title: entrepreneurship education in tanzanian business schools: a nationwide survey

12th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON AFRICAN

ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND SMALL BUSINESS

DEVELOPMENT (ICAESB)

May 6th and 7th 2010

Title: ENTREPRENEURSHIP EDUCATION IN TANZANIAN BUSINESS

SCHOOLS: A NATIONWIDE SURVEY

By: Donath.R. Olomi, Deo Sabokwigina

ZANZIBAR BEACH RESORT, ZANZIBAR BEACH RESORT, ZANZIBAR BEACH RESORT, ZANZIBAR BEACH RESORT,

ZANZIBARZANZIBARZANZIBARZANZIBAR, TANZANIA, TANZANIA, TANZANIA, TANZANIA

UNIVERSITY OF

DAR ES SALAAM

BUSINESS SCHOOL

12th

International Conference on African Entrepreneurship and Small Business Development

2

ENTREPRENEURSHIP EDUCATION IN TANZANIAN BUSINESS SCHOOLS: A NATIONWIDE SURVEY

ABSTRACT

This study investigated the state of development of entrepreneurship education in Tanzanian business schools; specifically, the entrepreneurship courses available, the course objectives, content, teaching and assessment methods, the perceptions of entrepreneurship and how they affect the learning outcomes, and the support mechanisms available to entrepreneurship education.

All business schools in Tanzania were involved in the study. The respondents were entrepreneurship lecturers and the Deans of Faculties or Heads of Departments in those schools. The data was analyzed using simple descriptive statistics.

The findings show that every business school in Tanzania offers one or more credit courses in entrepreneurship. However, entrepreneurship education is mostly offered as distinct courses, and less as a full academic programme. The results also show that there is a gap between the teaching and assessment methods applied in Tanzanian business schools and those that other studies have shown to be the most effective and appropriate. Results also show that most entrepreneurship lecturers have their main teaching and/or research focus in another discipline, and that less than half of them have a real life experience in business creation and management. Finally, results show that only 38.9% of the schools get support for entrepreneurship education.

It is recommended that business schools should (i) receive funding for entrepreneurship education, (ii) train lecturers involved in entrepreneurship; (iii) integrate experiential learning and innovative techniques in their teaching and assessment methods; (iv) constitute a network of entrepreneurship academics; (v) create a Journal of Entrepreneurship to stimulate research in entrepreneurship. INTRODUCTION

Tanzania is one of the least developed countries and the unemployment level is very high, at 11% in 2006, though the country is endowed with rich natural resource base (URT, 2006). Unfortunately, the education system in Tanzania has failed to deliberately develop values, attitudes, knowledge and skills that enable graduates to see and realize the potentials around them (URT, 2003). Because of the importance of entrepreneurship to the growth and prosperity of the country, mainstreaming entrepreneurship in the education and training system has been emphasized by both the National Higher Education Policy (URT, 1999) and the Small and Medium Enterprise Development Policy (URT, 2003). The aim of this mainstreaming is to promote “a culture that is entrepreneurial”, emphasize “individual entrepreneurial initiatives”, encourage the education system “to create job creators” and respond to the changing world of science and technology and the corresponding ever-changing needs of people. Different higher education institutions have already initiated some measures towards contributing to the production of enterprising graduates through introduction of

Donath.R. Olomi, Deo Sabokwigina

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entrepreneurship courses. Yet no data exist on the extent to which entrepreneurship is taught in Tanzanian business schools and how. Furthermore, the idea of mainstreaming entrepreneurship in the school curricula is a recent phenomenon, and little is known about the extent to which entrepreneurship courses are taught, what is taught, who the facilitators are, what the objectives of the programmes are, and how the courses are taught. Indeed, there are different interpretations of what entrepreneurship is and this is likely to lead to divergent curricula. Differing interpretations are likely to lead to different educational institutions having different teaching content as well as different pedagogy, which is often a sign of a burgeoning discipline (Menzies, 2003). The Study Objectives The main objective of this study was to investigate the state of development of entrepreneurship education, with the aim of ascertaining whether entrepreneurship education in Tanzanian business schools is appropriately developed to equip students with entrepreneurial values, attitudes, knowledge and skills. Specifically, the study aimed to:

(i) Examine the perceptions of entrepreneurship and how these are translated into learning outcomes in business schools

(ii) Identify entrepreneurship courses provided in Business Schools in Tanzania (iii)Identify the level of provision of entrepreneurship education (diploma, degree,

course: compulsory or elective, short courses) (iv) Determine the objectives, content, teaching and assessment methods for

entrepreneurship courses at Business Schools in Tanzania; (v) Investigate the qualifications and experience (business and educational) of

lecturers of entrepreneurship programmes in Business Schools, (vi) Identify the support mechanisms available for entrepreneurship education in

Business Schools in Tanzania;

Entrepreneurship Education: Programmes and Activities

Categorization of Entrepreneurship Education and Training

Two major areas have received special attention in recent studies on entrepreneurship education, namely education about entrepreneurship and education for entrepreneurship

(Klandt, 1993, Levie 1999, and Laukkannen, 2000). Education about entrepreneurship deals mostly with awareness creation, and has the specific objective of educating students on the various aspects of entrepreneurship mostly from a theoretical perspective, showing the contribution of entrepreneurship to economic development, as it views entrepreneurship as a social phenomenon.

On the other hand, education for entrepreneurship deals more with the preparation of aspiring entrepreneurs for a career in self-employment with the specific objective of

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encouraging participants to set-up and run their own business. Participants are taught the practical skills required for small business set-up and management (Laukkannen, 2000).

Education about entrepreneurship aims at transferring the knowledge about the field of entrepreneurship, while education for entrepreneurship aims at developing the entrepreneurial competencies, skills, aptitudes and values (Postigo and Tamborini, 2002 cited by Jesselyn Co and Mitchell, 2006).

The teaching and learning methods in courses for entrepreneurship and about entrepreneurship are often contrasted. Courses for entrepreneurship uses techniques such case studies, guest speakers, group projects, business plans writing, student oral presentations, assessment of class participation, videos, practical work, computer simulations, role playing games, working with entrepreneurs, and joining a students' entrepreneurial clubs. Courses about entrepreneurship tend to be taught in a traditional manner, through lectures, textbooks, and essays, and end-of-term exams, consulting services by students and researches (Levie, 1999, and Klandt, 1993).

Importance of Entrepreneurship Education

There are numerous reasons for the contemporary interest in entrepreneurship and the creation of entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurship is a key driver of our economy. It is argued that perhaps the main importance of entrepreneurship education is becoming a component of new economic strategies for fostering job creation. The outcome of entrepreneurship education is a new generation of entrepreneurs who create jobs not only for themselves but also for others (McMullan, et al., 1986). However, the benefits of entrepreneurship education are not limited to boosting start-ups, innovative ventures and new jobs. Entrepreneurship is a competence for all, helping young people to be more creative and self-confident in whatever they undertake. In fact, entrepreneurial mindsets, knowledge and abilities will be of benefit to young people in all walks of life and in a variety of jobs (European Commission, 2008). Entrepreneurship Course Titles

Previous studies show that there is a wide range of entrepreneurship courses and that course title does not always reveal the entrepreneurship content within. In a survey made by Levie in 1999 in England, many courses had small business or professional practice in their titles, and not enterprise or entrepreneurship. In South Africa, Jesselyn Co and Mitchell (2006) found that popular courses in the area of entrepreneurship were entrepreneurship, small business management, small business finance, new venture creation, franchising, innovation and technology and growth management. In Canada, Menzies (2003) found a broad range of courses, with 15 at the undergraduate level and 10 at the graduate level

Objectives of Entrepreneurship courses

Entrepreneurship education programs can have different objectives. The European Commission (2008) found that entrepreneurship education programmes can have


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different objectives, such as: developing entrepreneurial drive among students (raising awareness and motivation); training students in what is needed to set up a business, and to manage its growth; and developing the entrepreneurial abilities needed to identify and exploit business opportunities. Olomi (2008) states that the objective of any education and training is to change behaviour, which is a function of values, attitudes, knowledge and skills. As such, the entrepreneurship education generally comprises three related objectives: (i) to produce enterprising graduates; (ii) to achieve the mainstream curricula goals more effectively and broadly to enable students become better learners of whatever they need to learn; and (iii) to produce students who are motivated and prepared to start and develop successful businesses.

Contents of entrepreneurship courses

Kuratko (2003) suggests that the content of courses should focus on the development of entrepreneurial skills, attributes and behaviors. The European Commission (2008) suggests that programmes and courses should be geared to the acquisition of generic and horizontal skills, aiming to make students more creative/innovative; highly motivated; pro-active; self-aware; self-confident; willing to challenge; better communicators; decision-makers; leaders; negotiators; networkers; problem solvers; team players; systematic thinkers; less dependent; less risk averse; able to live with uncertainty; capable of recognizing opportunities. Studies have revealed the existence of little uniformity in program offerings. Menzies (2003) stated that “too many different courses show a chaotic and undisciplined discipline”. This may be due to the fact that entrepreneurship is an emerging field (Solomon et al., 2002).

Learning processes and pedagogies

Very little is still known about effective teaching techniques for entrepreneurship educators (Brockhaus, 2001) and research and knowledge about how to teach entrepreneurship remains relatively underdeveloped, despite the growing demand for more entrepreneurial-oriented graduates (Kirby, 2002). The most common teaching methods in entrepreneurship courses continue to be venture plan writing, case studies, readings, and lectures by guest speakers and faculty (Vesper, 1985); development of business plans; student business start-ups; consultation with practicing entrepreneurs; computer simulations; interviews with entrepreneurs, environmental scans; “live” cases; field trips, and the use of video and films (Vesper and McMullan, 1988; Sexton and Bowman-Upton, 1987; Gorman, et al., 1997; Kirby, 2002 ). (Kirby, 2002) suggests that conventional pedagogy should be balanced with more advanced techniques, so that entrepreneurs can develop both vertical (or critical) and lateral (or creative) thinking in problem solving; the former is objective, analytical, logical and resulting in one or a limited number of solutions; the latter is creative, imaginative, emotional and resulting in multiple solutions (De Bono, 1970). Other studies were made in this area. McMullan and Long (1987) stressed the importance of including in entrepreneurship education programs hands-on experience, real world

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projects and learning-by-doing situations; Stumpf, et al., (1991) suggested the introduction of behavioral simulations. Entrepreneurship Support

In order to achieve progress in promoting students’ entrepreneurial mindsets, educational institutions will require support from stakeholders at different levels. Real progress will be possible only with strong involvement and support from all relevant actors (public and private, local and international) (Hitrec, et al., 2006). Research shows that one of the conditions for effective entrepreneurship education is funding and investment in entrepreneurship training, course development and research (Wilson, 2004). The finance of entrepreneurship programmes and activities at the educational institution can typically not be found within the normal university budget (Blenker, et al. 2004, Oslo Agenda, 20061). Twaalfhoven, (2002) found that sources of Funding in Europe and US include:

- Private Individuals (alumni, and to a lesser extent, local business people): by far, the largest source of funds for US private colleges. Private individuals contribute 28% of funds and 95% of funds in Europe and USA respectively.

- Businesses: they contribute 8% of funds and 3% of funds in Europe and USA respectively.

- Foundations: tend to provide programme support, grants for conferences, chairs in less well funded schools, funding for students. They contribute 0% of funds and 2% of funds in Europe and USA respectively.

- Government: it contributes 64% of funds and 0% of funds in Europe and USA respectively.

Educational institutions are expected to encourage students, graduates and researchers with commercially viable business ideas to develop them into companies, by providing a range of support services within the institution (incubators, financing, mentorship, etc.), thus facilitating the creation of academic spin-off companies. The concept of innovative spin-offs in this context is applicable for businesses started by students with formal links with the university, where such students benefit from dedicated advisory and support programmes from the educational institutions (European Commission, 2005). In the US, activities supporting entrepreneurship education are venture capital funds for students; business plan competitions; conferences; professional and student organizations; and academic journals (Twaalfhoven, 2002). Issues Emerging from the Literature Review and the Knowledge Gap

From the literature review, the following issues in entrepreneurship education and their interrelationships can be drawn as follows:

1 http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/entrepreneurship/support_measures/training_education/oslo.htm


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Figure 1: Relationship among the issues in entrepreneurship education

Learning outcomes are affected by the course objectives, contents, teaching methods, assessment methods and the target group themselves. Each target group has its educational needs and knowing the needs of your target group is very crucial for the development of the courses, their objectives, their contents and pedagogies to be used to address their needs (Hill, et al., 2003). The course content and assessment are influenced by the objectives of the course. The course content in turn has an influence on the teaching and assessment methods. Of course, the assessment provides the feedback on the course objectives, content and teaching methods. Review of content, objectives and pedagogies often follows the assessment report. If entrepreneurship education is to produce entrepreneurial persons capable of generating real growth and wealth, the challenge to educators will be to craft courses, programs and major fields of study that meet the rigors of academia, while keeping a reality-based focus and entrepreneurial climate in the learning experience environment (Solomon, et

al., 2002). Are business schools in Tanzania there yet? While studies on entrepreneurship education have been conducted in different countries, no such study has been conducted in Tanzania to show us how the entrepreneurship education is developed and conducted in various learning institutions in general and in business schools in particular. As such, we are left with many questions about the entrepreneurship education in Tanzania. Though this study does not try to cover all aspects of entrepreneurship education in Tanzania, it tries to address the following questions that are left unanswered:

- What are the perceptions of entrepreneurship and how are they translated into learning outcomes in Tanzanian business schools.

- What is the level of entrepreneurship education in Tanzania and what entrepreneurship courses are taught in business schools in Tanzania and what are their aims and contents?

- What are the methods used in teaching and assessment of entrepreneurship courses in business schools in Tanzania?

Courses objectives Target groups: students, universitywide & outreach programmes

Assessment Course content Teaching methods

Learning outcomes

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- Who teaches entrepreneurship courses in Tanzanian business schools? - Is there any type of support for entrepreneurship education in business schools in

Tanzania?

STUDY METHODOLOGY

All higher education institutions offering business education in Tanzania were involved. The lists of these institutions were obtained from the Tanzania Commission for Universities (TCU) and the National Accreditation of Colleges of Technical Education (NACTE). In total, 20 institutions were involved in the study. The respondents were the heads of units offering business education in the institution (Head of Department- HoD- or Faculty Deans) and the instructors/tutors of entrepreneurship courses in those institutions. The study used a self-administered questionnaire. The questionnaire was formulated using a combination of two existing researches on entrepreneurship education in the UK (Levie, 1999) and in United States (Solomon, et al., 2002). The researchers however modified some of the questions to suit the Tanzanian context. The questionnaires were personally distributed by the researchers, but in some cases, they were mailed to reduce expenses. Issues that were covered in the questionnaire relate to Entrepreneurship courses and class contact time, Objectives of the course, Teaching/learning content and methods of the course, Background of the course lecturers, Initiatives taken by the institution to make entrepreneurship part of the curricula in the institution, Support mechanisms available to entrepreneurship education and the Objectives of entrepreneurship development in the institution. Twenty questionnaires were distributed and nineteen were completed and returned. The data were processed and analyzed statistically using simple descriptive statistics. As such, frequencies of responses obtained from the questionnaire were determined; especially the frequencies of the level of provision of entrepreneurship education, course objectives, content, teaching and assessment methods, profile of entrepreneurship lecturers, and support mechanisms for entrepreneurship education. ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

Profile of Respondents

Out of 20 targeted business schools, 19 responded to the study, which is a 95% response rate. The distribution of responding schools by type of institution and ownership is shown in Table 1 below. Most of the responding schools (73.7%) were universities or university colleges, with non-university Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) representing 26.3%. A look at the ownership of the institutions shows that 57.9% are public, with the rest (42.1%) private institutions.


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Table 1: Type and Ownership of Responding Institutions

Type of the

institution

Public Private for

profit

Private not-

for-profit

Total

Count % Count % Count % Count %

University (College) 7 63.6 1 100 6 85.7 14 73.7

Non-university HEI 4 36.4 0 0 1 14.3 5 26.3

Total 11 100 1 100 7 100 19 100

In total, 38 respondents from 19 business schools participated in the study. Table 2 shows the number of respondents by function and gender. Table 2: Function and Gender of Respondents

Position in the institution\ Gender Male Female Total

Count % Count % Count %

Dean/Head of Department 18 60 2 25 20 52.6

Lecturers 12 40 6 75 18 47.4

Total 30 100 8 100 38 100

Out of the 38 respondents, 52.6% were Deans or HODs, and the remaining (47.4%) were lecturers of entrepreneurship. In some institutions, the HODs are also the lecturers of the entrepreneurship course, and thus, in that case, one person filled two questionnaires, as a HOD and as a lecturer. In some other institutions, the Deans/HODs appointed lecturers to fill the questionnaires targeted to the Deans/HODs. For the purpose of the study, the Director of Entrepreneurship Centre who filled the questionnaire was also classified as a HOD. On the gender side, most of the respondents were male (79 per cent). Entrepreneurship Courses Provided in Business Schools in Tanzania.

Respondents were asked to specify which entrepreneurship courses were offered in their institutions. The results showed that every business school in Tanzania offers one or more courses in entrepreneurship. All the courses are “credit” courses, with class contact time varying between 2 hours and 4 hours per week. There is however a wide range of entrepreneurship courses that are offered in Tanzanian business schools. The name of the course does not always reveal the entrepreneurship content within. In many courses, the name entrepreneurship and small business were combined in their title names, and in other courses, only the name small business appears. However, while there are a wide range of course titles, some names appear to emerge frequently from the responses. The majority of respondents (52.6%) indicated that they offered “Small Business (Management) and Entrepreneurship” as a course, while “Entrepreneurship” as a course was offered by 47.4%. Other popular courses included “Small Business Management” (31.6%), “Business Planning” (31.6%) and “Microfinance” (15.8%). Other courses that are in the curriculum include Enterprise Development; Non-Financial Business Development Services (BDS); Small Business Finance; Accounting for SMEs; Design and Management of Entrepreneurship Development Training Programmes; Business

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Diagnosis and Counselling; International Trade and E-Commerce; Change Management; and Business Formalization. The wide range of course titles in Tanzanian business schools is not surprising. Previous studies show that there is a wide range of entrepreneurship courses (Menzies, 2003; Jesselyn Co and Mitchell, 2006) and that course title does not always reveal the entrepreneurship content within (Levie, 1999). Vesper and Gartner (1999) surveyed the number and type of entrepreneurship courses worldwide, and found about 22 courses dealing with start-up or entry into business and 13 dealing with management of businesses. There is no clear answer as to why we have so many different courses in this field in our schools. According to Menzies (2003), while one may suggest that the proliferation of courses is a positive sign of a burgeoning discipline, one can also propose that too many different courses show a chaotic and undisciplined discipline. Level of provision of entrepreneurship education

This section reports on different levels of entrepreneurship education developed by business schools in Tanzania (results are available for 19 schools, both private and public, that responded to the study). The levels of entrepreneurship education range from postgraduate degrees through undergraduate degrees, and distinct courses (class series of lessons or meetings, whether core courses, modules, or electives), to occasional seminars. The results indicate that:

• All business schools (100%) in Tanzania have introduced distinct courses (class series of lessons or meetings, whether core courses, modules, or electives) in entrepreneurship in their faculties/departments. This is especially for 2nd year and/or 3rd year undergraduate students, and for MBA students.

• Only 10.5% of business schools offer postgraduate degrees in entrepreneurship (Faculty of Commerce and Management of University of Dar es Salaam and Mzumbe University).

• Only 10.5% of business schools offer undergraduate degrees in entrepreneurship (Mzumbe University and University of Dodoma)

• There is no school that offers a diploma or a certificate in entrepreneurship

• 73.7% or 14 business schools offer short courses in entrepreneurship to businesses and other groups

• 15.8% or 3 business schools are planning to start a program (degree or diploma) in entrepreneurship within 3 years. Mount Meru University is planning to start a Diploma in entrepreneurship, Moshi University College of Cooperatives and Business Studies is planning to start an undergraduate degree in entrepreneurship, while Tumaini University of Iringa is planning to start an MBA Entrepreneurship.

• Only 5.3% or 1 business school has developed a University Policy on Entrepreneurship Development

The results of the study correlate with results in other countries. In a recent study on Entrepreneurship Education at European Universities and Business Schools, Wilson


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(2004) found that entrepreneurship education still tends to be offered in stand alone courses. Levie (1999) found that while 38% of HEIs in England offered distinct courses in Entrepreneurship, only 2% offered postgraduate degrees in entrepreneurship, with only 4% offering undergraduate degrees in entrepreneurship. Another study on entrepreneurship education in Argentina by Postogo and Tamborini (2007) found that while 21% of surveyed HEIs offered distinct courses in entrepreneurship, there were no HEIs that offered postgraduate or undergraduate degrees in entrepreneurship. As such, it seems that HEIs in many countries tend to offer entrepreneurship education as distinct courses. However, it is argued that the provision of a single course in entrepreneurship will have less impact on the student propensity toward entrepreneurship (Ronstadt, 1985 cited by Niyonkuru, 2005). Objectives, content, teaching and assessment methods of entrepreneurship courses Objectives of entrepreneurship education Deans and Heads of Departments of business schools were asked about the objectives of entrepreneurship development in their institutions. The following is a summary of the objectives of entrepreneurship education in business schools:

• To develop business management skills among students (89.5%)

• To develop interest in students to do business (73.7%)

• To develop entrepreneurial skills in students and faculty (63.2%)

• To foster innovation culture among students and faculty (63.2%)

• To encourage and improve students’ ability to work with in teams (15.8%)

• To give advice to the business community in Tanzania (52.6%) For individual courses, lecturers of entrepreneurship courses were asked to provide the primary aims of the courses. They were asked to rank in order of priorities of the aims of their courses. They were given three options of aims among which they had to rank the primary, the secondary and the third aim of their courses. The three options were:

• To prepare students to set-up and run their own business

• To teach general business skills

• To create awareness among students about entrepreneurship and its role in economic development

18 respondents responded to the question and the results are illustrated in figure 2 below:

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39%

17%

44%

6%

44%

50%

56%

33%

11%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Prepare for business

start-up and

management

Teach general

business skills

Teach about

entrepreneurship

Primary aims of entrepreneurship courses in business schools

Third aim

Secondary aim

Primary aim

Figure 2: Primary aims of entrepreneurship courses in business schools in Tanzania The results indicate that most of the entrepreneurship lecturers (56%) considered teaching students about entrepreneurship and its role in economic development as the first aim of their course, while only 39% of the lecturers considered preparing students for business start-up and management the first aim of their course. Only 6% of the courses focus on teaching general business skills as their first aim. The differing aims of the courses may stem from the fact that the nature of the courses is also different. As shown in section 4.2, there is a wide range of courses taught in business schools in Tanzania, where the most taught courses are entrepreneurship, small business management, and small business management and entrepreneurship. One can expect that their aims are likely to differ, since small business management aims at teaching about management of small business, while entrepreneurship courses focus on developing enterprising behavior (Alberti, et al., 2004, Solomon, et al., 2002; Blenker, et al., 2004). Research on teaching entrepreneurship is no longer sparse, but generally accepted objectives, approaches and paradigms still lack. Instead there seems to be a large variation in teaching objectives and approaches depending on the target group (Blenker, et al., 2004). Also, the objectives of teaching entrepreneurship may differ depending on whether it is an education about entrepreneurship or for entrepreneurship (Klandt, 1993, Levie 1999, and Laukkannen, 2000).

Blenker, et al., (2004) propose a broader concept of developing an enterprising

behaviour which relates to developing personal characteristics such as willingness to change, initiative, opportunity identification and creation. In this context, “the focus of teaching is not primarily on the process of creating and developing individual businesses, but rather on developing people expressing enterprising behaviour (that is people who


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may want to run their own businesses as well as people whose enterprising behaviour may take other forms than starting a business)” (Jack and Anderson, 1999, p. 115 cited in Blenker, et al., 2004).

Indeed, as argued by Gibb, complexity and uncertainty necessitating an entrepreneurial response affect people in many different aspects of life, not just when they are involved in creating a business (Gibb, 2002, p. 244 cited by Blenker, et al., 2004). As such, entrepreneurship courses should not relate only to start-ups, but should also include intrapreneurship, while encouraging enterprising individuals across all walks of life (European Commission, 2008).

The findings for business schools in Tanzania imply that students in those schools are taught about various aspects of entrepreneurship mostly from a theoretical perspective. In other words, entrepreneurship education in Tanzanian business schools is mainly considered as an academic subject, as opposed to seeking to improve the students’ ability to perform entrepreneurial action as a practical activity (Laukannen, 1998; Gibb, 2002).

Learning content of entrepreneurship courses Lecturers of entrepreneurship and/or small business management courses were asked to provide the learning content of their courses. They were given a list of seven learning contents and were asked to show what learning content applies to their courses. Results are illustrated in Table 3 below. Table 3: Entrepreneurship course contents

Learning contents of entrepreneurship courses Apply Do not apply

count % count %

Opportunity recognition 10 52.6 9 47.4

Resource needs assessment 11 57.9 8 42.1

Risk management 12 63.2 7 36.8

Venture management 16 84.2 3 15.8

Marketing skills 16 84.2 3 15.8

Innovation/creativity 9 47.4 10 52.6

Awareness of enterprising tendencies 19 100 0 0

Business start-up and creation 9 47.4 10 52.6

The results indicate that the main content of entrepreneurship courses in Tanzanian business schools is awareness of enterprising tendencies, with 100% of the schools focusing on the topic, followed by venture management (84%) and marketing skills (84%). Risk management (64%), resource needs assessment (58%) and opportunity recognition (53%) follows. Only 47% of courses have a content focusing on innovation and creativity, while 47% of courses have a content focusing on business start-up and creation.

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Other studies reveal that despite general agreement that entrepreneurship can be taught; there is little uniformity in program content (Gorman, Hanlon and King, 1997), which may be a function of an emerging field with a limited, but growing, body of knowledge (Salomon et al., 2002). In the Portable MBA in Entrepreneurship, Bygrave (1994), suggests that the student learns about the entrepreneurial process, opportunity recognition, entry strategies, market opportunities and marketing, creating a successful business plan, financial projections, venture capital, debt and other forms of financing, external assistance for startups and small business, legal and tax issues, intellectual property, franchising, harvesting, and entrepreneurship economics (Bygrave, 1994, cited in Kirby 2002) Entrepreneurship literature recognizes that courses and programs in entrepreneurship education may include topics such as opportunity recognition, creative thinking, new market development, market entry, protecting intellectual property, the legal requirements of new businesses and severe resource constraints, awareness of entrepreneurial career options, sources of venture capital; ambiguity tolerance; the characteristics that define the entrepreneurial personality, and the challenges associated with each stage of venture development, (McMullen and Long, 1987; Vesper and McMullan, 1988; Solomon, et al., 2002). As such, the contents of entrepreneurship courses in business schools in Tanzania are not different from the contents of the courses in other countries. However, the courses in business schools in Tanzania allocate little emphasis to innovation and creativity, and to business start-up and creation, where only 47% of courses have a content focusing on innovation and creativity, and the same percentage (47%) of courses have a content focusing on business start-up and creation. However, according to Kourilsky (1995), “entrepreneurship programmes whereby students do not experience the search for the market opportunity and the generation of new business ideas, these programmes are missing the heart of the entrepreneurship process” (cited in Niyonkuru, 2005). Teaching methods in business schools in Tanzania Table 4 below shows the teaching methods commonly used in business schools in Tanzania.


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Table 4: Teaching methods used in business schools in Tanzania

Teaching methods commonly used in the courses Apply Do not apply

count % count %

Lectures 19 100 0 0

Individual projects 11 57.9 8 42.1

Group projects 10 52.6 9 47.4

Real case studies 3 15.8 16 84.2

Fictional case studies 5 26.3 14 73.7

Local case studies 3 15.8 16 84.2

Foreign case studies 2 10.5 17 89.5

Guest speakers (entrepreneurs, bankers, etc) 8 42.1 11 57.9

Entrepreneurs interviewed by students 3 15.8 16 84.2

Readings (i.e. books, journal articles) 17 89.5 2 10.5

Course materials available in the Internet/Intranet 5 26.3 14 73.7

Links with other entrepreneurial activities outside the institution

1 5.3 18 94.7

Business simulations 1 5.3 18 94.7

Role-playing 1 5.3 18 94.7

Video cases 0 0 19 100

Multimedia exercises 0 0 19 100

Students’ internships in small businesses 1 5.3 18 94.7

Students involved in consulting small businesses 1 5.3 18 94.7

The results show that the most used teaching method is lectures (100%), followed by readings in books and journals (89.5%), individual projects (57.6%) and group projects (52.6%). Other commonly used methods include guest speakers- entrepreneurs, professionals- (42.1%), and case studies (26.3%). Only 15.8% or 3 schools ask their students to interview entrepreneurs. The results also show that only 5.3% or one school is using role playing, business simulations, students’ internships in small business, and involving students in consulting with businesses. On the other extreme, none of the schools is using video cases and multimedia exercises. The results show that Tanzanian business schools still predominantly adhere to traditional in-class methods of teaching and assessment. Outside class methods- such as on-site visits, feasibility studies, business plans written by students and presented to real world audiences, consulting courses involving students in working with small businesses, student involvement in product development teams, students helping to run venture capital funds, focused internships in small or entrepreneurially-run businesses etc- are rarely used by the schools even though these methods have the potential to teach and practice important skills and exposure to necessary behaviours critical to entrepreneurship development. While 100% of business schools in Tanzania use lectures in teaching entrepreneurship, it has been argued that traditional lecturing, ‘feeding’ passive students, is largely inappropriate in this field and, more generally, an inefficient way of learning (European

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Commission, 2008). And according to Cooper, et al., (2004), while lectures and case studies can be praised for their academic rigour, they do not encourage students to learn through experience. They are appropriate to provide students with analytical approaches relevant in large businesses, but they leave little room for insight and intuition necessary for an entrepreneurial environment. According to studies done across higher education institutions in Europe, a wide range of methodologies exist in entrepreneurship courses. However, it is suggested that the most appropriate and effective teaching tools/methods are methods based on “group and team techniques for creating new business ideas”, the use of “case studies”, “business planning workshops”, “inviting guest speakers” (namely entrepreneurs), “business simulations”, and methods based on undertaking some practical entrepreneurial activity and creativity exercises leading to the development of ideas (European Commission, 2008). A few business schools in Tanzania use case studies, but very few case studies are local and real. Only 15.8% of lecturers use local case studies referring to existing companies. Students in Tanzanian business schools are not given enough room for practice and experience. Indeed, only 5.3% or one school is using role playing, business simulations, student internships in small business, or involving students in consulting with businesses; and worse, none of the schools is using video cases and multimedia exercises. Instead, the schools tend to rely on traditional in-class methods of teaching. This will do little to stimulate innovation and creativity, since the methods are not action-oriented, and students are not taught “how to”. The traditional methods of teaching in the business schools should be complemented with entrepreneurial methods that develop in its students the skills, attributes and behaviours characteristic of the enterprising or entrepreneurial individual (Kirby, 2002). To achieve these ends, it seems necessary to adopt an approach to learning that:-

• Involves students in problem-solving in real-world situations,

• Encourages students to formulate decisions on data which are immediate and “dubious” in order to stimulate the ability to cope with uncertainty,

• provides students with role models who are involved in both the learning and assessment processes.

(Olsen and Bosserman 1984, cited in Kirby, 2002) As such, we can say that there is a gap between the methods applied in Tanzanian business schools and those that are seen as the most effective and appropriate by other studies. Assessment methods in business schools in Tanzania Lecturers of entrepreneurship courses were asked to show what methods they use in assessing their students. Figure 3 summarizes the findings. The results show that the most used assessment method is written end of course exams (100%), followed by class participation assessment (73.7%), preparation of business plans (57.9%), student oral presentations (52.6%) and essays (10.5).


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The results show that business schools in Tanzania are still adhering to traditional methods of assessment. However, the entrepreneurship literature suggests a combination of traditional and entrepreneurial assessment techniques. In this case, traditional methods of tests and written exams are supplemented by innovative assessment methods that include having students evaluate each other’s venture plan; having venture capitalists evaluate students’ venture plans; using a live case for the final examination; and “adopting a grading policy under which any student who manages to raise $10,000 or more on the basis of a plan developed in the course receives an automatic ‘A’” (Vesper, 1986, p. 383 cited in Solomon, et al., 2002).

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Figure 3: Assessment methods in business schools in Tanzania As such, there is a gap between the assessment methods applied in business schools in Tanzania and those that are seen as the most effective and appropriate. Who teaches entrepreneurship courses?

Profile, academic qualification, teaching focus of lecturers of entrepreneurship

courses The profile of entrepreneurship lecturers in business schools is provided in Table 5 below.

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Table 5: Profile of lecturers of entrepreneurship courses

Profile of lecturers of entrepreneurship courses Yes No

count % count %

Full-time lecturer 19 100 0 0

Part-time lecturer 0 0 19 100

Degrees with entrepreneurship courses 15 78.9 4 21.1

Has set up own business 8 42.1 11 57.9

Was/is a manager in new/young business 3 15.8 16 84.2

Was/is a manager in small business 4 21.1 15 78.9

Was/is a manager in medium or large business 0 0 19 100

Was/is a manager in the public sector 1 5.3 18 94.7

Was/is a manager in an enterprise support organization

1 5.3 18 94.7

The results show that all the lecturers (100%) of entrepreneurship courses are full time lecturers in their schools, with 78.9% of them having degrees that had an entrepreneurship concentration in them, but with less than half of them with real life experience in business creation. Only 4.2% of entrepreneurship lecturers have already set up their own businesses. Moreover, very few of the lecturers of entrepreneurship courses have a real life experience in management of businesses. Only 21.1% of lecturers have been or are managers of small businesses. The lecturers of entrepreneurship courses were asked about their academic qualification. Results show most of the lecturers (68.4%) have an MBA, and only 21.1% have a PhD or are PhD candidates. Respondents were also asked how long they have been teaching the entrepreneurship course. The results show that lecturers have varied experience in teaching the course, ranging from one year to 10 years experience of teaching an entrepreneurship course. Results show that entrepreneurship lecturers in Tanzanian business schools tend to have their main teaching and/or research focus in another discipline, such as marketing, strategic management, finance, etc. Among 19 entrepreneurship lecturers who responded to the study, only 26.3% or 5 lecturers have a teaching focus in entrepreneurship, and only 52.6% or 10 lecturers have a research focus in entrepreneurship. It has been recommended that people doing the teaching should be to some extent entrepreneurs themselves, building their input on real-life experience, helping to cross the boundary of the university and the world outside (European Commission, 2008). But this does not seem to be the case in Tanzanian business schools, where less than half of entrepreneurship lecturers have real time experience in business. There is a need to develop faculty that are focused on teaching and researching on entrepreneurship. This will help to legitimate the field and help meet the challenge of teaching the right content with right methods of teaching and assessment (Alberti, et al., 2004). The results in Tanzanian business schools show that most entrepreneurship


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lecturers were employed for other purposes rather than entrepreneurship. Only a very few of the entrepreneurship lecturers were primarily employed for teaching entrepreneurship. Support mechanisms available for entrepreneurship education Respondents were asked whether their school gets funding for entrepreneurship education from any institution. To this question, only 38.9% or 7 business schools responded yes, and the rest, 61.1% or 11 business schools responded no to the question (one respondent didn’t answer). In other words, only 38.9% of business schools get support for entrepreneurship education. Among the respondents who said that their institution were having support for entrepreneurship education, 71.4% or 5 business schools got the funding from the donors only, while the rest (28.6% or 2 business schools) got the funding from both donors and government.

Deans and HODs of business schools were asked whether entrepreneurship education in their respective schools is normally conceived as part of a wider entrepreneurial programme, with support mechanisms and services to support students’ business ideas and new business start-ups. The results are provided in Table 6 below. Table 6: Mechanisms to facilitate the creation of students’ enterprises at the schools

Mechanisms to facilitate the creation of spin off firms Yes No

count % count %

We have business incubation facilities for spin-off firms

2 10.5 17 89.5

We provide financial assistance to spin-off firms 0 0 19 100

We provide advice to spin-off firms 2 10.5 17 89.5

We provide equipment to spin-off firms 0 0 19 100

Results show that only 2 business schools have incubation facilities for spin-off firms (Faculty of Commerce and Management of University of Dar es Salaam, and Institute of Financial Management). Results also show that only 2 business schools have a mechanism to provide advice to spin-off firms. However, none of the schools (0%) has mechanisms to provide financial assistance and none of the schools provides equipment to spin-off firms. One can say that Tanzanian business schools have not yet reached the “entrepreneurial commitment”. This may be due to lack of funding, as shown in section 4.7.2, or lack of knowledge and skills for people responsible of entrepreneurship education in the school. Whatever the reasons are, the issue should be addressed.

Deans and HODs were asked whether their schools had mechanisms to raise awareness about entrepreneurship. Table 7 summarizes the responses.

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Table 7: Mechanisms to raise awareness about entrepreneurship

Mechanisms to raise awareness about entrepreneurship Yes No

count % count %

We organize a business plan competition 3 15.8 16 84.2

We have club or Association for students entrepreneurs 2 10.5 17 89.5

We have an entrepreneurship web-page 1 5.3 18 94.7

We have a Centre for Entrepreneurship 5 26.3 14 73.7

We provide training to lecturers on working with businesses 11 57.9 8 42.1

Have conducted orientation to Deans, Directors and Lecturers on entrepreneurship training

4 21.1 15 78.9

Results show that 11 business schools provide training to lecturers on working with businesses; while 5 business schools have established entrepreneurship centres (Faculty of Commerce and Management of University of Dar es Salaam, Mzumbe University, College of Business Education, Institute of Financial Management, and Tumaini University of Iringa). Also 4 business schools have conducted orientation to Deans, Directors, and Lecturers in entrepreneurship (Faculty of Commerce and Management of University of Dar es Salaam, Mzumbe University, College of Business Education, and Moshi University College of Cooperatives and Business Studies). Moreover, 3 business schools organize business plan competition (Faculty of Commerce and Management of University of Dar es Salaam, Institute of Financial Management and University of Dodoma). In addition, 2 business schools have entrepreneurship clubs for students (Faculty of Commerce and Management of University of Dar es Salaam and University of Arusha). However, only one school has an entrepreneurship web-page. Most European and US universities get their funding support for entrepreneurship programs through donations from Government, corporations, foundations or individuals. The support targets the use of practice-based pedagogical tools whereby students are involved in a concrete enterprise project (for instance in running a mini-company). The support also targets the establishment of Entrepreneurship Centres at universities and the creation of a network between them. The support targets specific training for teachers in entrepreneurship, such as training in case studies and other inter-active methods, such as involving teachers in real work on enterprise projects or even in themselves running a mini-company. By acquiring direct experience, teachers become more effective when using these methods with the students (Wilson, 2004). Entrepreneurship education in Tanzanian business schools will not achieve enough progress unless strong involvement and support is sought from all relevant stakeholders (public and private, local and international). Indeed, the finance for entrepreneurship programmes and activities at the educational institution can typically not be found within the normal university budget (Blenker, et al., 2004). Educational institutions are expected to encourage students, graduates and researchers with commercially viable business ideas to develop them into companies by providing a range of support services within the institution (incubators, financing, mentorship, etc.), thus facilitating the creation of academic spin-off companies. Indeed, it is argued that the


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issue of building mindsets and abilities cannot be viewed in isolation from the overall context. Entrepreneurship courses and activities should be part of a wider entrepreneurial programme within the institution. A high visibility for the “entrepreneurial commitment” of an institution is achieved through the presence of dedicated spaces, such as “hatcheries” or incubators, and through support for students’ start-up plans (European Commission, 2008). In the US, activities supporting entrepreneurship education include venture capital funds for students; business plan competitions; conferences; professional and student organizations; academic journals (Twaalfhoven, 2002). Standing of entrepreneurship education in Tanzanian business schools

Respondents were asked how entrepreneurship is perceived at their school. All respondents stated that the students taking the entrepreneurship course viewed it favourably. Also, 73.7% of respondents stated that other academics in their schools viewed the course favourably. Moreover, 78.9% of respondents stated that their university/college/institute administration viewed the course favourably. However, only 26.3% respondents stated that students not taking the course viewed it favourably. The standing of entrepreneurship education among students taking the course, other academics and the institution administration is encouraging. The results show that members of the university leadership and academics are positive about entrepreneurship education. Even though students not taking the course are usually not favourable, they are however neutral (68.4% are neutral). Respondents were asked whether they agree or disagree with the need for specialized doctoral studies and research for an entrepreneurship scholar. 84.2% of respondents agreed. Those who agree on the need for specialized doctoral studies and research in entrepreneurship advanced the following reasons:

• To enable the scholars to acquire more competence based education in entrepreneurship

• To acquire deep understanding in the field of entrepreneurship

• The world economy is very dynamic and requires continuing search for knowledge and specialization

• Like other careers, entrepreneurship needs to be practiced by scholars with more knowledge and skills

Respondents were also asked whether they agree or disagree on the need for entrepreneurship lecturers to have practical experience and business contacts. To this question, 78.9% of respondents agreed. Those who advocate for the entrepreneurship lecturers to have practical experience and business contacts advanced the following reasons:

• To relate theory to practice, one needs to have practical experience

• To synchronize the theory and practice of entrepreneurship

• To broaden experience from real life situations

• It’s difficult to advise students on how to set up business if one has no business contacts

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• To relate theory to practice, one needs to have practical experience

• To enable them to be more competent on issues of entrepreneurship

• Entrepreneurship requires more practice than theory

• Gain practical experience and provide feedback in the theoretical teaching

• Need for empathy with SMEs The findings in other countries are more or less similar. In South Africa, in a study conducted by Jesselyn Co and Mitchell (2006), academics are ambivalent as to whether specialised doctoral studies and research are required to be an entrepreneurship scholar, with 25% agreeing and 29% disagreeing. However, respondents in the same study believe that faculty teaching entrepreneurship need to have practical experience and business contacts, with 75% agreeing. This may be due to the fact that only a few of the respondents actually have degrees that have entrepreneurship concentrations. (Levie, 1999) suggests that there is a need for more career entrepreneurship academics who can comfortably span the world of business and academe, who can teach for entrepreneurship and research about entrepreneurship, at a level which commands respect amongst their fellow academics. The European Commission (2008) suggests that professors should have a background in academia, and experience in business, such as in consulting for, or initiating, entrepreneurial initiatives. They should maintain strong personal links with the business sector. The best professors are teachers who have the required teaching competences as well as real professional experience in the private sector. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Conclusions It is evident that entrepreneurship education in business schools in Tanzania is in an early stage of development, even though some schools have been involved in entrepreneurship education for around 10 years. The findings show that a wide range of courses is offered in this area. The findings also show that there are varying levels of entrepreneurship provision, from postgraduate degree in entrepreneurship, through undergraduate degree in the area, distinct courses in the areas, to short courses in the area. However, entrepreneurship education in Tanzanian business schools is mainly considered as an academic subject, as opposed to seeking to improve the students’ ability to perform entrepreneurial action as a practical activity. Business schools still adhere to traditional in-class teaching and assessment methods, with little (or no) emphasis on outside-class methods, which are necessary for experience. The education is still teacher-centered. They fail to adopt entrepreneurial methods of teaching and assessment. Relatively few entrepreneurship lecturers have a teaching and research focus in entrepreneurship. Another major issue is the funding of entrepreneurship education. For the moment, funding for entrepreneurship is lacking. As a consequence, there are very few incubation facilities, entrepreneurship centres, and very few business plan competitions are organized. Facilitating the creation of student spin-off firms and creating awareness about entrepreneurship in business schools have been lacking as a result of lack of funding and


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little knowledge among people involved in entrepreneurship education in business schools. Recommendations

This study has tried to shed light on the state of development of entrepreneurship education in Tanzanian business schools. It has also tried to show the entrepreneurship courses taught in business schools; the level of provision of entrepreneurship education in business schools; the objectives, contents, teaching and assessment methods of the courses; the profile of entrepreneurship lecturers and their teaching and research focus; and the support mechanisms available for entrepreneurship education. The following recommendations are for policy makers, donors, business schools and lecturers of entrepreneurship courses. Funding entrepreneurship education should be a priority for stakeholders: Given the economic Vision of Tanzania that envisages the creation of a strong, diversified, resilient and competitive economy, entrepreneurship education should receive strong backing, not only in words written in policies, but also in actions. The findings of this study show that there is a lack of funding for entrepreneurship education. As a result, business schools are not equipped with the necessary support mechanisms for entrepreneurship education. Entrepreneurship centres, incubation facilities, and business plan competitions are very important in developing entrepreneurship education, supporting the creation and management of businesses, offering pre-incubation and incubation services, and extending entrepreneurial culture in the university community. Stakeholders- the Government of Tanzania, development partners in the field of education, corporations, individuals and business schools themselves- must work together to raise the funds necessary to support entrepreneurship education. Real progress in entrepreneurship education will be possible only with strong involvement and support from all relevant stakeholders. The funding would be helpful in creating entrepreneurship centres and incubation facilities, in organizing business plan competitions, in developing practice-based pedagogical tools, and in training entrepreneurship academics and those who inspire to teach for and research about entrepreneurship.

Training of entrepreneurship academics: As shown in the findings, most lecturers of entrepreneurship in Tanzanian business schools did not have specific training in entrepreneurship. In fact, most of them were employed to teach other courses, and they just happened to teach entrepreneurship. As a result, most entrepreneurship lecturers in Tanzanian business schools have their main teaching and/or research focus in other disciplines, such as marketing, strategic management, finance, etc., and not entrepreneurship. Moreover, less than half of entrepreneurship lecturers have real life experience in business creation. In addition to that, very few of the lecturers of entrepreneurship courses have real life experience in management of businesses.

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There is a need to organize a series of training programmes for entrepreneurship lecturers. The training would teach the lecturers how to teach entrepreneurship, as it is different from teaching other courses. The training should teach them entrepreneurial methods of teaching and assessing students who study entrepreneurship. This is necessary because some lecturers have not even been taught entrepreneurship in their studies. For others, they were just taught entrepreneurship as a single course in degree programmes. There is a need to train them in order to allow them to meet the challenges of entrepreneurship education, as opposed to other types of education. They should also be trained in case-study development, so that they can develop local case-studies, based on local companies and entrepreneurs that students can identify with. Training business school administrators on alternative ways of raising funding for

entrepreneurship education: Business school administrators, including deans and HODs should be trained in alternative ways of raising funding for entrepreneurship education in their schools. The training would highlight how HEIs in the United States fund their entrepreneurship programs through donations from foundations, corporations or individuals, including alumni and the business community. While the Government has a responsibility to provide funds for the development of entrepreneurship education, business school administrators also have a responsibility to work hard at looking for alternative funding.

Teaching and assessment methodologies should be revised: Business schools have to evaluate whether their teaching and assessment methodologies are effective for reaching the goals of entrepreneurship education. At present, the business schools use traditional methods of teaching and assessment extensively and leave little room of entrepreneurial methods for teaching and assessment. Students in Tanzanian business schools should be given enough room for practice and experience. As such, instead of relying on traditional lecturing- spoon-feeding-, students could be trained using outside class methods- such as on-site visits, feasibility studies, business plans written by students and presented to real world audiences, consulting courses involving students in working with small businesses, student involvement in product development teams, students helping to run venture capital funds, focused internships in small or entrepreneurially-run businesses. Based on the survey of literature, it is also recommended that methods based on “group and team techniques for creating new business ideas”, the use of “case studies”, “business planning workshops”, “inviting guest speakers” (namely entrepreneurs), “business simulations”, “role playing” and methods based on undertaking some practical entrepreneurial activity and creativity exercises leading to the development of ideas, should be considered, among others.

A network and forum for mutual learning among entrepreneurship academics

should be constituted: There is a need to have a network of entrepreneurship academics in business schools in Tanzania. This would provide an opportunity for the entrepreneurship lecturers to swap teaching materials, teaching and assessment methods, teaching innovation experiences, etc. The network could consider organizing a forum where entrepreneurship lecturers could exchange experiences related to entrepreneurship


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development. They might decide to meet periodically, or they might decide to use a website or group e-mails in order to reduce expenses. Partnership between business schools and local communities and businesses: There is a need for linkages between the business schools and the local communities and businesses. This would facilitate students in their practical training such as internships, consulting services provided by students, on-site visits, etc. Local communities and businesses would benefit from technical, management, and marketing assistance from the business schools and their students.

Need for collaboration of business schools and government agencies in curriculum

development: In order to meet the common objective of developing enterprising students in our business schools, it is recommended that business schools and government agencies collaborate in curriculum development. This would address the problem of discrepancies in course content and methods used. Involvement of the private sector as well as students in curriculum development would be a good move. Research in the area of entrepreneurship and a Journal of Entrepreneurship: There is a need to conduct more research in the area of entrepreneurship. Though many entrepreneurship lecturers have a teaching focus other than entrepreneurship, they could be sensitized to contribute in this area. The creation of a Journal of Entrepreneurship would help in this endeavour of promoting entrepreneurship research. Academics would get promotions in their jobs and this would act as pull factor into doing entrepreneurship research.

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title: entrepreneurship education in tanzanian business schools: a nationwide survey

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