teaching/learning process as well as how these general

techniques can be modified to address individual differences.

evaluate the impact of Educational Psychology on the teaching/learning environment

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__________________________________________________________________________________DATE MODULES REFERENCES

Module 1

Week 1

Week 2

THE TEACHER AND EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS

What is Educational Psychology?

What is teaching?

What is learning?

What is pedagogy?

What is andragogy?

THE EXPERT TEACHER

What makes a good teacher?

What is the task of the teacher?

Can good teaching be taught?

Who is an intentional teacher?

What are the qualities of outstanding teachers?

What key behaviours are associated with good teaching?

How can you develop as a teacher?

RESEARCH AND EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

What is the goal of research in Educational psychology?

What is the role of research in Educational psychology?

How do we know what we know in Educational

Psychology?

Slavin: Chapter 1

Woolfolk: Chapter 1

Ormrod: Chapter 1

Matalon: Chapter 1

Elliott Chapter 1

Slavin: Chapter 1

Woolfolk: Chapter 1

Ormrod: Chapter 1

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__________________________________________________________________________________DATE MODULES REFERENCES

Module 2

Week 3

Week 4

THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND LANGUAGE

Development: Some general principles

Piaget’s Cognitive Development

Vygotsky’s Socio-cultural Perspective

PERSONAL, SOCIAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

Piaget’s Theory of Moral Development Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

Slavin: Chapter 2

Woolfolk Chapter2

Slavin: Chapter 5

Woolfolk: Chapter

Module 3

Weeks 5- 6

Weeks 7- 8

APPROACHES TO LEARNING

Understanding Learning

Behavioural Views of Learning

Cognitive Views of Learning

SOCIAL COGNITIVE AND CONSTRUCTIVIST VIEWS OF

LEARNING

Social Learning and Cognitive Theories

Constructivism and Situated Learning

Slavin Chapter 6

Woolfolk: Chapter 7

Slavin: Chapter 8

Woolfolk: Chapter 9

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__________________________________________________________________________________Module 4

Week 9

Weeks 10

MOTIVATION IN TEACHING AND LEARNING

What is motivation?

Theories of motivation

What affects students’ motivation

How can teachers increase students’ motivation

CLASROOM BEHAVIOUR MANAGEMENT

Physical environment

Psycho-social environment

CREATING A POSITIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

Procedures

Rules

Consequences

DEALING WITH MISBEHAVIOURS

Reducing unwanted behaviours

Benign procedures for reducing unwanted

behaviours Effective use of punishment

Slavin: Chapter 9

Woolfolk: Chapter 10

Matalon: Chapter 5

Slavin, Chapter 11

Woolfolk, Chapter 12

Matalon: Chapter 6

Slavin, Chapter 13

Woolfolk, Chapter 8

Matalon: Chapter 5

Module 5

Weeks 11-13EXCEPTIONALITIES AND CLASSROOM INCLUSION

Who are learners with exceptionalities?

Understanding Intelligence

Characteristics of students with learning

disabilities

Characteristics of gifted and talented students

The teacher’s role in the inclusive classroom

Lesson planning for inclusion

Slavin Chapter 12

Eggen Chapter 5

Ormrod Chapter 5

O’Donnell Chapter 4

Weeks 14 -15FINAL ASSESSMENT

REQUIRED TEXT

Slavin, Robert E. (2000). Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice. Allyn and Bacon: Boston.

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SUPPLEMENTARY TEXTS

Biehler, Robert F. and Jack Snowman (1993) Psychology applied to teaching. Houghton Mifflin Co: Boston

Elliott.et.al. (2000) Educational Psychology: Effective Teaching, Effective Learning.McGraw Hill: Boston

Matalon, Barbara A. (1998) Classroom and Behaviour Management. Stephenson’s Litho Press. Kingston

O’Donnell Angella.et.al. (2004) Educational Psychology: Reflection for Action. Wiley Press NJ

Ormrod, Jeanne . (2003) Educational Psychology. Pearson Education: New Jersey

Sternberg, Robert. (2002) Educational Psychology. Allyn and Bacon: Boston

Woolfolk, Anita. (2004) Educational Psychology. Allyn and Bacon: Boston

Internet Sources

LEARNING AND TEACHING APPROACHES

Group Projects

Small group learning (cooperative)

Self - instruction

Lectures

Individual Research

Case Studies

Discussions

Brainstorming

METHOD OF ASSESSMENT

Course work and Presentations 60%

Final - Oral Presentation 40%

100%

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MODULE 1

THE TEACHER AND EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

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OVERVIEW

This module seeks to bring to the fore one very important attribute of all outstanding teachers:

intentionality or the ability to do things for a reason, purposefully. In achieving this focus, the module

sets the framework by looking first at some basic but important definitions and then dives into the

different faucets of intentionality.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this module, you should be able to do the following:

define educational psychology and the areas of study that it includes

enumerate the goals of educational psychology, and apply these goals to educational practice.

enumerate the traits of a good teacher and assess their personal trait understand the steps one must accomplish to become an effective and intentional teacher.

describe how teaching requires a balance of reflection and technique

critically evaluate the qualities of different teachers in one’s experience

identify the concerns of beginning teachers, and describe how these concerns change

developmentally

discuss the role of educational psychology in teaching

understand the role of research in teaching and learning

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Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDIVTDI

EDUCATIONALEDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGYPSYCHOLOGY

TEACHER!

TEACHING!

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY!

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__________________________________________________________________________________WEEK 1

SESSION 1 DEFINITION OF TERMS

INTRODUCTION:


So you want to teach?So you want to teach?

• Why exactly have you decided to teach?

• Do you enjoy working with young people?

• Do you like a particular subject?

• Do you enjoy working in an environment

where people want to learn?

No matter what your reason is, you undoubtedly

have reached one firm conclusion:

YOU WANT TO BE THE BEST TEACHER YOU CAN POSSIBLE BE!!!!!

What I am sure of, is that you have done some form of teaching whether formal or informal. Perhaps you

have already given an oral presentation in one of your classes or have helped a friend who has little

knowledge of a course or topic in which you are competent. You might have taught a child how to ride a

bicycle, paint a picture or comb his/her hair. Whatever you have done in this area, might be? considered

teaching.

Reflect for a moment on the kinds of teaching experiences you have had.

What strategies did you use in your attempt to help someone learn?

Did you provide verbal explanations, demonstrate certain actions, ask your “students” to practice

what you taught them, or give them feedback about their performance?

What assumptions about how people learn influenced the way that you chose to teach?

Did you assume that your students could learn something from listening to you describe it, or did

you believe that demonstrating an action would be more effective?

Did you think that “practice makes perfect?”

Did you assume that feedback was essential for learning and motivation?

Helping others learn – and, in the process, helping them become more productive members of society – is

what teaching is all about.

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Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer,

VTDIVTDI

““EFFECTIVE TEACHERS CAN, EFFECTIVE TEACHERS CAN, INDEED, MAKE A DIFFERENCE INDEED, MAKE A DIFFERENCE IN THEIR STUDENTSIN THEIR STUDENTS’’ LIVES!LIVES!””

DEFINITION OF KEY TERMSTeacher

TeachingEducational Psychology

There is much discussion about what young people should do in their childhood and youth to prepare

them for success in adulthood. Once we have determined the desired end results or the prerequisites for

success, we need to determine the means or the conditions by which those can be brought about.

Education and Psychology are two terms that are often associated with these conditions.

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Towards a definition of Towards a definition of Educational PsychologyEducational Psychology

• Education begins at birth and continues throughout life

• Educational Psychology is a combination or overlapping of two separate fields of study –Psychology and Education


Psychology and EducationPsychology and Education

• Psychology refers to the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes

• Education refers more specifically, schooling

• Educational Psychology therefore, is scientific study of mental processes and behaviour in the context of formally socializing and developing the potential of individual human beings


Educational PsychologyEducational Psychology

• Scientific discipline within Psychology that includes both methods of study and a resulting knowledge base

• Concerned primarily with understanding the processes of teaching and learning that take place within formal environments and developing ways of improving the affiliated operations and procedures


Educational Psychologists are Educational Psychologists are interested in…….interested in…….

• Learning theories

• Teaching methods

• Motivation

• Cognition

• Emotional and moral development


Elliott’s definition of Educational Elliott’s definition of Educational PsychologyPsychology

• “…the application of psychology and psychological methods to the study of development, learning, motivation, instruction, assessment.”

(Elliott et.al. 2)


Woolfolk’sWoolfolk’s definition of definition of Educational PsychologyEducational Psychology

• “…that branch of psychology that has the understanding and improvement of education as its primary goal.”

(Woolfolk, 12)

Elliott further states that the second field of study with which educational psychology aligns itself is

education or more specifically schooling. This Huitt defines as the process of –

(1) developing the capacities and potential of the individual so as to prepare that individual to be

successful in a specific society or culture. From this perspective, education is serving primarily an

individual development function.

(2) the process by which society transmits to new members the values, beliefs, knowledge, and symbolic

expressions to make communication possible within society. In this sense, education is serving a social

and cultural function. W. Huitt, (1999)

WHAT IS TEACHING?


What is teaching?What is teaching?

• “…the intention to bring about learning” and if this broad definition is adopted it may be seen that “any activity that is performed in order to produce learning, however it is conducted, may be considered to be teaching”

(Hirst and Peters, 1970)


SOMETHING TO THINK ABOUT AND SOMETHING TO THINK ABOUT AND DISCUSSDISCUSS

Teacher Training vs. on the Job Training

• Which is more important in teaching, being able to use a number of techniques and methods well or being able to solve teaching problems, evaluate solutions, and learn from your mistakes?

In education, teachers are those who help students or pupils learn, often in a school. The objective is

typically a course of study, lesson plan, or a practical skill, including learning and thinking skills. The

different ways to teach are often referred to as the teacher's pedagogy. When deciding what teaching

method to use, a teacher will need to consider students' background knowledge, environment, and their

learning goals as well as standardized curriculum as determined by their school district.

(Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogy

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thinking

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesson_plan

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learn

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Student

Huitt’s further suggests the following about teaching-

The purposeful direction and management of the learning process.

Note that teaching is not giving knowledge or skills to students; teaching is the process of

providing opportunities for students to produce relatively permanent change through the

engagement in experiences provided by the teacher. (W. Huitt, 1999)WHAT IS LEARNING?


What is Learning?What is Learning?

• “Learning is an interactive mix of intelligence, motivation, experience, psychological factors and brain chemistry.

• It can be as simple as touching a hot stove and learning not to touch it again or as complex as trying to understand the theory of relativity and its application to the space programme, or as confounding as trying to understand why people behave the way they do


Learning (contd.)Learning (contd.)

• Learning is an ongoing process of continual adaptation to our environment, assimilation of new information and accommodation of new input to fit with prior knowledge.

• Usually, we say learning has occurred when behaviour and or/attitude have changed and modified.”

(Hamachek, 228)

Atkinson and Atkinson (1993) further explains learning as a relatively permanent change in

behaviour that results from practice; behaviour changes that are due to maturation (rather than

practice), or to temporary conditions of the organism (such as fatigue or drug-induced states) are

not included.

(Atkinson, 1993)


How does learning occur?How does learning occur?

• Learning is at the heart of psychology, since in almost all situations we have the potential for some kind of learning. Psychologists use three approaches:

Classical Conditioning

Operant Conditioning

Cognitive Learning


Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning

• Neutral stimulus acquires the ability to produce a response that was originally produced by a different stimulus

• For example, a baby learns that the sight of a breast will be followed by the taste of milk


Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning

• Consequences that follow some behaviour increases or decreases the likelihood of that behaviour occurring in the future

• For example, a young child learns that striking a sibling will be followed by disapproval from parents


Cognitive LearningCognitive Learning

• Learning that involves mental processes, such as attention, memory, and may not involve any external rewards or require the person to perform any observable behaviours.

• For example, learning through imitation or observation

Two fundamental assumptions that underlie formal education systems are that students (a) retain knowledge

and skills they acquire in school, and (b) can apply them in situations outside the classroom. But are these

assumptions true? What do you think?

Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia


How People LearnHow People Learn

Methods by which knowledge, skills and attitudes are acquired and internalised:

• History

• Intuition

• Tenacity

• Experience


How People Learn (contd.)How People Learn (contd.)

• Maturity

• Significant Persons

• Common sense

• Scientific


Scientific Methods of LearningScientific Methods of Learning

• Qualitative

• Quantitative


Factors which affect learning Factors which affect learning (contd.)(contd.)

• Aptitude

• Achievement

• Self concept

• Interest

• Ability


1.1. Knowledge of the ContentKnowledge of the Content

We can only teach what we understand

To teach a topic, we must not only know the basic facts about the topic, but also how it relates to other aspects of the topic


Factors which affect LearningFactors which affect Learning

• Motivation

• Orientation

• Needs

• Attitudes towards learning

• Frustration


Instructional StrategiesInstructional Strategies

• Teachers must understand different ways of involving students in learning activities, techniques for checking their understanding and strategies for keeping lessons running smoothly.

• Questioning is an important example

• Provide feedback about understanding of a topic


3.3. General Pedagogical General Pedagogical KnowledgeKnowledge

• Involves an understanding of instruction and management that transcends individual topics or subject matter areas

• Your study of educational psychology will help you understand how instructional strategiespromote learning and how classroom management contributes to productive learning environment


EDUCATOREDUCATOR

• BE A MENTOR –

• BE AN EXPLAINER

• MAKE YOUR SUBJECT INTERESTING


4. Knowledge of Learners and 4. Knowledge of Learners and LearningLearning

• Knowledge of learners and learning is essential, “arguably the most important knowledge a teacher can have.”

(Eggen, Kauchak, 12)

Important are:

Knowledge of learners

Knowledge of learning


RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CLASSROOM TEACHERCLASSROOM TEACHER

• Provide the materials, information and other activities to enable the learner to acquire new behaviours most effectively

• Set up a classroom in which the students feel secure – physically and emotionally

• Expect success from your students


MANAGERMANAGER

• It consists of all of the teacher’s action that create an orderly environment and promote learning:

• Recordkeeping

• Planning and organizing lessons and classroom movement

• Routine procedures for handling disruptions


RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CLASSROOM TEACHERCLASSROOM TEACHER

• Provide the materials, information and other activities to enable the learner to acquire new behaviours most effectively

• Set up a classroom in which the students feel secure – physically and emotionally

• Expect success from your students


Classroom ManagementClassroom Management

• Teachers must know how to create classroom environments that are orderly and focused on learning

• Teachers must know how to plan, implement and monitor rules and procedures, organize groups, deliver meaningful lessons and react to misbehaviour

WHAT IS PEDAGOGY?

Pedagogy (pèd-e-go´jê) literally means the art and science of educating children and often is used as a

synonym for teaching. More accurately, pedagogy embodies teacher-focused education.

In the pedagogic model, teachers assume responsibility for making decisions about what will be learned, how

it will be learned, and when it will be learned. Teachers direct learning.

(Conner, Internet)

WHAT IS ANDRAGOGY?

Andragogy a term originally used by Alexander Kapp (a german educator) in 1833 and developed into

a theory of adult education by the american educator, Malcolm Knowles is the art and science of

helping adults learn

Knowles' theory can be stated as four simple postulates:

Adults need to be involved in the planning and evaluation of their instruction (Self-concept and

Motivation to learn).

Experience (including mistakes) provides the basis for learning activities (Experience).

Adults are most interested in learning subjects that have immediate relevance to their job or personal

life (Readiness to learn).

Adult learning is problem-centered rather than content-oriented (Orientation to learning).

Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

WEEK 2

SESSION 2 THE EXPERT TEACHER

INTRODUCTION

Sandy is all nervous anticipation as she starts her first day as a junior high school science teacher. Within the

first few minutes, however, she finds her motivation challenged. By the end of the day, she is worn out and

worried about how she’ll ever survive as a teacher. Luckily, she meets expert teacher Danielle. Danielle

recognizes in Sandy all the symptoms of a tough first day, and she offers to help Sandy. Over the course of

her first year, Sandy relies on Danielle’s sage advice for help in many difficult situations. Sandy emerges at the

end of her first year feeling wiser and more in control, as well as deeply grateful to Danielle.

You may be worried you’ll feel the same way Sandy does when you begin teaching. The purpose of section is

to help you avoid her predicament. You’ll find out what it takes to be an expert teacher like Danielle. What do

expert teachers know and what do they do?

(Sternberg, 2004)

Prepared by Ruby Bramwell VTDI

1. EXPERT TEACHERS HAVE EXPERT KNOWLEDGE

1. EXPERT TEACHERS HAVE EXPERT KNOWLEDGE


Types of Expert Knowledge

CONTENT KNOWLEDGE-

knowledge of the subject being taught

CONTENT KNOWLEDGE-

knowledge of the subject being taught


PEDAGOGICAL KNOWLEDGE –

knowledge of how to teach. Knowledge of how to enhance student motivation, classroom management and how to design and administer tests


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PEDAGOGICAL CONTENT KNOWLEDGE –

knowledge of how to teach what is specific to what is being taught, such as knowledge of how to explain particular concepts ( for example, negative numbers in math)


3. EXPERT TEACHERS HAVE CREATIVE INSIGHTS

3. EXPERT TEACHERS HAVE CREATIVE INSIGHTS

-apply knowledge and analysis to solve problems. Experts do not simply solve the problem at hand; but redefine the problem – that is they do not take the problem at face value but instead cast the problem in a new light or see it from a new perspective


2. EXPERT TEACHERS ARE EFFICIENT

2. EXPERT TEACHERS ARE EFFICIENT

-the ability to solve problems efficiently-the ability to do more in less time usually with less effort

How do experts accomplish this?1. Experts automatize i.e. develop the ability to perform

important tasks without thinking about them-like driving a car

2. Experts effectively plan, monitor, and revise their approach to problems

CHARACTERISTICS OF EXPERT STUDENTS/LEARNERS

1. USE OF EFFECTIVE LEARNING STRATEGIES

1. USE OF EFFECTIVE LEARNING STRATEGIES

-use of efective learning strategies-Use of strategies to help them learn, remember and use information

- may acquire these strategies through direct instruction from classroom teachers


2. INCREMENTAL VIEW OF INTELLIGENCE

2. INCREMENTAL VIEW OF INTELLIGENCE

- research shows that intelligence can be increased through training and effort (Sternberg, 2002)

-motivation to achieve is linked to the belief that intelligence can be increased


IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING

Teachers become experts by learning from experience about the content of the subjects they teach, about general methods for teaching and about specific methods that work to teach their content areas

Teachers become expert by growing in efficiency as they “think about thinking” and learn to make daily tasks and routines automatic

Teachers become experts by developing their insight and ability to solve problems by understanding the important aspects of problems, understanding how other solutions in the past can be used to solve problems in the present, and understanding how to reorganize problems to make them easier to solve


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- may learn strategies from other students and friends by studying in groups

- parents can provide a source of strategies, as can other adults, such as librarians, tutors and even child care professionals

- expert students sometimes invent their own strategies

3. HIGH ASPIRATIONS

3. HIGH ASPIRATIONS

- beliefs about what we can become in life are important motivators that propel us toward future accomplishments, or, conversely, limit our efforts and accomplishments (Markus and Nurius, 1986)

-expert students believe they can achieve highly in life, and they work to make these achievements happen

- even when discrimination and/or poverty, might limit students’ participation in education, students can be encouraged to develop realistically high aspiration to increase their chances for success


- Another important finding about self-efficacy is that people tend to tolerate failures better when they have a previous record of success in an area – but that failure can be devastating to self-efficacy when it accompanies a first try at a new goal.

Students tend to be more vulnerable to failure and criticism when they try something new compared with when they try to move up a level in doing something they can already do well. Thus, it is important to create a record of success for yourself when you work at developing proficiency in an area

SPECIFIC STRATEGIES USED BY BOTH EXPERT TEACHERS AND EXPERT STUDENTS

THE ANALYTICAL TEACHER: James sits down at the end of the week and evaluates which lessons worked the best for his students, which did not work well, and why.

THE ANALYTICAL STUDENT: When Marcia recognizes his work is slipping, he reviews a list of key study habits (handed out by his teacher) in order to determine what he is doing wrong


- Self-efficacy tends to be found in particular domains so is not usually experienced for everything one might possibly attempt. For example an individual might have high self-efficacy in English and low self-efficacy in Math.

-A practical suggestion for students who want to become more expert in an area is to focus on good performances in areas already mastered to bolster confidence and enhance effort when confronting a weaker area

FINDINGS ABOUT SELF EFICACY


6.RESPONSIBILITY FOR SELF AND ACTIONS

6.RESPONSIBILITY FOR SELF AND ACTIONS

- expert students must be willing to take control of a task, to criticize themselves, and, conversely to take pride in their best work

INTERNAL PERSONALITY PATTERN – tend to take responsibility for their lives. When things go well, take credit for their efforts but when things do not go well tend to take responsibility and try to make things go better


THE CREATIVE TEACHER: James cuts the teacher of the week profile out of his teaching newsletter, and he adapts three ideas from the profile to use in his classroom

THE CREATIVE STUDENT: Marcia challenges himself by writing down and striving to meet different goals on a day-to-day basis to keep his study time from becoming boring and repetitive


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5. PURSUIT OF A TASK TO COMPLETION

5. PURSUIT OF A TASK TO COMPLETION

- often students get started on a task, but then, in the middle of the task, they lose momentum – because of frustration, inability to find necessary information, slow rates of progress and other factors – and fail to finish

-expert students use many different methods to help them through stumbling blocks and see tasks through

WHAT MAKES A GOOD TEACHER

Is it warmth, humor, and the ability to care about people? Is it

planning, hard work, and self-discipline? What about

leadership, enthusiasm, a contagious love of learning, and

speaking ability? Most people would agree that all of these

qualities are needed to make someone a good teacher, and

they would certainly be correct. But these qualities are not

enough.


THE PRACTICAL TEACHER: James watches and listens to his colleagues, and listens to what students say about his colleagues, in order to learn from his colleagues’ accomplishments and mistakes

THE PRACTICAL STUDENT: Marcia organizes study groups with his friends, in which they help one another and push each other to work harder


7. ABILITY TO DELAY GRATIFICATION

7. ABILITY TO DELAY GRATIFICATION

-an expert student will work on a project or task for a long time without immediate rewards.

-students must learn that rewards do not always come immediately

- to be expert, students must learn to delay gratification, because there are clear benefits in doing so


IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING

Expert teachers work to help their students become expert learners. These teachers recognize that development of expertise in any area is a process that takes time, patience and hard work

Expert students use strategies to help them learn, know that intelligence can be increased, have high aspirations and see themselves as capable of achieving these aspirations, see tasks through to completion, take responsibility for themselves and their actions and understand the value of delaying gratification


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Subject matter knowledge is important. But effective teachers can also communicate their knowledge to

students. The link between what teachers want students to learn and learning is called instruction, or pedagogy.

Effective instruction is a matter of one person with more knowledge transmitting this knowledge to the other.

Slavin (2003)

WHAT IS THE TASK OF THE TEACHER?

Motivating students, managing the classroom, assessing prior knowledge, communicating ideas effectively,

taking into account the characteristics of the learners, assessing learning outcomes, and reviewing information

—must be attended to at all levels of education, in or out of schools.

Slavin (2003)

CAN GOOD TEACHING BE TAUGHT?

The answer is definitely yes. Good teaching has to be observed and practiced, but there are principles of good

teaching that teachers need to know, which can then be applied in the classroom. The major components of

effective instruction are:

Knowledge of subject and teaching resources

Critical thinking and problem-solving skills

Knowledge of students and their learning

Teaching and communication skill

Slavin, (2003)

COMPONENTS OF GOOD TEACHING


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http://www.abacon.com/slavin/t1.html

WHO IS AN INTENTIONAL TEACHER?

One attribute seems to be characteristic of outstanding teachers and that is intentionality. Intentionality means

doing things for a reason, on purpose.

Intentional teachers constantly think about the outcomes they want for their students and about how

each decision they make moves children toward those outcomes.

Intentional teachers know that maximum learning does not happen by chance.

Intentional teachers are constantly asking themselves what goals they and their students are trying to

accomplish; whether each portion of their lesson is appropriate to students’ background knowledge,

skills, and needs; whether each activity or assignment is clearly related to a valued outcome; whether

each instructional minute is used wisely and well.

Intentional teachers trying to build students’ synonym skills during follow-up time might have them work

in pairs to master a set of synonyms in preparation for individual quizzes.



________________________________________________________________________________________

Intentional teachers achieve a sense of efficacy by constantly assessing the results of his or her

instruction -

o constantly trying new strategies if their initial instruction didn’t work

o constantly seeking ideas from colleagues, books, magazines, workshops, and other sources to

enrich and solidify their teaching skills.

Slavin (2003)

WHAT ARE THE QUALITIES OF OUTSTANDING TEACHERS?

Ernest Boyer (1990) identified several characteristics that he believed made highly effective teachers

They employ language clearly and efficiently. If teachers present their ideas in colourful, exciting

writing and express themselves precisely in their oral language, students have superb models from

which to learn. These teachers talked to their students, not at them.

They are well informed and comfortable with the history and frontiers of their disciplines, so they

provide students not only with facts but also with a way of thinking that serve them well in a complex

world. For example, the teacher who presents basic genetic facts and then goes on to show how this

knowledge can lead to the future cure of serious diseases breathes real life into what may seem to

students to be remote, abstract facts

They relate what they know to their learners so that students become aware of the beauty, the power

and the application of knowledge

WHAT KEY BEHAVIOURS ARE ASSOCIATED WITH GOOD TEACHING?

Lesson Clarity. Lesson clarity means that students understand you. If you organize material

carefully, give precise directions, link the present lesson to past work, use instructional strategies that

are appropriate for students’ ages and cognitive levels, you will be one of those instructors who

maintain the attention of students and communicate effectively

Instructional Variety. Effective teachers use instructional variety. Dynamic teachers experiment,

evaluate, read the feedback from students and switch techniques when a lesson seems to be stalled.

They are alert to the signals their students are giving and use these clues to change from recitation to

discussion, from seatwork to physical activity


________________________________________________________________________________________

Task Involvement. Good teachers are acutely aware of their students’ task orientation and

engagement in the learning process. Good teachers display a remarkable ability to keep students

actively involved with a task, which is one of the most significant predictors of students’ academic

success. Ideally, students should be actively engaged with a task if learning is to occur. Just sitting at

a desk surrounded by books, either at school or at home, and daydreaming is not engagement with a

task

Praise carefully. Be careful how you praise. Praise can be a mixed blessing. Non-contingent

praise is praise that is not linked to a specific behaviour. Do not let a student’s personal qualities,

rather than achievement, be the occasion for praise. You will find this becomes self defeating when

students discern the hollow nature of the praise. In their own way students are astute readers of

human nature. Empty praise inevitably produces a challenge to their self-esteem and begins to erode

appreciation of honest achievement

Consistent Classroom Guidelines. Good teachers avoid double standards – what is right for the

pupil (politeness, punctuality) is right for the teacher. Teachers who refuse to use threats and

intimidation know that students cannot learn or acquire self-discipline in a tense, hostile environment.

Instead they try to understand the purpose of the misbehaviour to establish a relationship based on

trust and mutual respect. Teachers who treat their students as “nearly equal” gain their respect and

establish relationships that lead to honest dialogue and fewer problems. Remember: Emphasize the

positive and refuse to take misbehaviour personally

Periodic feedback. Students need to know how well they are doing and what they need to

improve on. Effective teachers provide students frequent feedback about their work efforts and

performances. Assessment of student learning plays a central role in providing students

meaningful information on what they are doing well and what they need to work on more.

(Elliott, 6-7)

DEVELOPING AS A TEACHER

As a beginning teacher, you may initially find your role a bit overwhelming. After all, you may have twenty-five

to thirty-five students in your classroom at any one time, and they are likely to have different backgrounds,

ability levels and needs. This course describes many ways you can help your students learn and develop. But


________________________________________________________________________________________

it is equally important that you learn and develop as well. Here are several strategies to help you do so:

continue to take courses in education – sure way of keeping up to date on the latest theoretical

perspectives and research results related to classroom practice.

learn as much as you can about the subject matter you teach

learn as much as you can about specific strategies for teaching your particular subject matter

learn as much as you can about the culture(s) of the community in which you are working

conduct your own research.

KEY CONCEPTS TO ALWAYS REMEMBER:

o Characteristics of an effective teacher.

Knows subject matter.

Combine research and common sense.

Mastered pedagogical skills.

Consistent.

Enthusiastic.

Firm.

Fair.

Working knowledge of relevant research

Reflective, that is determines the effectiveness of present practices and makes

changes where necessary.

SESSION 3 RESEARCH IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

Educational psychology involves the study of cognitive, emotional, and social learning processes that underlie

education and human development across the lifespan. Research in educational psychology advances scientific

knowledge of those processes and their application in diverse educational and community settings. This

section looks at the impact of research in education. This power point presentation is W. Huitt’s postulate of

research in Educational psychology. Read Chapter 1 in Educational Psychology by Robert Slavin.

http://www.theteachersguide.com/Freebies.html


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Educational Psychology

Define and contrast descriptive, correlational and experimental studies, giving examples of how each of these have been used in educational psychology.

Define the four basic methods used to collect data in educational psychology (systematic observation, participant observation, paper/pencil, and clinical), giving an example of how each has been used in the study of important variables in educational psychology.

There are a variety of ways of validating truth:

• Intuition

• Religious scripture and interpretation

• Philosophy and logical reasoning

• Science and the scientific method

• Social and/or cultural consensus

• Personal experience

Research in Educational Psychology

Educational Psychology

In your discussion, define and differentiate the following terms: fact, concept, principle, hypothesis, theory, and law.

Developed by W. Huitt (1999)

In order for a process to be described as “scientific” it must meet three criteria:

• knowledge must be grounded in experience

• knowledge must be grounded in a paradigm or exemplar

• any hypothesis must be potentially falsifiable


http://www.columbia.k12.mo.us/dre/redschoolhouse.gif


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Some scientists argue that the only appropriate phenomena to study using the scientific method is behavior that is observable by others

However, other scientists believe that personal and interpersonal subjective experiences can also be studied using the scientific method


The scientific method can be used to engage in

• Research

where the objective is to gain understanding of a particular phenomena

OR

• Evaluation

where the objective is to make a judgement of worth or value


There are three different types of studies used in scientific investigations

Used when we have little knowledge of a phenomena and we want to describe it accurately and truthfully

• Descriptive study


Educational psychology offers a fertile opportunity for scientists to demonstrate the validity of these opposing viewpoints

Sample topics that have been addressed include:

• Cognitive development

• Teaching methods for concept development

• Language development


Assessment

Qualitative QuantitativeMeasurement

Research Evaluation



Used when we want to understand the relationships among variables and make predictions from present circumstances to future ones

• Correlational study



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Correlation coefficient describes the strength of the relationship


Range is from -1 to +1


Example of A Zero Correlation

Example of A Positive Correlation

Example of A Perfect Correlation





Type of relationship is determined by sign


Example of A Negative Correlation


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Type of relationship is determined by sign

Strength of relationship is determined by absolute value



Used when we have a fairly good understanding of predictive relationships and we want to demonstrate cause/effect relationships

• Experimental study



.60 > .40 (Regardless of sign)


Must have at least two groups


Subjects must be randomly assigned

One group must experience a treatment

The INDEPENDENT variable is manipulated

Change (if any) is observed in the DEPENDENT variable





Only Results from Experimental StudiesCan Demonstrate Cause and EffectRelationships

There are four levels of scientific investigation:

Action -- What is the relationship of A and B or what is the impact of A on B?

Example -- What are the best teaching methods that can be used to motivate students to learn?



Interaction -- What is the impact of A @ B1, A @ B2, etc.?

Example -- Does using cooperative learning in gender-mixed classrooms impact girls the same way it impacts boys?



Transaction -- What is the relationship between A and B over time?

Example -- If a teacher has successfully used a behavior modification technique, but has since stopped, what does the child do the next time the teacher uses that same technique?


http://images.google.com.jm/imgres?imgurl=http://www.chabotcollege.edu/Library/subjectindex/education_clipart_blackboard.gif&imgrefurl=http://www.chabotcollege.edu/Library/subjectindex/Education.htm&h=194&w=200&sz=7&tbnid=kueEmqDqYB3ViM:&tbnh=101&tbnw=104&prev=/images%3Fq%3Deducational%2Bclipart%26um%3D1&start=1&sa=X&oi=images&ct=image&cd=1

There are four basic methods used to gather data to be used in scientific studies. Each of the methods can be used in all three types of studies:

• Paper/pencil -- any information gathered by asking the subject a question

• Systematic observation -- trained recorder gathers data on prearranged variables



Transaction -- What is the relationship between A and B over time?

Example -- What are the processes by which a mother’s educational level impacts the parent-child interaction and subsequent characteristics of the child when he or she enters a classroom at a later date?



Transformation -- How do qualitative changes in A impact qualitative changes in B; also B1 on A1, etc.

Example -- How does parent involvement in a training program designed to impact a child’s classroom behavior impact the siblings of the child and the sibling’s subsequent interactions with the parent and future classroom behavior?


There are four basic methods used to gather data to be used in scientific studies. Each of the methods can be used in all three types of studies:


• Participant observation -- the person collecting the data participates in the process being observed

• Clinical -- specially-trained practitioners gather data as part of a diagnostic/prescriptive activity

Use of the scientific method results in an increasingly sophisticated knowledge base:

FACT

• names and dates of important activities; population of the United States in the latest census

• an idea or action that can be verified



PRINCIPLE

• relationship(s) between/among facts and/or concepts

• the number of children in the family is related to the average scores on nationally standardized achievement tests for those children



THEORY

• set of facts, concepts, and principles that allow description and EXPLANATION

• Piaget's theory of cognitive development,Erikson's theory of socioemotionaldevelopment, Skinner's theory of operant conditioning



CONCEPT

• rules that allow for categorization of events, places, people, ideas, etc.

• a DESK is a piece of FURNITURE designed with a flat top for writing; a CHAIR is a piece of FURNITURE designed for sitting; a CHAIR with a flat surface attached to it that is designed for writing is also called a DESK


Use of the scientific method does not necessarily invalidate information gathered through other means.

However, when data from science seem to contradict data from personal experience, intuition, social or cultural consensus, religious scripture and interpretation, or philosophy and rational thinking, an opportunity for learning has presented itself.


AN IMPORTANT CAVEAT

Only a small amount of the principles and theories developed in educational psychology have support from a body of research developed through the use of experimental studies.

Therefore, most of the concepts, principles, and theories discussed in this course must be considered as best-first-guess hypotheses.


As stated previously, educational psychology is a SCIENTIFIC approach to the study of the teaching/learning process.

You will be expected to support your opinions developed through another source with data collected using the scientific method.


HOW DO WE KNOW WHAT WE KNOW IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY?

As in any scientific field, knowledge comes from many sources. Sometimes researchers study schools, teachers,

or students as they are, and sometimes they create special programs, or treatments study their effects on one or

more variables (anything that can have more than one value, such as age, sex, achievement level, or attitudes).

The principal methods educational researchers use to learn about schools, teachers, students, and instruction are

experiments, correlational studies, and descriptive research. Perhaps the most frequently used research method

in education is the correlational study. In contrast to an experiment, in which the researcher deliberately changes

one variable to see how this change will affect the other variables, in correlational research the researcher studies

variables as they are to see whether they are related.

http://www.abacon.com/slavin/t2.h

ADVANTAGES OF THE CORRELATIONAL METHOD

Variables can be positively correlated, negatively correlated, or uncorrelated. An example of a positive correlation

is the relationship between reading achievement and mathematics achievement. Generally, someone who is

better than average in reading is also likely to be better than average in Math. When one variable is high, the

other tends also to be high. An example of a negative correlation is days absent and grades. The more days a

student is absent, the lower his or her grades will tend to be.

DISADVANTAGE OF THE CORRELATIONAL METHOD

The principal disadvantage of correlational methods is that while they may tell us that two variables are related,

http://www.school-clipart.com/_pages/0511-0703-2214-5912.html

they do not tell us what causes what. Indeed, correlation does not imply causation-this is a frequent pitfall for

novice researchers.

Action research is a particular form of descriptive research that is carried out by educators in their own classrooms

or schools. In action research, a teacher or principal might try out a new teaching method or school organization

strategy, collect information about how it worked, and communicate this information to others. Because the people

involved in the experiment are the educators themselves, action research lacks the objectivity sought in other

forms of research, but it can provide deeper insight from front-line teachers or administrators than would be

possible in research done by outsiders.

CORRELATIONS DO NOT SHOW CAUSATION

When research shows that broken homes and crime are correlated, it does not show causation. In this

illustration, poverty, a third variable, may be correlated to both crime and broken homes. Determining

the requires demonstrating that there are no other correlated effects (other possible causes) and that the

cause actually precedes the effect. http://www.abacon.com/slavin/t3.html

http://www.school-clipart.com/cgi-bin/admin.pl?do=license_image&image_number=0511-0703-2015-4321

REFERENCES

Elliott, Stephen N. et.al. (2000).Educational Psychology; Effective Teaching, Effective.Learning.McGraw Hill.

Boston

Ormrod Jeanne Ellis. (2003) Educational Psychology – Developing Learners.

Merrill Prentice Hall. New Jersey


Sternberg, Robert. (2002) Educational Psychology. Allyn and Bacon: Bosto

Woolfolk, Anita. (2004). Educational Psychology. Pearson. Boston

http://www.apa.org/monitor/jan98/talk.html

http://my.execpc.com/~presswis/candid.html

http://www.stanford.edu/dept/CTL/TA/char.html

http://www.stanford.edu/dept/CTL/TA/char.htm






Module 2: Theories of Development CP 105

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MODULE 2

THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

OVERVIEW

This Module is concerned with how people grow, adapt, and change over the course of their lifetimes,

through physical development, personality development, socio-emotional development, cognitive

development (thinking), and language development. This module presents five major theories of

human development that are widely accepted: Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive and moral

development, Lev Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development, Erik Erikson’s theory of personal and

social development, and Lawrence Kohlberg’s theories of moral development.

OBJECTIVES


understand some general principles of human development

demonstrate knowledge of Piaget’s four stages of development

summarize the key ideas in Vygotsky’s theory

analyze Vygotsky’s belief that culture powerfully shapes cognitive development

identify the major points on which Piaget and Vygotsky disagree

understand the implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories for teaching students of

different ages

understand Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development and their implications for teaching

distinguish between Piaget’s Cognitive development and Erikson's Psycho-social

development

understand Kohlberg’s stages of moral development and how teachers can respond to

cheating and aggression in the classroom

evaluate moral development in terms of value systems impacted by environmental issues


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WEEK 3

SESSION 4 THE MEANING OF DEVELOPMENT

The term development in its most general psychological sense refers to certain changes that occur in

human beings (or animals) between conception and death. The term is not applied to all changes, but

rather to those that appear in orderly ways and remain for a reasonably long length of time.

Human development is divided into a number of different aspects:

Physical Development changes in the body

Personal Development changes in an individual’s personality

Social Development changes in the way an individual relates to others

Cognitive Development changes in thinking

NATURE-NURTURE CONTROVERSY:

Is development predetermined at birth, by hereditary factors, or do experience and other environmental

factors affect it?

Nature – an organism’s biological inheritance

Nurture – environmental experiences

Today, most developmental psychologists believe that nature and nurture combine to influence

biological factors playing a stronger role in some aspects, such as physical development, and

environmental factors playing a stronger role in others, such as moral development

CONTINUOUS AND DISCONTINUOUS THEORIES:

Is human development like a seedling gradually growing into a giant oak? Or is it more like a

caterpillar suddenly becoming a butterfly?

Continuity of Development.(quantitative development) – development involves gradual cumulative change from conception to death.


______________________________________________________________________________________Discontinuity of Development (qualitative development) – development through distinct stages in the life

span.

According to the discontinuity perspective, each of us passes through a sequence of stages in which

change is qualitatively, rather than quantitatively different. As a mahoe tree moves from seedling to giant

tree, it becomes more oak – its development is continuous. As a caterpillar changes into a butterfly, it

becomes not just more caterpillar but a different kind of organism – its development is discontinuous. For

example, at a certain point, a child moves from not being able to think abstractly about the world to being

able to do so. This is qualitative, discontinuous changes of development, not quantitative, continuous

development. Santrock (1996)

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT

1. People develop at different rates – in your classroom your students will attest to this.

Some will be larger, some will be more matured in their thinking and social

relationships.

2. Development is relatively orderly – people develop abilities in a logical order

3. Development takes place gradually.

4. Development is continually affected by both nature (heredity) and nurture

(environment).

SESSION 5 JEAN PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Born in Switzerland in 1896, Piaget is the most influential developmental psychologist in the history

of psychology.

Piaget explored both why and how mental abilities change over time. For Piaget, development

depends in large part on the child's manipulation of and active interaction with the environment.

Piaget's theory of cognitive development proposes that a child's intellect, or cognitive abilities,

progresses through four distinct stages. The emergence of new abilities and ways of processing

information characterize each stage.

BASIC TENDENCIES IN THINKING

Organization

Ongoing process of arranging information and experience into mental systems or categories


______________________________________________________________________________________Adaptation

Adjustment to the environment

Assimilation

The cognitive process by which a person integrates new information into existing schema, or pattern

of behaviour

Accommodation

Occurs when new information cannot be assimilated into an existing schema. Must create new

schema or modify an existing schema.

Equilibration

Search for mental balance between cognitive schemes and information from environment

Disequilibrium

..the ‘ off balance’ state that occurs when a person realizes that his/her current ways of thinking are

not working to solve a problem or understand a situation

Schema

Cognitive or mental structures by which people intellectually adapt and organize the environment

Used to process and organize incoming information

Developing Schemes

Cognitive Development is guided by two innate components

1. Organization - The combining of basic building blocks (schemes) into coherent systems that

become stages of behavior

2. Adaptation-

The way the children adjust to the environment.


______________________________________________________________________________________ Mechanisms for adjusting to the environment

1. Assimilation – occurs when new experiences can be incorporated into existing

schemes

2. Accommodation – occurs when an existing scheme must be modified to

incorporate new experience.

Accommodation is the force that drives the cognitive system through stage changes

Organization and adaptation are designed to produce equilibrium – a sense of cognitive balance that the

individual strives for.

STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

The Sensorimotor Stage (ages 0-2)

Sensorimotor – exploration of their world by using their senses and their motor skills.

By the end of the sensorimotor stage, children have progressed from their earlier trial-and-error

approach to a more planned approach to problem solving.

Another hallmark of the sensorimotor period is the development of a grasp of object permanence.

Object permanence is the awareness that an object continues to exist even when it is not in view.

In young infants, when a toy is covered by a piece of paper, the infant immediately stops and

appears to lose interest in the toy. This child has not yet mastered the concept of object

permanence. In older infants, when a toy is covered the child will actively search for the object,

realizing that the object continues to exist.

Educational Implications

Provide multiple objects of various sizes, shapes, and colours for babies to use

Actively engage children with environmental objects.

Babies must touch them, mouth them, pull them, drop them, squeeze them, throw them and perform

any other conceivable actions since infants learn through sensory and motor activities.

The Preoperational Stage (ages 2-7).

Children begin to represent to represent the world with words, images and drawings – symbolic

thought goes beyond simple connections of sensory information and motoric.


______________________________________________________________________________________Features of the Preoperational Thought

Realism

Animism

Artificialism

Transductive Reasoning

Limitations of the Preoperational Period

Centering

Egocentricism

Irreversibility


Deferred Imitation

Symbolic play

Drawing

Mental Image

Language (talking)

Concrete operational stage (ages 7-11)

Logical reasoning replaces intuitive thought as long as reasoning can be applied to specific or concrete examples

Features of the Concrete Operational Period

Conservation (understanding reversibility)

Seriation

Classification

Number concept




______________________________________________________________________________________ They can assimilate and accommodate material they encounter but only at their level. They are

capable of representational thought, but only with the concrete and tangible.

Formal Operational Stage (ages 11 to adulthood).

Increased ability to think hypothetical ways produces unconstrained thought with unlimited possibilities

Features of the Formal Operational period

Ability to separate real from possible

Propositional thinking

Gathering much information and then making combinations of variables to solve a

problem (hypothetico-deductive reasoning)

Egocentricism

Thinking of possibilities

Thinking about abstracts

Thinking in multidimensional terms

Seeing knowledge as relative


Can students separate the real from the possible? Some student will still have a difficult time.

Are they comfortable with the propositional thinking needed? Can they take the concrete

material they’ve learned and transform it into abstract, even contradictory, ideas?

Can they gather as much data as is needed and combine many and varied ideas forming

new propositions?

VYGOTSKY’S SOCIO-CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE

Lev Semionovich Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist who, though a contemporary of Piaget, died in 1934. His

work was not widely read in English until the 1970s.

Basic assumptions:

Complex mental processes begin as social activities; as children develop, they gradually


______________________________________________________________________________________ internalize these processes and begin to use them independently

Children simultaneously have two important levels of development:

- their actual developmental level which is the level at which they can perform activities

with no assistance

- their potential developmental level which is the level at which they can perform

activities with assistance


______________________________________________________________________________________

Prepared by Ruby Bramwell, Lecturer, VTDI

THEORY OF COGNITIVE

DEVELOPMENT

LEV VYGOTSKY


Vygotsky’sDevelopment

Instructed by private tutors who used Socratic dialogue – question and answer approach

These sessions combined with study (literature) and teaching experience convinced him of two factors in devt.:– social interaction and language in

human development (sociocultural view)


Who was Lev Vygotsky?

Born in Russia (1896 –1934)

Educated at Moscow University where his work in educational psychology started.

Greatly influenced by Marxism

Work became influential in the 1970’s long after his death from tuberculosis


Vygotsky’s View of Human Development

Discontinuous – cognitive development occurs in stages

Domain general – cognitive development occurs simultaneously in many areas e.g. unlikely for a child to get A in reading and Fin English

Domain Specific – development occurs at different rates in different areas e.g. student can be expert in one area and novice in another


Core Assumptions of Marxism that

Influenced Vygotsky

Activity generates thinking

Development advances by dialectical exchanges

Development is a historical process within cultural contexts


Basic Themes in Vygotsky’s Theory

Intellectual development can be understood only in terms of the historical and cultural contexts children experience

Intellectual development depends on the sign systems that individuals grow up with: the symbols that cultures create to help people think, communicate and solve problems. For example a culture’s language, writing system, or counting system


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Internalization

The absorption or taking in of knowledge from the social contexts in which it is observed, so that one can use it for oneself.

Students just entering school will learn how to form a lunch line if they observe older students forming lunch lines


Extract from VygotskyHimself

Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of ideas. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals (Vygotsky, 1978, p.57).


How development occurs

LEARNING PRECEDES DEVELOPMENT

Learning involves the acquisition of signs by means of instruction and information from others

Development involves the child’s internalization of these signs so as to be able to think and solve problems without the help of others – SELF REGULATION


Development of Self Regulation and

Independent Thinking

Stage 1. A baby learns that when he reaches for an object it is interpreted by others as a signal that he wants the object. Child will next begin to associate certain words with meaning

Stage 2. The infant practices gestures that will get attention. The preschooler will enter into conversations with others to master language


Stage 3. Using signs to think and solve problems without the help of others. At this point, children become self-regulating and and the sign system has become internalized


•Egocentric Speech – (age 3) a form of speech in which children talk, whether anyone is listening or not

•Inner Speech – (age 5) speech turns inward and serves an important function in guiding and planning behaviour. In many cases children who are not permitted these vocalizations can’t accomplish the task!


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Zone of Proximal Development

An area in which a child/adolescent would have trouble solving a problem alone, but can succeed with help from someone more knowledgeable – competent peer or adult.

Higher mental functioning usually exists in conversation and collaboration among individuals before it exists within the individual


Vygotsky and Language Development

Pre-intellectual speech – elementary processes that develop into speech

Naive Psychology – children begin to label the objects around them and acquire the syntax of their speech


Role of Adults and Peers

Serve as guides to support cognitive growth

Zone of proximal development: a range from a child’s actual to potential abilities


Scaffolding

The process of providing a child or adolescent with a good deal of support during the time they are learning something.

This support is reduced as the learner becomes able to deal with the task independently, resulting in his taking on increasing responsibility for his learning


Implications for Teaching

Children learn by internalizing external dialogue

Children almost never operate at the peak of their capacity

Language and thought are intimately and inextricably related


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Applying Vygotsky’sIdeas

Tailor scaffolding to the needs of students

Make sure students have access to tools that support thinking

Capitalize on dialogue and group learning


Zone of Proximal Development is useful because it enables a teacher to consider what a learner can do at a particular time, as well as the “zone” within which they can master new material

Scaffolding involves social supports for learning (Collaborative learning) in which learners work together in (heterogenous groups) to solve problems

Socio-cultural dimensions – learning is a culturally and socially mediated process, therefore a child brings with him knowledge as well as conceptions of learning from his family and cultural background so there needs to be connections between the child’s in-school learning and these cultural foundations of knowledge


Focus

For group discussion:

What are the differences between the theories of Piaget and Vygotsky and how do they complement one another?


Food for Thought

How do you see your role in the socio-cultural development of children?


Determine where the child’s actual developmental level i

Provide scaffolded instruction designed to move the child through the zone of

proximal development


______________________________________________________________________________________ Assisted Learning

WEEK 4

SESSION 6 PERSONAL, SOCIAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

Erickson believes that personality emerges from a series of inner and outer conflict, which if resolved result in a

greater sense of self. These crises arise at each of eight stages of life and each crises results in a period of

increased vulnerability and heightened potential and can lead either to maladjustment or increased psychic

strength.

The Eight Psycho-social Stages

Trust versus Mistrust (birth to year) Infant must form a loving, trusting, relationship with caregiver or

develop a sense of mistrust

Autonomy versus Shame, Doubt ( 2-3 years)

Initiative versus Guilt (4-5 years)

- the role of play

- play and cognitive development

- play and social development

- play and emotional development


______________________________________________________________________________________

Industry versus Inferiority (6-11 years)

Identity versus Identity Confusion (12-18 years)

Identity Statuses (James Marcia)

- Identity Diffusion (-crisis, -commitment)-confusion about who you are and what you want

- Identity Foreclosure (-crisis, + commitment) –acceptance of parental life choices without

consideration of options

- Identity Achievement (+crisis, + commitment) – strong commitment to life choices after free

consideration of alternatives

- Identity Moratorium ( suspension of choices because of struggle)

Intimacy versus Isolation (18-35)

Generativity versus Stagnation (35-65)

Integrity versus Despair (over 65 years)

MORAL DEVELOPMENT

WHAT DO YOU THINK?

In Europe, a woman is near death from a special kind of cancer. There is one drug that the doctors

think might save her. It is a form of radium that a druggist in the same town has recently discovered.

The drug is expensive to make, but the druggist is charging ten times what the drug cost him to make.

He paid $200 for the radium and is charging $2000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick woman's

husband, Heinz, goes to everyone he knows to borrow the money, but he can get together only about

$1000, which is half of what it costs. He tells the druggist that his wife is dying and asks him to sell the

drug cheaper or let him pay later. The druggist says, "No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make

money from it." Heinz is desperate and considers breaking into the man's store to steal the drug for his

wife.

1. Should Heinz steal the drug? Why or why not?

2. If Heinz doesn't love his wife, should he steal the drug for her? Why or why not?

3. Suppose the person dying is not his wife but a stranger. Should Heinz steal the drug for a

stranger? Why or why not?

4. Suppose it is a pet animal he loves. Should Heinz steal to save the pet animal? Why or why

not?

5. Why should people do everything they can to save another's life?

6. It is against the law for Heinz to steal? Does that make it morally wrong? Why or why not?

Why should people generally do everything they can to avoid breaking the law? How does this relate

to Heinz's case? (Colby, 1979: Form A)


______________________________________________________________________________________

JEAN PIAGET'S AND LAWRENCE KOHLBERG’S THEORIES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Acguiring a Sense of Right and Wrong

Prepared by Ruby BramwellLecturer V.T.D.I.

JEAN PIAGET’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Heteronomous Morality(or morality imposed by the rules of others) is characterized by the view that rules are absolute, children pay attention to the actions of others but not to the intention underlying their actions. Also called moral realism.

For example someone who breaks 15 glasses while trying to steal sugar from a canister will be judged more harshly than someone who breaks just one glass

LAWRENCE KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Students encounter moral dilemmas constantly. Should they cheat on a test? Should they report a student whom they observed cheating? Should they violate a confidence, such as a confession of a crime made to them in confidence?

MORAL DEVELOPMENT

…The process by which individuals acquire a sense of right and wrong, to use in evaluating their own actions and the actions of others

Moral development begins early and continues throughout the life span


______________________________________________________________________________________

Autonomous Morality is the level at which children understand that people both make up rules and can change the rules, which are now seen as the product of people’s agreement. This is also called moral relativism or the morality of cooperation. At about age 8, children are able to understand that rules and laws are not absolute, but rather are formed by the agreement of groups of people; rules can be changed in the same way if people agree a new rule is needed

Influenced by the work of Piaget and John Dewey, Lawrence Kohlberg (1929-1987), a Harvard educator and psychologist, used dilemmas to study moral reasoning.

Like Piaget, Kohlberg concluded that morality develops in stages, and all people pass through all the stages in the same order but at different rates

Kohlberg described moral development as existing in three levels consisting of two stages each

These levels represent the perspectives people take as they wrestle with moral dilemmas or problems. The stages are outlined thus:

Level 1: Preconventional Morality

Stage 1: Punishment-obedience

Punishment and obedience are an individual’s main concerns

Individuals make moral decisions based on their chances of getting caught and being punished

They determine right and wrong by the consequences of an action e.g. if the child is punished, the act is morally wrong; if not, the act is right

Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange

People focus on the consequences of an action for themselves but reciprocity is involved. Rules are followed if they are in the individual’s best interest “An eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth” or “Don’t bite the hand that feeds you” reflect morality at his stage, and you do something for me and I’ll do something for you” is a key characteristic.

A naïve hedonism is used to judge morality at this stage

Aspects of the political system exists a this stage. Political patronage, the tendency of succesful office seekers to give supporters the best jobs regardless of qualifications

Level 11: Conventional Morality

As egocentricism declines and development progresses, students become better able to see from others’ points of view

Moral reasoning becomes linked to the perspectives of, and concerns for, others

Values such as loyalty, others’ approval, family expectations, obeying the law and social order become prominent

Sample answer to Heinz Dilemma:

“No, Heinz shouldn’t take the radium because he might get caught and thrown into jail."


______________________________________________________________________________________

Sample answer to Heinz dilemma:

“Yes, Heinz was right to steal the drug because the druggist was unwilling to make a fair deal; he was trying to ‘rip Heinz off’ and refuses to make a deal that will benefit both people

Stage 3: Good interpersonal relationships

Individuals operating at this level do not manipulate people to reach their goals. Rather, the interpersonal harmony stage is characterized by conventions, loyalty and living up to the expectations of others

Person is oriented toward maintaining the affection and approval of friends and relatives by being a ‘good’ person.

Sometimes called the ‘nice girl/good boy’ stage

People try to do what is expected of them

Sample answer to Heinz Dilemma

“Yes, Heinz should steal the drug. A good husband takes care of his wife. He would seem cold and heartless if he wasn’t willingto risk a litle jail time to help his wife live. Besides, it is the druggist’s fault, he is unfair, trying to overcharge and lettingsomeone die.”


“Heinz should not steal the drug. If everyone disobeyed the laws against theft, society would be in chaos. What would happen if we all started breaking laws whenever we felt we had a good reason? Society couldn’t function.”

Stage 5: Social contract and Individual rights

Person understands that a society of rational people needs socially agreed-on laws in order to function. Laws are not accepted blindly or for their own sake; rather, they are based on the principle of utility, or “the greatest good for the greatest number,” and are followed because they adhere to rights such as life, liberty, and the dignity of the individual

Stage 4: Law and Order

The ethics at this stage points out that law and order exist to guide behaviour and should be followed uniformly

Emphasis is placed on obeying the law, respecting authority, and performing one’s duties so that the social order is maintained

The individual becomes more broadly concerned with society as a whole


______________________________________________________________________________________

Level 111: Postconventional Morality (Principled Morality)

A person reasoning at this level has transcended both the individual and societal levels and makes moral decisions based on principles

Individuals follow rules but also see that, at times, rules need to be changed or ignored

Only a small portion of the population attains this level, and most don’t before mid to late 20s


“Yes, Heinz should take the drug, because the value of human lifeoutweighs the druggist’s individual right to own property. It is the husband’s duty to save his wife. The fact that her life is in danger transcends every other standard you might use to judge his action. Life is more important than property

Stage 6: Universal Principles

Reasoning is based on abstract and general principles above society’s rules.

People define rightness in terms of internalized universal standards that go beyond concrete laws

Individuals adopt an orientation toward universal principles of justice which exist regardless of a particular society’s rules

Putting Theory into Perspective

Every person’s moral reasoning passes through the same stages in the same order

People pass through the stages at different rates

Development is gradual and continuous, rather than sudden and discrete


Teachers need to expect a level of moral thought and behaviour that is appropriate to the child’s age

Having classroom discussion of moral dilemmas help challenge student’s moral reasoning


“Yes, Heinz should take the drugs because the value of human life outweighs any other consideration.”


______________________________________________________________________________________

Once a stage is attained, a person continues to reason at that stage and rarely regresses to a lower stage

Intervention usually results in moving only to the next higher stage

Self assessment will help teachers assess their own level of moral development to better understand how they perceive the thinking and behaviour of their students

Teachers need to realize that no one theory of moral development is universally accepted

Teachers need to encourage and develop thinking that is not just moral but also, wise

REFERENCES


Boston





Woolfolk, Anita. (2004). Educational Psychology. Allyn and Bacon. Boston

http://classweb.gmu.edu/awinsler/ordp/cogdev.html

http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/piaget.html

http://teach.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/piagtuse.html

http://teach.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/piaget.html

http://teach.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/piaget.html

http://classweb.gmu.edu/awinsler/ordp/cogdev.html


______________________________________________________________________________________

MODULE 3

APPROACHES TO LEARNING

OVERVIEW

Human learning is a complex multi-faceted process that often involves changes in both thinking and

behaviour. Understanding how students learn and complex thinking skills are the main foci of this

module. In addition, this module is to define learning and then to present behavioural and social

learning theories, explanations for learning that emphasize observable behaviours. Behavioural

learning theories focus on ways in which pleasurable or unpleasant consequences of behaviour

change individuals’ behaviour over time and ways in which individuals model their behaviour on that

of others. Social learning theories focus on the effects of thought on action and action on thought.

OBJECTIVES


distinguish between classical and operant conditioning

understand the similarities and differences among contiguity, classical conditioning and

operant conditioning

recognize how students may acquire fears through classical conditioning

identify the major elements of operant conditioning

understand how the principles of reinforcement and punishment can be used in the

classroom

demonstrate how applied behaviour analysis can be used to solve common academic or

behaviour problems

apply the principles of social cognitive theory to your instructional techniques

identify a model of information processing

recognize elements of instruction that affect student memory

identify activities and teaching methods that can facilitate students’ construction of

knowledge

Module 3: Approaches to Learning CP 105

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WEEK 5

SESSION 7 UNDERSTANDING LEARNING

WHAT IS LEARNING?

Learning has already been defined in Module 1 so this is just a refresher. But let me say, again, that

learning is usually defined as a change in an individual caused by experience.

Changes caused by development (such as growing taller) are not instances of learning.

Humans do so much learning from the day of their birth (and some say earlier) that learning and

development are inseparably linked.

The problem educators face is not how to get students to learn (students are already engaged in

learning every waking moment) but how to help students learn particular information, skills, and

concepts that will be useful in adult life.

How do we present students with the right stimuli on which to focus their attention and mental effort so

that they will acquire important skills? That is the central problem of instruction.

IVAN PAVLOV’S CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Pavlov and his colleagues studied the digestive process in dog in the late 1800s and early 1900s.

Pavlov observed that if meat powder was placed in or near the mouth of a hungry dog, the dog would

salivate.

Because the meat powder provoked this response automatically, without any prior training or

conditioning, the meat powder is referred to as an unconditioned stimulus.

Because salivation occurred automatically in the presence of meat, also without the need for any

training or experience, this response of salivating is referred to as an unconditioned response.

Pavlov's experiments showed that if a previously neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned

stimulus, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus and gains the power to prompt a

response similar to that produced by the unconditioned stimulus. In other words, after the bell and the

meat are presented together, the ringing of the bell alone causes the dog to salivate. This process is

referred to as classical conditioning.

Pavlov's emphasis on observation and careful measurement and his systematic exploration of several

aspects of learning helped to advance the scientific study of learning. Pavlov also left other behavioral

theorists with significant mysteries, such as the process by which neutral stimuli take on meaning.

Before conditioning


________________________________________________________________________________________ In order to have classical or respondent conditioning, there must exist a stimulus that will automatically

or reflexively elicit a specific response.

This stimulus is called the unconditioned Stimulus or UCS because there is no learning involved in

connecting the stimulus and response.

There must also be a stimulus that will not elicit this specific response, but will elicit an orienting

response. This stimulus is called a neutral stimulus or an orienting stimulus.

During conditioning

During conditioning, the neutral stimulus will first be presented, followed by the unconditioned stimulus.

Over time, the learner will develop an association between these two stimuli (i.e., will learn to make a

connection between the two stimuli.)

After Conditioning

After conditioning, the previously neutral or orienting stimulus will elicit the response previously only

elicited by the unconditioned stimulus.


________________________________________________________________________________________ The stimulus is now called a conditioned stimulus because it will now elicit a different response as a

result of conditioning or learning.

The response is now called a conditioned response because it is elicited by a stimulus as a result of

learning.

The two responses, unconditioned and conditioned, look the same, but they are elicited by different

stimuli and are therefore given different labels.

In the area of classroom learning, classical conditioning primarily influences emotional behavior. Things

that make us happy, sad, angry, etc. become associated with neutral stimuli that gain our attention. For

example, if a particular academic subject or remembering a particular teacher produces emotional

feelings in you, those emotions are probably a result of classical conditioning.

http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/behsys/classcnd.html.

B. F. SKINNER’S OPERANT CONDITIONING

Skinner proposed that reflexive behaviour accounts for only a small proportion of all actions.

Skinner proposed another class of behaviour, which he labeled operant behaviours because they

operate on the environment in the apparent absence of any unconditioned stimuli, such as food. For

http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/behsys/classcnd.html


________________________________________________________________________________________

example, if an individual's behaviour is immediately followed by pleasurable consequences, the

individual will engage in that behaviour more frequently. The use of pleasant and unpleasant

consequences to change behaviour is often referred to as operant conditioning.

PRINCIPLES OF BEHAVIOURAL LEARNING

Principles of behavioural learning include the role of consequences, reinforcers, punishers, immediacy

of consequences, shaping, extinction, schedules of reinforcement, maintenance, and the role of

antecedents.

Pleasurable consequences strengthen behavior; unpleasant consequences weaken it.

REINFORCERS

A reinforcer is defined as any consequence that strengthens (that is, increases the frequency of) a

behavior.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY REINFORCERS

Reinforcers fall into two broad categories:

Primary reinforcers satisfy basic human needs. Some examples are food, water, security, warmth,

and sex.

Secondary reinforcers are reinforcers that acquire their value by being associated with primary

reinforcers or other well-established secondary reinforcers.

POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE REINFORCERS

Reinforcers that are used in schools are things given to students. These are called positive

reinforcers and include praise, grades, and stars.

Reinforcers that are escapes from unpleasant situations are called negative reinforcers. WHAT DO YOU THINK?

A child approaches a dog and is bitten. From that point on, the child is filled with fear and runs

away whenever a dog approaches. Think about the classically conditioned aspect as well as the

operantly conditioned aspect of the example


________________________________________________________________________________________

PREMACK PRINCIPLE

One important principle of behaviour is that we can promote less-desired (low-strength) activities by

linking them to more-desired activities. In other words, access to something desirable is made

contingent on doing something less desirable. For example, a teacher might say, "As soon as you finish

your work, you may go outside" or "Clean up your art project, and then I will read you a story." These

are examples of the Premack Principle.

INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC REINFORCERS

The most important reinforcer that maintains behaviour is the pleasure inherent in engaging in the

behaviour.

People like to draw, read, sing, play games, hike, or swim for no reason other than the fun of doing it.

These are called intrinsic reinforcers.

Intrinsic reinforcers are contrasted with extrinsic reinforcers, praise or rewards given to motivate people

to engage in a behavior that they might not engage in without it. There is evidence that reinforcing

children for certain behaviors they would have done anyway can undermine long-term intrinsic

motivation.

PUNISHERS


________________________________________________________________________________________ Consequences that weaken behaviour are called punishers. For example, some students like being

sent to the principal's office or out to the hail, because it releases them from the classroom, which they

see as an unpleasant situation. As with reinforcers, the effectiveness of a punisher cannot be assumed

but must be demonstrated

Punishment can take two primary forms.

Presentation Punishment

Presentation punishment is the use of unpleasant consequences, or aversive stimuli, as when a

student is scolded

Removal Punishment

Removal punishment is the withdrawal of a pleasant consequence. Examples include loss of a

privilege, having to stay in during recess, or having to stay after school. One frequently used form of

removal punishment in classrooms is time out, in which a student who misbehaves is required to sit in

the corner or in the hall for several minutes.

IMMEDIACY OF CONSEQUENCES

WHAT DO YOU THINK?

Recall an instance of punishment that you have experienced at some time during your life.

What were your feelings when you were being punished? Did the punishment work? What are

some other negative effects of punishment? If punishment is ineffective and also produces

negative side effects, why do so many teachers rely on it so much?



________________________________________________________________________________________ Consequences that follow behaviors closely in time affect behavior far more than delayed

consequences do. A smaller reinforcer that is given immediately generally has a much larger effect than

does a large reinforcer that is given later.

Immediate feedback serves at least two purposes.

- it makes clear the connection between behavior and consequence.

- it increases the informational value of the feedback.

SHAPING

When teachers guide students toward goals by reinforcing the many steps that lead to success, they

are using a technique called shaping.

EXTINCTION

By definition, reinforcers strengthen behavior. but what happens when reinforcers are withdrawn?

eventually, the behavior will be weakened, and ultimately, it will disappear.

Behavior intensifies when the reinforcer is first withdrawn, then rapidly weakens until the behavior

disappears. still, the behavior may return after much time has passed.

SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT

The effects of reinforcement on behavior depend on many factors, one of the most important of which is the

schedule of reinforcement..

FIXED RATIO (FR)

A reinforcer is given after a fixed number of behaviors. For example, a teacher might say, "As soon as

you finish ten problems, you may go outside." Regardless of the amount of time it takes, students are

reinforced as soon as they finish 10 problems.

VARIABLE RATIO (VR)



________________________________________________________________________________________ The number of behaviors required for reinforcement is unpredictable, although it is certain that the

behaviors will eventually be reinforced. In the classroom a variable-ratio schedule exists when students

raise their hands to answer questions. They never know when they will be reinforced by being able to

give the correct answer, but they may expect to be called on about I time in 30 in a class of 30.

FIXED INTERVAL (FL)

In fixed-interval schedules, reinforcement is available only at certain periodic times. The final

examination is a classic example of a fixed-interval schedule.

VARIABLE INTERVAL (VI)

In a variable-interval schedule, reinforcement is available at some times but not at others, and we have

no idea when a behavior will be reinforced. An example of this is a teacher making spot checks of

students who are doing assignments in class.

Students are reinforced if they are working well at the particular moment the teacher comes by. Since

they cannot predict when the teacher will check them, students must be doing good work all the time.

MAINTENANCE

The principle of extinction holds that when reinforcement for a previously learned behaviour is

withdrawn, the behavior fades away. Does this mean that teachers must reinforce students' behaviors

indefinitely or they will disappear?

THE ROLE OF ANTECEDENTS

Cueing

Antecedent stimuli, events that precede a behavior, are also known as cues, because they inform us

what behaviour will be reinforced and/or what behavior will be punished. Cues come in many forms and

give us hints as to when we should change our behavior and when we should not.

DISCRIMINATION

For students to learn discrimination, they must have feedback on the correctness or incorrectness of

their responses.

Studies of discrimination learning have generally found that students need to know when their

responses are incorrect as well as correct.

GENERALIZATION


________________________________________________________________________________________

For generalization to occur, it usually must be planned for. A successful classroom management

program used in social studies class may be transferred to English class to ensure generalization to

that setting.

Students may need to study the use of symbolism by many authors in many cultures before they

acquire the skill to interpret symbolism in general.

TECHNIQUES FOR INCREASING GENERALIZATION

Slavin in his book Educational Psychology quotes Schloss and Smith (1998) as describing 11

techniques for increasing the chances that a behavior learned in one setting, such as a given class, will

generalize to other settings, such as other classes or, more important, real-life applications. Some of

these strategies involve teaching in a way that makes generalization easier. For example, arithmetic

lessons involving money will probably transfer better to real life if they involve manipulating real or

simulated coins and bills than if they involve only problems on paper.

After initial instruction has taken place, there are many ways to increase generalization. One is to repeat

instruction in a variety of settings. For example, after teaching students to use a given test-taking strategy in

mathematics, such as "skip difficult problems and go back to them after answering the easy ones," a teacher

might give students the opportunity to use this same strategy on a science test, a grammar test, and a health

test.

APPLIED BEHAVIOUR ANALYSIS/BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION

Applied behaviour analysis is the application of behavioural learning principles to understand and shape

behaviour. The method is sometimes called behaviour modification which is the systematic application of

antecedents and consequences to change behaviour.

STEPS IN APPLIED BEHAVIOUR ANALYSIS

Identify target behaviour

Establish a baseline for the target behaviour

Choose reinforcers and punishers (if necessary)

Measure changes in the target behaviour

Gradually reduce the frequency of reinforcers as behaviour improves

METHODS FOR ENCOURAGING BEHAVIOURS


________________________________________________________________________________________

Reinforcement with teacher attention

Selecting Reinforcers: The Premack Principle

Shaping

Positive Practice

COPING WITH UNDESIRABLE BEHAVIOUR

Negative Reinforcement

Satiation

Reprimands

Response cost

Social Isolation



________________________________________________________________________________________

Week 6

Session 8 COGNITIVE APPROACH TO LEARNING

WHAT IS AN INFORMATION-PROCESSING MODEL?

Information constantly enters our minds through our senses even though most of this information is

almost immediately discarded. and we may never even be aware of much of it.

Some is held in our memories for a short time and then forgotten. For example, we may remember the

seat number on a football ticket until we find our seats, at which point we will forget the number.

Some information is retained much longer, perhaps for the rest of our lives. What is the process by

which information is absorbed, and how can teachers take advantage of this process to help students

retain critical information and skills?

SENSORY REGISTER

Incoming information meets is the sensory register.

Information is received from each of the senses (sight, hearing, touch, smell, taste) and held for a very

short time, no more than a couple of seconds. If nothing happens to information held in a sensory

register, it is rapidly lost.

There are two important educational implications at work here:

- People must pay attention to information if they are to retain it.

- It takes time to bring all the information seen in a moment into consciousness. For example, if

students are bombarded with too much information at once and are not told which aspects of

the information they should pay attention to, they may have difficulty learning any of the

information at all.

- PERCEPTION

Perception of stimuli involves mental interpretation and is influenced by our mental state, past

experience, knowledge, motivations, and many other factors.

We perceive different stimuli according to rules that have nothing to do with the inherent characteristics

of the stimuli. If you are sitting in a building, for example, you may not pay much attention to, or even

hear, a fire engine's siren.


________________________________________________________________________________________ If you are driving a car, you pay a great deal more attention. If you are standing outside a burning

building waiting for the fire fighters to arrive, you pay even more attention.

ATTENTION

When teachers say to students, "Pay attention" or "Lend me your ears," they are using the words pay

and lend appropriately. Like money, attention is a limited resource.

An experienced speaker knows that when the audience looks restless, its attention is no longer focused

on the lecture but might be turning toward considerations of lunch or other activities; it is time to

recapture the listeners' attention.

GAINING ATTENTION

Use cues that indicate "This is important." Some teachers raise or lower their voices, use gestures,

repetition, or body position to communicate the same message.

Another way to gain attention is to increase the emotional content of material.

Unusual, inconsistent, or surprising stimuli also attract attention. For example, science teachers often

introduce lessons with a demonstration or magic trick to engage student curiosity.

Informing students that what follows is important to them will catch their attention. For example,

teachers can ensure attention by telling students, "This will be on tomorrow's test."

SHORT-TERM OR WORKING MEMORY

Short-term memory can hold a limited amount of information for a few seconds.

It is the part of memory in which information that is currently being thought about is stored.

When we stop thinking about something, it disappears from our short-term memory.

Information may enter working memory from sensory registers or from the third basic component of the

memory system: long-term memory.

One way to hold information in working memory is to think about it or say it over and over.

Rehearsal is important in learning because the longer an item remains in working memory, the greater

the chance that it will be transferred to long-term memory.

Because working memory has a limited capacity, information can also be lost from it by being forced

out by other information.

Teachers must allocate time for rehearsal during classroom lessons.


________________________________________________________________________________________LONG-TERM MEMORY

Long-term memory is that part of our memory system where we keep information for long periods of

time.

In fact, many theorists believe that we may never forget information in long-term memory; rather, we

might just lose the ability to find the information within our memory..

Theorists divide long-term memory into at least three parts:

- episodic memory

- semantic memory

- procedural memory.

Episodic memory is our memory of personal experiences, a mental movie of things we saw or heard.

Most things that are learned in class lessons are retained in semantic memory.

Procedural memory refers to "knowing how" in contrast to "knowing that." The abilities to drive, type,

and ride a bicycle are examples of skills that are retained in procedural memory.

Factors that enhance long-term memory

Contrary to popular belief, people retain a large portion of what they learn in school. Long-term

retention of information that is learned in school varies a great deal according to the type of information.

Several factors contribute to long-term retention. One very important factor is the instructional strategies

that actively involve students.

WHAT CAUSES PEOPLE TO REMEMBER OR FORGET?

Most forgetting occurs because information in working memory was never transferred to long-term memory.

However, it can also occur because we have lost our ability to recall information that is in long-term memory.

Interference

Retroactive Inhibition

Proactive inhibition

HOW CAN MEMORY STRATEGIES BE TAUGHT?



________________________________________________________________________________________

Verbal learning

Paired-associate

Serial learning

Free-recall learning

Paired-associate learning

HOW DO METACOGNITIVE SKILLS HELP STUDENTS LEARN?

The term metacognition means knowledge about one's own learning or about how to learn.

Thinking skills and study skills are examples of metacognitive skills.

Students can be taught strategies for assessing their own understanding, figuring out how much time

they will need to study something, and choosing an effective plan of attack to study or solve problems.

Teaching metacognitive strategies to students can lead to a marked improvement in their achievement.

WHAT STUDY STRATEGIES HELP STUDENTS LEARN?

Note-taking

Underlining

Writing to learn

Outlining and mapping

WEEK 7

SESSION 9 SOCIAL COGNITIVE AND CONSTRUCTIVIST VIEWS OF LEARNING



________________________________________________________________________________________How has social learning theory contributed to our understanding of human learning?

Developed by Albert Bandura, social learning theory accepts most of the principles of behavioral

theories but focuses to a much greater degree on the effects of cues on behavior and on internal

mental processes, emphasizing the effects of thought on action and action on though

Modeling and observational learning

Bandura's (1986) analysis of observational learning involves four phases:

attention

retention

reproduction

motivational

Observational Learning and Teaching

Directing attention

Fine-tuning already learned behaviour

Strengthening or weakening inhibitions

Teaching new behaviours – modelling

Arousing emotion

Vicarious learning

People learn by seeing others reinforced or punished for engaging in certain behaviours.

Classroom teachers use the principle of vicarious learning all the time. When one student is fooling

around, teachers often single out others who are working well and reinforce them for doing a good job.

The misbehaving student sees that working is reinforced and (it is hoped) gets back to work.

Self-regulated Learning

People observe their own behaviour, judge it against their own standards, and reinforce or punish

themselves.

Students can be taught to use self-regulation strategies, and they can be reminded to do so in a variety

of contexts so that self-regulation becomes a habit. For example, students might be asked to set goals


________________________________________________________________________________________for the amount of time they expect to study each evening and to record whether or not they meet their

goals.

WEEK 8

SESSION 10

CONSTRUCTIVISM

CONSTRUCTIVIST VIEWS OF LEARNING

Constructivism is the view that emphasizes the active role of the learner in building understanding and

making sense of information. It is a theory about learning, not a description of teaching. Learners

construct their own understanding of the world. This is not about a change in teaching technique but,

rather, the way we think about knowledge acquisition and the assessment of that knowledge.

(Elliott et.al, 15)

Constructivism emphasizes the importance of the knowledge, beliefs, and skills an individual brings to

the experience of learning. It recognizes the construction of new understanding as a combination of

prior learning, new information, and readiness to learn. Individuals make choices about what new ideas

to accept and how to fit then into their established views of the world. (Woolfolk, 326)

THE THEORY OF CONSTRUCTIVISM

The basic tenets of constructivism are that:

Knowledge is constructed from and shaped by experience.

Students must take an active role and assume responsibility for their learning.

Learning is a collaborative process and students create their own meaning from obtaining multiple

perspectives.

Learning should occur in a realistic setting.



________________________________________________________________________________________ Learners should choose their own path through content and activities.

Content should be presented holistically, not broken into separate smaller tasks.

(www.e-learningguru.com/articles/art3_6.htm - 9k -)

CREATING A CONSTRUCTIVIST CLASSROOM


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Along with having a constructivist teacher you also need to have a constructivist classroom. “Creating a

constructivist classroom requires that the classroom teacher must be in position to:

Influence or create motivating conditions for students

Take responsibility for creating problem situations

Foster acquisition and retrieval of prior knowledge

Create a social environment that emphasizes that attitude of learning to learn

The learning process not the product of learning is the primary focus of constructivism. The constructivist

teacher has to be the ‘guide on the side and not the sage n the stage.”

The student has to make their own meanings and decisions. They are not to be handed to them by the

teacher. To facilitate real learning, teachers need to organize their classroom and their curriculum so that

students can collaborate, interact, and raise questions of both classmates and the teacher.

The whole idea of a constructivist classroom is characterized by the mutual respect between the teacher and

the children. In most classrooms the respect is one way. The children have to respect the teacher. A

constructivist teacher respects the children by allowing the children rights to their feelings, ideas, and

opinions. The teacher refrains from using their power unnecessarily. .

Epstein, Maureen (2002) Constructivism: Using Information Effectively in Education: Research Paper

APPLYING COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTIVISM IN THE CLASSROOM

The chart below compares the traditional classroom to the constructivist one. You can see significant

differences in basic assumptions about knowledge, students, and learning. (It's important, however,

to bear in mind that constructivists acknowledge that students are constructing knowledge in

traditional classrooms, too. It's really a matter of the emphasis being on the student, not on the

instructor.)

TRADITIONAL CLASSROOM CONSTRUCTIVIST CLASSROOM

Curriculum begins with the parts of the whole.

Emphasizes basic skills.

Curriculum emphasizes big concepts, beginning with

the whole and expanding to include the parts.

Strict adherence to fixed curriculum is highly

valued.

Pursuit of student questions and interests is valued.

Materials are primarily textbooks and workbooks. Materials include primary sources of material and


_______________________________________________________________________________________

manipulative materials.

Learning is based on repetition. Learning is interactive, building on what the student

already knows.

Teachers disseminate information to students;

students are recipients of knowledge.

Teachers have a dialogue with students, helping

students construct their own knowledge.

Teacher's role is directive, rooted in authority. Teacher's role is interactive, rooted in negotiation.

Assessment is through testing, correct answers. Assessment includes student works, observations,

and points of view, as well as tests. Process is as

important as product.

Knowledge is seen as inert. Knowledge is seen as dynamic, ever changing with

our experiences.

Students work primarily alone. Students work primarily in groups.

www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/index.html - 15k -

HOW DO YOU USE CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH IN YOUR CLASSROOM?

1. Pose problems of emerging relevance to students.

Students should come to class with a question of burning interest, relevant to the topics that particular

course was to cover

2. Structure learning around primary concepts

Identify the “big ideas” that are important for the students to come to understand and structure

teaching around them

3. Seek and value students’ points of view

Constructivists encourage teachers to listen more than they talk

Students’ points of views are windows into their reasoning

4. Adapt curriculum to address students’ current understanding

If the curriculum doesn’t fit the students, change the curriculum. Adapt it to the best fit the student’s

current understanding as well as to best guide the student’s further knowledge development.


_______________________________________________________________________________________5. Assess student learning in the context of teaching

Try to understand how answers correct and incorrect, were arrived at. Did the student perhaps

interpret the question differently than it was intended? Does the student’s response indicate a partial

understanding of the concept, one that could be built upon and elaborated?

Asking Students to explain their answers and really listening to their explanations are the only ways

teachers can get such information.

CONSTRUCTIVIST’S TEACHING METHODS


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•• Discovery learning Discovery learning •• Discovery learning is an important component of modern Discovery learning is an important component of modern

constructivist approaches that has a long history in educatioconstructivist approaches that has a long history in education n innovation. In discovery learning, students are encouraged to innovation. In discovery learning, students are encouraged to

learn largely on their own through active involvement with learn largely on their own through active involvement with concepts and principles, and teachers encourage students to concepts and principles, and teachers encourage students to

have experiences and conduct experiments that permit them to have experiences and conduct experiments that permit them to

discover principles for themselves. discover principles for themselves.


_______________________________________________________________________________________


•• SelfSelf--regulated learning regulated learning •• A key concept of constructivist theories of learning is a A key concept of constructivist theories of learning is a

vision of the ideal student as a selfvision of the ideal student as a self--regulated learner. regulated learner. SelfSelf--regulated learners are ones who have knowledge of regulated learners are ones who have knowledge of

effective learning strategies and how and when to use effective learning strategies and how and when to use them. For example, they know how to break complex them. For example, they know how to break complex

problems into simpler steps or to test out alternative problems into simpler steps or to test out alternative solutions; they know how and when to skim and how solutions; they know how and when to skim and how

and when to read for deep understanding; and they know and when to read for deep understanding; and they know

how to write to persuade and how to write to inform. how to write to persuade and how to write to inform.


•• Scaffolding Scaffolding •• Scaffolding is a practice based on Scaffolding is a practice based on Vygotsky'sVygotsky's concept of concept of

assisted learning. According to assisted learning. According to VygotskyVygotsky, higher mental , higher mental functions, including the ability to direct memory and functions, including the ability to direct memory and attention in a purposeful way and to think in symbols, attention in a purposeful way and to think in symbols, are mediated behaviours. Mediated externally by culture, are mediated behaviours. Mediated externally by culture, these and other behaviors become internalized in the these and other behaviors become internalized in the learner's mind as psychological tools. In assisted learner's mind as psychological tools. In assisted learning, or mediated learning, the teacher is the cultural learning, or mediated learning, the teacher is the cultural agent who guides instruction so that students will master agent who guides instruction so that students will master and internalize the skills that permit higher cognitive and internalize the skills that permit higher cognitive functioning. The ability to internalize cultural tools functioning. The ability to internalize cultural tools relates to the learner's age or stage of cognitive relates to the learner's age or stage of cognitive development. Once acquired, however, internal development. Once acquired, however, internal mediators allow greater selfmediators allow greater self--mediated learning. mediated learning.


_______________________________________________________________________________________


•• In practical terms, scaffolding might include giving In practical terms, scaffolding might include giving

students more structure at the beginning of a set of students more structure at the beginning of a set of

lessons and gradually turning responsibility over to lessons and gradually turning responsibility over to themthem

to operate on their own. For example, students can be to operate on their own. For example, students can be

taught to generate their own questions about material taught to generate their own questions about material

they are reading. Early on, the teacher might suggest they are reading. Early on, the teacher might suggest thethe

questions, modeling the kinds of questions students questions, modeling the kinds of questions students might ask, but students later take over the questionmight ask, but students later take over the question--generating task generating task


•• Cooperative learning Cooperative learning •• Constructivist approaches to teaching typically make Constructivist approaches to teaching typically make

extensive use of cooperative learning, on the theory that extensive use of cooperative learning, on the theory that students will more easily discover and comprehend students will more easily discover and comprehend difficult concepts if they can talk with each other about the difficult concepts if they can talk with each other about the problems.problems.

•• Again, the emphasis on the social nature of learning and Again, the emphasis on the social nature of learning and the use of groups of peers to model appropriate ways of the use of groups of peers to model appropriate ways of thinking and expose and challenge each other's thinking and expose and challenge each other's misconceptions are key elements of Piaget's and misconceptions are key elements of Piaget's and Vygotsky'sVygotsky'sconceptions of cognitive change. conceptions of cognitive change.


_______________________________________________________________________________________


How is cooperative learning used in How is cooperative learning used in instruction?instruction?

–– In cooperative learning instructional methods, students In cooperative learning instructional methods, students work together in small groups to help each other learn. work together in small groups to help each other learn. Many quite different approaches to cooperative learning Many quite different approaches to cooperative learning exist. Most involve students in fourexist. Most involve students in four--member, mixedmember, mixed--ability groups, but some methods use dyads and some use ability groups, but some methods use dyads and some use varying group sizes. varying group sizes.

–– Typically, students are assigned to cooperative groups Typically, students are assigned to cooperative groups and stay together as a group for many weeks or months. and stay together as a group for many weeks or months. They are usually taught specific skills that will help them They are usually taught specific skills that will help them work well together, such as active listening, giving good work well together, such as active listening, giving good explanations, avoiding putdowns, and including other explanations, avoiding putdowns, and including other people. people.

REfERENCES


Boston

Good, Thomas L and Jere Brophy (1995) Contemporary Educational Psychology. Longman Publishers: USA





Woolfolk, Anita. (2004). Educational Psychology. Allyn and Bacon. Boston

Woolfolk, Anita. (2005). Educational Psychology – Active Learning Edition. Allyn and Bacon.

Boston

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivism_(learning_theory) - 73k -


_______________________________________________________________________________________

Module 4: Motivation in Teaching and Learning & Classroom Behaviour Management CP 105

________________________________________________________________________________________

MODULE 4

MOTIVATION IN TEACHING AND LEARNING/CLASSROOM BEHAVIOUR MANAGEMENT

WEEK 9

SESSION 10

OVERVIEW

What is motivation? Psychologists define motivation as an internal process that activates, guides,

and maintains behaviour over time. Motivation can vary in both intensity and direction. The

intensity and direction of motivations are often difficult to separate. The intensity of a motivation to

engage in one activity might depend in large part on the intensity and direction of motivations to

engage in alternative activities. You are about to look at all the possibilities of using motivation in

getting students to engage in academic activities. Students should also get a clear understanding

of how achievement motivation can be enhanced.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this module you should be able:

define motivation

describe, compare and contrast several major theories of motivation. explore how achievement motivation can be enhanced. evaluate the role of teacher expectations and their relation to student achievement. examine and evaluate several strategies that teachers can be used to reward

performance, effort and improvement.

demonstrate what teachers can do to increase students' motivation to learn.


________________________________________________________________________________________

What is Motivation (cont’d) ….desire or want that energizes and directs

goal-oriented behavior

… influence of needs and desires on the intensity and direction of behavior.

(Internet Source)


________________________________________________________________________________________

5. What is the individual thinking and feeling while engaged in the activity?

Is the student enjoying Shakespeare, feeling competent or worrying about an upcoming test?

What is Motivation? (contd.)

…an internal state that arouses, directs and maintains behaviour

(Anita Woolfolk, 2002)

To be or not to be? – 5 Questions 1. What choices do people make about their

behaviour?

Why do some children focus on their homework and others watch television?

3. What is the intensity or level of involvement in the chosen activity?

Once the school bag is opened , is the student absorbed and focused or just going through the motions?

4. What causes a person to persist or to give up?

Will a student read the entire assignment or just a few pages?

Facts about Motivation Think of motivation as internal psychic

energy or as a mental force that helps a person achieve a goal

Motivation is important to teachers because of the relationship between motivation and academic achievement


________________________________________________________________________________________

Extrinsic MotivationExtrinsically Motivated

students undertakeactivities in order to obtain

some reward oravoid some punishment

external to the activity itself, such as praise

Motivation directs an individual toward certain goals. It affects choices people make and the results they find rewarding

Motivation promotes initiation of certain activities and persistence in those activities. It increases the likelihood that people will begin something on their own, persist in the face of difficulty and resume a task after temporary interruption

How Motivation Affects Learning and Behaviour

It directs behaviour toward particular goals

It leads to increased effort and energy

Enthusiastically/wholeheartedly

Apathetically/lackadaisically


________________________________________________________________________________________

Both Positive and Negative

Reinforcement

strengthen behaviour

while both Punishment

and Extinction

weaken behaviour

BEHAVIOURAL APPROACHES TO MOTIVATION:

Operant Conditioning is the term used by

B.F. Skinner to describe the effects of the

consequences of a particular behavior on

the future occurrence of that behavior.

behavior.

Reinforcer Any event that

follows a behaviour and increases the chances that the behaviour will occur again

There are four types of Operant Conditioning:

Positive Reinforcement

Negative Reinforcement

Punishment

Extinction.


________________________________________________________________________________________

Forms of Positive Reinforcement Concrete Reinforcer – a toy

Social Reinforcer – smile

Activity Reinforcer – Premack Principle

Positive Feedback

Suppose on Monday, a student misbehaved in your class and was sent to the Dean of

Discipline. On Tuesday her misbehaviour occurs even sooner than it did on Monday,

and you send her out again. Your intent was to stop the misbehaviour, but in fact you negatively reinforced her. We know

that her behaviour has been reinforced because she misbehaved sooner on Tuesday than she did on Monday

(behaviour is increasing)

Punishment A consequence that decreases the

frequency of the response it follows

Presentation Punishment – demerits, laps

Removal Punishment – take away privilegesBEHAVIOURISM: Motivation

as Reinforcement Guide in selecting reinforcers:

Consider the age, interests and needs of students. Pieces of candy are not too motivating for adolescents, but they must be great for first graders

List potential reinforcers that you think would be desirable

Extinction …a particular behavior is weakened by the

consequence of not experiencing a positive condition or stopping a negative condition.

e.g.the class clown whose jokes are ignored might stop telling jokes


________________________________________________________________________________________

Using Rewards in Secondary Classrooms

High test scores and good grades Teacher comments on papers, praising

good work Teacher compliments delivered quietly and

individually Phone calls to parents or other caregivers

complimenting student work or attitudes Free time to talk to classsmates

Attribution Theory: Bernard Weiner

Cognitive theories emphasize intrinsic motivation

Attribution theory seeks to understand people’s explanations and excuses, particularly when applied to success or failure (greatest importance to education)

Cognitive theorists explain motivation by pointing to our need to understand, strive, excel, succeed,

advance and continue to challenge ourselves

Some students sit for hours and work on a tough problem without even noticing the passage of time. Why do some people have such strong motivation? Why do people enjoy doing puzzles and making up

limericks? Why do people push forward when it would be easier just to relax and enjoy life?

Cognitive Approach to Motivation:The Need to Understand

Cognitive theories stress what goes on inside the student’s head

Cognitive views of motivation focus on what students think, how they think, and how their thoughts create or reduce motivation to act

Cognitive theories emphasize the importance of intrinsic, as opposed to extrinsic, motivation

Implications for Motivation These three dimensions have implications

for motivation because they affect expectancy and value

For example the stability dimension is closely related to expectations about the future

If students attribute their failure to stable factors such as difficulty of the subject, they will expect to fail in that subject in the future


________________________________________________________________________________________

A central assumption of attribution is that people will attempt to maintain a positive self image

When they do well, they are likely to attribute their success to their own effort or abilities, but when they do poorly, they will believe that their failure is due to factors over which they had no control (locus, location of the cause)

When failure is attributed to lack of effort (a controllable cause), the sequence is:

Failure Lack of effort controllableResponsible guilt EngagementPerformance Improves

Cognitive views of motivation also help explain a variety of other behaviours:

Why people are intrigued by brain teasers and other problems with no practical application

Why people are curious when something occurs unexpectedly

Why students ask questions about incidental and unrelated aspects of lessons

Why people persevere on activities and quit after they have mastered the task

Why people want feedback about their performance, even if its negative feedback

Most explanations for success or failure have three characteristics -whether the cause is seen as internal (within

the person) or external to the person

-whether it is seen as stable or unstable

-whether it is perceived as controllable or not

The controllability dimensions is related to emotions such as anger, pity, gratitude or shame

If we feel responsible for our failures, we may feel guilt

If we feel responsible for our successes, we may feel proud

Failing at a task we cannot control can lead to sham and anger

When failure is attributed to lack of ability, and ability is considered uncontrollable, the consequence of motivation is:

Failure Lack of ability

Uncontrollable Not Responsible Shame, Embarrassment Withdraw Performance Declines


________________________________________________________________________________________

Teacher Actions and Student Attributions

Teachers also make attributions about the causes of other students’ successes and failures.

When teacher assumes failure is attributable to forces beyond the student’s control, the teacher tend to respond with sympathy and avoid giving punishment

Expectancy x Value Theories This theory takes into account both the

behaviourists’ concern with the effects or outcomes of behaviour and the cognitivists’ interest in the impact of individual thinking

Motivation is seen as the product of two main forces: the individual’s expectation of reaching a goal and the value of that goal to him/her

Apathy is a logical reaction to failure if students believe the causes are stable, unlikely to change, and beyond their control

In addition, students who view their failures in this light are less likely to seek help; they believe nothing and no one can help

Attribution for others: Students are more likely to respond to a classmate’s request for help if they believe the request is made because of a temporary uncontrollable factor such as getting hurt in a football game than if they believe help is needed because of a controllable factor like failure to study


________________________________________________________________________________________

Questions

If I try hard, can I succeed?

If I succeed, will the outcome be valuable or rewarding to me?

People engage in activities to maintain their identities and their interpersonal relations within a community

Students are motivated to learn if they are members of a classroom or school community that values learning

HUMANISTIC THEORIES Views motivation as people’s attempts to

fulfill their total potential as human beings

Everything that affects the person, including thoughts, feelings and aspects of the environment, can create or affect motivation


________________________________________________________________________________________

Much the same as we learn to speak and dress and conduct ourselves in restaurants, churches or shopping malls by being socialized – watching and learning from more capable members of the culture – we also learn to be students by watching and learning from members of our community

In other words we learn by the company we keep

Being Needs 3 higher level needs

When these are met, a person’s motivation does not cease, instead, it increases to seek further fulfillment

Unlike the deficiency needs, these being needs can never be completely filled. E.g. the more successful you are in your efforts to develop as a teacher, the harder you are likely to strive for even greater improvement

Criticism aside, Maslow’s theory does give

us a way of looking at the whole student as, physical, emotional and intellectual needs are interrelated

A child whose feelings of safety and sense of belonging are threatened by divorce may have little interest in learning to divide fractions


________________________________________________________________________________________

If a school is a fearful, un predictable place where neither teachers nor students know where they stand, they are more likely to be more concerned with security and less with learning and teaching

Belonging to a social group and maintaining self-esteem within that group, for example, are important to students. If doing what the teacher says conflicts with group rules, students may choose to ignore the teacher’s wishes or even defy the teacher

1. The Student-Teacher Relationship

Effective teachers should have the following qualities

They are genuine people, without personas or facades, who embrace their feelings as their own

They are accepting, viewing students as worthy individuals in their own rights

They are empathetic, able to consider teaching-learning experiences from students’ points of view

MOTIVATION AND NEEDS A need is a real or perceived lack of

something necessary

A need can be obvious such as the need for food as signalled by hunger

Complex or abstract, such as the need for order and understanding – the foundation of cognitive theories of motivation

PROMOTING GROWTH: IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING

If classes are personally meaningful, students are motivated to learn, if not they aren’t

Good teaching is the process of inviting students to see themselves as able, valuable and self directing and of encouraging them to act in accordance with these self-perceptions

Two elements of the teaching-learning process are essential to humanistic psychologist -


________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Classroom Climate Humanistic classrooms are safe

environments where students believe they can learn and are expected to do so

Standards remain high but attainable

All learners are valued because they are innately valuable human beings

Needs from both humanistic and cognitive perpectives include:

Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs

Social and Emotional needs

Cognitive learning needs

Social and Emotional Needs The need for relatedness – the need to feel

connected to others in a social environment and to feel worthy and capable of love and respect

The need for approval – the need to secure acceptance and positive judgements from others

The need to reduce anxiety – general uneasiness and feeling of tension

The need to understand successes and failures: Attribution Theory – an attempt to systematically describe explanations for success and failure in classroom situations

Three dimensions:

1. Locus (the location of the cause) – inside

or outside of the learner

Ability and effort are within the learner,

luck and task difficulty are outside

Impact of Attributions on Learners

Emotional reactions to success and failure (doing poorly and feeling guilty)

Expectations for future success (what can be done to change the failures)

Future effort (change can result in doing better in the future)

Achievement (depending on effort achievement can increase or decrease)

Cognitive Learning Needs The need for autonomy – being self

directed and in control of our environment

The need to achieve – a need to excel in learning tasks and the capacity to experience pride in accomplishment

2. Stability ( whether the task stays the same or can change) – ability remains the same but effort and luck are unstable because they can change

3. Control ( the extent to which students accept responsibility for their successes or failures, or are in control of the learning situation. Learners have control over their effort but not luck or task difficulty

When people attribute outcomes to controllable causes, motivation increases, uncontrollable causes decreases motivation

If teachers believe that learners are succeeding as a result of their teaching efforts, they are likely to continue making effort. If they believe that learners are doing poorly because of causes beyond their control, their teaching efforts often decrease

Learned Helplessness – the feeling that no amount of effort can lead to success. This perspective leads to overwhelming feelings of shame and self-doubt that result in giving up without even trying

Students with learned helplessness have low self esteem and often suffer from anxiety and depression. They expect to fail, so they don’t take advantage of opportunities to increase understanding and develop skills

M. Seligman, 1995 recommends “immunizing children against pessimism by providing them with successful mastery experiences

MOTIVATION AND BELIEFS Beliefs about ability

Attribution theory presents an entity view of ability – ability is stable and uncontrollable

Other research indicates the incremental view that hat ability can be improved with effort (Eggen. 2001

Factors influencing Self-Efficacy

Part performance – history of success

Modelling – observing others

Verbal Persuasion – teacher’s comment

Psychological State - hunger

The need to protect self- worth – the search for self acceptance is the highest human priority

Strategies students use to protect self worth:

1. Setting unrealistically high goals - failure can be attributed to task difficulty

2. Procrastination – making excuses even suggesting that the teacher was poor or the test was tricky

3. Anxiety – “I understand the stuff but I get nervous in tests

Motivation about Capability: Self Efficacy

Focus is on expectations and beliefs

The role of expectations is explained with expectancy x value theories - that learners are motivated to work on a task to the extent that they

(a) expect to succeed

(b) value achievement on the task. If both are present learners may develop a sense of self efficacy,which is learners’ beliefs about their capability of succeeding on specific tasks

How teachers can influence self -efficacy

Attributional Statements – comments teachers make about causes of student’s performance “That’s a very good effort. I know that these

problems are difficult for you.”

“I believe if you tried a little harder, you’d be able to solve this problem.”

Praise and criticism

Emotional displays

Helping

Social Learning – A mix of extrinsic and intrinsic reinforcers based on expectations and the personal value of goals (understanding how to set workable, effective goals that that can be attained; understanding the likelihood of reaching a goal and the payoff once the goal is reached; knowing ho to choose goals and payoffs that are personally meaningful

Remember the four theories of Motivation?Incentives to enhance motivation

Behavioural – extrinsic reinforcers in the form of rewards and punishments (high grades/low grades; praise/criticism; free time/detention; awards/demerits)

Cognitive – Intrinsic reinforcers based on beliefs, attribution and expectations (understanding the purposes of schoolwork and homework,; believing in one’s ability to succeed; attributing success to hard work; expecting to do well as a function of effort invested

Humanistic – Intrinsic reinforcers based on the human needs to achieve, excel and self-actualize ( a meaningful educational environment in which students are encouraged to see themselves as capable; development of self esteem; teachers acting warm and supportive; explaining why things must be done a certain way – no rules for the sake of rules


Module 4: Motivation in Teaching and learning &Classroom Behaviour Management CP 105

________________________________________________________________________________________

WEEK 10

SESSION 11

CLASSROOM BEHAVIOUR MANAGEMENT

OVERVIEW

What is an effective learning environment? Providing an effective learning environment includes strategies

that teachers use to create a positive, productive classroom experience. Often called classroom

management, strategies for providing effective learning environments include not only preventing and

responding to misbehavior but also, more important, using class time well, creating an atmosphere that is

conducive to interest and inquiry, and per-miffing activities that engage students’ minds and imaginations.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this module, you should be able:

describe what constitutes an effective learning environment.

analyze the impact of time on learning. define and apply practices that contribute to effective classroom management. evaluate strategies for managing routine student misbehavior. examine how applied behavior analysis can be used to manage more serious behavior problems. describe and apply principles of applied behavior analysis. describe and evaluate strategies and programs designed to prevent serious behavior problems.


________________________________________________________________________________________


Classroom Management Classroom Management in Perspectivein Perspective


Roles and Responsibilities of Roles and Responsibilities of the classroom teacher the classroom teacher (cont’d)(cont’d)

•• As a manager: arranging As a manager: arranging classrooms, allocating time for c lassrooms, allocating time for teaching, implementing rules, teaching, implementing rules, organizing student movement organizing student movement within c lass and school, within c lass and school, orchestrating interactions and orchestrating interactions and relationships of all aspects of relationships of all aspects of the c lassroom, ensuring the classroom, ensuring appropriate behavioursappropriate behaviours


________________________________________________________________________________________

Keeping Control of your Classroom (cont’d)

•• visualize possible challenges visualize possible challenges (imagine and review challenges)(imagine and review challenges)

•• make expectations c lear from make expectations c lear from beginningbeginning

•• model positive behaviourmodel positive behaviour

Keeping control of your Keeping control of your Classroom (cont’d)Classroom (cont’d)

•• be consistentbe consistent

•• keep students busy and challengedkeep students busy and challenged

•• listen to students’ suggestionslisten to students’ suggestions

•• showshow respect to their needs

K eeping Control of your K eeping Control of your Classroom (cont’d)Classroom (cont’d)

•• never get into power struggle never get into power struggle with your studentswith your students

•• you won’t damage your you won’t damage your students’ psyche by taking the students’ psyche by taking the lead and being the boss of your lead and being the boss of your own classroomown classroom


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Keeping Control of your Keeping Control of your Classroom (cont’d)Classroom (cont’d)

• it’s not what you teach but how you teach it that makes the difference

• Not every student will like you…. and you won’t like every student either

Keeping Control of your Keeping Control of your Classroom (cont’d)Classroom (cont’d)

•• avoid putting problem children avoid putting problem children in the front of the c lassin the front of the c lass

•• make sure not to hold on to make sure not to hold on to grudges from the day beforegrudges from the day before

•• introduce a positive introduce a positive reinforcement schedulereinforcement schedule

SESSION 12

WHAT PRACTICES CONTRIBUTE TO EFFECTIVE CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT?

Research has consistently shown that basic commonsense planning and groundwork go a long way toward

preventing discipline problems from ever developing. Simple measures include starting the year properly,

arranging the classroom for effective instruction, setting class rules and procedures, and making expectations of

conduct clear to students.

CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE CLASSROOM MANAGERS

More effective managers had a clear, specific plan for introducing students to classroom rules and procedures

and spent as many days as necessary carrying out their plan until students knew how to line up, ask for help,

and so on.

1. More effective managers had a clear, specific plan for introducing students to classroom rules and

procedures and spent as many days as necessary carrying out their plan until students knew how to

line up, ask for help, and so on.

2. More effective managers worked with the whole class initially (even if they planned to group students

later). They were involved with the whole class at all times, rarely leaving any students without

something to do or without supervision.

3. More effective managers spent extra time during the first days of school introducing procedures and

discussing class rules (often encouraging students to suggest rules themselves). These teachers

usually reminded students of class rules every day for at least the first week of school.

4. More effective managers taught students specific procedures. For example, some had students

practice lining up quickly and quietly; others taught students to respond to a signal, such as a bell, a

flick of the light switch, or a call for attention.

5. As first activities, more effective managers used simple, enjoyable tasks. Materials for the first lessons

were well prepared, clearly presented, and varied. These teachers asked students to get right to work

on the first day of school and then gave them instructions on procedures gradually, to avoid overloading

them with too much information at a time.

6. More effective managers responded immediately to stop any misbehaviour.

One of the first management-related tasks at the start of the year is setting class rules. Three principles govern

this process. First, class rules should be few in number. Second, they should make sense and be seen as fair

by students. Third, they should be clearly explained and deliberately taught to students. One all-purpose set of

class rules follows:

1. Be courteous to others. This rule forbids interrupting others or speaking out of turn, teasing or laughing

at others, fighting, and so on.

2. Respect others’ property.

3. Be on-task. This includes listening when the teacher or other students are talking, working on seatwork,

continuing to work during any interruptions, staying in one’s seat, being at one’s seat and ready to work

when the bell rings, and following directions.

4. Raise hands to be recognized. This is a rule against calling out or getting out of one’s seat for

assistance without permission.

WHAT DO YOU THINK?

You are a new teacher and it is a week before school starts. While you are sitting in the warm sun at a local beach, you spot this sign:

You then slowly begin to think about discipline and become understandably anxious. To alleviate your

anxious feelings, you begin writing the strategies you would utilize so that most of your time is spent

teaching not simply correcting misbehaviour.

Share your thinking about behaviour/classroom management. (Please remember you must demonstrate

that you have completed the readings assigned to this module).

Slavin (2003)


WHAT ARE SOME STRATEGIES FOR MANAGING ROUTINE MISBEHAVIOUR?

Provision of interesting lessons, efficient use of class time, and careful structuring of instructional activities will

prevent most such minor behavior problems—and many more serious ones as well. Time off-task can lead to

more serious problems; many behavior problems arise because students are frustrated or bored in school.

Instructional programs that actively involve students and provide all of them with opportunities for success might

prevent such problems.

The great majority of behavior problems with which a teacher must deal are relatively minor disruptions, such as

talking out of turn, getting up without permission, failing to follow class rules or procedures, and inattention—

nothing really serious, but behaviors that must be minimized for learning to occur.

In dealing with routine classroom behavior problems, the most important principle is that a teacher should

correct misbehaviors by using the simplest intervention that will work. Many studies have found that the amount


of time spent disciplining students is negatively related to student achievement. The teacher’s main goal in

dealing with routine misbehavior is to do so in a way that is both effective and avoids unnecessarily disrupting

the lesson.

Teachers can eliminate much routine classroom misbehavior without breaking the momentum of the lesson by

the use of simple nonverbal cues. Making eye contact with a misbehaving student might be enough to stop

misbehavior. For example, if two students are whispering, the teacher might simply catch the eye of one or both

of them. Moving close to a student who is misbehaving also usually alerts the student to shape up.

Praise can be a powerful motivator for many students. One strategy for reducing misbehavior in class is to

make sure to praise students for behaviors that are incompatible with the misbehavior you want to reduce. That

is, catch students in the act of doing right.

If a nonverbal cue is impossible or ineffective, a simple verbal reminder might help to bring a student into line.

The reminder should be given immediately after the student misbehaves; delayed reminders are usually

ineffective. If possible, the reminder should state what students are supposed to be doing rather than dwelling

on what they are doing wrong.

When a student refuses to comply with a simple reminder, one strategy to attempt first is a repetition of the

reminder, ignoring any irrelevant excuse or argument. Canter and Canter (1992), in a program called Assertive

Discipline, call this strategy the broken record. Teachers should decide what they want the student to do, state

this clearly to the student (statement of want), and then repeat it until the student complies.

When all previous steps have been ineffective in getting the student to comply with a clearly stated and

reasonable request, the final step is to pose a choice to the student: Either comply or suffer the consequences.

Examples of consequences are sending the student out of class, making the student miss a few minutes of

recess or some other privilege, having the student stay after school, and calling the student’s parents. Before

presenting a student with a consequence for noncompliance, teachers must be absolutely certain that they can

and will follow through if necessary.

SESSION 13

HOW IS APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS USED TO MANAGE MORE SERIOUS BEHAVIOUR PROBLEMS?

Simply put, behavioral learning theories hold that behaviors that are not reinforced or are punished will diminish

in frequency. A basic principle of behavioral learning theories is that if any behavior persists over time, some

reinforcer is maintaining it. To reduce misbehavior in the classroom, we must understand which reinforcers

maintain misbehavior in the first place.

The most common reinforcer for classroom misbehavior is attention—from the teacher, the peer group, or both.

Students receiving one-to-one tutoring rarely misbehave, both because they already have the undivided

attention of an adult and because no classmates are present to attend to any negative behavior. Another very

common reason that students misbehave is to get the attention and approval of their peers. The classic

instance of this is the class clown, who is obviously performing for the amusement of his or her classmates.

As students enter adolescence, the peer group takes on extreme importance, and peer norms begin to favor

independence from authority. When older children and teenagers engage in serious delinquent acts (such as

vandalism, theft, and assault), a delinquent peer group usually supports them.

There are two primary responses to peer-supported misbehavior. One is to remove the offender from the

classroom to deprive her or him of peer attention. Another is to use group contingencies, strategies in which the

entire class (or groups of students within the class) is rewarded on the basis of everyone’s behavior. Under

group contingencies, all students benefit from their classmates’ good behavior, so peer support for misbehavior

is removed.

The best solution for misbehaviors arising from boredom, frustration, or fatigue is prevention. Students rarely

misbehave during interesting, varied, engaging lessons. Actively involving students in lessons can head off

misbehaviors due to boredom or fatigue. Use of cooperative learning methods or other means of involving

students in an active way can be helpful.

The behavior management strategies outlined earlier (e.g., nonverbal cues, reminders, mild but certain

punishment) might be described as informal applications of behavioral learning theories. These practices, plus

the prevention of misbehavior by the use of efficient class management and engaging lessons, will be sufficient

to create a good learning environment in most classrooms.

In classrooms in which most students are well behaved but a few have persistent behavior problems, individual

behavior management strategies can be effective. In classrooms in which many students have behavior

problems, particularly when there is peer support for misbehavior, whole-class strategies or group

contingencies might be needed.

The first step in implementing a behavior management program is to observe the misbehaving student to

identify one or a small number of behaviors to target first and to see what reinforcers maintain the behavior(s).

Another purpose of this observation is to establish a baseline against which to compare improvements.

Typical classroom reinforcers include praise, privileges, and tangible rewards. Praise is especially effective for

students who misbehave to get the teacher’s attention. It is often a good idea to start a behavior management

program by using praise for appropriate behavior to see whether this is sufficient. However, be prepared to use

stronger reinforcers if praise is not enough.

Punishment of one kind or another is necessary in some circumstances, and it should be used without qualms

when reinforcement strategies are impossible or ineffective. However, a program of punishment for misbehavior

(e.g., depriving a student of privileges, never physical punishment) should always be the last option considered,

never the first. Common punishers used in schools are reprimands, being sent out of class or to the principal’s

office, and detention or missed recess. Corporal punishment (e.g., spanking) is illegal in some states and

districts and highly restricted in others, but regardless of laws or policies, it should never be used in schools.

SEVEN PRINCIPLES FOR THE EFFECTIVE AND HUMANE USE OF PUNISHMENT:

1. Use punishment sparingly.

2. Make it clear to the child why he or she is being punished.

3. Provide the child with an alternative means of obtaining some positive reinforcement.

4. Reinforce the child for behaviors that are incompatible with those you wish to weaken (e.g., if you

punish for being off-task, also reinforce for being on-task).

5. Never use physical punishment.

6. Never punish when you are in a very angry or emotional state.

7. Punish when a behavior starts rather than when it ends.

One effective punisher is called time out. The teacher tells a misbehaving student to go to a separate part of the

classroom, the hall, the principal’s or vice principal’s office, or another teacher’s class. If possible, the place

where the student is sent should be uninteresting and out of view of classmates. One advantage of timeout

procedures is that they remove the student from the attention of her or his classmates. Therefore, time out may

be especially effective for students whose misbehavior is motivated primarily by peer attention.

Home-based reinforcement strategies and daily report card programs are examples of applied behavioral

analysis involving individual students. A group contingency program is an example of an applied behavioral

analysis in which the whole class is involved. Some of the most practical and effective classroom management

methods are home-based reinforcement strategies. Teachers give students a daily or weekly report card to take


home, and parents are instructed to provide special privileges or rewards to students on the basis of these

teacher reports. Home-based reinforcement has several advantages over other, equally effective behavior

management strategies.

A group contingency program is a reinforcement system in which an entire group is rewarded on the basis of

the behavior of the group members. One important advantage of group contingencies is that they are relatively

easy to administer. Most often, the whole class is either rewarded or not rewarded, so the teacher need not do

one thing with some students and something else with others. The theory behind group contingencies is that

when a group is rewarded on the basis of its members’ behavior, the group members will encourage one

another to do whatever helps the group gain the reward.

Some people object to applied behavior analysis on the basis that it constitutes bribing students to do what they

ought to do anyway. However, all classrooms use rewards and punishers (such as grades, praise, scolding,

suspension). Applied behavior analysis strategies simply use these rewards in a more systematic way and

avoid punishers as much as possible. Applied behavior analysis methods should be used only when it is clear

that preventive or informal methods of improving classroom management are not enough to create a positive

environment for learning. It is unethical to over-apply these methods, but it might be equally unethical to fail to

apply them when they could avert serious problems.

HOW CAN SERIOUS BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS BE PREVENTED?

Serious behavior problems are not evenly distributed among students or schools. Most students who are

identified as having severe behavior problems are male; from 3 to 8 times as many boys as girls are estimated

to have serious conduct problems. Serious delinquency is far more common among students from

impoverished backgrounds, particularly in urban locations. Students with poor family relationships are also

much more likely than other students to become involved in serious misbehavior and delinquency, as are

students who are low in achievement and those who have attendance problems.

As noted earlier in this chapter, the easiest behavior problems to deal with are those that never occur. There

are many approaches that have promise for preventing serious behavior problems. One is simply creating safe

and prosocial classroom environments and openly discussing risky behaviors and ways to avoid them. Another

is giving students opportunities to play prosocial roles as volunteers, tutors, or leaders in activities that benefit

their school and community.

Even though some types of students are more prone to misbehavior than others, these characteristics do not

cause misbehavior. Some students misbehave because they perceive that the rewards for misbehavior

outweigh the rewards for good behavior. Some put their energies into sports, others into social activities. Over

time, students who fail in school and get into minor behavior difficulties could fall in with a delinquent subgroup

and begin to engage in serious delinquent or even criminal behavior. The role of the delinquent peer group in

maintaining delinquent behavior cannot be overstated. Delinquent acts among adolescents and preadolescents

are usually done in groups and are supported by antisocial peer norms.

Truancy and delinquency are strongly related; when students are out of school, they are often in the community

making trouble. There are many effective means of reducing truancy.

Tracking (between-class ability grouping) should be avoided if possible (see Chapter 9). Low-track classes are

ideal breeding grounds for antisocial delinquent peer groups. Similarly, behavioral and academic problems

should be dealt with in the context of the regular class as much as possible, rather than in separate special-

education classes.

Classroom management strategies should be used to reduce inappropriate behavior before it escalates into

delinquency. Improving students’ behavior and success in school can prevent delinquency. Involve the

student’s home in any response to serious misbehavior. When misbehavior occurs, parents should be notified.

If misbehavior persists, parents should be involved in establishing a program, such as a home-based

reinforcement program, to coordinate home and school responses to misbehavior.

Avoid the use of suspension (or expulsion) as punishment for all but the most serious misbehavior. Suspension

often exacerbates truancy problems, both because it makes students fall behind in their work and because it

gives them experience in the use of time out of school. In-school suspension, detention, and other penalties are

more effective. Loss of privileges maybe used. However, whatever punishment is used should not last too long.

It is better to make a misbehaving student miss two days of football practice than to throw him off the team, in

part because once the student is off the team, the school could have little else of value to offer or withhold.

Every child has within himself or herself the capacity for good behavior as well as for misbehavior. The school

must be the ally of the good in each child at the same time that it is the enemy of misbehavior.

Slavin 1993

REFERENCES


Boston









http://www.stanford.edu/dept/CTL/TA/char.htm







Module 5: Exceptionalities and Classroom Inclusion CP 105

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MODULE 5````

EXCEPTIONALITIES AND CLASSROOM INCLUSION

WEEK 11

SESSION 14

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OVERVIEW

Students differ in many ways, and effective teachers consider these differences when they plan and

teach. In many cases the differences are of such that special help and resources are needed to

assist students to attain their full potential. In this way the students are considered to have

exceptionalities. Exceptional learners have characteristics that differentiate them from the general

population of young people. This module focuses on the unique characteristics, strengths and

needs of students with exceptionalities, including learning disabilities, mental retardation, autism,

blindness, deafness, traumatic brain injury, emotional/behavioral disorders, and giftedness. It

emphasizes understanding of how various teaching strategies, materials, modifications and

accommodations can assist students with exceptionalities to function and succeed in the regular

classroom

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this session the learner should be able to:

describe students’ exceptionalities in the classroom

explain how different exceptionalities affect learning

define inclusion and describe the role of the general education teacher in working with

special needs learners;

apply successful classroom management techniques with students in an inclusive

classroom

observe the different instructional methods used in the Jamaican context

explore different instructional strategies that can be adapted to meet the needs of divergent

learners


______________________________________________________________________________________WHO ARE LEARNERS WITH EXCEPTIONALITIES?

Students are different. Some are good athletes; others are popular. Some have a good idea of

their strengths and weaknesses; others do not have a clue. As a teacher, how would you work

with a diverse group of students? What is your responsibility in terms of understanding their

strengths and weaknesses and making what you teach relevant to their lives.

The term learners with exceptionalities may be used to describe any individuals whose physical,

mental, or behavioral performance is so different from the norm-either higher or lower- that

additional services are need to meet the individuals' needs.

The terms disability and handicap are not interchangeable. A disability is a functional limitation a

person has that interferes with the person's physical or cognitive abilities. A handicap is a

condition imposed on a person with disabilities by society, the physical environment, or the

person's attitude. For example, a student who uses a wheelchair is handicapped by a lack of

access ramps. Handicap is therefore not a synonym for disability.

Exceptional Learners are, “those who require special education and related services if they are to

realize their full human potential.”

Exceptionalities may involve and of the following abilities:

– Sensory

– Physical

– Emotional

– Communicative

– Behavioral

Changes in the Way Teachers Help Students with Exceptionalities

Students in today’s classrooms vary in their abilities, motivation and background. In the past,

students with exceptionalities were often segregated from the regular classroom and their non-

disabled peers and placed in special classrooms or schools. Instruction in these situations were

often inferior and students did not learn the social and life skills needed to live in the real world

Mainstreaming began the process of integrating them with non-disabled students, and inclusion

takes the process further by creating a web of services. Inclusion is most effective when regular

education and special education teachers closely collaborate on instructional adaptations for

learners with exceptionalities.

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______________________________________________________________________________________O’Donnell draws from Dewey’s The child and the curriculum to point out that that “the child and

the curriculum are simply two limits which define a single process. Just as two points define a

straight line, so the present standpoint of the child and the facts and truths of studies define

instructions (O’Donnell, p.104).

Dewey was sure to point out that at one end of the continuum are subject areas that are varied

and complex. Children differ in temperament, enthusiasm, prior knowledge in different subjects,

distractibility, self concept, verbal ability, spatial reasoning, motivation and so on.

Your task as a teacher is to determine how to work with a roomful of highly diverse students to

help them acquire the knowledge, skills and abilities that you wish them to obtain.

UNDERSTANDING INTELLIGENCE

Intelligence is a theoretical construct that makes it easier to understand the (psychological world)

world. It is the ability or abilities to acquire and use knowledge for solving problems and adapting

the world.

DEFINITIONS

Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as the ability to:

• Reason logically and well.

• Read widely.

• Display common sense.

• Keep an open mind.

• Read with high comprehension

Siegler and Richards defined intelligence as ‘functions of developmental stages’.

Sir Francis Galton (1883) defined the most intelligent people as those who “were those

equipped with the best sensory abilities, for it is through the senses that one comes to know the

world.”

Galton also felt that intelligence was a number of distinct processes or abilities which had to be

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______________________________________________________________________________________measured separately.

Alfred Binet (1890) explicitly defined intelligence as “the components of intelligence are

reasoning, judgment, memory, and the power of abstraction.”

• Measured intelligence as “general mental ability of individuals in intelligent behaviors.”

• Described intelligence testing as classifying, not measuring.

David Wechsler (1958)

• “Intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to

think rationally and to deal effectively with the environment.

• The only way to measure intelligence is to evaluate quantitatively by the measurement of

the various aspects of these abilities.”

Jean Piaget

• An evolving biological adaptation to the outside world; as cognitive skills are gained,

adaptation increases, and mental trial and error replace actual physical trial and error.

• He believed that experiences require cognitive organization or reorganization in the

mental structure of SCHEMA.

Piaget’s 2 Mental Operations

Assimilation: actively organizing new information so that it fits in with what already is perceived

and thought.

Accommodation: changing already perceived thoughts to fit in with new information.

Binet, Wechsler, & Piaget - Interactionism in defining intelligence:

Heredity and environment are presumed to interact to influence the development of intelligence.

Factor Analysis

A statistical technique designed to determine if underlying relationships exist between sets of

variables/items measured by some instrument.

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Factor Analysis Schools

General:

Intelligence postulates the existence of general intellectual ability that is partially tapped by all

intellectual activities and numerous specific aptitudes.

Multiple Factor:

An individual’s intellect is composed of many independent abilities or faculties---such as verbal,

mechanical, artistic, and mathematical faculties.

Factor Analysts:

l Charles Spearman.

l E. L. Thorndike.

l Louis L. Thurstone.

l Raymond B. Cattell.

l J. P. Guilford.

Charles Spearman (1904)

Spearman examined his Theory of Universal Unity of the intellective function by correlating

intelligence tests into the “2 Factor Theory of Intelligence.”

G Factor (i.e., general intelligence) comes from general electrochemical mental energy from the

brain for problem solving.

E. L. Thorndike (1921) defined intelligence as a large number of interconnected intellectual

elements representing a distinct ability, known as the Multifactor Theory.

Thorndike’s 3 clusters of intelligence:

• social : deals with people.

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______________________________________________________________________________________• concrete : deals with objects.

• abstract : deals with verbal & mathematical symbols.

\Louis L. Thurstone (1938)

Intelligence is a composition of distinct abilities known as Primary Mental Abilities (PMA’s).

PMA’s comprise:

– Verbal meaning.

– Perceptual speed.

– Reasoning.

– Number facility.

– Role memory.

– Word fluency.

– Spatial relations.

Raymond B. Cattell (1971)

Raymond Cattell gave special significance to issues of cultural bias in mental testing.

Two Factor Theory of Intelligence:

Fluid Intelligence - non-verbal relatively culture free, independent of specific instruction (i.e.

memory of digits).

Crystallized Intelligence - acquired skills and knowledge that are dependant on exposure to a

culture as well as to formal and informal education (i.e. vocabulary).

.P. Guilford (1967)

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______________________________________________________________________________________• Guilford states there is NO general mental ability factor.

• Guilford also believed that ALL mental activities can be classified and explained.

• His proposed classification is the “3 Dimensional Structure of Intellect Model.”

Structure of Intellect Model:

• Operation.

• Content.

• Products resulting from the mental operation.

MEASURING INTELLIGENCE

The measurement of intelligence is defined as: sampling an examinee’s performance on different

types of tests and tasks as a function of developmental levels.

Measuring Intelligence of Infants:

l Infancy (birth - 18 months).

l Measurement is primarily by sensory motor development:

– non-verbal.

– motor skills of turning over.

– lifting their head.

– sitting up.

– eye movement following objects.

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______________________________________________________________________________________– reaching for objects.

Measuring Intelligence of Children:

• When individually testing children, their sensory motor development, verbal, and

performance abilities are looked at by observing the children’s response:

• Vocabulary words and language.

– social judgment.

– Reasoning.

– numerical concept.

– auditory and visual memory.

– concentration and attention.

– spatial visualization.

Measuring the Intelligence of Adults: What Abilities Should be Assessed?

General information retention?

Social judgment?

Quantitative reasoning?

Expressive language and memory?

Adult Testing Compared to Children

• Children’s intelligence tests focus on skill acquisition and learning potential assessment.

• It is more beneficial to focus on assessing skill application when testing adults.

• Motivations are different when adults are asked to do a task.

• The purpose of adult intelligence testing is not for placement but rather to obtain a

measure of potential to be used with other information, perhaps in a clinical setting.

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______________________________________________________________________________________Intelligence Measures

• WISC-R.

• WPPI.

• WAIS-R.

• Stanford-Binet.

• Kauffman Assessment Battery for Children.

• Kauffman Adolescent and Adult Intelligence Scale.

• Woodcock-Johnson Psychoeducational Battery.

The Effect of Psychological Disorders on Intelligence Testing

Schizophrenia

• Tend to score lower than people in general on intelligence tests.

• The cognitive deficits of schizophrenia, such as inappropriate levels of abstraction, lower

scores on intelligence measures.

• Those with schizophrenia give inconsistent responses. They can score high on several

items and then do poorly on others.

Other Disorders or Conditions Affecting Performance on Intelligence tests

• Dementia.

• Alzheimer’s disease.

• Alcoholism.

• Head Injury.

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______________________________________________________________________________________Identifying the Gifted - “one whose performance is consistently remarkable in any

positively valued area”

How do we identify Gifted Individuals?

Base your assessment of giftedness on the goals of the program in which the

gifted will be placed.

• Nominating techniques.

• Behavior rating scales.

• Comprehensive case study

IDENTIFYING STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES

Different interpretations of the many definitions of learning disability have led country and local

school to vary widely in their eligibility requirements and provisions for students with learning

disabilities.

Education professionals have the task of distinguishing students with learning disabilities from

students who are nondisabled low achievers and students with mild mental retardation. In some

areas a student who falls more than two grade levels behind expectations and has an IQ in the

normal range is likely to be called learning disabled. According to Robert Slavin (2002) some

characteristics of students with learning disabilities follow:

Normal intelligence or even giftedness

Discrepancy between intelligence and performance

Delays in achievement

Attention deficit or high distractibility

Hyperactivity or impulsiveness

Poor motor coordination and spatial relation ability

Difficulty solving problems

Perceptual anomalies, such as reversing letters, words, or numbers

Difficulty with self-motivated, self-regulated activities

Overreliance on teacher and peers for assignments

Specific disorders of memory, thinking, or language

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______________________________________________________________________________________ Immature social skills

Disorganized approach to learning

Definitions of learning disabilities have historically required that there be a serious discrepancy

between actual performance and the performance that might have been predicted on the basis of

one or more tests of cognitive functioning, such as an IQ test.

In practice, many children are identified as having a learning disability as a result of having

substantial differences between some subscales of an IQ test and others or between one ability

test and another. This emphasis on discrepancies has increasingly come under attack in recent

years, however. These studies have undermined the idea that there is a sharp-edged definition of

learning disabilities as distinct from low achievement.

For the great majority of children with learning disabilities, effective prevention and treatment

focuses far more directly on the problems that brought the child to the attention of the special

education system-most often reading problems, which are involved in more than 90 percent of

referrals for students with possible learning disabilities.

WEEK 12

SESSION 15 CHARACTERISTICS OF STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES

On the average, students with learning disabilities tend to have lower academic self-esteem than

do nondisabled students, although in nonacademic arenas their self-esteems are like those of

other children.

On most social dimensions, children with learning disabilities resemble other low achievers. Boys

are more likely than girls to be labeled as learning disabled.

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______________________________________________________________________________________Children from families in which the head of household has not attended college tend to be over-

represented in special education classes, while female students are under-represented.

Students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

Students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have difficulties maintaining attention

because of a limited ability to concentrate. ADHD includes impulsive actions and hyperactive

behavior. These characteristics differentiate students with ADHD from students with learning

disabilities, who have attention deficits for other unknown reasons. Children with attention deficit

disorders do not qualify for special education unless they also have some other disability

condition that is defined in the law.

There is much debate about whether ADHD exists as a distinct diagnostic category. Prevalence

estimates for ADHD suggest that 3 to 5 percent of all children might have the disorder. Research

indicates that males with ADHD outnumber females in ratios varying from 4:1 to 9:1.

Children with ADHD are usually impulsive, acting before they think or without regard for the

situation they are in, and they find it hard to sit still. They are often given a stimulant medication,

such as Ritalin. More than a million children take Ritalin, and this number has been rising in

recent years. These drugs usually do make some hyperactive children more manageable and

might improve their academic performance. They can also have side effects, such as insomnia,

weight loss, and blood pressure changes.

Students with speech or language impairments

Some of the most common disabilities are problems with speech and language. About 1 in every

40 students has a communication disorder serious enough to warrant speech therapy or other

special education services.

Although the terms speech and language are often used interchangeably, they are not the same.

Language is the communication of ideas using symbols and includes written language, sign

language, gesture, and other modes of communication in addition to oral speech.

It is quite possible to have a speech disorder without a language disorder or to have a language

disorder without a speech disorder.

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______________________________________________________________________________________The most common are articulation (or phonological) disorders, such as omissions, distortions, or

substitutions of sounds. For example, some students have difficulty pronouncing r's, saying

"sowee" for "sorry." Others have lisps, substituting th for s, saying "thnake" for "snake."

Misarticulated words are common and developmentally normal for many children in kindergarten

and first grade but drop off rapidly through the school years. Moderate and extreme deviations in

articulation diminish over the school years, with or without speech therapy.

Speech disorders of all kinds are diagnosed by and treated by speech pathologists or speech

therapists. The classroom teacher's role is less important here than with the mental disabilities.

However, the classroom teacher does have one crucial role to play: displaying acceptance of

students with speech disorders.

Language disorders are impairments of the ability to understand language or to express ideas in

one's native language. Problems due to limited English-speaking proficiency (LEP) for students

whose first language is not English are not considered language disorders.

Difficulties in understanding language (receptive language disorders) or in communicating

(expressive language disorders) might result from such physical problems as hearing or speech

impairment. If not, they are likely to indicate mental retardation or learning disabilities.

Preschool programs that are rich in verbal experience and direct instruction in the fundamentals

of standard English have been found to be effective in overcoming language problems that are

characteristic of children from disadvantaged homes.

Students with emotional and behavioral disorders

All students are likely to have emotional problems at some point in their school career; but about

1 percent have such serious, long-lasting, and pervasive emotional or psychiatric disorders that

they require special education. As in the case of learning disabilities, students with serious

emotional and behavioral disorders are far more likely to be boys than girls, by a ratio of more

than 3 to 1. Students with emotional and behavioral disorders have been defined as ones whose

educational performance is adversely affected over a long period of time to a marked degree by

any of the following conditions:

An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors.

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______________________________________________________________________________________An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers.

Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances.

A general, pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression

A tendency to develop physical symptoms, pains, or fears associated with personal or school

problems.

CAUSES OF EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS

Serious and long-term emotional and behavioral disorders may be the result of numerous

potential causal factors in the makeup and development of an individual. Neurological functioning,

psychological processes, a history of maladaptations, self-concept, and lack of social acceptance

all play a role.

Some of the same factors, including family dysfunction and maltreatment, also play a role in

disturbances that might temporarily affect a child's school performance.

One problem in identifying serious emotional and behavioral disorders is that the term covers a

wide range of behaviors, from aggression or hyperactivity to withdrawal or inability to make

friends to anxiety and phobias. And it is often hard to tell whether an emotional problem is

causing the diminished academic performance or school failure is causing the emotional problem.

CHARACTERISTICS OF STUDENTS WITH EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIOURAL

DISORDERS

Scores of characteristics are associated with emotional and behavioral disorders. The important

issue is the degree of the behavior problem. Virtually any behavior that is exhibited excessively

over a long period of time might be considered an indication of emotional disturbance. However,

most students who have been identified as having emotional and behavioral disorders share

some general characteristics.

These include poor academic achievement, poor interpersonal relationships, and poor self-

esteem.

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______________________________________________________________________________________Quay and Werry (1986) noted four general categories:

conduct disorder

anxiety-withdrawal

immaturity, and

socialized-aggressive disorder

For example, children with conduct disorders are frequently characterized as disobedient,

distractible, selfish, jealous, destructive, impertinent, resistive, and disruptive.

Quay and Werry noted that the first three of these categories represent behaviors that are

maladaptive or sources of personal distress. However, socialized-aggressive behavior, which

relates to frequent aggression against others, seems to be tied more to poor home conditions that

model or reward aggressive behavior and might therefore be adaptive (though certainly not

healthy or appropriate).

The inclusion of conduct disorders in classifications of emotional and behavioral disorders is

controversial. By law, students with conduct disorders must also have some other recognized

disability or disorder to receive special-education services.

STUDENTS EXHIBITING AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR

Students with conduct disorders and socialized-aggressive behaviors might frequently fight, steal,

destroy property, and refuse to obey teachers.

These students tend to be disliked by their peers, their teachers, and sometimes their parents.

They typically do not respond to punishment or threats, though they might be skilled at avoiding

punishment.

Aggressive children not only pose a threat to the school and to their peers, but also put

themselves in grave danger. Aggressive children, particularly boys, often develop serious

emotional problems later in life, have difficulty holding jobs, and become involved in criminal

behavior.

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______________________________________________________________________________________STUDENTS WITH WITHDRAWN AND IMMATURE BEHAVIOUR

Children who are withdrawn, immature, low in self-esteem, or depressed typically have few

friends or play with children much younger than themselves. They often have elaborate fantasies

or daydreams and either very poor or grandiose self-images. Some might be overly anxious

about their health and feel genuinely ill when under stress.

Students with autism

In 1990, autism became a formal category of disability. The U.S. Department of Education (1991)

defined autism as a developmental disability that significantly affects social interaction and verbal

and nonverbal communication. It is usually evident before the age of 3 and has an adverse affect

on educational performance.

Children with autism are typically extremely withdrawn and have such severe difficulties with

language that they might be entirely mute. They often engage in self-stimulation activities such as

rocking, twirling objects, or flapping their hands.

However, they might have normal or even outstanding abilities in certain areas. For unknown

reasons, autism is far more prevalent among boys than among girls.

There are promising treatments for autism, including methods of teaching people with autism to

build relationships with others and teaching them alternative means of communicating.

Students with sensory, physical, and health impairments

Sensory impairments are problems with the ability to see or hear or otherwise receive information

through the body's senses. Physical disorders include conditions such as cerebral palsy, spina

bifida, spinal cord injury, and muscular dystrophy. Health disorders include, for example, acquired

immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS); seizure disorders; diabetes; cystic fibrosis; sickle-cell

anemia (in African American students); and bodily damage from chemical addictions, child abuse,

or attempted suicide.

STUDENTS WITH VISUAL DISABILITIES

Most students' visual problems are correctable by glasses or other types of corrective lenses. A

vision loss is considered a disability only if it is not correctable. It is estimated that approximately

1 out of every 1,000 children has a visual disability. Individuals with such disabilities are usually

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______________________________________________________________________________________referred to as blind or visually impaired.

It is a misconception to assume that individuals who are legally blind have no sight. More than 80

percent of students who are legally blind can read large- or regular-print books. This implies that

many students with vision loss can be taught by means of a modification of usual teaching

materials. Classroom teachers should be aware of the signs that indicate that a child is having a

vision problem.

Several possible signs of vision loss include the following: (1) Child often tilts head; (2) child rubs

eyes often; (3) child's eyes are red, inflamed, crusty, or water excessively; (4) child has difficulty

reading small print or can't discriminate letters; (5) child complains of dizziness or headaches

after a reading assignment.

STUDENTS WHO ARE DEAF OR HARD OF HEARING

Hearing disabilities can range from complete deafness to problems that can be alleviated with a

hearing aid. The appropriate classification of an individual with hearing loss depends on the

measures required to compensate for the problem. Simply having a student sit at the front of the

classroom might be enough to compensate for a mild hearing loss. Flexner (2001) argues that a

broad range of children can benefit from amplification of the teacher's voice. Following are

several suggestions to keep in mind:

Seat children with hearing problems in the front of the room, slightly off center toward the

windows. This will allow them to see your face in the best light.

If the hearing problem is predominantly in one ear, students should sit in a front corner seat so

that their better ear is toward you.

Speak at the student's eye level whenever possible.

Give important information and instructions while facing the class. Avoid talking while facing the

chalkboard.

Do not use exaggerated lip movements when speaking.

Learn how to assist a child who has a hearing aid.

STUDENTS WHO ARE GIFTED AND TALENTED

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______________________________________________________________________________________Giftedness was once defined almost entirely in terms of superior IQ or demonstrated ability, such

as outstanding performance in mathematics or chess, but the definition now encompasses

students with superior abilities in a wide range of activities, including the arts.

High IQ is still considered part of the definition of gifted and talented, and most students who are

so categorized have IQs above 130. However, some groups are under-identified as gifted and

talented, including females, students with disabilities, underachievers, and students who are

members of racial or ethnic minority groups.

The 1978 Gifted and Talented Act stated that the gifted and talented are children. . . who are

identified. . . as possessing demonstrated or potential abilities that give evidence of high

performance capabilities in areas such as intellectual, creative, specific academic or leadership

ability or in the performing or visual arts and to by reason thereof require services or activities not

ordinarily provided by the school (Public Law 95-561, Section 902).

CHARACTERISTICS OF GIFTED AND TALENTED STUDENTS

Intellectually gifted children typically have strong motivation. They also are academically superior;

usually learn to read early; and, in general, do excellent work in most school areas. One of the

most important studies of the gifted, begun by Lewis Terman in 1926, followed 1,528 individuals

who had IQs over 140 as children.

Terman's research exploded the myth that high-IQ individuals were brainy but physically and

socially inept. In fact, Terman found that children with outstanding IQs were larger, stronger, and

better coordinated than other children and became better adjusted and more emotionally stable

adults.

Gifted students also have high self-concepts, although they can suffer from perfectionism.

EDUCATION OF GIFTED STUDENTS

How to educate gifted students is a matter of debate. Research on the gifted provides more

support (in terms of student achievement gains) for acceleration than for enrichment. However,

this could be because the outcomes of enrichment, such as creativity or problem-solving skills,

are difficult to measure.

Acceleration programs for the gifted often involve the teaching of advanced mathematics to

students at early ages. A variation on the acceleration theme is a technique called curriculum

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______________________________________________________________________________________compacting, in which teachers may skip over portions of the curriculum that the very able

students do not need.

Enrichment programs take many forms. Many successful enrichment programs have involved

self-directed or independent study. Others have provided gifted students with adult mentors.

Renzulli (1994) suggests an emphasis on three types of activities: general exploratory activities,

such as projects that allow students to find out about topics on their own; group training activities,

such as games and simulations to promote creativity and problem-solving skills; and individual

and small-group investigations of real problems, such as writing books or newspapers,

interviewing elderly people to write oral histories, and conducting geological or archaeological

investigations.

An additional responsibility is to promote social acceptance for students with disabilities through

modeling, practice, and feedback. Attitudes of other students can be improved through

instructional approaches focusing on increased understanding and through strategies such as

peer tutoring and cooperative learning, which provide students with opportunities to interact in

productive ways.

WEEK 13

SESSION 16 THE TEACHER'S ROLE IN INCLUSIVE CLASSROOMS & LESSON

PLANNING FOR INCLUSION

Teachers’ responsibilities in inclusive classrooms include identifying learners with exceptionalities

and adapting instruction for them. In the process of identification, teachers describe and

document learning problems and strategies they’ve tried. Effective instruction for students with

disabilities uses characteristics of instruction effective with all students. In addition, teaches

provide additional instructional support, modify homework assignments and reading materials,

and help students acquire learning strategies.

Today there is a growing number of new adaptive technologies such as cursor and mouse

enhancements, key definition programs, magnification software, and so on. These and many

regular word processing programs can be used with a specific purpose for students with

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______________________________________________________________________________________disabilities. Using the buddy system and peer tutoring will also assist in the process of learning to

use these various techniques. As stated above, the recent updates in IDEA as of 2004,

encourage the spending of funds for the early intervention and prevention of

disabilities/disparities. The use of adaptive technologies might be able to assist in this process.

REFERENCES

Eggen, Paul. (2004) Educational Psychology: Windows on Classrooms. Pearson. NJ

Elliott, Stephen N. et.al. (2000).Educational Psychology; Effective Teaching, Effective.Learning.McGraw Hill. Boston

O’Donnell Jacqueline.et.al. (2004) Educational Psychology:Reflection for Action. Wiley Publishers. NJ






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manual educational psychology

Documents

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objectives week1 session

perspective week

growth week

constructivist classroom

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intelligence week

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