two early epipalaeolithic sites in wadi taiyiba, northern jordan

Paléorient, vol. 40.1, p. 73-97 © CNRS ÉDITIONS 2014 Manuscrit reçu le 27 février 2013, accepté le 13 décembre 2013

TWO EARLY EPIPALAEOLITHIC SITES IN WADI TAIYIBA, NORTHERN JORDAN

L. MAHER, D.A. MACDONALD, A. ALAICA, J.T. STOCK and E.B. BANNING

Abstract: Two Early Epipalaeolithic sites in Wadi Taiyiba, Northwestern Jordan, occur in quite different geological circumstances than similar sites in neighbouring Wadi Ziqlab. Both would have been close to ancient Lake Lisan but one is a shallow site on a slope near the edge of the Lisan shoreline while the other has deeper, stratifi ed deposits in front of a collapsed rockshelter a short distance upstream, overlooking a hot spring. Small excavations at both sites have shown that faunal remains were scarce at the former but fairly common at the latter, where mountain gazelle is the most abundant taxon, followed by boar, hare, wolf, fox, red deer, aurochs, and wild sheep and goat, and there were also some human remains from at least two individuals. Both sites have some ground-stones. Overall, the shallow site appears to have been a short-term camp focused on tool manufacture and gearing-up for hunting, while the deeper site has a denser and much more diverse assemblage, human remains, and evidence for many different activities, suggesting that it was a longer-term residential site that was re-used over many seasons. The sites contribute to our understanding of site diversity and settlement pattern in the relatively poorly known Early Epipalaeolithic.

Résumé : Deux sites de l’Épipaléolithique ancien, localisés dans le Wadi Taiyiba en Jordanie, se trouvent dans une situation géologique tout à fait différente de celle des sites comparables dans la vallée voisine, le Wadi Ziqlab. En effet, ces deux sites étaient probablement à proximité de l’ancien Lac Lisan : le premier est un site peu profond, sur une pente près de la rive du Lisan, tandis que le second comporte des dépôts stratifi és plus épais à l’avant d’un abri effondré, situé à courte distance en amont, dominant une source d’eau chaude. De courtes campagnes de fouilles dans ces deux sites ont montré que les restes fauniques étaient rares dans le premier, mais assez communs dans le second, où la gazelle de montagne est le taxon le plus abondant, suivi par le sanglier, le lièvre, le loup, le renard, le cerf, l’aurochs, le mouton et la chèvre sauvages. Des ossements humains provenant d’au moins deux individus ont également été découverts. Du matériel de mouture a été recueilli dans les deux sites. Le premier site semble correspondre globalement à une occupation de courte durée orientée vers la fabrication d’outils et les préparatifs pour la chasse, tandis que le second, qui présente un assemblage plus dense et beaucoup plus diversifi é, des restes humains et les traces de nombreuses activités, serait un site d’habitat de plus longue durée, réoccupé pendant plusieurs saisons. Ils contribuent à une meilleure connaissance de la diversité fonctionnelle des sites et des modèles d’occupation des territoires, qui sont assez mal connus pour le début de l’Épipaléolithique.

Keywords: Early Epipalaeolithic; Jordan; Lithics; Burials; Subsistence.Mots-clés : Épipaléolithique ancien ; Jordanie ; Industrie lithique ; Sépultures ; Subsistance.

Decades of research on the transition from forager to farmer in the Near East have produced a wealth of data on the emer-gence of sedentism and farming villages immediately preced-ing the Neolithic. The earlier phases of this transition, namely the Late Upper Palaeolithic and Early Epipalaeolithic periods (ca 25-17,000 BP), remain relatively poorly understood. A comparative scarcity of sites, poor preservation, and a research focus on the later phases of the Epipalaeolithic/Neolithic transition have resulted in a body of literature unequally

weighted towards the Natufi an and Early Neolithic. Despite this, the Early Epipalaeolithic period is critical to our under-standing of the dramatic economic, social, and technological changes occurring in the Late Pleistocene. Recent research has shown that attributes characteristic of the Natufi an and Early Neolithic, such as sedentism, intensive plant processing, food storage, elaborate burials, and long-distance interaction spheres, have their origins much earlier in the Epipalaeolithic (Maher et al. 2011b; 2012a and in press; Nadel and Werker

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74 L. MAHER, D.A. MACDONALD, A. ALAICA, J.T. STOCK and E.B. BANNING

Paléorient, vol. 40.1, p. 73-97 © CNRS ÉDITIONS 2014

1999; Richter et al. 2011; Weiss et al. 2004 and 2005). Here we present information on two Early Epipalaeolithic sites that may contribute to a better knowledge of this period.

In 2001, the Wadi Ziqlab Project (University of Toronto) conducted survey and excavation in Wadi Taiyiba, Northern Jordan. This included the discovery and excavation of two Early Epipalaeolithic sites, WT1 and WT6. Both these sites contain in situ deposits with defi nable stratigraphic units. They have well-preserved fauna and human remains with evidence for on-site chipped-stone tool production, including cores, debitage, and retouched tools. The lithic and faunal assem-blages suggest that the two sites represent small camps occu-pied temporarily by hunter-gatherers who conducted a narrow range of activities related to hunting, food processing, and tool manufacture. Excavations at these two sites in Northern Jordan contribute to our understanding of the Early Epipalaeolithic activities in this part of the Levant, fi lling a gap between the substantial and well-known site of Ohalo II and other nearby sites to the west and south.

BACKGROUND

The best-studied Early Epipalaeolithic site to-date is the cam psite of Ohalo II, located on the southern shore of the Sea of Galilee in Israel. Excavated in the mid-1990s, Ohalo II’s excellently preserved deposits contain evidence for several hut structures with internal activity areas for fl int knapping and plant processing, use of a wide variety of wild plant and animal resources, elaborate construction and cordage technologies, and a human burial. The huts at Ohalo II were re-occupied several times, with evidence for maintenance of fl oors and organic super-structures, and may have been occupied for several seasons of the year (Nadel and Werker 1999; Nadel (ed.) 2002; Nadel 2003; Nadel et al. 2004). Signifi cantly, this site contains some of the best and earliest evidence for year-round and multi-year occupation of one locale. In addition to Ohalo II, hut structures and human burials are known from a few other Early Epipalaeolithic sites, including Ein Gev I (Arensburg and Bar-Yosef 1973; Martin et Bar-Yosef 1979), Haon II (Bar-Yosef 1975), and Kharaneh IV (Maher et al. 2012a and b). Other regional research projects have included smaller-scale work at Early Epipalaeolithic sites, such as in the Coastal Plain of Israel (Bar-Yosef 1970), Negev and Sinai (Goring-Morris 1987), the Northern Jordan Valley (Edwards et al. 1996; Goring-Morris 1980; Hovers et al. 1988), Central Jordan (Coinman 1998; Coinman et al. 1989; Olszewski 2000;

2003 and 2011), Southern Jordan (Henry 1995) and Eastern Jordan (Garrard and Byrd 1992; Garrard et al. 1994a and b; Rollefson et al. 1997). Most of these sites represent the remains of ephemeral/temporary campsites occupied for only short periods of time, but are important for our knowledge of the variability and range of Early Epipalaeolithic settlement practices and mobility (see also Goring-Morris et al. 2009).

Current research projects focussing on the Early Epi-palaeolithic are rare. In Jordan, there are only two ongo-ing research projects, the Epipalaeolithic Foragers in Azraq Project (EFAP) in Eastern Jordan and the Western Highlands of Jordan Project in West-Central Jordan. Although with a regional focus, EFAP has conducted extensive excavations at two Early Epipalaeolithic sites, Ayn Qasiyya and Kharaneh IV, and work at the latter remains ongoing. These sites have con-tributed greatly to our understanding of the nature of hunter-gatherer behaviours in this area, particularly with regard to settlement duration and intensity at aggregation sites, social and economic interaction networks, and burial practices. The site of ‘Ayn Qasiyya has yielded extensive lithic and faunal assemblages and a single in situ human burial (Richter 2011; Richter et al. 2010). The Kharaneh IV excavations have uncov-ered hut features in addition to a plethora of lithic and faunal remains (Maher et al. 2011b; 2012a and b and in press; Richter et al. 2011). In addition to EFAP, the Western Highlands of Jordan Project has conducted extensive survey of the Kerak Plateau for Early Epipalaeolithic sites and is currently excavat-ing the Early Epipalaeolithic site Wadi Madamagh in Southern Jordan (al-Nahar et al. 2009). This site’s deposits are dense in lithics and animal remains and exhibit a well-preserved, high-resolution stratigraphic record with multiple hearths and mid-den deposits.

Early Epipalaeolithic sites are generally small in size, rang-ing from 15 to 400 m2, with low artifact densities and diversity, and are presumed to represent small, seasonal camps. Traces of structures or other site features are rare. Ohalo II, for exam-ple, has at least three well-preserved brush huts with indoor and outdoor activity areas, hearths, and midden areas (Nadel (ed.) 2002; Nadel et al. 2004). Similar structures are known also from Lagama North VIII, Ein Gev I, and Haon (Bar-Yosef 1975; Goring-Morris 1987; Martin et Bar-Yosef 1979). At the large aggregation sites of Kharaneh IV and Jilat 6 in Eastern Jordan hut structures and ochre-stained fl oors have also been documented in the Early Epipalaeolithic deposits (Garrard and Byrd 1992; Maher et al. 2012).


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Two Early Epipalaeolithic Sites in Wadi Taiyiba, Northern Jordan 75


GEOMORPHOLOGICAL SURVEY OF WADI TAIYIBA

The Wadi Ziqlab Project at the University of Toronto con-ducted geoarchaeological survey of the western end of Wadi Taiyiba’s drainage basin in 2001 with the aim of characterizing the history of local landscape development and comparing it to similar work conducted in Wadi Ziqlab, located immediately to the south (Maher 2011). During geomorphological survey, several prehistoric sites were discovered and two of these, WT1 and WT6, underwent small test excavations. These two sites will be discussed in detail below.

Wadi Taiyiba is a large river valley in Northern Jordan draining westwards into the Jordan Valley (fi g. 1). The val-ley is deeply incised, cutting through predominantly late Cretaceous and Tertiary marly limestone bedrock. The val-ley encompasses over 100 km2, starting just to the west of the city of Irbid, with several smaller tributaries draining into the main channel throughout its length. The basin’s eastern por-tion reaches over 400 m in altitude and displays a maturely dissected profi le. The western end of Wadi Taiyiba plunges to -200 m asl where it joins the Jordan River.

Wadi Taiyiba is a valley with a meandering main chan-nel that stands out from other nearby valleys (wadis) as being very deeply incised, with many steep-sided tributaries. For example, its main channel is longer with a much steeper and

deeper profi le than the broad, U-shaped profi le of Wadi Ziqlab immediately to its south (fi g. 1). Preliminary observations of the river valley’s geological history indicate that much of its steepness is the result of a combination of erosion, tectonic uplift, and folding of limestone bedrock.

All of the exposed bedrock and related deposits in Wadi Taiyiba are highly calcareous because of their marine origins (Quennell 1951; Burdon 1959; Begin et al. 1974; Bender 1974). Extensive folding and faulting of these sediments caused major uplift in the Middle and Late Tertiary (~ 37-2 mya) that exposed much of the visible bedrock in the wadi. In addi-tion to Cretaceous and Tertiary limestone strata, more recent Pleistocene and Holocene deposits are also present. They are concentrated in the westernmost part of the drainage basin and consist primarily of alluvial and colluvial deposits, cemented conglomerates, marly limestone, and sandy gravels that rep-resent the remnants of Pleistocene alluvial terraces (Butzer 1982). Traces of these terraces can be seen as massive alluvial deposits on the top of the plateau separating Wadi Taiyiba and Wadi Ziqlab (fi g. 1). Lacustrine and deltaic sediments (coarse detritus of marl and limestone) are common at the mouth of the wadi. Holocene sediments are restricted to either alluvial gravel deposits at the wadi bottom, with no associated soil development, or colluvial deposits on the wadi margins, some-times with limited soil development.

In several locations throughout the wadi, particularly mid-basin, large tributaries draining into the wadi have created

Fig. 1 – Wadi Taiyiba with inset of its location in Jordan.


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substantial alluvial fans now stranded as terraces high above the modern channel fl oor. Several of these terraces are over 50 m in height and contain archaeological deposits, such as the multi-phase site of WT4 with high densities of lithics and pottery ranging in age from the Upper Palaeolithic to Mamluk periods (Maher and Banning 2001a and b) (fi g. 1). In contrast to these high terraces with thick, artefact-rich deposits, the slopes of the main channel are often steep and almost bare. A lack of vegetation compounds the effects of erosion processes so that most hill slopes contain little more than a thin layer of weakly-developed Grey Slope soil (see below; Fisher et al. 1966). Survey of the upper reaches of Wadi Taiyiba revealed many highly stranded terraces, each located near the top of the hill slope and containing at least 4 m of very coarse, clast-supported alluvium representing the remains of old tributaries that began the process of valley incision.

Throughout the main channel and, particularly, on the south side of the channel, small ledges, rockshelters and shal-low caves, created by siliceous limestone more resistant to weathering than its marly surrounding counterpart, contain deposits of breccia. The breccia is rich in fl int nodules and angular chunks of broken fl int that represented slopewash, eroded out of the soft limestone bedrock and subsequently cemented together over time. The breccia occurs in two dis-tinct forms, suggesting at least two prolonged episodes of for-mation. A coarse, clast-supported breccia with large fragments of >80% fl int is very fi rmly cemented as a rock. Overlying the coarse, hard breccia is a breccia deposit with smaller fl int frag-ments that are matrix-supported by friable silt that can easily be broken apart. In a few locations, undiagnostic fl int fl akes and crude blades were discovered in both the hard lower and soft upper breccia.

Most geological and geomorphological work in this area has been conducted in Wadi Ziqlab (Fisher et al. 1966; Field and Banning 1998; Maher 2011; Ullah 2010). Yet, despite their proximity, Wadi Ziqlab and Wadi Taiyiba are geologically and geomorphologically very distinct (Maher 2011). Wadi Taiyiba’s limestone bedrock is composed largely of marl and silty lime-stone and contains an overall greater abundance and variety of fl int nodules and beds. It has clearly been more impacted by uplift and tectonic activity in the adjacent Jordan Valley and exhibits a greater degree of folding and faulting in comparison to the siliceous limestone of Wadi Ziqlab. Wadi Taiyiba has not been extensively developed for farming, so terraces are bet-ter preserved and, with some exceptions, are left largely free of bulldozing activities. This is especially true for the western end of the channel as it empties into the Jordan Valley, where deposits are well preserved (see Lisan marls below). Most of

the terracing in Wadi Taiyiba is quite high and, presumably, old, with basal sediments of coarse alluvium not seen in more recent terraces at lower elevations. The wadi does not mean-der a great deal, but has numerous tributaries that continually replenish sediment loads so that the sediments of the stranded terraces and main channel are much better preserved than in Wadi Ziqlab, especially at the large site of WT4 (fi g. 1). Here, the hill slopes are steep-sided and terraces are found anywhere from 30 m to 100 m above the present channel fl oor. Exposed terrace sections show deposits of clay/siltstone at their base; the tan-coloured clay/siltstone is several meters in thickness and very friable, but appears as several thinly stratifi ed lay-ers (each varying between 30 cm and 1 m in thickness). It is possible that these deposits represent uplifted sedimentary lake deposits, perhaps related to the drying up of Lake Lisan and associated subsequent tectonic activity (similar activities were noted in Wadi al-Hammeh to the south (Macumber and Head 1991), and it explains why these surviving terraces have been stranded so high above the channel fl oor (deep wadi inci-sion may only have occurred after the drying of Lake Lisan ca 15,000 years ago). Overlying the clay/siltstone is a brown palaeosol with a crumbly to granular structure and moderate carbonate encrustations on its peds. A visual comparison with similar soils from Wadi Ziqlab (Maher 2011) suggests a Late Pleistocene age for this soil, supported by its stratigraphic rela-tionships to adjacent deposits.

In Wadi Taiyiba’s mid-basin area, there is a very extensive alluvial fan fi rst identifi ed in aerial photographs for its archae-ological potential (WT4; fi g. 1). It is notable for its large size and the thickness of its sedimentary deposits, cultural hori-zons, and soil development. The fan extends south from a trib-utary on the north slope of the ancient once-elevated channel. Over time, the main channel continued to down-cut, lowering its elevation, potentially with lowered base levels accompany-ing the shrinkage of Lake Lisan. As the channel became more incised, the fan became an overbank deposit, where seasonal or episodic inundation of the main channel laid down fi ne sands, silts and clays. With exposure and time, soil developed on these deposits and they were variously occupied by human groups. Eventually, this overbank deposit became stranded as an ancient terrace. The terrace contains evidence of occupa-tion through numerous time periods, from Middle Palaeolithic through to modern times. However, the continuity of duration and nature of each occupation are still unknown.

Flint appears in both nodular and tabular form in Wadi Taiyiba and is highly variable in colour and quality, includ-ing fl ints of very fi ne quality in tan, caramel, pink, red and dark brown colours. This range of fl ints is seen at many


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Epipalaeolithic and Neolithic sites in both Wadi Taiyiba and neighbouring Wadi Ziqlab, although it does not outcrop in the latter. Therefore, much of the high-quality fl int documented at sites in Wadi Ziqlab likely derive from the area, rather than being ‘exotic’. The limestone in Wadi Ziqlab is much more siliceous and the embedded fl ints are more homogenous with numerous inclusions, while the fl ints are more variable and include many of very fi ne quality like those found in archae-ological deposits in Wadi Ziqlab. In both wadis, the tabular fl int occurs in Cretaceous and slightly more recent limestone, chalks and marls that dominate the exposed geology here. Nodules of fl int can be found in these deposits, as well as eroded out of them in the channel bed deposits of the main wadis and their tributaries. In Wadi Taiyiba, fl int outcrops are ubiquitous throughout the river valley system and would have been easily accessible to occupants of WT1 and WT6.

Of particular note, albeit more for future palaeolandscape reconstruction in the area, Wadi Taiyiba may contain traces of Lisan marls. These have relevance for our discussion here as Lake Lisan was at a maximum level (Bartov et al. 2002; Bookman et al. 2006; Enzel et al. 2003; Macumber and Head 1991) during occupation of both WT1 and WT6. Its presence would have had a great impact on hunter-gatherer groups occupying this area, both in terms of mobility cor-ridors and aquatic resources available for exploitation. While Lisan marls are completely lacking in Wadi Ziqlab as a result of more recent reservoir and dam construction at its mouth (Maher 2011), they may remain preserved in Wadi Taiyiba and contribute to our understanding of the evolution and drying of this Pleistocene lake. The possible Lisan marls appear in Wadi Taiyiba as two superimposed deposits found in deep wadi cuts and terraces just before the wadi empties into the Jordan Valley (fi g. 1). The upper deposit is an allu-vium cemented as a conglomerate by pink silts and it overlies a fi ne-grained, stratifi ed, light pink-coloured, compact, silty clay, often interstratifi ed with alluvium. Given their similari-ties to Lisan marls described in adjacent areas (Begin et al. 1980; Neev and Emery 1967), these Wadi Taiyiba deposits are likely the discontinuous and scant remains of the Lisan marl that are otherwise lacking from this particular portion of the Jordan Valley. The elevation of these marls in this area is about -100 m asl. The main channel and some smaller trib-utaries have incised into the marl and alluvium such that they are eroded down to bedrock, with up to 3 m of more recent alluvium and alluvial soils overlying the pink alluvium and marl.

For most of the year, Wadi Taiyiba is a dry river-bed, except in the lower basin at 0 to -200 m asl, where many karstic

springs provide year-round water. The marl and limestone bed-rock strata of the Ajlun and Balqa Groups, and their subse-quent faulting, provide ideal conditions for the formation of aquifers and springs, some of which are hot springs. Today the water from these springs is diverted for irrigation and con-sumption in nearby villages and towns. No doubt these springs were more substantial in the past and important factors in pre-historic settlement location (Banning 1996).

Although no detailed soil studies have yet been conducted in Wadi Taiyiba, work on the soils in Wadi Ziqlab (Fisher et al. 1966; Maher 2011) immediately to the south and on the Irbid Plateau (Khresat and Taimeh 1998; Khresat et al. 1998a and b; Khresat 2001) provides useful comparison for Wadi Taiyiba. Terra Rossa soils are the oldest and best developed soils in the wadi. They are mostly relict soils, formed more than 20,000 years ago under conditions signifi cantly moister than those existing today and yielding strong structure, deep red colour, and very clayey texture. Erosion and cultivation have limited their extent to hilltops in the central and eastern portions of the drainage. More common to the river valley are the recently formed Brown Stony soils, Grey Rendzinas, and Grey Slope soils. Brown Stony soils are found extensively, yet discontinuously, in the basin and are named for their high cobble density. These generally display a deep profi le with a strong ped structure, clay-loam to silty-clay texture and red-dish- or yellowish-brown colour (Fisher et al. 1966). WT6 occurs within a Brown Stony soil. Grey Rendzina soils cover soft limestone and chalky marl outcrops and their profi le depths vary considerably, but their light grey-brown colour, sandy-loam texture, and friable, crumbly structure are fairly homogeneous. Horizon development is poor and leaching is limited so that the entire profi le is highly calcareous (30 to 80%) (Horowitz 1979). Their poorly developed characteristics result from a long history of cultivation. WT1 occurs within a Grey Rendzina soil. Grey Slope soils are found extensively on the steep slopes (over 30º) and the controlling factors in their formation are colluviation and slope movement, so that pro-fi le development is weak and they are prone to erosion. They are modern soils of a uniform grey colour, clay-loam texture, massive or crumbly structure, abundant pebbles and cobbles, and high carbonate content.

Geomorphological survey of Wadi Taiyiba reveals sev-eral important points in relation to understanding prehistoric occupation of the river valley, especially in relation to the well-studied Wadi Ziqlab (Banning 2006; Maher 2011) and Wadi el-Hammeh (Edwards 2001) to the south. From a landscape perspective, each wadi system is unique. A single history of landscape development cannot be generalized for the entire


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north-eastern Jordan Valley, but instead is specifi c to each wadi. Thus, we should not be surprised that the history (and prehistory) of land use and nature of the archaeological record is also different for each valley (Maher 2011). Archaeological periods well-represented in Wadi Ziqlab, such as the Middle Epipalaeolithic for example, may be missing from Wadi Taiyiba, and vice-versa. Part of this difference is surely due to patterns of prehistoric use, while some is also clearly the result of differential erosion, burial and preservation of archaeologi-cal sites. We should also keep in mind that while each wadi system makes a convenient sampling world for us today, pre-historic people surely did not restrict their activities to individ-ual valleys. Therefore, to truly understand landscape use, we must consider that a range of activities spanned several geo-morphological features. This is clearly seen in Wadi Taiyiba and Wadi Ziqlab through the movement of fl int raw material, and the variability in raw material use at the Wadi Taiyiba sites (discussed below).

ARCHAEOLOGY OF WADI TAIYIBA

The 2001 geoarchaeological survey aimed not only to docu-ment geomorphological evidence of Pleistocene and Holocene landscape change but also to discover Epipalaeolithic and Neolithic sites that would lend insights into occupation of this area on a broader scale (Maher 2011). Survey of the wadi concentrated on the western half of the basin, but extended as far as the portion south of the village of Taiyiba (fi g. 1). Our survey was purposive, using aerial photographs, geologi-cal maps, and a priori archaeological knowledge of the area to pinpoint specifi c targets for extensive survey. In particular, we focused on preserved terraces, stream confl uences, springs and shallow hill slopes. Some locations, such as a large alluvial fan mid-basin (fi g. 1) where horizontally and vertically exten-sive preserved deposits were detected by aerial photographs, were considered extremely promising and small soundings were also conducted at these localities. However, survey also involved walking most of the length of the wadi channel in these areas and examining every cut and gully through adja-cent stream terraces.

In total, the survey discovered 19 sites, ranging in age from the Middle Palaeolithic to Ottoman periods (Maher and Banning 2001a and b). Test excavations were conducted at three sites that contained Epipalaeolithic remains, WT4, WT1 and WT6. Only the latter two are discussed in detail here.

Fig. 2 – Wadi Taiyiba around sites WT6 and WT1.

WADI TAIYIBA 1 (WT1)

WT1 occupies the top of a steep, southwest-facing slope in the western end of the main channel before it widens to drain into the Jordan Valley (fi g. 2 and 3). The site was dis-covered while surveying the surrounding hill slopes. It sits on a shallow tongue of soil-covered bedrock bounded on either side by the channels of small tributary gullies. It was marked by a dense scatter of blades, endscrapers, and several gracile retouched bladelets that suggested an Upper Palaeolithic or Early Epipalaeolithic age. As the lithics sat on quite a depth of sediment preserved on the hill top and extending over an area of approximately 600 m2, we decided to conduct subsurface testing in order to identify the cultural affi liation of the lithics and explore the nature of occupation.

The team excavated a total of three 1 x 1 m2 soundings aligned along an east-west transect bisecting the site (fi g. 3). All three squares were excavated to a depth of 60 cm, when a dramatic drop in lithic densities (Locus 004: table 1) suggested the end of occupation, although bedrock was not reached. The stratigraphy of the three excavation squares is presented in Table 1. A dense surface scatter of lithics gradually gave way to thin subsurface deposits, suggesting that the site was origi-nally small in size with no great depth of occupation deposit, albeit partially defl ated.

WADI TAIYIBA 6 (WT6) OR ‘AYN AL-‘AZZIYAH

WT6 is located approximately 500 m upstream of WT1, and 100 m north of a substantial hot spring (‘Ayn al-‘Azziyah)


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Fig. 3 – Wadi Taiyiba 1 (left) and Wadi Taiyiba 6 (right).

Table 1 – Excavated stratigraphy of WT1 and WT6.

WT1Locus No.

Bags Munsell Colour Description

000 1 10YR 6/3 to 5/3 Surface, disturbed slopewash; 50% pebbles; 20% cobbles; sorting 3; roundness 3; loose, pale brown, sandy loam; abundant lithics

001 2-4 10YR 5/3 to 4/3

Compact A horizon soil with high density lithics (esp. bladelets); clay-rich; rare intrusive Roman/Byzantine pottery; very hard; 30% pebbles; 10% cobbles; sorting 2; roundness 3-4; clay-loam to silty clay-loam; moderate insect burrows and plant roots; gradual transition 000 to 001; evidence soil formation (peds and clay cutans); active A horizon exposed and buried by slopewash; very compact and clayey

002(= 002, 003 M28) 5-6 10YR 5/4

Loose, coarse and less clayey deposit; grey-yellowish colour; drop in cobbles, pebbles and lithics; granular peds; dispersed CaCO3; sorting 3; roundness 4; 30% pebbles; 10% cobbles; compact, silty, clay-loam; cobbles

003(= 004 M28)

7-9 (M25)7-8 (M28)

10YR 5/4 to7.5YR 5/4

Loose, red, moist, soft soil; even; granular texture; little clay; CaCO3 features very well-developed (coatings); notable decrease in lithics; sorting 4; roundness 4; 10% cobbles; loose, silty, clay-loam; clay cutans rare; M28 drier than M25

WT6Locus No.

Bags Munsell Colour Description

000 N/A 10YR 5/4 Surface, disturbed slopewash from rockshelter; nothing collected

001 1-3 10YR to 2.5Y 4/2 Dark grey-brown silty-clay to clay-loam; organic-rich; compact; 60% cobbles (rubbly); top soil; abundant lithics and fauna and groundstone (handstone, pestle); sorting 1; roundness 2; 50% pebbles

002 4-5 10YR 5/4Light yellowish-grey, compact silty-clay to clay-loam; 30% cobbles; drop in lithic and fauna density (also handstone); excavated in 10 cm spits; sorting 2; roundess 2; 20% pebbles; 40% cobbles (rubbly); handstone; hit high density bone changed locus; bedrock in NE corner D10

003 (L10) 7, 9-10 10YR 5/4

High-density bone cluster in SE quadrant of L10; no soil change but fewer cobbles (compact clay-loam); excavated in 5 cm spits; less sloped stratigraphy (only locus flat, perhaps surface with lots flakes and bone but few tools); increased density groundstone; sorting 3; roundness 3; 30% angular cobbles; disarticulated bone; collected several C14 samples; angular rubble and possible broken pestle in N baulk; bags 9-10 lots broken groundstone; drop in cobbles still high artefact densities

003 (D10) 6-7 2.5YR 4/2 Dark, compact clay-loam; low artefact density except bone; sorting 2; roundness 2; 30% cobbles; increasing bedrock; lithics encrusted in CaCO3

004 13-14(8-10 D10) 10YR 5/4 to 5/2

Dark, compact, sandy clay-loam; Drop in cobbles and animal bone density; soil colour and texture same; few diagnostic lithics; sectioned square 50x100 cm but not reach sterile (still lithics); sorting 2-3; roundness 2-3; 20% cobbles, but decreasing in size

005 11-12 10YR 4/3 Loose, brown clay-loam with pockets of compact soil over bedrock along east side; increase in artefact density; 30% cobbles, but smaller size; sorting 3; roundness 3; stopped while artefact density still high


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adjacent to the main channel (fi g. 2 and 3). Today the hot spring has been capped and its cooled waters are used for irrigation and by nearby shepherds. We owe discovery of the site to a local shepherd who stopped us, while on our way to excavate WT1 one morning, to tell us about a nearby area with a hot spring, caves, and concentrations of stone tools on the adjacent hill slopes. Inspection of the area around the hot spring revealed a dense scatter of blade tools, gracile micro-liths, and bladelet cores. A concentration of Palaeolithic and Epipalaeolithic lithics was found nearby on a shallow hill slope immediately below a partially collapsed rockshelter (fi g. 3). WT6 is a deeply stratifi ed site, whose deposits have been pro-tected from erosion by the overhead bedrock protrusion. The site is approximately 400 m2 in total extent, based on the size of the artefact surface scatter and preserved subsurface sedi-ments. Unlike WT1, where faunal remains were scarce, WT6 has substantial amounts of faunal material, discussed below.

The limestone bedrock at the site is folded and highly frac-tured, and uplift from tectonic activity in the adjacent Jordan Valley has helped to create much of the notably steep topogra-phy in this part of the basin, especially in comparison to adja-cent wadis. The hill slope containing the site is notably shallow in comparison to other parts of the main channel and it seems that a combination of a large meander in the wadi and the over-hanging bedrock protected the site’s sediments from erosion. While a small sample of lithics was collected from across the entire hill slope surface, the western edge of hill slope imme-diately below the rockshelter contained the highest density of cultural material, including lithics, fauna and ground-stone, and the best-preserved sediments. Here we excavated two test soundings (Areas D10 and L10; each 1 x 1 m) to explore the archaeological potential of this collapsed rockshelter (fi g. 4). The sediments covered by the rockshelter sit some 10 m above the wadi fl oor and are stratifi ed. The stratigraphy of the two excavation areas is described in Table 1 and illustrated in Figure 4.

Both sites contained basalt ground-stone implements but they were much more abundant at WT6, especially in Locus 003 (table 1 and fi g. 4). A total of eight pieces of ground-stone were found at WT6; fi ve are from surface depos-its immediately surrounding the two test soundings, one was from the top 20 cm of Area L10 and two come from Locus 003 in Area L10. Locus 003 was, by far, the densest archaeological horizon at WT6, containing numerous stone tools, but espe-cially high densities of faunal remains (predominantly large fragments), ground stone, and fi re-cracked rock. The ground-stone artifacts are manufactured from basalt and take the form of handstones (n=5), pestles (n=2), and a fragment of a

Fig. 4 – Stratigraphic profi le of excavation area D10 at WT6 showing the loci discussed in the text and described in Table 1.

stone vessel (n=1). The closest known source of basalt is near the mouth of Wadi al-‘Arab, about 9 km to the north. Three rounded pebbles were also found among the angular rubble and fi re-cracked rock in Locus 003.

A single radiocarbon sample from animal bone in Locus 003 produced a conventional radiocarbon date of 13150 ± 50 BP (Beta-294462), leading to a calibrated date of 15690-15400 cal. BP (13740 to 13450 cal. BC) at 95% confi dence, using the 2009 atmospheric calibration curve. However, organic preservation is quite poor at both sites in Wadi Taiyiba and this sample yielded a C13/C14 ratio of 21.4‰. Several other radiocarbon samples on bone material failed due to insuffi cient collagen preservation.

THE CHIPPED STONE ASSEMBLAGES

METHOD OF ANALYSIS

Because both assemblages are small, the entire lithic col-lections from both sites were analyzed. The same method of analysis was followed for the WT1 and the WT6 lithic assem-blages. For each site, the lithics were classifi ed as debitage, retouched pieces, cores, or core-trimming elements. Each group was analyzed separately according to criteria developed for each category as described below. Debitage was assigned to classes of fl akes, blades, shatter, chips (pieces < 1 cm), and burnt shatter. For the purposes of this analysis, blades are defi ned as detached pieces, twice as long as they are wide,


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with parallel margins. The fl ake and blade categories were further subdivided into complete, proximal, and medial/distal fragments, and these classes were further subdivided into size classes of < 2 cm, 2-3 cm, 3-5 cm, and > 5 cm.

Tools were analyzed according to Epipalaeolithic typolo-gies of Bar-Yosef (1970) and Goring-Morris (1987) for the Southern Levant. Metrics were taken on each piece, including maximum length, width, and thickness. Quality and colour of raw materials were recorded, as well as any post-depositional alterations that affected the identifi cation of the material type.

Each core was assigned to a typological class and a series of measurements were taken, including maximum length and width, the core’s platform dimensions, maximum facet dimen-sions, plus reason for core abandonment. Core-trimming elements (CTEs) were divided into two separate categories, core-preparation elements and core-maintenance elements. The former category is defi ned as pieces removed during the initial core shaping, while CTEs assigned to the latter occur later in the reduction sequence to maintain core shape. Core-preparation elements include ridged blades, defi ned as blades with a central ridge from which fl akes were removed to pre-pare the core face for blade removal. Core-maintenance ele-ments were removed to manipulate the platform or to correct issues on the core face. The former group includes angle-cor-rection elements (defi ned as pieces detached along the edge of the core to change the removal angle) and core tablets (pieces that remove the entire platform to rejuvenate the core’s plat-form). The latter group includes core-face rejuvenation ele-ments that target knapping fl aws such as large hinges or bulges that impede further removals, and partially crested blades, defi ned as blades with a half crest towards the distal end used to shape the core face for further blade removals. Metrics were recorded for each CTE, including maximum length, width, and thickness of each piece. As well, both raw material and post-depositional processes were recorded for core-trimming elements.

LITHIC ASSEMBLAGE OF WT 1

The assemblage of WT1 is composed of 3117 artefacts (table 2). Of these, 481 pieces are from surface deposits (59 tools, 417 pieces of debitage, 3 cores, and 2 core-trimming elements). The lithic assemblage is composed of diagnostic Early Epipalaeolithic tools including non-geometric micro-liths, bladelets, and bladelet cores. Because of the mixed nature of the surface deposits at both WT1 and WT6, only the subsurface material will be presented and discussed in detail.

The chipped-stone artefacts from WT1 were manufactured from locally available fl int nodules, found within the vicinity of the site. Light-brown fl int of fi ne quality is the most com-monly used raw material for the retouched tool assemblage (37.1%; n=79), while fi ne grey fl int is the second-most com-mon (17.4%; n=37). Very little coarse material occurs in the retouched assemblage; only 7% (n=15) of the tools were man-ufactured on coarse fl int. The knappers at WT1 appeared to prefer fl int of fi ne (73.7%; n=157) or very fi ne (19.3%; n=41) quality for their tools. As expected, given the raw material used for tools, the most prevalent core raw materials are fi ne light brown (40%; n=2) and fi ne grey fl ints (40%; n=2). Likewise, the CTEs are dominated by these two material types. The raw material choice at WT1 tends towards fi ne raw materials, while the assemblage shows very little use of coarse material.

The total debitage assemblage contains 2475 pieces (table 3). All knapping components are present at the site, including a large number of chips and shatter. Much as at WT6, there are very few complete blades in the assemblage (n=22) in comparison to the complete fl akes (n=193). The lower frequency of complete pieces in the fl ake and blade assem-blages, 17.8% total, indicates a highly fragmentary debitage assemblage. The fl ake-to-blade ratio is 1.76 which is within a normal range for Epipalaeolithic assemblages. There is some burnt shatter present in the debitage (4.57%; n=113) but this burnt material is highly fragmentary, with discolouration, pot-lid fractures, and crazing, indicating that it resulted from

Table 2 – Lithic counts by stratigraphic unit.

WT1 WT6Lithic Type Locus 000 001 002 003 Total 000 001 002 003 (D10) 003 (L10) 004 005 Totalretouched

tools 59 109 16 28 212 66 6 11 10 30 39 8 170

debitage 417 1613 623 239 2892 250 138 266 40 676 529 154 2053cores 3 0 0 1 4 21 6 4 0 12 7 0 50CTE 2 7 0 0 9 14 2 2 1 5 6 6 36Total 481 1729 639 268 3117 351 152 283 51 723 581 168 2309


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accidental burning rather than intentional heat treatment. The highly fragmented nature of the assemblage may be the result of on-site fl int knapping, the occupants of the site retouching and removing intact pieces from the site as fi nished tools and leaving the broken pieces of debitage at the site.

There is minimal evidence of core preparation and main-tenance at WT1 (table 4). The single ridged blade in the assemblage suggests that the early stages of manufacture were negligible at the site. The limited evidence for core mainte-nance consists of two core tablets, an angle-correction ele-ment, and two partially crested blades. Likewise, there are very few cores from the subsurface deposits at WT1 (table 5). The total core assemblage including surface deposits is com-posed of four cores: two bladelet cores, one fl ake core, and one fragmentary core. One of the bladelet cores is wedge-shaped, while the other is sub-pyramidal, only the latter coming from subsurface deposits. In both of these, abandonment was due to hinge scars on the core’s face that impeded further bladelet removals. The size of the largest facets on the two microlith cores are 28.4 mm and 28.9 mm respectively, while the mean size of the non-geometric microliths is 24.2 mm suggesting that the cores were not completely exhausted for microlith pro-duction prior to abandonment. Although some fl int knapping was taking place on-site, as evidenced by the large number of

Table 3 – Debitage types from subsurface deposits.

Debitage Type WT1 Count WT1 % WT6 Count WT6 %burnt shatter 113 4.57 337 18.69

chips 668 26.99 96 5.32shatter 336 13.58 138 7.65

complete flakes 193 7.80 326 18.08proximal flakes 154 6.22 127 7.04

medial/distal flakes 519 20.97 377 20.91complete blades 22 0.89 72 3.99proximal blades 128 5.17 141 7.82

medial/distal blades 342 13.82 189 10.48Total 2475 100 1803 100

Table 4 – Core trimming elements from subsurface deposits.

Core Trimming Element Type WT1 Count WT1 % WT6 Count WT6 %angle correction element 1 14.29 8 36.36core face rejuvenation

elements 0 0 2 9.09

initial core tablet 0 0 1 4.55non-initial core tablet 3 42.86 8 36.37partially crested blade 2 28.57 1 4.55

ridged blade 1 14.29 2 9.09Total 7 100 22 100

Table 5 – Core types from subsurface deposits.

Core Type Direction of Removals

WT1 Count

WT1 % WT6 Count

WT6 %

amorphous multidirectional 0 0.00 5 17.24unidirectional 0 0.00 4 13.79

core on a flake change of orientation 0 0.00 1 3.45

Levallois multidirectional 0 0.00 1 3.45pyramidal /

sub-pyramidal unidirectional 1 100 7 24.14

wedge unidirectional 0 0.00 10 34.48change of orientation 0 0.00 1 3.45

Total 1 100 29 100

fl akes and blades, the very small number of cores and CTE in the assemblage suggests that some of the earlier and later stages of fl int knapping also likely occurred either off-site or, perhaps, at other locations within the site.

Summary of the complete subsurface tool assemblage appears in Table 6. The most numerous tools in the WT1 assemblage are non-geometric microliths (at 49.7%; n=76). Of these, most are backed bladelet fragments (60.5%; n=46). Partially backed bladelets, obliquely-truncated and backed bladelets, and completely backed bladelets are also present in the microlith assemblage (table 7 and fi g. 5). The majority of these non-geometric microliths (62.9%) have abrupt retouch along the backed edge, modifying the shape of the blank into the fi nal tool. The other major tool types in the assemblage are notches/denticulates (16.3%; n=25) and retouched fl akes (9.2%; n=14). Borers, scrapers, multiple tools and burins all occur in frequencies less than 5% (fi g. 5).

Table 6 – Summary of the Tools Classes found in subsurface deposits.

Tool Class WT1 Count

WT1 % WT6 Count

WT6 %

backed/retouched blades 0 0.00 10 9.62non-geometric microliths 76 49.67 32 30.77

geometric microliths 0 0.00 1 0.96point 0 0.00 1 0.96

borer/perforator 4 2.61 0 0.00scrapers 7 4.58 16 15.38

multiple tools 5 3.27 6 5.77burins 2 1.31 7 6.73

truncations 0 0.00 4 3.85notches and denticulates 25 16.34 8 7.69

retouched flakes 14 9.15 16 15.38other 20 13.07 3 2.88Total 153 100 104 100


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The surface collection includes diagnostic Epipalaeolithic material such as obliquely-truncated and backed bladelets, other non-geometric microliths, endscrapers, burins, and backed blades. As well, as mentioned previously, one wedge-shaped microlith core was found on the surface of the site.

Overall, site WT1 appears to be an Early Epipalaeolithic occupation dominated by non-geometric microliths and notched tools. Although there is a large debitage assemblage, there are very few cores or core-trimming elements, suggest-ing that the occupants of the site did not partake in the early stages of core shaping, core maintenance, or the fi nal stages of fl int knapping at the site. These activities may have been per-formed off-site or potentially core maintenance and shaping may not have been part of the reduction sequence.

Fig. 5 – Retouched tools from WT1. 1-5) obliquely-truncated and backed bladelets; 6) bladelet with small notches; 7) completely backed bladelet; 8-12) backed bladelet fragments; 13) multiple tool; 14) notched blade; 15) borer; 16) notched blade; 17) scraper.

Table 7 – Microliths from subsurface deposits.

Microlith Types WT1 Count WT1 % WT6

Count WT6 %

backed bladelet fragment 46 60.53 16 48.48bladelet retouched on both edges 1 1.32 0 0.00

completely backed bladelet 7 9.21 4 12.12inversely backed bladelet 0 0.00 3 9.09

microgravette 0 0.00 2 6.06narrow micropoint 1 1.32 0 0.00

obliquely-truncated and backed bladelet 9 11.84 2 6.06

obliquely-truncated bladelet 1 1.32 1 3.03partially backed bladelet 11 14.47 2 6.06pointed backed bladelet 0 0.00 1 3.03

pointed bladelet retouched on both edges 0 0.00 1 3.03

trapeze-rectangle 0 0.00 1 3.03Total 76 100 33 100


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WADI TAIYIBA 6 – ‘AYN AL-‘AZZIYA

Similarly to WT1, the assemblage of WT6 is composed of diagnostic Early Epipalaeolithic lithics including non-geo-metric microliths. The recovered sample from the site has a total of 2309 lithic artefacts (table 2). The surface contexts (66 retouched pieces, 250 pieces of debitage, 14 core-trimming elements, and 21 cores) show evidence of mixing with Middle Palaeolithic material and are therefore presented separately from the subsurface material (see below).

The raw material used at WT6 is more variable than that used at WT1. However, the high frequency of patination on the retouched tools (38.3%) often obscured raw material type. Notably, the proportion of patinated artifacts increases with the depth of the deposits, with the highest concentration in Locus 004. Of the identifi able raw material, the most frequently used was a fi ne-quality, light brown fl int from which 27.9% of the tool assemblage is manufactured. The next-most frequently used raw material was a coarse white fl int, representing 15.8% of the retouched assemblage. Other materials used are a coarse light-brown fl int (6.1%) and a fi ne, medium-brown fl int (8.5%). The remaining 41.8% of the tool assemblage was made on wide variety of coarse, fi ne, and very fi ne fl ints of various colours. Each of these types represents less than 4% of the overall assemblage. The cores show a different raw material pattern from the retouched tools. Although the most frequent core raw material is fi ne, light-brown fl int (37.3%), the next most frequent material is a fi ne grey fl int (35.4%). There is also a much higher proportion of very fi ne raw materials among the cores, 25.5%, while only 11.5% of the tools were made on very fi ne material. This suggests the likelihood that tools made on material of the highest quality were used and discarded off-site, while the expended cores remained behind.

The debitage assemblage includes fl akes, blades, shatter, chips, and burnt shatter (table 3). The diversity of debitage types, including the by-products of production, such as chips and shatter, suggests that fl int knapping was taking place at the site. The fl ake-to-blade ratio is 2.1, which is relatively high for many Epipalaeolithic assemblages but not outside ratio for some recently published sites (Richter et al. 2009). This ratio is also higher than the fl ake-to-blade ratio at WT1. The fl ake and blade assemblages are both highly fragmentary; 40.6% (n=326) of the fl akes are complete, while only 17.9% (n=72) of the blades are complete. The higher degree of fragmentation in the blade assemblage is likely the result of the more delicate nature of blades. There is little patterning within the fragmen-tary blade deposits, with a roughly equal number of proximal blades (n=141; 35.1%) and medial/distal blades (n=189; 47%),

suggesting that the breakage was probably the result of man-ufacturing processes and not the result of use, as the entire bladelet was deposited in the assemblage.

Despite the large amount of burnt material (n=337; 18.7%), there is no clear evidence for intentional heat treatment of the fl int. The burnt shatter is highly fragmented, with craz-ing and pot-lid fractures, suggesting that this debitage was exposed indiscriminately to high heats from hearths or other fi re sources.

The WT6 assemblage shows evidence of both core prepa-ration and core maintenance. Table 4 summarizes the list of core-trimming element (CTE) types found in the subsurface assemblage. The majority of the CTEs were removed to main-tain the platform of the core (73%; n=16) rather than to cor-rect a problem on the core face. The core-to-CTE ratio in the subsurface deposits is 1.32, suggesting that, although core preparation and maintenance did occur at the site, it did not feature prominently in the reduction sequence. Alternatively, these activities may have been performed off-site at a differ-ent locale. The cores refl ect a bladelet industry; 62% of the cores are either sub-pyramidal or wedge-shaped bladelet cores (table 5). The mean size of the discarded blade cores is 41.8 x 37.6 x 31.1 mm. The maximum facet length is 36.3 mm, longer than the mean microlith length of 21.9 mm. This corroborates the observation that, although some of the cores were aban-doned because they were depleted (30%), in other cases dis-card was due to knapping failures, such as wrong angles (24%) and hinge terminations (11%). In addition, the reason for aban-donment could not be determined in 32% of the cores, sug-gesting that they were still useful when they were deposited. It seems likely that the plethora of raw materials in the local landscape did not require the curation of cores, as it was easy to locate new fl int nodules as the inhabitants of WT6 moved across the landscape.

The retouched tool assemblage is composed of non-geo-metric microliths, scrapers, retouched fl akes, and retouched blades, along with a variety of other tool types (fi g. 6). The major tool categories from the sub-surface deposits are sum-marized in Table 6. The most prevalent tools are non-geomet-ric microliths (n=32; 31%), followed by scrapers (n=16; 15%) and retouched fl akes (n=16; 15%). In addition, one Falita point was found in the assemblage. These points have been found in other Early Epipalaeolithic occupations from the Jordan Valley region such as Ein Gev I (Bar-Yosef 1970: 114). The high proportion of non-geometric microliths found at the site is typical for Early Epipalaeolithic assemblages (Bar-Yosef 1970). The distribution of types within the non-geometric microlith assemblage shows that the most prevalent microliths


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are backed bladelet fragments, followed by completely backed bladelets and inversely backed bladelets (table 7). Obliquely-truncated and backed bladelets, microgravettes, and partially retouched bladelets also occur in small proportions. The major-ity of the microlith assemblage is abruptly retouched (49%), while the remaining is semi-abrupt (24%), fi nely retouched (22%), or bipolar (5%). A single trapeze-rectangle geometric microlith in the assemblage suggests that there is some slight disturbance in the subsurface deposits.

The surface assemblage from WT6 is mixed, containing diagnostic Epipalaeolithic and Middle Palaeolithic artefacts. In total, 59 retouched tools and 29 cores were collected from the surface. The Middle Palaeolithic material is only found on the surface of the site and could be the result of deposits being washed onto the surface from the slope above. There are three Levallois cores from the surface, one with multidirectional

removals and the other with unidirectional scars. In addition, one Levallois fl ake and one Levallois point were recovered. Epipalaeolithic artefacts include non-geometric microliths, endscrapers on blades, and pyramidal bladelet cores.

Overall, the lithic assemblage from WT6 suggests that the site contains primarily Early Epipalaeolithic material, although with some mixed contexts, including a single geo-metric microlith in the subsurface deposits. The small size of the site and the range of reduction debris show that knapping was taking place at the site. However, the raw material distri-bution of particular types of debris also suggests that off-site knapping activities were conducted by the inhabitants of the site, of which we only have traces in the assemblage.

Fig. 6 – Retouched tools from WT6. 1-3) completely backed bladelets; 4-5) obliquely-truncated and backed bladelets; 6) obliquely-truncated bladelet; 7) microgravette; 8-9) pointed bladelet retouched on both edges; 10) Falita point; 11) piece with two notches (with burnt distal end); 12) denticulate; 13) straight truncation on a blade; 14-15) burins.


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COMPARING AND CONTEXTUALISING THE WADI TAIYIBA ASSEMBLAGES

The tool assemblages at both WT6 and WT1 contain a high proportion of non-geometric microliths. The presence of obliquely truncated and backed bladelets, microgravettes and micropoints suggests that these are Kebaran assemblages (Bar-Yosef and Belfer-Cohen 1989). Despite these similarities, the microliths at the two sites also exhibit notable differences. WT1’s assemblage has a higher proportion of non-geometric microliths (49.7%) than WT6 (30.8%). The latter falls within lower range of the general index for microlithic tools from Kebaran assem-blages of 30-75% (Bar-Yosef 1970). The WT1 microliths are also more gracile, with mean width of 5.4 ± 1.8 mm, in com-parison to the mean width of the WT6 microlith assemblage at 5.7 ± 2.3 mm. Although both the microlith assemblages are dominated by fragmented microliths, such as backed bladelet fragments, WT6 has numerous completely backed and inversely backed bladelets, while WT1 has more obliquely-truncated and backed bladelets, along with partially backed bladelets.

Another major difference between these two assemblages is that the second-most common tools at WT6 are scrapers, while the WT1 macrolithic tools are dominated by notches/denticulates. It is common to fi nd a high proportion of scrapers in Kebaran assemblages, but such a high frequency of notches/denticulates is rare in these sites (Bar-Yosef 1970).

A comparison of major tool classes between the nearby Early Epipalaeolithic sites of Ohalo II (Nadel 2003), Ein Gev I (Bar-Yosef 1970), Wadi al-Hammeh 26 (Edwards et al. 1996), WT6, and WT1 highlights the variability within the Northern

Table 8 – Comparison of tools and microliths from in situ deposits at Ohalo II , Wadi al-Hammeh 26 and Ein Gev I layers 3-4

in comparison with WT6 and WT1.

Tool Classes

OH% WH26% EGI (3)% EGI (4)% WT6% WT1%

retouched blades 10.9 3.5 2.7 2.6 9.6 0.0

microliths 69.0 79.5 34.6 39.8 31.7 49.7points 0.0 n/a 2.1 2.2 1.0 0.0borer/

perforator 1.9 n/a 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.6

scrapers 0.8 6.5 28.4 26.2 15.4 4.6multiple

tools 1.2 n/a n/a n/a 5.8 3.3

burins 3.7 5.5 14.5 13.0 6.7 1.3truncations 1.2 n/a 2.1 0.7 3.9 0.0notches/

denticulates 4.4 2.0 7.7 6.3 7.7 16.3

retouched flakes 5.5 n/a n/a n/a 15.4 9.2

varia 1.4 2.0 8.0 9.3 2.9 13.1

Fig. 7 – Map of the Jordan Valley and Sea of Galilee showing the locations of Early Epipalaeolithic sites discussed in the text.

Jordan Valley region during the Early Epipalaeolithic (fi g. 7 and table 8). Ohalo II and Wadi al-Hammeh 26 are dated to approxi-mately 23,000 cal. BP (Edwards et al. 1996; Nadel et al. 2004), placing them at the beginning of the Epipalaeolithic sequence. The microlith assemblage at Ohalo II is characterized by the presence of proto-triangles, bladelets with Ouchtata retouch, and partially retouched bladelets. The Wadi al-Hammeh 26 microlith assemblage is composed of obliquely-truncated and backed bladelets (40.4%) and straight-truncated and backed bladelets (39.1%). The site of Ein Gev I is younger than Ohalo II and Wadi al-Hammeh 26, dating to 15,700 ± 415 BP (Arensburg and Bar-Yosef 1973). Ein Gev I is described as Kebaran on the basis of obliquely truncated and backed bladelets, partially and completely backed bladelets (Bar-Yosef 1970). This site contains a human burial and evidence of a hut structure, although erosion damaged part of the hut remains (Bar-Yosef 1970). Layers 3 and 4 at Ein Gev I are presented separately since layer 3 represents the deposits surrounding a human burial, while layer 4 is inter-preted as a living area into which the interred individual was buried (Martin et Bar-Yosef 1979).

Graphing the major tool types from the above-mentioned sites indicates that both Wadi al-Hammeh 26 and Ohalo II have very similar tool assemblages, while the two Ein Gev I deposits are almost identical (fi g. 8). The WT6 distribution is very close to that of Ein Gev I, suggesting that these two sites have great similarities in tool frequencies. WT1 is closest to the WT6 assemblage, although it is not closely related to any of


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the other assemblages, suggesting it has a different tool assem-blage composition. Despite this, the two Wadi Taiyiba tool assemblages appear to be most closely related to the Kebaran Ein Gev I ones. The close association of the WT6 lithic assem-blage and the Ein Gev I assemblage indicates that these sites may have had similar functions as ‘home-base’ sites; the rock-shelter at WT6 would have provided a sheltered and protected area for longer stays. This is further corroborated by the full range of knapping materials present at the site, including core preparation and maintenance, and discarded debris. In con-trast, the assemblage at WT1 more closely resembles that of a special-use site, such as a re-tooling or tool-manufacturing site. The open air-site is in a very exposed location and con-tains little fauna (see below) or cultural material besides lith-ics. The lithic assemblage demonstrates that some knapping occurred here, but there is little evidence of core preparation and discard. WT1 would have been a good place for short-term tool manufacture but perhaps not for longer occupations.

THE WADI TAIYIBA FAUNAL ASSEMBLAGES

The faunal remains from WT1 and WT6 are small collec-tions. The entire faunal assemblage from each site was analysed, and mammal bones dominated these assemblages (table 9).

– WT1 contains only mammalian taxa, with a total of 14 specimens preserved. While these few remains may seem miniscule when compared to other collections, it is important to discuss the taxa that are present and consider the types of processes that might be behind these depositions. Of the identifi able remains, Gazella sp. dominates this sample at 14%, while deer (Cervidae) and aurochs (Bos primigenius) each make up 7% of the assemblage (table 10). However, fragmentation is high and unidentifi able bone fragments, comprising 72% of the remains, overwhelmingly dominate the fauna. The shallow depth of occupational deposits at WT1 and the presence of rodent burrows in the uppermost loci have only allowed small quantities of faunal remains to be preserved; thus they provide only limited evidence for subsistence behaviours or patterns of food exploita-tion. Given that the identifi able remains largely repre-sent medium- and large-sized mammals, not the prey of rodents with remains too large to be easily transported in burrows, we suggest they result from human activity and relate to other aspects of material culture at the site, rather than introduced post-depositionally.

Fig. 8 – Series of bar graphs of major tool classes at Ohalo II (OH), Wadi al-Hammeh 26 (WH26), Ein Gev I (EGI3, EGI4), WT6 and WT1.


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– WT6, on the other hand, has a more sizable collection of fauna, also dominated by mammals (table 9 and fi g. 9), along with one bird long-bone fragment and fi ve molluscan specimens. Although somewhat rare at Epipalaeolithic sites, both bird remains and mol-luscs are fairly well-represented at the nearby sites of Ohalo II (Simmons and Nadel 1998) and Wadi al-Hammeh (Edwards 2001). Mountain gazelle (Gazella gazella) is the most abundant taxon, comprising 27.5% of the total number of identifi able remains (table 11 and fi g. 10). The next-most common species is wild boar (Sus scrofa) at 12.8%. Other notable species represented in the assemblage include the common hare (Lepus cap-ensis), grey wolf (Canis lupus), red fox (Vulpes vulpes), red deer (Cervus elaphus), aurochs (Bos primigenius), wild sheep (Ovis gmelini) and wild goat (Capra aega-grus) (table 9). The taxonomic association between wild sheep/goat and ibex is important to consider in Levantine archaeology as it has been recognized that

Table 9 – Number of identifi ed specimens (NISP) and minimum number of individuals (MNI) of each taxon represented at WT1 and WT6.

Species NISP %NISP MNI %MNIWT1

Cervidae 1 7 1 33Gazella sp. 2 14 1 33

Bos primigenius 1 7 1 33Indeterminate 10 72 - -

Total 14 100 3 100WT6

Lepus capensis 10 4.7 2 7.7Castor fiber 1 0.5 1 3.8Hystrix spp. 1 0.5 1 3.8Canis spp. 7 3.3 - -Canis lupus 11 5.2 2 7.7Vulpes spp. 3 1.4 1 3.8

Vulpes vulpes 19 9.0 3 11.5Artiodactyl 9 4.2 - -Sus scrofa 27 12.8 3 11.5Cervidae 11 5.2 1 3.8

Dama spp. 1 0.5 - -Dama dama 4 1.9 1 3.8

Cervus elaphus 10 4.7 2 7.7Bovidae 16 7.7 - -

Gazella spp. 3 1.4 - -Gazella gazella 58 27.5 4 15.4Bos primigenius 9 4.2 1 3.8

Ovis gmelini 8 3.9 2 7.7Capra aegagrus 3 1.4 2 7.7

Total 211 100 26 100

Table 10 – Number of identifi ed specimens (NISP) and minimum number of individuals (MNI) of each taxon represented at WT1.

Element* Cervidae Gazella sp. Bos primigenius

Indeter-minate

Total

Horn/Antler - 2 - - 2Humerus-prox/

med/dis 0/1/0 - - - 1

Innominate-ilium/ishium/pubis - - 0/1/0 - 1

NISP 1 2 1 10 14%NISP 7 14 7 72 100

MNI 1 1 1 - 3%MNI 33 33 33 - 100

* Element list is in axial and appendicular order. The abbreviations pro=proximal, dis=distal, refer to the fragments’ orientation and portion.

Nubian ibex (Capra nubiana) may have been present at the time of human exploitation of wild game in this region. The bone fragments that have been identifi ed to species within the bovid category were done so by examining diagnostic features unique to these taxa. The specimens that had bovid features but no distinguish-ing characteristics to species were designated to family only. A proportion of these remains may contain ibex remains, however no concrete evidence can suggest the presence or absence of this species.

The remainder of this discussion will focus on WT6 as its larger faunal assemblage provides a more robust dataset with which to infer subsistence strategies of the Epipalaeolithic in Wadi Taiyiba. The distribution of elements representing the various identifi ed taxa from WT6 makes it apparent that long bones are present in especially high frequencies. An assess-ment of the minimum animal unit (MAU) from WT6 reveals that limb bones, especially hind limbs, are relatively com-mon while vertebrae and ribs are present in lower frequencies (table 11). This may be a result of preservation conditions, with denser long bones experiencing less attrition. However, given that this trend holds for several species of varying sizes and with varying long-bone densities (i.e., it is not just dense bones, regardless of element, that are common, but limb bones in par-ticular), we suggest that element representation is more a result of hunting and butchering practices that focus on extracting resources, such as marrow, from these elements.

Taphonomy, pedogenesis (including bioturbation) and subsequent erosion, in particular, clearly had an impact on the preservation of the faunal remains from WT6. Long-bone density indices of deer (Lyman 1994: 240-249) suggest a posi-tive correlation between the presence of highly dense long bones and MAU values (fi g. 11) confi rming that bones with


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higher densities had a greater likelihood of being preserved. The correlation coeffi cient (R2=0.318, P-value=0.028) attests that approximately 32% of the variation in MAU values can be explained by bone density (Moore et al. 1996: 117). The P-value (0.028) is statistically signifi cant when considered at the 5% confi dence interval.

Despite the effects of attrition taphonomic processes, hunt-ing and butchery practices were clearly important factors in the representation of skeletal elements by body portion. Mountain gazelle dominates the assemblages of both WT1 and WT6 and is assumed to be an integral source of food for the occupants of both sites. MAU values that are plotted against food utility index (FUI) values (Bar-Oz et al. 2004: 24) (fi g. 11) indicate that, for the WT6 assemblage, limb bones were favoured. It seems that the site’s occupants targeted gazelle and exploited them for meat and for marrow extracted from the well-rep-resented limb bones. Bar-Oz and Munro (2007) contend that efforts concentrated on marrow extraction from gazelle limbs seen at a number of other Epipalaeolithic sites are a refl ection of the intensive exploitation of this species. The time invested in cracking open elements to extract marrow was worthwhile

0 5 10 15 20 25

Phalanx 3Phalanx 2Phalanx 1

MetapodialMetatarsal

TarsalCalcaneousAstragalus

TibiaFemur

InnomiatesMetacarpal

CarpalRadius

UlnaHumerusScapula

RibLumbarThoracicCervical

VertebraeDentitionMandible

Skull FragmentHorn/Antler

Fig. 9 – The NISP values (% of overall assemblage) for each element of the identifi ed mammalian taxa of WT6.

Table 11 – Mountain gazelle element frequencies from WT6 (MNE minimum number of elements; MAU minimum animal units).

Element Minimum number of elements (MNE)

1Elements per complete skeleton

Minimum animal units (MAU)

Antler 0 2 0.00Skull 1 1 1.00

Mandible 0 1 0.00Cervical 1 7 0.14Thoracic 0 13 0.00Lumbar 0 6 0.00

Rib 1 26 0.04Scapula 1 2 0.50Humerus 2 2 1.00

Ulna 1 2 0.50Radius 1 2 0.50Carpal 1 10 0.10

Metacarpal 4 2 2.00Innomiate 0 2 0.00

Femur 5 2 2.50Tibia 6 2 3.00

Astragalus 5 2 2.50Calcaneus 2 2 1.00

Tarsal 0 10 0.00Metatarsal 0 2 0.00Metapodial 1 4 0.25

Phalanx 24 48 0.501Mountain gazelle element frequencies are based on the information in Bar-Oz and Munro (2007).


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0 20 40 60 80 100 120

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AU y = 0.2971x+25.393 R2 = 0.0612

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Calcaneus

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Fig. 10 – The NISP values (% of overall assemblage) for each element of Gazella gazella (mountain gazelle) from WT6.

Fig. 11 – Food utility index (FUI) plotted against %MAU for Gazella gazella from WT6.


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because of marrow’s high nutritional value. Bar-Oz and Munro (2007: 950) indicate that, on average, the tibia has the high-est wet marrow yield, followed by the femur, humerus, radius and metatarsal. A similar element distribution is evident in the frequencies of mountain gazelle body parts at WT6, where the tibia and phalanges have the highest NISP values (fi g. 9). When the food utility index is plotted against %MAU for mountain gazelle, a positive correlation is observable. This suggests the possibility that the high economic utility of these elements was responsible for their presence in the assemblage. However, this correlation is not statistically signifi cant (R2=0.061, P-value=0.374). Only 6% of the variation in the values of %MAU can be explained by the food utility index, which means that the exploitation of these elements was not driven by preference for the highest economic value. Furthermore, at a 5% confi dence interval, the P-value of 0.374 does not designate this regression analysis as statically signifi cant. This suggests that food utility did not form the basis of the pattern that has been observed in the assemblage from WT6 (and most likely that of WT1). This evidence therefore gives weight to the con-clusion that taphonomy played a signifi cant role in the preser-vation of these faunal remains.

In sum, the faunal assemblage from WT1 is too small to allow us to infer much about either taphonomic impacts or human butchering practices. It is apparent, however, that both natural and human agents have infl uenced the assemblage from WT6 and the representation of skeletal elements that have been uncovered. If we are to infer hunting and butchery practices of gazelle from the representation of body parts at WT6, we could conclude that the lack of signifi cant statistical correlation between the utility of an element and its presence in the faunal assemblage is due to the physiology of mountain gazelles themselves. Bar-Oz and Munro (2007: 948, Table 1) indicate that the mean adult weight of mountain gazelle can range from 4.9 to 18.1 kg. These animals are small, light and evidently easily transported. They may not be subject to the ‘schlep effect’ that is common among larger animals.

COMPARING THE WADI TAIYIBA FAUNAL ASSEMBLAGES

The WT6 faunal assemblage bears a number of observed similarities, as well as clear differences, to those from other nearby, roughly contemporary sites in the region. A dominance of gazelle characterizes virtually all Epipalaeolithic sites in the Southern Levant. Mountain gazelle dominates assemblages at the sites of Ein Gev I and Ohalo II, both Kebaran open-air

sites near the Sea of Galilee. Comparing the %MAU values against the food utility index (FUI) at Ein Gev I, for example, shows a positive and signifi cant relationship between bone survivorship of mountain gazelle elements and bone density (Marom and Bar-Oz 2008). In addition, the lack of relation-ship between bone abundance and FUI suggests that differ-ential transport preference for the elements of gazelle was not a signifi cant factor in the formation of this assemblage. This is a trend similar to that observed in the WT6 assemblage, in which whole mountain gazelles were hunted and subsequently butchered near the site.

Marom and Bar-Oz’s (2008) evaluation of the faunal remains from Ein Gev I indicates that Mesopotamian fallow deer (Dama dama), at 18%, are the second-most common species at the site, as at most Epipalaeolithic sites throughout the region. However, at WT6, wild boar (Sus scrofa) is the second-most common species in the faunal assemblage. Wild boar are highly dependent on water that is essential for most of their metabolic functions and, thus, they are usually found in close proximity to reliable water sources; WT6 is situated very close to the banks of Wadi Taiyiba and less than 200 m from a spring. In fact, wild boar can still be found in the area of Wadi Taiyiba today. Although sample sizes are small for this site, the difference in species representation beyond gazelle compared to nearby sites is notable. The lack of fallow deer is particularly interesting as we know it was available and it is found in signifi cant quantities at sites in nearby Wadi Ziqlab. Perhaps the faunal assemblage refl ects hunting only within the immediate area of WT6 and its geographical setting (includ-ing proximity to hot springs) was attractive to gazelle and wild boar, but not to deer.

Munro and Bar-Oz’s (Munro 2004: 11) analysis of the Early and Late Natufi an layers at Hayonim Cave, Israel, indicates that Natufi an foragers intensively exploited gazelle carcasses. However, their investigation does not reveal the temporal changes in gazelle carcass use through the Epipalaeolithic. Evidence for marrow exploitation at WT6 suggests that these groups intensively used all elements of the gazelle carcass. Furthermore, the chronology of the beginning of this inten-sifi cation is unknown within the Epipalaeolithic. Stiner and Munro (2002) emphasize the importance of small animals to human diets throughout the Epipalaeolithic period and posit that the abundance of small game can be used as an indica-tor of human demography and occupation intensity, noting that quickly rebounding small prey populations, such as hare, pro-vide greater reliability as a food source throughout the year.

The wide array of species represented at WT6, paired with the fairly intensive exploitation of gazelle, might suggest that


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the site was occupied either by a large group or for an extended period (a few months) so that resource availability and reliabil-ity were concerns for its occupants.

HUMAN REMAINS AT WADI TAIYIBA 6

A small assemblage of human remains from the excava-tions includes a fragment of mandible, a lower right second molar, an upper right deciduous fi rst incisor, two segments of the diaphysis of a left radius, an intermediate manual pha-lanx, and a small segment of right second rib. The mandible fragment (WT6.L10.5, Locus 002) maintains the region of the mandibular symphysis and extends to the right side of the mandible, with alveolus containing the roots of fi ve teeth. While the crowns of these teeth are broken off post-mortem and are missing, they include the right lower fi rst and sec-ond incisors, canine and premolar 3 and 4. The portion of the mandible preserved is fairly robust, and features a very promi-nent mental trigone (23.5 mm wide at the infl ection points; 20.8 mm in height), suggesting that it most likely belonged to an adult male individual. However, taken together, the dental remains represent at least two individuals. The isolated right second lower molar (WT6.L10.7 Locus 003) has a complete but heavily worn crown and complete roots. Dental wear is heavy (Scott score of 8 or 9: Scott 1979) on the disto-buccal and disto-lingual cusps, leaving only a minor rim of enamel with a large area of exposed dentine, although the mesio-buc-cal and mesio-lingual cusps show considerably less wear, with only minor dentine exposure. The complete fusion of root tips and the heavy tooth wear demonstrate that this tooth came from an adult.

On the other hand, the single upper right fi rst deciduous incisor (WT6.D10.7 Locus 003) has moderate wear with a fairly large area of dentin exposure (stage 5 (Smith 1984)). As the tooth represents a sub-adult, and is typically lost at approx-imately age 6, it is quite possible that this is merely a tooth lost during normal development, rather than representing a case of childhood mortality.

Among the postcranial elements, two left radius shaft seg-ments (WT6.L10.7, Locus 003) articulate around mid-shaft and clearly represent bones from the same individual broken post-depositionally. The total length of the articulated seg-ments is 112 mm, and it has quite gracile features (mid-shaft maximum diameter is 14.4 mm; mid-shaft minimum diameter is 10.5 mm). The maximum length of the bone was likely in the range of 210-230 mm, making this a smaller individual,

although the lack of preserved epiphyses limits age estimates on the basis of epiphyseal fusion.

The other postcranial remains include a partial third or fourth intermediate manual phalanx (WT6.L10.11, Locus 003), and a small segment of the right second rib (WT6.L10.7, Locus 003). Both of these elements appear to come from an adult of fairly small body size, although age is impossible to determine. Overall, the minimum number of individuals rep-resented by the human remains is one, as there are no repeated elements, but the mandible (and possibly lower second molar) represents a probable adult male, while the more gracile post-cranial remains may represent a second adult. The one decid-uous upper fi rst incisor either represents another, younger deceased individual, or was lost during the normal course of someone’s maturing process. Given the disturbed contexts in which the remains were found, it is unclear whether the indi-viduals were interred in one or more graves.

DISCUSSION

Only one radiocarbon sample from WT6 produced a date, and it falls in what is generally considered as the latest part of the Early Epipalaeolithic period (Henry 1995; Maher et al. 2011a). No dates are available from WT1. Organic preserva-tion of bone is very poor at both these sites and seven pre-vious attempts to obtain radiocarbon dates from bone from both sites yielded insuffi cient C13/C14 ratios. However, these apparently young dates are not unknown from other, nearby Epipalaeolithic sites whose material culture indicates an Early Epipalaeolithic cultural affi nity, such as Urkan e-Rubb in the Jordan Valley, Tor at-Tariq in Southwestern Jordan, and even Tabaqat al-Buma in nearby Wadi Ziqlab (Maher et al. 2011a). We suggest an Early Epipalaeolithic date for both WT1 and WT6 on the basis of the chipped-stone tools and their asso-ciated debris. Like well-dated Early Epipalaeolithic sites throughout the Southern Levant, they are dominated by non-geometric microliths produced on narrow-faced bladelet cores with no use of the microburin technique (Edwards et al. 1996; Goring-Morris 1987; Hovers et al. 1988; Olzsewski 2011), and the non-microlithic component consists of endscrapers, burins and retouched blades, as well as a variety of fl ake tools.

The sites of WT1 and WT6 both contain small archaeo-logical assemblages, and the contents and contexts of their deposits suggest that they may have served different functions to Epipalaeolithic people who occupied the area some 20,000 years ago.


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At WT6, the diversity of chipped-stone tools and the pres-ence of debris from all stages of tool manufacture suggest the site was used for more than a short-term, specialised hunting or gearing-up camp. The additional density and diversity of fauna from a range of species (including known Epipalaeolithic sub-sistence staples like gazelle and deer, and wild cattle, wild boar, hare, wolf, and fox), as well as the human remains, ground stone, and imported rounded or polished pebbles, substantiates that a wide range of different domestic, subsistence-related, and social activities occurred on-site. Local outcrops of fi ne-quality fl int provided readily available knapping material. A rockshelter with an adjacent shallow terrace provided both protection from the elements and indoor and outdoor work-ing and living spaces. In addition, the nearby hot spring would have greatly benefi ted the occupants during winter months and would have been a focal point on the landscape around which people could congregate. The water from the hot springs cools rapidly at the surface, and the water and rich vegetation grow-ing in the pools created by the spring would have attracted local game. Both this spring and proximity to the Jordan Valley and Lake Lisan (no more than 1 km to the west) would have sup-ported rich fl oral and faunal communities. In sum, this site was simply an auspicious place for Epipalaeolithic groups to set up base in Wadi Taiyiba.

In contrast, the lithic assemblage at WT1 does not include the full range of knapping activities, lacking substantial evi-dence for core preparation, maintenance, and discard in the archaeological assemblage. This site may represent a short-term occupation focused on tool manufacture and gearing-up prior to hunting activities. The limited faunal remains recov-ered from this site further suggest that WT1 could have been a butchering site, but did not function as a base camp or any other long-term occupation site.

A variety of settlement and mobility models have been proposed to explain the size, location and diversity of Early Epipalaeolithic sites in the Southern Levant, although each model is largely restricted to the sites within a small geograph-ical area, such as a river basin. These models have been sum-marised elsewhere (Maher et al. 2012a and b), and will be only discussed briefl y here. In general, they provide excellent mod-els of landscape use and settlement of certain regions, but large gaps remain in our knowledge of sites between these areas and on the way patterns of occupation and mobility in one region articulate, if at all, with those in other regions. Therefore, the sites from Wadi Taiyiba can contribute valuable data on one of these little-known river valleys between the well-studied areas of Wadi Ziqlab and Wadi al-Hammeh to the south, Urkan-e-Rubb II, Salibiyah and Wadi Fazael to the west, and Ohalo II

and Ein Gev I to the north. We should point out here that vir-tually no sites are known from the Irbid Plateau to the east. Consequently, even with the information from Wadi Taiyiba, this area remains a lacuna. However, the new data from Wadi Taiyiba do further our understanding of landscape use by hunter-gatherers groups during the Early Epipalaeolithic in Northern Jordan, and suggest how these sites might provide pieces of the overall picture of Early Epipalaeolithic groups in the larger region. Groups using these sites in Wadi Taiyiba were, in all likelihood, connected through networks of interac-tion with nearby groups in the Jordan Valley, around the Sea of Galilee and, perhaps, beyond.

A number of relatively small camps, of slightly varying sizes and artifact densities but few site features, as we see so far from Wadi Taiyiba, suggest a high mobility pattern for Early Epipalaeolithic groups in this river valley. However, this presumes that the activities of these groups were restricted to individual river valleys—an unrealistic assumption, at best. It is possible that the sites in Wadi Taiyiba, or any one river val-ley for that matter, represent only a small number and type of sites inhabited or used by any one group (Maher 2011). Whether or not we adhere to models of circulating versus radi-ating mobility, with an emphasis on circulating for the Early Epipalaeolithic, as is proposed for parts of the Negev and Sinai (Marks and Freidel 1977), or seasonal transhumance, as sug-gested for Southern Jordan (Henry 1995), or throw into the mix the massive aggregation sites of Eastern Jordan that suggest large-scale movements of some groups (Richter et al. 2011), it is clear from the range of settlement and mobility patterns in evidence that Early Epipalaeolithic hunter-gatherers took advantage of a wide array of local and non-local resources and ecological conditions. Repeated and prolonged occupations at both Ohalo II and Kharaneh IV, for example, show us that the simple circulating/radiating dichotomy is not explanation enough. Some sites were temporary campsites of seasonally-mobile hunter-gatherers, while others were clearly much more substantial with evidence for long-term reoccupation, long-distance travel and exchange, and multi-season occupation. While we can say that, so far, data from Wadi Taiyiba indicates use of this river valley for both very small-scale gearing-up or butchery sites (WT1) and more prolonged inhabitation that may have extended over one or more seasons (WT6), we still have a long way to go in understanding settlement patterns in Northern Jordan and this part of the Levant.


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CONCLUSIONS

The Early Epipalaeolithic sites of WT1 and WT6 provide much-needed data on the nature of occupation in this part of the Southern Levant. The contemporary sites of Ohalo II, Ein Gev I, and Kharaneh IV, with evidence for prolonged and substantial occupation, hut structures and burial of the dead, remind us that the emergence of social networks, symbolic mortuary practices, and processes of settling-in began much earlier than the latest phases of the Epipalaeolithic. While WT1 and WT6 are much smaller camp sites, they also highlight the diversity of settlement during this time. While some groups were beginning to spend prolonged periods of time in particu-lar locales, others (or perhaps these same groups at other points in time) were not tethered to particular places in the landscape. These different, yet not mutually exclusive, types of occupa-tion continued through the Epipalaeolithic, representing a con-tinuum within which groups may have moved back and forth between increased and decreased mobility. While modest sites in terms of their size and material culture record, WT1 and WT6 expand our knowledge of the Early Epipalaeolithic and provide valuable pieces of data towards a deeper understand-ing of the behaviours of hunter-gatherer groups leading up to the origins of sedentism and village life in the Near East.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was conducted as part of the Wadi Ziqlab Project and we thank the fi eld crew of 2001, our Department of Antiqui-

ties Representative, Ismael Milhem, and the Director General of the Department of Antiquities at the time, the late Fawwaz al-Khraysheh. A special thank you to Adam Allentuck, Emma Humphrey, and Lau-ren Norman for their assistance on the faunal identifi cations. This research was funded by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.

Lisa MAHERDepartment of Anthropology

232 Kroeber HallUniversity of California, Berkeley

Berkeley, CA 94720-3710 – [email protected]

Danielle A. MACDONALDCNRS - Université Nice Sophia Antipolis

UMR7264 Cultures, Environnements.Préhistoire, Antiquité, Moyen Âge (CEPAM)

24 Avenue des Diables Bleus06357 Nice – FRANCE

[email protected]

Aleksa ALAICAEdward B. BANNING

Department of Anthropology19 Russell St.

University of TorontoToronto, ON, M5S 2S2 – CANADA

[email protected]@utoronto.ca

Jay T. STOCKDivision of Biological Anthropology

Department of Archaeology & AnthropologyPembroke Street

University of CambridgeCambridge CB2 3QG – UNITED KINGDOM

[email protected]

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two early epipalaeolithic sites in wadi taiyiba, northern jordan

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