CHAPTER ONE:

“Learning, teaching and educational psychology”

Learning and

teaching todayCONFIDENCE IN EVERY CONTEXT

Paulina Farfán Guerrero

Instituto Cultural Mexicano

Norteamericano de Michoacán

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Teachers with a high sense of efficacy work harder and persist longer

even when students are difficult to teach, in part because these

teachers believe in themselves and their students. The teachers’ sense

of efficacy is when a teacher belief that he or she can reach even

difficult students to help them learn.

HIGH EXPECTATIONS FOR TEACHERS AND STUDENTS

No childs left behind (NCLB) is an annual standardized achievement

tests on reading and mathematics.

Based on these tests scores, schools are judged to determine if their

students are making adequate yearly progress, toward becoming

proficient in the subjects tested. It includes racial and ethnic minority

students, students with disabilities, students whose first language is not

English, and students from low-income homes.

TEACHER-STUDENT RELATIONSHIP

Research has shown that the quality of the teacher-student relationship

in kinder garden predicts a number of academic and behavioral

outcomes, particularly for students with behavior problems, who are

less likely to have problems later in school if their teachers are

sensitive to their needs and provide frequent, consistent feedback.

What is

good

teaching?MENTORS MATTER

Teaching is one of the few professions in which a new teacher must

assume all of the responsibilities of an experienced “pro” during the

first week on the job. Veteran teachers can be an excellent source of

information and support during these early weeks.

SO WHAT IS GOOD TEACHING?

Teachers must:

Be both knowledgeable and inventive

Be reflective to think back over situations to analyze what

they did and why, and to consider how they might improve

learning for their students.

Be able to use a range of strategies

Be capable of inventing new strategies

Have some basic research-based routines for managing

classes

Be willing and able to break from routines for managing

classes when the situation calls for a change.

Know the research on student development patterns

common to particular ages, culture, social class, geography

and gender.

Know their own particular students who are unique

combinations of culture, gender and geography.

DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION

WHY DO WE NEED DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION?

The differentiated instruction is teaching that takes into account

students’ abilities, prior knowledge, and challenges so that instruction

matches not only the subject being taught but also students’ needs.

Many educators believe that classes should include students of diverse

needs, achievement levels, interests and learning styles and instruction

should be differentiated to take advantage of the diversity

ELEMENTS OF DIFFERENTATION

The confident teacher views these different student needs as

opportunities and work to create a curriculum and instruction for each

student that is focused, engaging, demanding and scaffold.

BEGINNING TEACHERS

There are some advices wrote by students:

Teach us as much as you can

Give us homework

Help us when we have problems with our work

Help us to do the right thing

Help us to make a family in the school

Read books to us

Teach us to read

Help us to write about faraway places

Give us lots of compliments like “Oh, that’s so beautiful”

Smile at us

Take us for walks and trips

Help us get our education

The role of

educational

psychologyWHAT IS EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY?

The discipline concerned with teaching and learning processes; applies

the methods and theories of psychology and has its own as well.

USING RESEARCH TO UNDERSTAND AND IMPROVE LEARNING

DESCRIPTIVE STUDIES:

These are studies that collect detailed information about specific

situations, often using observation, surveys, interviews, recordings, or a

combination of these methods.

CORRELATION STUDIES:

Is a number that indicates both the strength and the direction of a

relationship between two events.

There are two types of correlation:

Positive correlation: Is a relationship between two variables in

which the two increase or decrease together. Ex: Calorie intake

and weight gain.

Negative correlation: A relationship between two variables in

which a high value on one is associated with a low value on the

other. Ex: height and distance from top of head to ceiling.

Correlation don’t show causation

When research shows that landscaped lawns and school

achievement are correlated, it does not show causation.

Community wealth, a third variable, may be the cause of both

school achievement and landscaped lawns

Faulty assumption

Lanscaped lawns

LEAD TO

School achievement

CORRELATION

More likely assumption

EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES:

Is a research method in which variables are manipulated and the effects

recorded.

The quasi experimental studies are studies that fit most of the criteria

for true experiments, with the important exception that the participants

are not assigned to groups at random. Instead, existing groups such as

classes or schools participate in the experiments.

SINGLE-SUBJECT EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES:

Systematic interventions to study effects with one person, often by

applying and then withdrawing a treatment

Community wealth

LEAD

S TO

Landscaped lawns correlation School

achievement

LEA

DS T

O

Correlation

Correlation

MICROGENETIC STUDIES:

Detailed observation and analysis of changes in a cognitive process as

the process unfolds over a several-day or several-week period of time.

TEACHERS AS RESEARCHERS:

Research also can be a way to improve teaching in one classroom or

one school by action research. These are systematic observations or

test of methods conducted by teachers or schools to improve teaching

and learning for their students.

THE RESEARCH CYCLE

SUPPORTING STUDENTS LEARNING

There are some factors that affect the learning achievement.

Among there are:

SCHOOL AND SOCIAL

CONTEXT

Classmates

Treatment from

teacher

Building

Noisy

PERSONAL FACTORS

Motivations

Family

Mood

Health

Ss with disabilities

Sex

Age

CHAPTER TWO:

“Cognitive

development”

A definition of

development

The term development in its most general psychological sense

refers to certain changes that occur in human beings between

conception and death.

The human development can be divided in:

NATURE VS NURTURE

Cognitive development:gradual orederly

changes by which mental processes

become more complex and sophisticated

Social development:Changes over time in the ways we relate to

others

Personal development:Changes in personality that takes place as one

grows

Physical development: Changes in body

structure and function over time

Maturation: Genetically programmed, naturally occurring changes over

time

CONTINUITY VS DISCONTINUITY

CRITICAL VS SENSITIVE PERIODS

NATURE

Maturation: Genetically

programmed, naturally occurring changes over

time

NURTURE

Coactions:Join actions of individual

biology and the environment each

shapes and influence the other

CONTINUITY

A continious process would be like gradual improvement in your

running endurance through systematic

exercise

DISCONTINUITY

A discontinious change is more like walking up

the stairs by level periods

BEWARE OF EITHER/OR

Most psychologist view human development, learning and

motivation as a set of interacting and coacting contexts from the

inner biological structures and processes that influence

development such as genes, cells, nutrition, and disease, to the

external factors of families, neighborhoods, social relationships,

educational and health institutions, public policies, time periods,

historical events, and so on.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT

Although there is disagreement about exactly how development

takes place, there are a few general principles almost all theories

would support.

CRITICAL

Childhood experiences are critical, specially for emotional/social

and cognitive development.

SENSITIVE

Times when a person is specially ready for responsive to certain

experiences

The brain and

cognitive

development

People develop at different rates

Development is relatively orderly

Development takes place gradually

THE DEVELOPING BRAIN: NEURONS

The neurons are nerve cells that store and transfer information.

THALAMUS

Is involved in our ability to learn new information

HIPPOCAMPUS AND

AMYGDALA

Is critical in recalling new information and recent experiences, while the amygdala directs emotions

CEREBELLUM:

Coordinates and orchestrates balance and smooth, skilled movements.

Neuron cells send out long arm and branch-like fibers called

axons and dendrites to connect with other neuron cells. The fiber

ends from different neurons don’t actually touch –there are tiny

spaces between them, about one billionth of a meter in length

called synapses.

The neurogenesis is the production of new neurons.

The glial cells are the white matter of the brain. These cells

greatly outnumber neurons and appear to have many functions

such as fighting infections, controlling blood flows and

communication among neurons, and providing the myelin coating

around axon fibers.

The Myelination is the process by which neutral fibers are coated

with a fatty sheath called myelin that makes message transfer

more efficient.

THE DEVELOPING BRAIN: CEREBRAL CORTEX

The cerebral cortex allows the greatest human accomplishments,

such as complex problem solving and language.

The cortex is the last part of the brain to develop, so it is so

believed to be more susceptible to environmental influences than

other areas of the brain.

Another aspect of brain functioning that has implications for

cognitive development is:

Lateralization: The specialization of the two hemispheres (sides)

of the brain cortex.

Plasticity: The brain’s tendency to remain somewhat adaptable or

flexible.

NEUROSCIENCE, LEARNING AND TEACHING

INSTRUCTION BRAIN AND DEVELOPMENT

Several studies have shown differences in brain activity

associated with instruction. For example, the intensive instruction

and practice provided to rehabilitate stroke victims can help them

regain functioning by forming new connections and using new

areas of the brain.

THE BRAIN AND LEARNING TO READ.

Brain imaging research is revealing interesting differences among

skilled and less skilled readers as they learn new vocabulary

Reading is a complex integration of the systems in the brain that

recognize sounds, written symbols, meanings, and sequences, and

then connect with what the reader already knows.

Piaget’s theory of

cognitive

developmentINFLUENCES OF DEVELOPMENT:

According to Piaget, our thinking processes change from birth to

maturity because we constantly strive to make sense of the world.

Piaget identified four factors – biological maturation, activity,

social experiences and equilibration.

The most important influences are

BASIC TENDENCIES IN THINKING

MATURATION: The unfolding of the biological changes that are genetically

programmed

SOCIAL TRANSMISSION:Learning from

others.

ACTIVITY: Increasing ability

to act on the environment and

learn from it

FOUR STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT: PIAGET’S

THEORY

BASIC TENDENCIES IN THINKING

ORGANIZATION:Later

experiences are powerful, too,

and can change the direction of development

ADAPTATION:Adjustment to the environment

ASSIMILATION: Fitting new

information into existing schemes

ACCOMODATION:Alterning existing

schemes or creating new ones in response to new

information

SCHEMES:areMental systems or cathegories of perception and

experience

EQUILIBRIUM: Search for

mental balance between cognitive

schemes and information from the environment

DESEQUILIBRIUM:In piaget's theory ,

the "out-of-balance" state that

occurs when a person realizes that is his or her current

ways of thinking are not working to solve a problem or

understand a situation

INFORMATION PROCESSING, NEO-PIAGETIAN, AND

NEUROSCIENCES VIEWS OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

The neo-Piagetian theories are more recent theories that

integrate findings about attention, memory and strategy use with

Piaget’s insights about children’s thinking and the construction of

knowledge.

An example of these theories is the Kurt Fischer’s theory. It says

that children develop skills in speaking, reading and mathematics;

their growth patterns show a similar series of spurts. In learning

a new skill, children move from actions to representations to

abstractions.

A pattern of cognitive development over 30 years

It shows the ages at which the skills develop if the individual have

quality support and the chance to practice.

Vygotsky’s

sociocultural

perspectiveLev Vygotsky elaborated the sociocultural theory of development.

His ideas about language, culture, and cognitive development

have become major influences in the fields of psychology and

education.

This theory emphasizes role in development of cooperative

dialogues between children and more knowledgeable members of

society. Children learn the culture of their community (ways of

thinking and behaving) through these interactions.

CULTURAL TOOLS AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Cultural tools are the real tools (computers, scales, etc.); ad

symbol systems (numbers, language, graphs) that allow people in

society to communicate, think, solve problems and create

knowledge.

Vygotsky believed that cultural tools, including technical and

psychological tools play very important roles in cognitive

development

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PIAGET’S AND VYGOTSKY’S

THEORIES OF EGOCENTRIC OR PRIVATE SPEECH.

THE ROLE OF LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT

Piaget defined development as active construction of knowledge

and learning as the passive formation of association.

In contrast, Vygotsky believed that learning is an active process

that does not have to wait for readiness. He saw learning as a tool

in development.

ASSITED LEARNING AND SCAFFOLDING

Assisted learning or guided participation in the classroom

requires scaffolding –understanding the students’ needs.

Teachers can assist learning by adapting materials or problems to

students’ current levels, demonstrating skills or thought

processes.

CHAPTER THREE:

“The self, social

and moral

development”

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

Young children:

During the preschool years, there is rapid development of

children’s gross and fine-motor skills

Elementary school, years:

They become taller, leaner and stronger. Many of the girls are

likely to be as large as or larger than the boys in their classes.

Adolescent years:

The physical changes of adolescence have significant effects on

the individual’s identity. Psychologists have been particularly

interested in the academic, social, and emotional differences they

have found between adolescents who mature early and those who

maturate later.

On average, between ages 12 and 13, girls have their first

menstrual period (menarche), and boys their first sperm

ejaculation (spermarche). Boys develop facial hair over the next

several years, reaching their final beard potential by about age 18

or 19.

Girls reach their final height by the age 15 or 16.

EARLY AND LATER MATURING:

Early maturation is associated with emotional difficulties such as

depression, anxiety and eating disorders, especially in societies

that define thinness as attractive. Other problems for early

maturing girls are lower achievement in school, drug and alcohol

abuse, unplanned pregnancy, suicide, and greater risk of breast

cancer in later life.

Later maturing girls seem to have fewer problems, but they may

worry that something is wrong with them, so adult reassurance

and support is important.

Early maturity in males is associated with popularity.

Later-maturing boys may experience lower self-esteem because

they are smaller and less muscular than the ideal for men.

PLAY, RECESS AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY:

Maria Montessori once noted “Play is essential development

because it contributes to the cognitive, physical, social and

emotional well-being of children and youth”.

Play might help in the important process of pruning brain

synapses during childhood.

PHYSICAL EXERCISE AND RECESS:

Systematic exercise programs may actually enhance the

development of specific types of mental processing known to be

important for meeting challenges encountered both in academics

and throughout the lifespan.

One study found that students who had daily recess of 15 minutes

or longer every day were better behaved in class than students

who had a little or no recess.

CHALLENGES IN PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT:

Physical development is public (everyone can see), so there are

psychological consequences to physical development.

CHALLENGES IN PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

OBESITY

Is a growing problem in america, especially for children

The consequences are diabetes, strain on bones, and joits, respiratory problems, and

greater chance of heart nproblems as adults

EATING DISORDERS

BULIMIA:Eating disorder characterized by overeating, the getting rid

of the food by self-induced vomiting or laxatives

ANOREXIA:Eating disorder characterized by very limited food intake.

Bronfenbrenner:

the social context

for development

THE IMPORTANCE OF CONTEXT AND THE BIOECOLOGICAL

MODEL:

The context are internal and external circumstances and

situations that interact with the individual’s thoughts, feelings,

and actions to shape development and learning.

Urie Bronfenbrenner’s bio ecological model of development

recognizes that the physical and social contexts develop are

ecosystems because they are constantly interacting with and

influencing each other.

This theory says that every person develops within a microsystem,

inside a mesosystem, embedded in an exosystem, all of which are

a part of the culture. All development occurs in and is influenced

by the time period –the chronosystem.

FAMILIES:

The first context for child development is the mother’s womb. The

influence of the family begins before birth, but many influences

follow.

FAMILY STRUCTURE:

Families can be many types:

Blended family: Parents, children, and stepchildren merged into

families through remarriages.

Extended Families: Different family members –grandparents,

aunts, uncles, cousins, etc.- living in the same household or at

least in daily contact with the children in the family.

PARENTING STYLES:

Parenting styles are the ways of interacting with and disciplining

children. There are:

Authoritative parents.

Authoritarian parents

Permissive parents

Rejecting/Neglecting/Uninvolved parents.

ATTACHMENT

It consists in forming an emotional bond with another person, initially a parent or family member.

DIVORCE

The actual separation of the parent tops may have been preceded by years of conflict join the home or may come as shock to all, including

friends and children.

Children may have problems in school, or just skip school, lose or gain an unusual amount of weight, have trouble sleeping, or experience other difficulties. However, adjustment to divorce is an individual

matter; some children respond with increased responsibility, maturity and coping skills.

PEERS

Children also develop within their groups. Rubin and his colleagues distinguished between two kinds of peer groups: cliques and crowds.

Cliques are relatively small, friendship-based groups. Cliques are more evident in middle childhood

CROWDS

Adolescents are more likely to affiliate with larger crowds that provide them with an identify

PEER CULTURES

Peer cultures may set “rules” for how to dress and behave and in so doing determine which activities, music or other students are in or out

of favor.

POPULARITY

There are 4 types of popularity:

Popular children were similar to average children, except that their peers perceived them as being better students than the

average kids. The only difference teachers saw was an increased amount of helping behavior in the popular children compared to

the average children. This is only among popular-prosocial children though. There are also popular-antisocial children who

are usually poor students, cause trouble, and defy authority (often tough boys) they often have above average athletic ability, but as they grow older their peers tend to like these aggressive popular

peers less. Popular-antisocial children may bully others.

The students who fared the worst were the rejected children, especially those who were aggressive. There were two types of

rejected children either rejected-aggressive children or rejected-withdrawn children who were socially awkward. Teachers did not

prefer these students, and peers perceived them to be poor students. Both types are at risk for peer harassment. The

aggressive child is more likely to retaliate, but the withdrawn child is equally likely to desire to retaliate against attacks, but

they rarely act on these desires.

Neglected children were often quiet and socially withdrawn, some were also socially anxious. They were usually well adjusted and

content with their minimal social life. However, when they wanted to join in other groups they were usually easily able to do so. The most academically motivated students were the neglected

children. They were also preferred more by their teachers compared to average children. Teachers viewed neglected

children to be highly independent and behaviorally appropriate in the classroom. They were more likely to become rejected children

if their social skills were poor.

Controversial children were perceived by peers as similar to average children. They were likely to have as many friends as

popular children and be happy with these friendships. Teachers,

however, thought that controversial children were less independent and more unruly than average children. They display

a mix of hostile and disruptive behavior as well as positive prosocial behavior. They may bully others to maintain dominance.

REACHING EVERY STUDENT: TEACHER SUPPORT

Teachers have opportunities to play a significant role on in students’ personal and social development.

As a teacher you can be available to your students if they want to talk about personal problems without requiring them to do.

ACADEMICAL AND PERSONAL CARING

Good teachers… Have positive interpersonal relationships

Keep the classroom organized and maintain authority without being rigid or “mean”.

Are good motivators –they can make learning fun by being creative and innovative so students learn something.

Students define caring in two ways. One is academic caring –setting high but reasonable expectations and helping students

reach those goals. The second is personal caring –being patient, respectful, humorous, willing to listen interested on students’

issues and personal problems.

TEACHERS AND CHILD ABUSE

As a teacher, you must alert your principal, school psychologist, or school social worker if you suspect abuse.

Even children who survive abuse pay a great price. In school alone, physically abused children are more likely to be aggressive in the classroom and retained in grades and referred for special

education services more often than children who were not abused.

SOCIETY AND MEDIA

All of students you will teach grew up in a world of media, mobility and machines. The different technologies that children

use daily to keep in touch with friends are text messages, cellphone, social network and e-mail.

Identity and self-concept

ERIKSON’S STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Erikson believed that people go through eight life stage, each of which involves a central crisis.

In the first two stages, an infant must develop a sense of trust over mistrust and a sense of autonomy over shame and doubt. In early childhood, the focus of the third stage is on developing initiate and avoiding feeling of guilt. In the child’s elementary

school, the fourth stage involves achieving a sense of industry and avoiding feelings of inferiority.

In the fifth stage, identity versus role confusion, adolescents consciously attempt to solidify their identity.

HOW DOES SELF-CONCEPT CHANGE AS CHILDREN DEVELOP?

Self-concept becomes increasingly complex, differentiated, and abstract

as we mature.

It evolves self-reflection, social interaction and experiences in and out

of school. Students develop a self-concept by comparing themselves

internal and external standards. High self-esteem is related to better

overall school experience, both academically and socially.

DISTINGUISH BETWEEN SEL-CONCEPT AND SELF-STEEM

Self-concept is our attempt to build a scheme that organizes our

impressions. Self-esteem is an evaluation of your self-worth.

Self-concept is a cognitive structure and self-esteem is an affective

evaluation.

DIFFERENCES IN SELF-CONCEPT FOR GIRLS AND BOYS

By high school, boys and girls express about the same competence in

math, girls are higher in language arts, and boys are higher in sports.

Self-esteem for boys and girls report declines in the transition to middle

school, but boys’ self-esteem goes up in high school while girls’ self-

esteem stays down.

Understanding

others and moral

developmentWHAT IS THE THEORY OF MIND AND WHY IS IMPORTANT?

Is an understanding that other people are people too, with their own

minds, thoughts, feelings, beliefs, desires and perceptions.

As children develop a theory of mind, they also are able to understand

that other people have intentions of their own.

HOW DO PERSPECTIVE-TAKING SKILLS CHANGE AS STUDENTS

MATURE?

Young children believe that everyone has the same thoughts and

feelings they do. Later, they learn that others have separate identities

and therefore separate feelings and perspectives on events.

WHAT ARE THE KEY DIFFERENCES AMONG THE

PRECONVENTIONAL, CONVENTIONAL, AND POSTCONVENTIONAL

LEVELS OF MORAL REASONING?

Kohlberg’s theory of moral development includes three levels:

1. Preconventional level, where judgments are based on self-interest

2. A conventional level, where judgments are based on traditional

family values and social expectations.

3. A post conventional level, where judgments are based on more

abstract and personal ethical principles.

GILLIGAN’S LEVELS OF MORAL REASONING

Gilligan has suggested that, because Kohlberg’s stage theory was

based on a longitudinal study of men only, and the stages of

women’s development were not adequately represented. Gilligan

believes that individuals move from a focus on self-interest to

moral reasoning based on commitment to specific individual and

relationships, and then to the highest level of morality based on

the principles of responsibility and care for all people.

HOE DOES THINKING IN THE MORAL AND CONVENTIONAL

DOMAIN CHANGE OVER TIME?

Beliefs about morality move from the young child’s sense that

justice means equal treatment for all.

Children being by believing that the regularities they see are real

and right.

After going through several stages, adults realize that

conventions are useful in coordinating social life, but changeable

too.

WHAT INGLUENCES MORAL BEHAVIOR?

Adults first control young children’s moral behavior through

direct instruction, supervision, rewards and punishments, and

correction. A second important influence on the development of

the moral behavior is modeling.

Children who have been consistently exposed to caring, generous

adult models will tend to be more concerned for the rights and

feelings of others.

WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENTS TYPES OF AGRESSION?

Today, the many social media applications and sites provide other

avenues for relational aggression.

Peer agression

Instrumental Intended to gain an object or privilege.

Hostile agression:Intended to inflict

harm

Overt threats:physical attacks

Relational agression:Damaging social

relationships

HOW DOES EVER-PRESENT MEDIA AFFECT AGRESSION AND

EMPHATY?

The world and the media provide many negative models of behavior. If

children are given reasons, they can understand when they are

corrected and then they are more likely to internalize moral principles.

WHY DO STUDENTS CHEAT?

Cheating is caused by both individual and situational factors, but if the

pressure is great enough and the chance of getting caught is slim, many

students will cheat.

CHAPTER FOUR:

“Learner

differences and

learning needs”

IntelligenceADVANTAGES OF AND PROBLEMS WITH LABELS:

Labels and diagnostic classifications can easily become both stigmas

and self-fulfilling prophecies, but they can also open doors to special

programs and help teachers to develop the appropriate instructional

strategies.

WHAT IS PERSON-FIRST LANGUAGE?

“Person-first” language is an alternative to labels that describe a

complex person with one or two words, implying that the condition

labeled is the most important aspect of the person.

DISABILITIES AND HANDICAPS:

WHAT DOES INTELLIGENCE MEAN?

The intelligence is an ability or abilities to acquire and use knowledge

for solving problems and adapting to the world.

INTELLIGENCE: ONE ABILITY OR MANY?

General ability: A general factor in cognitive ability that is related

in varying degrees to performance on all mental tests.

Fluid intelligence: Mental efficiency, nonverbal abilities grounded

in brain development.

Disabilities

The inability to do something specific, such as walk or hear

Handicaps

A disadvantage in a particular situation, sometimes caused by a disability

Crystallized intelligence: Ability to apply culturally approved

problem-solving methods.

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

Howard Gardner was a developmental psychologist who researched

with two different groups.

He observed brain-injured patients who were lost spacially but could do

all kinds of verbal tasks, and other patients who had the opposite set of

abilities and problems.

Garner concluded that there are several separate mental abilities, and

developed his now famous theory of multiple intelligences.

In Gardner’s theory of intelligence, a person’s eight separate abilities:

Logical-mathematical, linguistic, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic,

interpersonal, intrapersonal and natural.

WHAT ARE THESE INTELLIGENCES?

WHAT ARE THE ELEMENTS IN STERNBERG’S THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE?

Analytic/componential intelligence involves mental processes that are defined in terms of components: metacomponents, performance

components, and knowledge-acquisition components. Creative/experimental intelligence involves coping with new

experiences through insight and automaticity. Practical/contextual intelligence involves choosing to live and work in context and reshaping

it if necessary. Practical intelligence is made up mostly of action-oriented tacit knowledge learned during everyday life.

HOW IS INTELLIGENCE MEASURED AND WHAT DOES AN IQ SCORE MEAN?

Intelligence is measured through individual tests and group tests.

The average score is 100. About 68%of the general population will earn IQ scores between 85-115. Only about 16% of the population will

receive scores below 85 or above 115.

Intelligence predicts success in school, but is less predictive of success in life when level of education is taken into account.

WHAT IS THE FLYNN EFFECT AND WHAT ARE ITS IMPLICATIONS?

Since early 1900s, IQ scores have been rising.

Students who where not identified as having learning problems a generation ago, might be identified as having intellectual disabilities

now, because the questions are harder.

ARE THERE SEX DEFFERENCES IN COGNITIVE ABILITIES?

Girls seem to be better on verbal tests, especially when writing is involved. Males seem to de superior on tasks that require mental

rotation of objects. The scores of males tend to be more variable on general. Research on the causes of these differences has been

inconclusive, except to indicate that academic socialization and teachers’ treatment of male and female students in mathematics classes

may play a role.

Learning and thinking stylesLEARNING STYLES AND LEARNING PREFERENCES

Learning styles are the characteristic ways a person approaches learning and studying.

Learning preferences are individual preferences for particular learning modes and environment.

SHOULD TEACHERS MATCH INSTRUCTION TO INDIVIDUAL LEARNING STYLES?

Results of some research indicate that students learn more when they study in their preferred setting and manner.

WHAT LEARNING STYLE DISTINCTIONS ARE THE MOST WLL SUPPORTED BY RESEARCH?

Students who take a surface-processing approach focus on memorizing the learning materials, not understanding them. A second is Mayer’s

visualizer-verbalizer dimensions that has three facets: cognitive spatial ability (low or high), cognitive style (a visualizer versus a verbalizer),

and learning preference (a verbal learner versus a visual learner).

Individual differences and

the lawDESCRIBE THE MAIN LEGAL REQUIREMENTS THAT PERTAIN

TO STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES

The laws protect rights of students with special needs and their parents. In addition, the vocational rehabilitation act prevents

discrimination against people with disabilities in any program that receives federal money, such as public schools

Students with learning

challengesWHAT DOES RESEARCH IN NEUROSCIENCE TELL US ABOUT

LEARNING PROBLEMS?

Students with learning disabilities have problems in using the system of working memory that holds verbal and auditory information while you

work with it.

WHAT IS A LEARNING DISABILITY?

Disorders in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding using spoken or written language.

These are intrinsic to the individual, presumed to be the result of central nervous system dysfunction, and may occur across the life span.

Students with learning disabilities may become victims of learned helplessness when they come to believe that they cannot control or

improve their own learning and therefore cannot succeed.

WHAT IS ADHD AND HOW IS IT HANDLED IN SCHOOL?

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), is the term used to describe individuals of any age with hyperactivity and attention

difficulties.

Approaches that combine motivational training with instruction in learning and memory strategies and behavior modification seem

effective. The SMART approach that focuses on the abilities of children is another possibility.

WHAT ARE THE MOST COMMON COMMUNICATION DISORDERS?

Common communication disorders include speech impairments (articulation disorders, stuttering and voicing problems) and oral

language disorders.

SUICIDE.

Students at risk of suicide may shows changes in eating or sleeping habits, weight, grades, disposition, activity level, or interest in friends.

They may seem depressed or hyperactive, and may start missing school or quit doing work.

INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES

Before age 18, students must score below about 70 on standard measure of intelligence and must have problems with adaptive behavior, day-to-day independent living and social functioning.

Support varies from intermittent to extensive to pervasive.

HOW CAN SCHOOL ACCOMMODATE THE NEEDS OF STUDENTS WITH PHYSICAL DISABILITIES?

If the school has the necessary architectural features, such as ramps, elevators and accessible rest rooms, and if teachers allow for the

physical limitations of students, little needs to be done to alter the usual educational program.

HOW WOULD YOU HANDLE A SEIZURE IN CLASS?

Move hard objects away. Turn the child’s head gently to the side, put a soft coat or blanket under the student’s head, and loosen any tight clothing. Never put anything in the student’s mouth. If one seizure allows another and the student does not regain consciousness in

between, if the student is pregnant, or if the seizure goes on for more than 5 minutes, get medical help right away

VISUAL AND HEARING IMPAIRMENTS:

Some signs of these problems are holding book very close or far away, squinting, rubbing eyes, misreading the chalkboard, and holding the

head at an odd angle.

Other indications include not following directions, seeming distracted or confused at times, frequently asking people to repeat what they have

said, mispronouncing new words or names, and being reluctant to participate in class discussions.

AUTISM AND ASPERGER SYNDROME

Asperger syndrome is one of the autism spectrum disorders. Asperger syndrome usually have average-to-above average intelligence and

better language abilities than other children with autism.

WHAT IS RESPONSE TO INTERVENTION?

RTI is an approach to supporting students with learning problems as early as possible.

Students who are gifted and

talented CHARACTERISTICS OF GIFTED STUDENTS:

They learn easily and rapidly and retain what they have learned; use common sense and practical knowledge; know about many things that

other children don’t; use large number of words and accurately; recognize relations and comprehend meaning; are alert and keenly

observant and respond quickly, are persistent and highly motivated on some tasks; and are creative or make interesting connections.

IS ACCELERATION A USEFUL APPROACH WITH GIFTED STUDENTS?

Gifted students tend to prefer the company of older playmates and may be bored if kept with children their own age.

Skipping grades may not be the best solution for a particular student, but for students who are extremely advanced intellectually the only

practical solution may be to accelerate their education