educational leadership in tanzanian secondary schools
TRANSCRIPT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
About the Author
CHAPTER ONE
THE TANZANIAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM
CHAPTER TWO
THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP AND THEIR EDUCATIONAL CONTEXTS
Relationship between transformational leadership with EI/EQ
Relationship between participatory leadership and emotionalintelligence
Interpersonal leadership in relation to emotional intelligence
Effective leadership
Effective and improving schools
Paradigm for good school leadership
Stages in strategic planning
: A basic model of strategic management
: School Strategic Planning Model
Strategic Management Cycle
Strategic Planning and Strategic Intent
Micro-planning Models
: Organisational/school culture as a sub-set of societal culture.
Organisational chart for a bureaucratic organisation
Cultural norms
Framework for Understanding Education Quality
Proposed model linking vision and faculty performance
Contexts in which heads of schools work
Immersion phase: areas of impact
Framework of challenges facing beginning principals
Mentors to a school head
Coaching and mentoring
Coaching skills for educational leaders
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTTo those who gave me insight into Educational Leadership and Management. My parents Costantine Kuluchumila and Costancia Imelda
To Professor Ann Briggs and my Tutor Mr. Kevin James
And my scholarship award (Ford Foundations International FellowshipProgram) - IFP Tanzania, who, without them obtaining a Masters degree inEducational Leadership would have been a dream.
About the AuthorRevocatus C. Kuluchumila is an Assistant Lecturer of Educational Leadershipand Management at AMUCTA (A Constituent University College of St. Augustine University of Tanzania). He received his B.com (Hon.) in Financeand a Postgraduate Diploma in Education (PGDE) at the University of Dar esSalaam. Under the sponsorship of Ford Foundation, he got his Master ofEducation (Educational Leadership and Management) -MEd, from NewcastleUniversity (the United Kingdom). He had worked within the Department ofEconomics at SHYCOM as an educator as well as a Head of Department for tenyears. Besides, he had been a Vice Principal and the Head of Department ofREM (Research Measurement and Evaluation) at SHYCOM Teachers' College.His area of research interest is preparation and development of educationalleaders.
CHAPTER ONE
THE TANZANIAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM This chapter briefly explores the Tanzanian education system. The chapter
highlights a number of items which include:
The Geographical location of Tanzania
The structure of education in Tanzania
Education in Tanzania: before and during colonialism, and after
independence
School ownership and leadership hierarchy
The Geographical Location of Tanzania
The United Republic of Tanzania comprises Tanzania Mainland and
Zanzibar. It is one of the East African countries, located between Longitudes
29o and 41o East and Latitudes 1o and 12o South. Zanzibar is situated 30
kilometres east of the mainland in the Indian Ocean. Tanzania shares its borders
with Malawi, Mozambique and Zambia in the south. On the west are the
Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda and Burundi. The northern part is
bordered by Uganda and Kenya; it faces the Indian Ocean on the east. The
country has a total area of 945,090 square kilometres. The official capital city is
Dodoma while Dar-es-Salaam is an administrative centre. In 2006/2007 it had
an estimated population of 38.7 million. The population growth rate is estimated
to be 2.9 percent per annum (Kipobota and Wobick, 2008:1).
The United Republic of Tanzania has the second largest lake in the world,
Lake Victoria, and the second deepest lake in the world, Lake Tanganyika.
Furthermore the country has the highest mountain in Africa, Mount
Kilimanjaro. The people of this country are Bantu (nearly 90%), with 120
tribes. Its economy is dominated by agriculture, mainly subsistence farming.
Other economic sectors include mining, industries, trade and transport and
communications. Kiswahili is the official language; it is spoken by the majority.
The second language is English. English is used as a medium of communication
in secondary schools and higher levels of education. Its currency is the
Tanzanian shilling (Mmari, 2005:3).
Tanganyika (now Tanzania mainland) was under German rule after the
Berlin Conference of 1884-1885; from 1886 to 1919. After the First World War,
it was ruled by Britain, it got its independence from Britain on 9th December
1961 (Kipobota and Wobick, 2008: 4). Zanzibar islands were ruled by Arabs
from Oman since 1832; the Arabs, fearing their colony to taken by other
colonialists, decided to put Zanzibar under British protection in 1890. In 1963
Britain gave the Arabs minority independence with the Sultan as the leader of
the country (Othman, 2004: 1- th
January 1964. On April, 26th 1964 the two sovereign states united to form the
United Republic of Tanzania (Kipobota and Wobick, 2008: 5).
The structure of education in Tanzania
The structure of formal education in Tanzania is 2-7-4-2-3 that is, 2 years
of pre-primary education, 7 years of primary education, 4 years of secondary
ordinary level, 2 years of secondary advanced level and a minimum of 3 years
of university education (Ministry of Education and Culture, 1995:12). The
general purpose of Tanzanian education is to transmit knowledge from one
generation to the next (Nyerere, 1973:193). The Tanzanian Education and
Training Policy draws out the following aims of education: the provision of
knowledge, skills and values to Tanzanian people for personal and national
development. The education given is also expected to enable the enhancement
of Tanzanian culture, the development of inquisitive minds and respect for
human dignity. Moreover, education provided to a Tanzanian child is to make
her or him able to cope with global technological change (Ministry of Education
and Culture, 1995:1-2).
Education before independence
Like other countries in Africa, the pre-colonial education system in
Tanzania was informal. Nyerere (1968:268) observes that children were taught
mainly through stories told by their elders. They also learned through practice
and by experiences encountered in life. They were taught good behaviour for
the benefit of society and they were taught different skills and knowledge like
farming, hunting, fishing and treatment whenever someone is sick. Education
delivery was mainly through stories; in this way children were able to
understand the history of their tribe. Occasionally children had to attend formal
classes; this was during initiation. Through these methods the values of the
societies were transmitted from one generation to another and the demands of
the society were catered for.
Colonialists introduced a formal education system into Tanzania. The
colonial education had the aim of promoting colonial interests. The main
purpose was to get a few trained individuals, for example local clerks and junior
officials, for servicing colonial rulers. The education provided was based on the
British model of capitalism with emphasis on white collar-jobs and assumptions
of a capitalist society (Nyerere 1968: 269). This brought a major shift from a
child being trained for serving society to serving a few rulers.
Education soon after independence: 1961-1967
Tanzania inherited the colonial education system. A major task for the
new government after independence in 1961 was to establish an education
system which suited the Tanzanian context. First, racial discrimination within
education was removed. Secondly, there was an expansion of secondary schools
and higher learning institutions in terms of provision of facilities. Thirdly the
education system was restructured to meet the demands of Tanzanian society,
for example a new history curriculum including African history, and a new civic
syllabus was introduced (Nyerere, 1968: 271).
Education for self-reliance
Education for self-reliance is the philosophy of Tanzanian education. It
was put in place in 1967 during the Arusha Declaration. The Arusha
Declaration was a national party document by TANU (Tanganyika National
Union) which was made on 5th February 1967. It was a policy on socialism and
self-reliance. According to this philosophy, the Tanzanian education system is
to encourage living and working together for the benefit of all. Moreover, the
education given to a Tanzanian child should enable him or her to be a
responsible member of the community (Nyerere, 1968:273).
The education philosophy aims at preparing young people for work in
Tanzanian communities, especially in rural areas where most Tanzanian people
are found. Furthermore the education offered should be able to create an
enquiring mind, the ability to learn from others and build the confidence of the
learner (Nyerere, 1968:274). Ever since 1967 the policy has become the
guiding compass of the Tanzanian education system. However, Wedgwood
-
it required most people to acquire maximum primary education rather than
going for further education.
The status of Tanzanian Education: 1980s to date
Tanzanian government has nationalised and centralised the activities
related to education provision since 1961 through 1970s up to 1980. However,
due to economic hardships of the early 1980s the government started to soften
equity was deserted in favour of a planned development strategy which focused
on growth and efficiency. As a result the government shifted from the policies
of 1960s to those of the 1980s; policies which put all the institutions and the
various firms being controlled by the government (centralisation) under regimes
centralisation). At the time when the
government controlled all sectors of the economy, the direction of education
was influenced too.
More private primary schools were started in 1992 when the government
repealed Section 30 of the 1978 Education Act. The repeal of the Education Act
and the amendment which was done in 1995 gave room for more private
primary schools. It should be understood that the Tanzanian ideology of the past
considered education as a service not as a commercial activity. Hence the repeal
of Section 30 made education an enterprise driven by market forces (Mushi,
2009:187)
High priority put on productive sectors to enable the country to recover
from the poor performance of various sectors of the economy due the economic
slump of the 1980s led to the educational sector being marginalised. The World
Bank and IMF conditionality on aid emphasising cost-sharing led the further
marginalisation of the education sector. This led to the government putting low
priority on mass education and the goal of equality in education was put into
difficulty as well.
By the mid 1980s the public primary schools were in a state of collapse.
Schools were characterised by acute shortage of teachers, books, laboratory
equipment, and low morale for teachers and sometimes under-qualified
teachers. In short the quality of education in primary schools was extremely
poor.
In 1995, the government introduced the Education and Training Policy
(ETP), a policy that had to guide the provision of education in Tanzania. The
policy was put in place to so as to accommodate the remarkable shift from the
socialist policies of the 1960s and early 1980s. The policy aims to empower
districts, regions and communities to manage and administer education and
training. Besides, the policy aimed at expanding the provision of education and
training through a liberalisation of the provision of education and training.
Furthermore, the policy aims at promoting access and equity to education.
Liberalisation of school management and ownership
The Education Act No. 25 of 1978 gave monopoly power to the Ministry
of Education to administer schools, which is centralisation of school
administration in Tanzania. The Education Advisory Council was created, the
post of the Commissioner of National Education was created too, and every
Local Authority was made a Local Education Authority (Chediel et al.,
2000:25). This Act also established schools boards for secondary schools.
In 1990, the government constituted a National Task Force on education,
aiming to review the existing education system; as a result of the Task Force,
the ETP was put into place where, as the intention of decentralisation of
education explained, regions, districts and communities have to be given power
to run education. Furthermore the ETP shows explicitly the following with
respect to management and administering schools (Chediel et al., 2000:41):
The management and administration of education and training institutionsare handled by boards and in case of primary schools by committees. TheETP (1995) states clearly that all education and training institutions shallhave school or college committees. Boards and committees of educationand training shall be responsible for management development, planning, discipline, and finance. But, the powers and responsibilities ofboards/committees are constrained by the lack of defined powers andstatus, and inadequate finance and other facilities. Currently the REOsand DEOs are managers of education and training in their respectiveareas.
Ownership of secondary schools in Tanzania
The ownership of secondary schools in Tanzania is classified into
government schools and non-government schools. Government schools consist
of two categories, namely, the traditional national schools and community built
secondary schools (ward schools). The latter are the result of the educational
decentralisation initiative. Though they are built by the local communities, on
the basis of broad two categories of secondary school ownership in Tanzania,
they are operated and managed by the government. The non-government
secondary schools are privately owned by individuals, NGOs, and the
church/religious organisations. These secondary schools are managed and
operated by their respective owners (see Mafuru, 2011: 35).
allowed to operate prior 1992 were owned by religious organisations or other
institutions, such as district trust funds. The repeal of Section 30 of the 1978
Education Act led education being seen as an enterprise... people to invest in
Leadership hierarchy
Leadership hierarchy in secondary schools comprises the following leaders:
At the top is the School Board. It is the highest organ of a given
secondary school as per Education Act No. 25 of 1978. According to
-
to-day running of the schools, the discipline of the students and teachers,
as well as on
The second to the School Board is the head of school. S/he is the
representative of the MOEVT at school level. And s/he an instructional
leader as well as a link between the school and the community. Besides,
s/he is an accounting officer at school level.
The deputy head. S/he assists the school head in leading and managing
the school.
The senior academic mistress/master. S/he is a person responsible for all
matters related to academics. Individuals working under the senior
academic master/mistress include: a career master/ mistress, heads of
various departments, subject masters/mistresses, and class masters/class
mistresses.
Discipline master/mistress. The discipline master/mistress deals with all
matters concer
discipline master/mistress. These include: dormitory masters/mistresses,
physical education (PE) master/mistress, and production master/mistress
and duty master(s)/mistress(s).
In addition to various persons in the school leadership hierarchy, a school
head has a number of bodies which advise him or her in the task of leading the
school, these are: academic staff meeting - only teaching staff attend; the school
council - this is made up of some members from teaching and non-teaching staff
administration and quality
1995:30).
One more important organ in the Tanzanian education system is the
School Inspectorate. The 1995 Education and Training Policy acknowledge
the role of the School Inspectorate organ:
School inspection is vital as a means of monitoring the delivery ofeducation, adherence to stipulated curriculum and set standards, andensuring efficiency and quality in education. The efficiency and effectivedelivery of education under liberalised education system, requires closermonitoring of schools as well as horizontal feedback mechanismsbetween the inspectors and educational ...managers ...at zone, regional, and district levels.
quality education. According to Chediel, inspectors are supposed to assess and
advise the school heads, teachers, school owners or the Commissioner for
Education (Chediel, 2000:42) in view of inspection findings.
At the Apex are the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training
Government (PMORALG). From http://www.moe.go.tz/ the organization of
secondary education at the apex level is explained as follows:
Secondary Education in Tanzania is undertaken by the Ministry of Educationand Vocational Training (MOEVT). Basically, this is responsible for PolicyDevelopment, Quality Assurance, setting National Standards, andMonitoring and Evaluation of Education Sector Development Programme(ESDP) and related sub-sector programmes including Secondary Education
Regional Administration and Local Government (PMO-RALG) isresponsible for the Management and Administration of Secondary Schools inwhich case the day-to-day routine functions are assigned to the LocalGovernment Authorities (LGAs) ... The administration of secondary schoolsin LGAs is an additional new function since 2009 following theannouncement of Decentralization of administration of secondary schoolsfrom the Central Government to Local Government Authorities...
Thus, the MOEVT and PMO-RALG are two ministries responsible for
provision of education in Tanzania. However, the MOEVT in addition to being
the overseer of education provision at lower levels (pre-primary, primary,
education in Tanzania.
Conclusions
The chapters which follow should be considered with this national
educational context in mind. Some of the factors identified in the book are
particular to Tanzania; others may apply more widely. The final chapter of the
book considers messages for Tanzanian education which have been raised by
discussion in the book. Yet again these messages may apply more widely,
especially to countries with a similar context.
CHAPTER TWO
THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP AND THEIR EDUCATIONALCONTEXTSThis chapter surveys the concept of educational leadership and a number of
issues are discussed which include:
The concept of leadership
Leadership Styles in Tanzanian Government Schools: A Case of
Boarding Schools
Leadership Styles at Middle Level: At District and Region Level
Leadership at Ministry of Education level
The concept of leadership
Literature in leadership agrees that there is no single definition about
leadership, but, leadership can be described as the process of showing followers
the way forward. It requires a person who is leading to go in front and be
involved intrinsically in the course of reaching the pre-determined goal(s).
Leading necessitates a leader to possess a clear sense of purpose and apparent
vision. In addition, a leader needs to have aptitude to explain her/his vision to
followers. A body of literature tries to distinguish somewhat similar concepts:
leadership, management and administration. For example, Bush (2011: 272)
distinguishes the above three concepts a follows: leadership being the
policy. Bush (2010: 267) provides a good example on how research could make
a policy pertinent:
The second building block for the leadership and management field isresearch. There is growing interest in the notion of evidence-informedpolicy although this is more likely to happen where the research confirmsgovernment ideology rather than challenging it. One significant exampleis the Evidence-Informed Policy and Practice (EPPI) Centre at theLondon Institute of Education. This began focusing on health butextended into education 2000. Major review was a study of the impact ofschool head-teachers and principals on the student outcomes (Bell et al., 2003) which in turn, led to the Leithwood et al. (2006) research.
An additional important building block of educational leadership and
management is practice. Educational policies and educational theory have to be
put into practice. What's more, research informs better methods of putting
theories and policies into practice. But, the taxing state of affairs in the field of
educational leadership is on bridging theory and practice. According to Bush
(2010: 267) some argue that theory is for the academicians while practice is for
the managers. This sort of thinking puts a gap between theory and practice.
an applied discipline such as educational management, the acid test of theory is
its relevance to practice; theory is valuable and significant if it serves to explain
educational leadership relying only on experience and intuition could
undermine this field. Literature as well stresses the use of theory to back
practice in addition to experience, for example, see Ronald and Martha (2001:
2).
The concept of leadership has been interpreted in a variety of ways due to
the differing focus of studies undertaken to identify leadership and its
characteristics. In the past, many studies of leadership focused on qualities of
the individual as a leader; recently, researchers are concentrating on particular
features of different individuals to know how leaders behave. As a result, the
meaning of leadership is attached to behaviours of individuals practising
leadership (Hoy and Miskel, 1982:258).
Horner (2003) identifies a number of theories of leadership; these theories
also highlight the various meanings of leadership:
Trait theories...leadership explained by the internal qualities with
which a person is born....the research was based on the idea that the
leader is born not made.
Contingency theories...Certain leadership styles may be most effective
in certain situations.
as opposed to a general or average leadership style.
Theories focusing on culture...leaders must be able to change,
depending on the culture, as the environment shifts and develops.
Two factor theory: In 1959, Frederick Herzberg, a behavioural
scientist proposed a two-factor theory or the motivator-hygiene theory.
According to Herzberg, there are some job factors that result in
satisfaction while there are other job factors that prevent
dissatisfaction. These are categorized as "Motivators" and "Hygiene"
factors, the latter also being referred to as Maintenance Factors.
Motivators: They actually motivate an individual. They find their root within
the job itself.
Hygiene Factors: They do not have any motivational value when present, but do
have a de-motivational value if not present. These factors are extrinsic to the
work itself.
Examples of Motivators and Hygiene Factors affecting Job Satisfaction are to
be found in Table 1
Motivators Hygiene FactorsAchievement Company Policy and AdministrationRecognition Super visionGrowth Possibilities Interpersonal RelationsCareer Advancement SalaryLevel of Responsibility StatusThe Job Itself Job Security
Personal Life
Motivational theories...led to the emergence of the comparison of
transactional and transformational leadership. Transactional leadership stems
from traditional views of workers and organisations and it involves the
positional power of the leader to use followers for task completion.
Transformational leadership searches for the ways to motivate followers by
satisfying their higher orders needs, more fully engaging them in the process of
work.
Bush (2003:5-
-6) leadership can be
looked at from three angles:
Leadership as influence; the central element in many definitions is thatthere is a process of influence
Leadership and values; certain alternative constructs of leadership focus
and professional values.
Leadership and vision; vision is increasingly regarded as an essentialcomponent of effective leadership.
The theory distributed leadership
Recently a new theory of leadership is emerging, this is known as distributed
leadership. According to Harris (2010:55-5
expansion of leadership roles in schools beyond those in formal leadership or
.tasks are imposed
in a given organisation is required to fulfil certain task(s) by someone in a
senior position, this is termed as delegation not distribution. But, distribution is
when responsibilities in a given organisation are shared by different persons
(Bush and Glover, 2012:38).
Recent literature proposes that viewing school leadership from distributed
point of view is most likely to offer a helpful insight into how leadership and
management perform and meet challenges in their daily activities in their
respective secondary schools. Various scholars in the field educational
leadership have researched and written regarding distributed leadership (DL).
To start with is by looking at different explanations concerning distributed
leadership. Alma Harris describes distributed leadership as:
Distributed leadership implies a fundamental change in the way formalleaders understand their practice and the way they view their leadershiprole. Distributed leadership means actively brokering, facilitating andsupporting the leadership of others...it does not mean, as some would
suggest, that every one leads or that everyone is a leader (Harris, 2013:546-547).
Spillane and colleagues give a similar explanation to that offered by
Alma Harris about distributed leaders. They assert that distributed leadership
effortlessly entered the conversation about school leadership and management
...often with simplistic and unwarranted mantras such as everyone is a leader or
and colleagues put the concept of distributed leadership in practice aspect; here
interactions of members in organisation are seen as necessity in the day-to-day
operations of the school. Thus, in terms of the practice, school leadership is seen
stretched over the work of a number of leaders and followers (Spillane et al.,
2011:161).
Furthermore, Spillane and colleagues describing distributed leadership in
practice focus not on what leaders usually do in their organisations, rather the
constituted defined or constructed in the interaction of leaders, followers, and
2004:10) as shown in Figure 1. Therefore, according to Spillane and colleagues
leadership is seen as a practice stretching over leaders, followers and their
situation not just as an individual activity (Spillane et al., 2004:10).
Leadership in schools
Schools are social organisations comprising leaders, teachers, support
staff and students: all these striving for a goal of providing education. Goals for
providing education differ from one country to another; in Tanzania the goals
for secondary education among others are (Ministry of Education and Culture,
1995:6):
To consolidate and broaden the scope of baseline ideas, knowledge, skillsand principles acquired and developed at primary education level.
To inculcate a sense and ability for self study, self confidence and selfadvancement in new frontiers of science and technology, academic andoccupational knowledge, and skills.
To prepare students for tertiary and higher education, vocational, technical and professional training.
To provide opportunities for acquisition of knowledge, skills, attitudesand understanding in prescribed or selected field of study.
The above goals could be achieved if there is effective and efficient
leadership from Ministry level through to school level. Policies are made and
monitored at the Ministry of Education and the implementation is done at
school level, while supervision is done at regional, district level and ward
(community) level. To carry out day to day activities, schools cannot work
alone; this is why the Education and Training Policy recognises the existence of
other bodies like regional education office, district education office and the
communities (Ministry of Education and Culture, 1995:26-28). The Education
education and training shall devolve their responsibilities of management and
education and training institutions shall be responsible for management,
development planning, discipline and finance of institutions under their
Examining the leadership continuum of secondary education, from one
extreme - the school - to the other extreme - the Ministry of Education - not
forgetting the middle organs which include the community, the district
education office, and the regional education office, different leadership styles
can be identified. The following sections will identify different leadership styles
employed at school, district / regional and Ministry levels, starting with
government (public) secondary schools. It will examine further, the reasons
why different styles of leadership are used in various contexts.
Leadership Styles in Tanzanian Government Schools: A Case of Boarding
Schools
In Tanzania, secondary schools are in two main categories: Governmental
(Public schools) and Non-governmental (Private schools and schools owned by
religious organisations). Both Government and Private schools are further sub-
divided into two: Ordinary levels schools (Form I-IV) and Advanced levels
schools (Form V-VI). Many Ordinary level schools are not boarding schools,
but many of the Advanced level schools are boarding schools.
School leaders in government schools are in three main categories: senior
school leaders, middle leaders and junior leaders. Senior leadership includes:
the head of school, the assistant heads, senior academic master/mistress and the
Senior Discipline mistresses/masters. The middle leaders are the heads of
departments, sports and cultural masters/mistresses, food masters/mistresses,
and the junior leaders include class masters/mistresses and dormitory
masters/mistresses. Schools also have student-leadership which consists of
head boy/head girl, the school secretary, heads of various committees like food
committee, sports, finance, students, and social welfare.
To run the day-to-day activities the head of school is assisted by the
school bursar (school accountant) for financial matters, the store keeper for
storekeeping tog
Other support staff include: the registry clerks dealing with the filing system,
head cook for matters relating with student food, the librarian for the library, the
office supervisor for office work and the watchmen(s).
Tasks and responsibilities of a school head in government schools
personnel services; and personnel (staff); finance and business management;
lastly is rese -
184).
Looking at the three groups of leaders given above, in addition looking at
the tasks carried out by school, the school heads and other leaders in the
hierarchy, and the mode in which decision making is conducted, a number of
leadership styles could be identified together with the reasons to why leaders
may lead in different ways. It is certain that different styles of leadership are
needed to enable the school to implement the curriculum in boarding schools
and be able to meet the objectives of preparing learners holistically. It should be
noted that the significant evidence of using different leadership styles as
discussed below is that, leadership style depends on the context (contingent) of
the tasks or activities given.
Distributed Leadership
One of the leadership styles present in Tanzanian boarding schools is
leadership is best understood as the practice over leaders, followers and their
implies a social distribution of leadership where the leadership function is
stretched over the work of a number of individuals; it is an alternative
perspective to a heroic leader. Muijs and Harris (2003:439) too describe a
distributive style of leadership when discussing teacher leadership and
distributive leadership:
Distributive leadership theory advocates that schools decentre theleadership. In this sense leadership is more appropriately understood asfluid and emergent, rather than a fixed phenomenon. It reflects the viewthat every person in one way or another can demonstrate leadership; thisdoes not mean that everyone is a leader or should be but it opens up thepossibility for democratic and collective form of leadership.....teacherleadership emphasis upon collective action, empowerment and sharedagency are reflected in distributive leadership theory.
Dimmock (2003:7) describes distributive leadership styles as it is one of
the leadership styles which in one way or another allow members of the school
organisation to participate in leadership.
In Tanzanian secondary schools; government and non-government,
teachers, non-teaching staff and students in some circumstances work as a team,
for example in matters related to discipline, analysis of examination results.
Other activities which reflect presence of distributed leadership is when
members of various departments meet to decide on matters relating to teaching
and learning in their respective departments. Sometimes preparation of
development plans and budgeting is done in team. Teachers usually meet in
staff meetings and make various decisions as a team.
ether with decisions reached in staff
meetings are sent to school boards for action and final decision. A good
example of some of decisions is about indiscipline cases regarding students,
rs of
staff are sent to School Board for the final decision. It can be argued therefore
that some elements of the distributive style of leadership are present in
Government Schools. These elements of distributed leadership are spread across
a number of school functions. But, the dominant style of leadership present and
widely practised in Tanzanian government schools is bureaucratic leadership. In
schools for instance educational plans are made at the top, this could be at
Ministry of Education level, at region or district levels and sent down to
secondary schools for implementation. Besides, mainly issues related to
curriculum review are decided at the top levels while schools are just involved.
That is the Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) is the institution which have
the mandate for preparation and review of school curriculum, the institute
merely involves teachers from the grassroots. Furthermore, matters related to a
number of students to be enrolled in secondary schools are decided at top levels
not by schools themselves.
At school level features of bureaucratic style of leadership are present. In
most cases, the head of school appoints some members of staff and delegate
duties. The head of school, the senior academic master/mistress, and heads of
department and class masters/mistresses for instance have been given
responsibilities by the head of school of ensuring that teachers implement the
domination, power is legitimized by
The power is formally bounded by rules. The heads of schools have formal
power bestowed to them by the Ministry of Education. S/he is the internal
inspector of the school and has the power to reprimand any teacher who is not
implementing the curriculum as required. S/he also delegates power to lower
levels to enable the implementation of the curriculum.
School Community Relations
One of the major functions of the school head is school community
relations; the school has to establish good relations with the community.
Communities are responsible for resource contribution. In addition, the head of
the school is obliged to give information to the surrounding community
regarding school activities, achievements and problems. Parents have to be
involved in the academic development of their children (Babyegeya, 2002:183-
184). According to the Ministry and Culture (1995:26) the school leadership is
supposed to involve the community in the process of implementing educational
policy. The style of leadership which fits this situation is either participative
leadership or collaborative leadership. Jarasinghe and Lyons (1996:53) describe
decision making prepared to take time over decisions. Ensure involvement of all
leadership as the type of leadership where the group is seen as the focal point in
reaching decisions. It is likely that the need for community [neighbours, parents
necessitate the employment of this type of leadership in Government Boarding
schools.
Leading Curriculum
The central role of the school is provision of education. Therefore,
leading the implementation of the school curriculum is one of the major tasks of
the heads of schools. Activities involved in the managing of the curriculum
include (Babyegeya, 2002:178):
Decisions on program to be offered.
Preparation, production or acquisition of materials and equipmentrequired to implement the curriculum.
Division of the teaching load among teaching staff.
Making timetable and teaching schedule.
Planning of teaching and learning activities.
Monitoring and supervising the teaching and learning process.
Evaluating the performance of students.
Reporting to authorities and parents.
Different leadership styles are highly likely to be adopted to enable
schools to achieve the objective of implementing the curriculum effectively, for
example some elements of managerialism and transactional leadership are
needed. Simkins (2000:321) provides some characteristics of managerialism:
(i) Commitment to the overriding values and mission of the
specific organisation.
(ii) Decision making is characterised by the discretion entrusted to
those who hold clearly identified managerial roles and authority
and who use specialist management techniques to help make
choices.
(iii) Agendas are derived from concerns focusing around
organisational objectives and outcomes and the deployment of
resources as defined by managers in response to their
interpretations of the environmental forces with which the
organisational is faced.
Leithwood et al. (1999:14) also explain the concept of managerial
leadership; the explanation clarifies the argument above that sometimes in order
to implement the curriculum, a managerial type of leadership is to be employed
p
assumes that the focus of the leaders ought to be on the functions, tasks or
behaviours and that if these tasks are carried out competently the work of others
A different type of leadership style which is used for effective
implementation of the curriculum is instructional leadership, this is a style of
leadership which is learner centred. A study by Pansiri (2008:471-472)
observes:
The heads as instructional leaders, together with the deputy heads andseniors teachers, should take major responsibility for in-service trainingof teachers within their schools, through regular observations of teachersand organisational workshops, to foster communication between teacherson professional matters and to address weaknesses.
The study by Pansiri is about quality provision of education through in-service
training of teachers, which should result in efficient implementation of the
curriculum. Furthermore the study emphasises the need to use instructional
leadership as a style of leading, since all teachers and students are involved in
learning.
It is more likely that different styles of leadership are needed to enable
schools to implement curriculum in boarding schools in the process of
distribution of work load, a democratic style of leadership may be used with the
distribution of number of periods (work load) done evenly within a respective
department according to the number of teachers available in that particular
department, using consensus agreement. Allowing distributed leadership instead
of solo leadership in implementation of the curriculum could as well help to
enhance the performance. Teachers in various departments should be
encouraged to work in team and take shared decisions on academic matters for
example shared examination results analysis. More important teachers without
posts should be seen as leaders because these have important influence on
learners and the whole process of teaching and learning.
Student Personnel Services
Student personnel service is another task which has to be fulfilled by the
182-183). Styles
of leadership appropriate for the implementation of this task include firstly,
democratic leadership, where students are involved in leading the school. In
boarding schools, for example, there are democratically elected student
governments whose leaders can be either a head boy or head girl. Harber and
Davies (2003:137-138) describe democratic leadership as leadership which
Secondly, a delegative leadership style is also practised; leadership is
delegated to persons who are responsible for admission and registration of new
students, the Assistant Head of School, together with the academic
master/mistress and the class masters/mistress - they are also responsible for
orienting new students - the discipline master/mistress, who is responsible for
When indiscipline cases arise, under extreme situations a coercive style
of leadership is used, for example by providing negative reinforcement
(punishment). Sometimes a student can be expelled from school. Under this
regulations. Fullan and Ballew (2004:43) maintain that a coercive leadership
Management of Staff Personnel
The heads of secondary schools have the formal authority and
responsibility of managing staff (personnel management). The school head has
to determine the number of teachers and non-teaching staff his/her school needs
and send the information to the Ministry of Education. S/he also has the
responsibility to monitor and evaluate the job performance of the teachers and
non-teaching staff, and s/he has to prepare the staff development plan and send
it to the Ministry of Education (Babyegeya, 2002:179-180). A number of
leadership styles are used in order to fulfil these functions: firstly,
transformational leadership; to be able to achieve the educational goal of
providing quality education to the learners, the school needs enough teachers
and competent teachers and supporting staff. In addition, all members of the
school have to work together with the same shared vision and purpose.
Leithwood et al. (1999:9) explains transformational leadership as:
This form of leadership assumes that the central focus of leadership oughtto be the commitments and capacities of organisational members. Higherlevels of personal commitments to organisational goals and greatercapacities for accomplishing those goals are assumed to result in extraeffort and greater productivity.
Leithwood et al. acknowledge transformational leadership as having some
elements of charismatic, visionary, cultural and empowering concepts of
leadership (Leithwood et al., 1999:9). Allix (2000:9) describes a leader-follower
relationship which is vital for the attainment of organisational objectives as
transformational leadership. Leithwood and Poplin (1992: 9) explains the role
of the transformational style of leadership in accomplishing goals of change in
schools as follows:
The collective action that transforming leadership generates empowersthose who participate in the process. There is hope, there is optimism, and there is energy. In essence, transforming leadership is a leadership that
their commitment, and the restructuring of their systems for goalaccomplishment.
Secondly, authoritative leadership: this is when the school leader uses
his/her authority regarding the involvement of members of staff and students
toward a common vision; education for excellence (Fullan and Ballew,
2004:43). Leaders in boarding schools use their formal role to involve their
workers toward achieving goals of providing education to students.
personality is important in the process of leading the school community. As
leader s/he has to create, observe, and develop the school norms, symbols,
beliefs, values, rites, rituals, heroes and heroines, because these are crucial for
the efficient implementation of the school vision and mission. From this s/he
can build trust within the school community and outside of the school; in
general the school head has to believe in the school culture (Bush, 2003:172).
Finally, when indiscipline issues arise against a certain worker, the head
of school in extreme cases can use an authoritarian style of leadership to
assert their formal power and authority to solve the indiscipline where
reconciliatory means of solving the dispute have failed. Normally
indiscipline issues are solved through a participative or democratic style of
leadership, that is, the head together with the discipline committee work
together to resolve the issue.
Finance and Business Management
The last but one task of the heads of schools is finance and business
management. Different groups of tasks performed here are (Babyegeya,
2002:181-182).
Preparing budgets
Purchasing storage and distribution of supplies and equipment
Managing the budget making sure that funds are used according
to the budget
Accounting and business procedures, e.g. management of salary
and supervision of internal auditing and accounting
Operation of school plant facilities
The head of school together with the school accountant and the store-keeper
have a major responsibility to ensure these tasks are done properly for the
benefit of the students. The likely leadership style used here is bureaucratic
leadership since the school accountant work on behalf of the school head, who
is the accounting officer (Ministry of Education, 1995:26).
Research, Evaluation and Accountability
Research, evaluation and accountability are the last of the big categories
of managerial functions of the secondary boarding school heads: making
evaluation so as to know whether the goal of providing quality education is
being met. The head also needs to conduct evaluation to know the effectiveness
of different services provided at the school. Evaluation also helps the school to
understand how the community view their school, especially parents who are
the key stake holders with respect to education provided to their children
(Babyegeya, 2002: 184). The head of school together with their members of
staff have the key responsibility of making research and evaluation so as to be
accountable to stake holders. It is expected that the leadership styles which suits
here are: participative leadership, distributive leadership, transformational
leadership and democratic leadership.
The significant evidence of using different leadership styles as discussed
above is that, leadership style depends on the context: it is contingent on the
task or activities undertaken. Leithwood et al. (1999:15) describe contingent
leadership as the approach which assumes that what is important is how leaders
respond to the unique organisational situations or problems that face a given
organisation:
This approach assumes that what is important is how leaders respond tothe unique organisational circumstances or problems...there are widevariations in the contexts for leadership and that, to be effective, thesecontexts require different leadership responses...individuals providingleadership, typically those in formal positions of authority, are capable ofmastering a large repertoire of leadership practices. Their influence willdepend, in large measure, on such mastery.
Leadership Styles at Middle Level: At District and Region Level
responsible for education and training shall devolve their responsibilities of
management and administration of education and training to lower organs and
regional, district and institutional levels shall be responsible for the coordination
of the planning, provision, management, administration and quality control of
formal and non-formal education and tr
(p.30). This means that the regional education office and the district education
office have to work hand-in- hand with boarding schools for putting into
practice the goal of education; which is providing quality education to students.
The leadership style that suits this type of activity is a collaborative type of
leadership because the above organs have to work with the school
administration to enable the fulfilment of the educational goal. However, this
argument is limited due to the fact that higher level officers mostly work as
supervisors; they employ directive leadership styles. An article by Farrell
(2001:178-179) in relation to marketing gives the following contribution on the
importance of the school working with the community and higher organisation
levels:
We have seen how postmodern culture presents a challenge to marketingwhen it is attempting to understand the market....the problem can beovercome by adopting new practices which emphasis interactivity, connectivity and creativity. Schools are well placed to develop this typeof relationship with the community. Relation marketing may well offerthem a way forward.
Farrell is in favour of a collaborative style of leadership instead of the directive
style of leadership employed by higher levels in educational organisational
hierarchies.
Ministry of Education and Vocational Training
The Ministry of Education and Vocational Training, formerly known as
the Ministry of Education and Culture, is the highest organ in the country
responsible for the provision of education. The Directorate of Secondary
Education is the department within the Ministry of Education and Vocational
Training responsible for secondary education. Boarding Schools are directly
related and accountable to the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training in
the process of carrying out its day-to- day functions. The Ministry of Education
is responsible for the following; among others (Ministry of Education and
Culture, 2004:14):
Monitoring the implementation of education policy
Preparation of curriculum
Employment of teachers, registration of teachers and overseeing oftheir welfare
Inspection of schools (implemented by zones and districts)
Monitoring and management of cross-regional teacher transfer
Approval of educational materials for schools
The expected leadership style used to put into practice this relationship
could be transactional leadership; the relationship between teachers in boarding
schools and the Ministry of Education is an employer-employee relationship.
Coleman (2003:40) offers a definition of transactional leadership which
highlights the relationship between the Ministry of Education as employer and
contractual relationship between the leader and the follower, where the leader
rewards or disciplines the follower depending on the adequacy of the follower
The style of leadership adopted, as described by Coleman (2003: 39) could also
be depicted as a masculine style of leadership, which has the following features:
tween Boarding Schools and the
Ministry of Education is based on rules and regulations, therefore to a great
extent aligns with a masculine style of leadership.
Boarding Schools mostly rely on the Ministry of Education and
Vocational Training for their finance, despite the fact that the community has
the responsibility of making contributions for the construction of classrooms
and other essential buildings for the school. For this aspect of school
management a centralised and rationalistic type of leadership exists. Glatter
(1999:263) commenting on the situation in the U.K takes a similar view:
In an era of high centralization and dominant rationalistic paradigm, thefield of educational leadership and management is becoming increasinglyresource dependent and facing growing pressure to play a purelytechnical role in both teaching and research.
Finally, there is a directive style of leadership: The Ministry of Education
is the policy maker whiles all secondary schools which under it are the
executors of the policy (Ministry of Education and Culture, 2004:14). The
Ministry of Education and Vocational Training through its inspectorate organ is
supposed to inspect the quality of provision of education at all secondary
schools including privately owned ones. This aspect of leadership has elements
of directive leadership. Hoy and Miskel (1982:244) make clear that under a
directive style of leadership the leader sets standards which s/he expects the
follower to fulfil. Usually the Ministry of Education expects government
schools school to complete the syllabus and make sure all students obtain good
grades, otherwise a head of a school has to explain the reasons to why his/her
school did not perform well. A closely related type of leadership is a pace
setting style of leadership as described by Fullan and Ballew (2004:44). This is
also used by the Ministry of Education in relation to government schools; each
school has to meet the goal of providing knowledge, skills and values to
learners. Good educational results are equally important and are emphasised by
the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training.
Conclusions
In conclusion, different writers have come up with a number of
definitions of leadership; some focusing on the qualities of the leader and others
on the behaviour of a particular leader, but most writers in principle reach a
consensus that there is no single correct definition of the leadership concept.
Leaders in social organisations like schools, in the process of leading their
followers, employ different leadership styles depending on the prevailing
context. Using an example of government secondary schools (boarding school)
in Tanzania, the reasons why leaders lead differently in different contexts has
been examined and discussed. The predominant styles are summarised below.
Distributive leadership is one of the styles used to facilitate the day-to-
day running of the school. Different members of staff in one way or another are
involved in leading of schools. Furthermore, both delegated and democratic
leadership are used, where students have their own elected government, formed
according to the law which governs schools in Tanzania. Instructional
leadership is closely linked to this, where the major emphasis is on the learner,
and on leading the process of learning and teaching.
Another style of leadership dominant in public secondary schools in
Tanzania is a participative or collaborative style of leadership. The school
works closely with the community (parents), parents give material and moral
support to the school, the school is required by the law to provide information
regarding students to their respective parents. Boarding secondary schools as
well work with both the district education office and regional education office
to implement their education goal, even though these two higher offices have
more of a supervisory role rather than collaborative.
A managerial style of leadership is also discussed. Leaders in
Government schools use this style of leadership in order to implement the
curriculum: the major focus of the school head is to direct functions, tasks and
behaviours. Bureaucratic (legal/ rational domination) is also used since the
school head has formal power over the teachers towards the implementation of
the curriculum.
The heads of school have formal authority and power to lead their
schools. The head teacher should be visionary, observe school culture, be a
coaching leader to new employees, and at times be both a charismatic and
empowering type of a leader so as to enhance the implementation of the school
goals. Where there are serious indiscipline problems an authoritarian style of
leadership is used.
A participative or distributed type of leadership is required for the
monitoring and evaluation of school activities. Teachers have to work together
to carry out action research, so as they can come up with the evidence of the
effectiveness of their work.
Last but not least, government schools are under the Ministry of
Education in a leader - follower relationship. The Ministry of Education and
Vocational Training has the formal authority and power to plan, monitor and
evaluate the day-to-day activities of government schools. The leadership styles
which the Ministry commonly displays are authoritative leadership,
transactional and masculine leadership styles.
Examining the above styles of leadership, context (contingency) is the
main determinant of the type of leadership in operation at any one time: when
leaders of different organisations are leading, it should be in their mind that
Chapter three examines the concept of emotional intelligence as practiced in a
collegial model of leadership. Various issues discussed include:
Background and context of emotional intelligence.
Collegial model of leadership.
Relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational
leadership.
Relationship between participatory (democratic) leadership and emotional
intelligence.
Interpersonal leadership (people-oriented management style) in relation
to emotional intelligence.
Background and Context
Emotional intelligence (EI/EQ) is the intelligence which combines
personal feeling and thinking. It is type of the intelligence that is made up of
emotional skills, which helps a person to know his/her emotions and emotions
of others. According to Brinia, Zimianiti and Panagiotopoulos (2014: 29 citing
guar This intelligence is
like other intelligences found in the human brain, for instance visual/spatial
intelligence, verbal/linguistic intelligence, logical/mathematical intelligence,
bodily/kinaesthetic intelligence and musical/rhythmic intelligence. Emotional
intelligence is found in the right side of the brain. Goleman (1999: 317) defines
those of others, for motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions well in
definition of emotional intelligence:
The capacity to reason about emotions, and of emotions to enhancethinking: It includes the abilities to accurately perceive emotions, toaccess and generate emotions so as to assist thought, to understandemotions and emotional knowledge, and to reflectively regulate emotionsso as to promote emotional and intellectual growth.
The concept of emotional intelligence is relatively new. Damasio
(2000:38-39) acknowledges that, although various neuroscientists and
cognitive scientists like Charles Darwin, William James, Sigmund Freud and
Hughlings Jackson wrote widely in the nineteenth century about emotion, little
attention was placed on emotional intelligence. It was Hughlings Jackson who
made the remarkable suggestion that the right-hand side of the brain was
possibly dominated by emotion (Damasio, 2000:39). Damasio goes on to show
that, recently, scientists have started working in laboratory conditions on the
question of emotion; the results indicate that emotion is part of the reasoning
process and is used in making rational decisions (p.41). Other literature
indicates that the concept of emotional intelligence gained more public attention
at the end of 20th century (Bar-On and Parker, 2002:2009).
Goleman (1999: 26) lists five main components of emotional intelligence.
-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy
and soci
developed by Salovey and Mayer (1990) and Goleman (1995) and identifies the
five qualities of emotional intelligence as:
Knowing how to manage them
Emotional self-control, which includes the ability to delay gratification
Managing relationships
Emotional intelligence is a vital component in leadership because
leadership is about social interactions within an organisation. Leaders need to
understand their emotions and the emotions of their followers for effective
-determined goals. Goleman et al.
leaders have to combine the set out strategies and vision with emotional
intelligence. Emotional intelligence is a powerful tool for bringing a state of
motivation, morale and commitment among followers into the organisation
(Goleman et al., 2005:5). Thus, in schools, emotional intelligence is highly
needed, as in other organisations. Furthermore, Harris (2007:32) acknowledges
is quite true because students
in a good mood are cooperative and like learning, and the same applies to
teachers. Teachers who, for example, are not distressed participate well in
teaching.
The collegial model
Collegial model of leadership is the one of the leadership models which is
about the leader involving followers in leadership. It encompasses all leadership
styles that involve members of the organisation either in part or completely in
decision-making (Bush, 2003:.64). According to Bush collegial models
comprise the following characteristics (Bush, 2003: 65-67):
First, the models indicate decision-making based on democraticprinciples
Second, the models fit organisations like schools and colleges which have a good number of professional staff
Third,
Fourth, the number of members who participate in decision-makingshould be small; hence the models work efficiently in small schools orschool / college departments.
Fifth, consensus decision-making is preferred to conflict.
Various studies globally show the application of collegial models in
different academic settings (see Witziers et al., 1999:183; Wise and Bush,
1999:294; Brown et al., 1999:330; and NCSL, 2003:5-6). However, these
studies suggest a variation in agreement as to what extent the collegial models
evidence from the research suggests that while collegiality may offer many
persuasive benefits, it is difficult to attain to
A number of leadership styles suit collegial models. Some of these are
transformational leadership, participative leadership and interpersonal
leadership (Bush, 2003:76-80). Because of the fast growing technology,
economy and changes of ideologies internationally, most schools or colleges
which used to be centralised are changing from bureaucratic leadership to a
democratic type of leadership. Under these changes educational leaders need
emotional intelligence to be able to lead effectively.
In Tanzanian public schools, the leadership style is hierarchical in nature.
The higher levels of leadership are made up of heads of school, deputy heads of
school, academic masters/mistresses and discipline masters/mistresses; the
middle level is made up of heads of academic departments and the lower level
consists of class masters/mistresses and dormitory masters/mistresses. Despite
the hierarchical nature of this leadership, there are some elements of collegial
models. For example, the head of school delegates some responsibilities to the
deputy head and other senior members of the School Management Team
(SMT). In addition to that, some decisions on how to implement the curriculum
are decided in staff meetings where all teachers are involved. The students, on
their side, are allowed to elect their leaders and form a student government. The
student government enables students to make suggestions to the school
administration and in this way democracy is practised by students. In the
classroom a participatory type of learning is practised even though most of the
teaching and learning process is still teacher centred.
This chapter explores the need for emotional intelligence among
educational leaders in different countries in general, and Tanzania in particular,
through examining components of collegial models. A closer investigation will
be on the correlation between transformational leadership, participatory
(democratic leadership), and interpersonal leadership (people- centred style of
leadership) in relation to components of emotional intelligence, namely self-
awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy and social skills. Figure 4 is a
mind map which summarises emotional intelligence competencies, which is
employed to relate the collegial modal and emotional intelligence.
Goodnow and Wayman (2009: 6) note the relationship between
transactional leadership
leadership targets first order effect and transformation leadership aims to
The first order of change - change of degree - can be handled adequatelyby the current emphasis on leadership as an exchange process,
performance measures up their contracts with their leader. But a higherorder of change calls for something distinctly different; it is presented inthe perspective shifts often associated with transformational leadership.Transformational leadership can be thought of as a higher-order exchangeprocess: not a simple transaction, but rather a fundamental shift inorientation, with both long and short term implications for developmentand performance.
Caldwell and Spinks (1992: 49-
gaining the commitment of followers to such a degree that...higher levels of
that transformational leadership is dependent on collegiality. That is
transformational leadership presumes a situation where leaders and followers
share the same values and aspirations. The aims of the leader and followers are
the same in such a way that a harmonious relationship is established between
the leader and followers (Bush, 2003: 78).
In this respect, components of emotional intelligence are greatly needed
by school leaders for the effective implementation of the school vision through
their followers; for example, the school leader has to create a sense of optimism
in his/her followers. In addition the leader is supposed to be committed to
his/her school vision and strategies and in this way he/she will build trust
among followers. Other components of emotional intelligence required by the
leader are empathy and social skills. Leaders have to understand individuals as
well as team feelings and be ready to act accordingly. For example in the case
that a follower has personal problems like sickness a leader should be flexible
over the rules guiding the organisation. Also the organisational leader needs to
feel that his/her followers require personal development and growth. Besides,
leaders need to possess communication skills, whereby a leader is able to
convince followers to move in the right direction. Lastly, transformational
leaders require skills to manage conflicts which emerge within the organisation.
Through observing their own emotions and those of the followers, as Allix
supportive relationship of moral and motivational engagement between leaders
According to Barling et al. (2000: 157) transformational leadership is
about influencing, inspiring, motivating, and stimulating the intellect, and also
is about putting the individual at the centre while transactional leadership is
solely based on payments. Under transformational leadership the worker is part
of the team in the organisation. In this study, Barling et al. acknowledge the
relationships between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership:
emotional intelligence are seen by their subordinates as
displaying more leadership behaviours (Barling et al., 2000: 160). Another
study by Sosik and Megerian (1999) on the role of self-other in transformational
leadership also shows a positive relationship between one aspect of emotional
intelligence, self-other (self-awareness of managers), and transformational
leadership as noted below:
The results of the present study suggest that self-awareness may provideindividuals with greater perceived control over interpersonal events andin their life...results also supports prior research (e.g. Bass, 1985; Hoganet al., 1994; Megerian and Sosik, 1997) that transformational leaders whoare self-aware possess high levels of self-confidence and self-efficacy, and provide orientation for followers (Sosik and Megerian, 1999: 384).
Research by Barbuto and Burbach (2006:51) conducted on 80 officials
and 388 followers in the USA to investigate the relationship between
transformational leadership and emotional intelligence also supports the
argument that emotional intelligence is positively correlated with
significant variance with self-perceptions and rater-perceptions of
transformational leadersh
study supports the previous study by Barling et al. (2000) that emotional
intelligence bears a positive correlation with transformational leadership.
However, the study is inconsistent with a previous study by Sivanathan and
-
The study by Brown et al. (2006) in the USA using Bar-
Quotient Inventory (EQI) on factory employees neither confirmed the
relationship between emotional intelligence against expected products nor was
the study able to establish the truth of the previous findings that
transformational leadership has a positive impact on the expected product
(p.330).
The investigators in this study claim that their results are inconsistent
with the previous studies on the relationship between transformational
-
Quotient Inventory (EQI), the results brought no significant relationship
between EI and transformational leadership compared to past research (Barling
et al. 2000; Sivanathan and Fekken 2002; Mandell and Pherwani 2003 cited by
Brown et al., 2006: 344).
The authors of this article claim that the likely reason for a significant
difference in findings between this study and the previous research and theories
could be due to sample size. Previous studies used a small sample while this
study used a large sample to be able to generalize the findings. The second
reason thought to support the difference in findings is organisational culture.
The current study was carried out in manufacturing settings in USA, while prior
studies came from different cultural settings. For example in the study by
Barling et al. (2000), data came from a pulp and paper organisation, while in
that of Sivanathan and Fekken (2002) data came from a university residence
hall setting and in the study by Mandell and Pherwani (2003) data came from
human resource representatives in a voluntary organisation (Brown et al.,
2006:345). However, the authors of the article emphasise that the failure of their
study to support the relationship between emotional intelligence and
transformational leadership on the one hand and the lack of relationship
between transformational leadership and desired output on the other hand does
not rule out a relationship between EI and transformational leadership.
The study by Kupers and Weibler (2006:377) employing a Multi-factor
Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) aiming to find the relationship between
emotional intelligence and transformational leadership found that
transformational leadership is linked to some emotional competencies. The
investigators argue that, due to fast changes in economy, emotional intelligence
is seen as a tool to effect change in any organisation (Kupers and Weibler,
2006:368). Furthermore, citing George (2000), the investigators observe that
and manage feelings, moods and emotion in the self and others contributes
previous studies have indicated the relationship between EI and
transformational leadership (Kupers and Weibler, 2006:369-370), claiming
further that the four main components of transformational leadership, namely
motional
-awareness,
self-
Weibler, 2006:373). Nevertheless, the research acknowledges that this cannot
be a strong reason for establishing a theory so long as some feelings underlying
-related empowering behaviour such as consulting,
delegating and sharing of positive information are not directly represented in
Multi-
The various findings mentioned above on the relationship between
transformational leadership and emotional intelligence was from business
contexts not from educational settings. But the truth still holds even for
educational contexts. As Morrison (1998: 210) states: transformational leaders
in an educational setting need to be visionary, recognise values, good at
communication, committed, enthusiastic and hard workers. Morrison sees
transformational leadership as linked to emotional intelligence. The
transformational leader needs various components of emotional intelligence for
effective leadership in educational settings.
As noted earlier, the Tanzanian education system is centralised. Yet, at
school level, some elements of transformational leadership can be observed; for
example, the head of school may involve teachers in making decisions in
meetings and appoints heads of academic departments like history or
mathematics departments, where members within the departments can work
together to enhance the quality of teaching and learning. Furthermore, at class
level, teachers are expected to exercise professionalism. Not only are teachers
involved but also students may participate in making decisions through their
elected leaders. School heads in some circumstances use emotional intelligence
to further their ideas, such as through creating a trustful environment with
example is the social welfare committee, which school heads are required to
establish. These social welfare committees serve two purposes: in times of
involved fully in the process of learning. Bush (2003:78) defines participatory
-making
process of the group ought to be th
leadership is a leadership style which has its focal point on shared decision-
making (Leithwood et al., 1999: 12). A practical definition of participatory /
democratic leadership is given by Fullan and Ballew (
forges consensus through participation (what do you think?
Babyegeya (2002:200) outlines features of democratic leaders, and some
of these characteristics include features of emotional intelligence. For example,
s encourage members in the group to express their ideas and
feelings, because they believe that such a climate leads to greater creativity and
intelligence is required to be; he/she should be able to know his/her emotions
and the emotions of her/his followers. Besides, the democratic leader needs to
be transparent, inspirational, influential and self aware (Goleman et al.,
2002:254- they
encounter resistance or conflict, they allow them to surface and they seek the
(Babyegeya, 2002:200). The democratic leader requires emotional intelligence
embodied in social skills when leading; he/she should possess conflict
management skills, and moreover he/she should be able to see conflict as source
This feature also aligns
with the qualities of emotionally intelligent leaders; leaders with emotional
intelligence emphasise collaboration and believe in teamwork for better
performance. Goleman et al. (2002:173) support the superiority of group
decision-making over individual decision-
much research has proven the superiority of group decision-making over that of
colleagues caution that in the case of misunderstanding within the group or if
there is low morale within group members, better decisions can not be reached.
Research at Cambridge University found that even groups comprising brilliant
individuals will make bad decisions if the group disintegrates into bickering,
interpersonal rivalry or power plays (Goleman et al., 2002:174). What is
emphasised by Goleman and his fellows is that leaders as well as followers,
even in a democratic style of leadership, need self-awareness and self-other
awareness to enhance decision making in any given organisation.
Moller (2004: 152) lists the following features of democratic leadership
in schools:
The open flow of ideas, regardless of their popularity, that enables peopleto be as fully informed as possible.
Faith in individuals and collective capacity of people to createpossibilities for resolving problems.
The use of critical reflection and analysis to evaluate ideas, problems and
policies.
Nevertheless, Moller notes that the characteristics mentioned above are
rarely implemented in school because in most cases parents, students and
teachers are not fully involved in decision making (Moller, 2004:152).
George (2000:1046) observes that emotional intelligence plays a vital
role in enhancing leadership performance in various organisations. Through
expression of emotion, use of emotion to enhance cognitive processes and
decision making, knowledge about emotions, and management of emotions, she
concludes that emotional intelligence is necessary for effective leadership
(George, 2000:1046). Studies by Sosik and Megerian (1999:367), Barling et al.
(2000:158), Mayer et al. (2004:207) and Brown et al. (2006:330) also support
that emotional intelligence contributes to leadership effectiveness.
An article by Ecclestone (2007) in the Guardian, a newspaper published
life time, and one in ten 11-15-year-olds has significant emotional or
growing number of teachers with stress, but she relates the growing stress with
the restructuring system of education in the UK (Harris, 2007:19). In this
context, school leaders need to equip themselves with emotional intelligence
skills and involve teachers, non-teaching staff and students democratically to
help each other in emotional growth through coaching and mentoring and focus
groups.
The Tanzanian education system is dominated by a bureaucratic
leadership style. Most of the major decisions like curriculum preparation and
implementation come from the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training.
At school level the head of school has the sole responsibility for making sure
the curriculum is implemented. However, the head of school can decentralise
authority through the departments. Some decisions are carried out at
department level, for example distribution of the teaching workload. Emotional
intelligence skills like empathy, self-confidence, initiative, understanding others
and collaboration are useful tools for effective management of departmental
teams. The school head also involves teachers in some decisions, for instance,
in handling indiscipline matters of students, teachers and non-teaching staff.
Handling discipline requires self-awareness and self-regulation. School heads
need social skills to manage teachers, non-teaching staff and students, and for
effective interaction with the community. On the other hand, as leadership at
school level involves teachers, non-teaching staff and student leadership, school
heads have the role of instilling the culture of empathy, self-confidence,
initiative, understanding others and collaboration among followers. When a
Interpersonal leadership (people-oriented management style) in relation to
emotional intelligence
Interpersonal leadership is the third style of leadership which qualifies as
collegiality. It is a type of leadership which hinges on self-awareness and
collaboration between the leader and his/her followers. The organisational
s ...the school is
followers and their interpersonal relationship is the focal point of this type of
leadership (Bush, 2008:79). Anonymous (2008:32) describes interpersonal
leadership or people-oriented management style as follows:
...the female head of my last school employs what Ball calls aninterpersonal management style. She relies on personal relationships andface-to-face contact to fulfil [her] role...her door is always open(figuratively speaking at least), and there is definite emphasis onconsideration...the head actively canvasses the views of staff on a widerange of issues and will do so in the corridor, in the staff room or in thecar park!
A body of literature suggests the need for interpersonal leadership for the
effective implementation of school goals. For instance, the study by Bennett at
al. (2000:347) describes how the heads of primary schools in the UK relied on
staff, governors and community to formulate a Strategic Development Plan
(SDP). Another study by Tuohy and Coghlan (1997:66) explains four levels of
participation within the school. The first is the individual level, where the
teacher establishes a relationship with other teachers and the school in general.
The second level is the department, on this level the teacher is in a team. As a
member of the department he/she participates in the formulation of plans,
strategies and evaluating mechanisms. The third level is team co-ordination.
The last level is school management, concerning its interactions with the
external environment.
Looking at all four levels of participation mentioned above, emotional
intelligence is needed both at the individual level and at group level. Therefore,
interpersonal leadership, self- awareness and self-management are important
factors for organisational members. For example, individual teachers need self-
awareness and self-management of their emotions so as to work successfully
with other teachers within the department. At the same time, in team
coordination, heads of school and heads of departments need to be aware of
self. In addition to that, in effecting communications with the external
environment school heads need self-management and social skills.
Two separate studies, one carried out in the USA using a sample of 118
college students and the other in Germany on 103 college students, show a
positive relationship between emotional competence and the quality of social
interactions (Lopes et al., 2004:1018). These two studies agree with the
predictive and incremental ability measure of EI by Mayer-Salovey the
Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) (Lopes et al., 2004: 1030). The
social interactions because emotions serve communicative and social functions,
generalisation because of the representative sample: most of the participants
were young female college students and most of the interactions took place
outside the college (Lopes et al., 2004:1030). Nevertheless, there are elements
of reality that emotional competencies in formal originations are important for
leaders to enhance social interactions within and outside the organisation.
Harris (2007:172) emphasises the importance of interpersonal leadership
for school leaders in the following observation:
Developing understanding of interpersonal process is fundamental ifleaders are to foster emotional awareness and literacy in others andengage community members in the co-creative process of learning andschool improvement.
As discussed earlier, the leadership style dominating Tanzanian schools is
the bureaucratic type: the system is considered first before people. In most
cases the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training makes major decisions
like the introduction of new curricula, expanding the enrolment rate of schools
and introduction of school fees without involving even the heads of schools.
Under such a system, even at school level, sometimes heads of schools make
decisions without involving teachers and students because the heads are the
ones who are accountable to the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training.
Conclusions
In conclusion, emotional intelligence is one of the potentials found in the
right side of the brain of a human being. This intelligence is a combination of
feelings and thinking. A body of theories and research integrate emotional
intelligence with leadership models. One set of leadership models linked to
emotional intelligence is collegial models. Collegial models are about leaders
involving followers in almost every aspect of day-to-day functions of the given
organisation. The common leadership styles found under collegial models are
transformational leadership, participatory / democratic leadership and
interpersonal leadership / people oriented management style.
Transformational leadership is a leadership sty
pre-determined goals. A number of studies have indicated a positive
relationship between transformational leadership and emotional intelligence, yet
some studies show neither a relationship between emotional intelligence and
expected output nor a relationship between EI and transformational leadership
(see, Burbutor and Burbach, 2006 and Brown et al, 2006).
Research by Kupers and Weibler shows that components of
transformational leadership, namely idealised influence, inspirational
motivation, intellectual stimulation and individualised consideration, are linked
to some emotional intelligence components. However, they argue that these
cannot be adequate criteria for establishing a theory so long as some aspects of
emotional intelligence are not linked (Kupers and Weibler (2006:378).
The second leadership style discussed is participatory
leadership/democratic leadership. This style assumes the full participation of
followers in decision making. In an education context, democratic leadership
goes up to class level when the learning style is child-centred. Some
components of emotional intelligence integrate democratic leadership, for
instance, school leaders encouraging followers to express their ideas and
feelings in meetings. In addition, emotional competence is enhanced through
school leaders involving members within the organisation to solve conflicts
which arise among them or with the school authority. Another aspect of
emotional intelligence which integrates participatory leadership is the belief of
school leaders in team work and collaboration of all members within the school.
A body of literature acknowledges the need for emotional intelligence for
effective leadership under participatory leadership (George, 2000; Babyegeya,
2002; Goleman et al., 2002; Molller, 2004).
The interpersonal leadership/people oriented management style is the last
style of leadership to be discussed under collegial models. It is a type of
leadership which is based on self-awareness, interpersonal leadership,
collaboration and self-management. Studies show that interpersonal relationship
together with emotional intelligence contributes to better accomplishment of
organisational goals in educational settings and enhances social interactions.
Additionally, studies by Tuohy and Coghlan (Coghlan (1997), Bennet et al.
(2000) and Lopes et al. (2004) as seen above support the argument.
The leadership styles of collegial models e
relationships first then the system. The models demand that school heads use
emotional intelligence in leading followers. The challenges facing school heads
employed within a bureaucratic context of leadership like Tanzanian school
heads is how to put people first then the system because school heads are
accountable to higher levels: the Ministry of Education and Vocational
Training.
Introduction
One of the important factors which contribute to the achievement of school
goals is the existence of effective school leadership. The chapter examines the
effectiveness of a school head by looking at the following sub-headings:
Who is an effective educational leader?
Good schools and effective schools.
Efficacy in leadership.
The paradigm of effective leadership.
How can one be an effective school leader?
Possession of power in effective leadership.
An effective leader of change.
Who is an effective educational leader?
A leader communicates vision to her/his followers so they can share what
their leader believes are a way to success. Gorham et al. (2008:1) describe the
qualities of effective leaders as:
Effective leaders convey a vision and, through their example, expandt is possible. They set high expectations, create a
strong sense of community, and get results. Leaders accomplish this bothby what they do, as well as by who they are. In terms of tasks, goodleaders enhance the skills and knowledge of their followers in theorganisation, create a common culture of expectations around the use of
those skills and knowledge, hold the various pieces of the organisationtogether in a productive relationship with each other, and hold individualsaccountable for their contributions to the collective results.
Gorham and her colleagues depict what effective leaders are required to be.
Effective leaders ought to be the ones who walk their talk. In addition, leaders
have to share and be ready to change organisational culture for the benefit of the
entire organisation. Moreover, an effective leader enables her/his followers to
like work and creates a sense of pride among workers in the good results the
organisation achieves.
Effectiveness in educational leadership depends on the context, for example,
Leithwood and Riehl, (2003:4-6) suggest a number of factors which are vital for
effectiveness in educational leadership. Among of the factors identified are:
Effective leaders help the school to become a professional learning
community to support the performance of all key workers, including
teachers and students. An effective leader is the one who offers
challenging but achievable tasks. An effective school leader, too, traces
school performance, and makes immediate modification of any
deviations. Additionally, an effective school leader communicates
effectively the school vision, mission and school goals.
Leaders in highly diverse contexts help identify and implement forms of
teaching and learning that are appropriate and effective for the
populations they serve.
An effective school leader establishes strong teams within the school;
fosters collaboration, especially in goal setting and decision making.
Besides, an effective school leader establishes well-built organisational
structures and systems. Additionally, an effective school leader is the one
who supports the growth of school culture. Likewise, an effective school
leader enhances collaboration of other educational stake holders, like
parents; community members; government associations; business people;
publishers; and authors.
School leaders can promote equity and justice for all students by
establishing school climates where patterns of discrimination are
challenged and negated and rule of law is observed. To start with, an
effective school leader establishes a system of curriculum delivery which
achievement of what they are learning, working through the teachers an
effective school leader should be able to establish well organised
-in knowledge,
information, values and preferences from parents and family backgrounds
should not be discouraged, because these form social capital. However,
social capital should be welcomed with care; negatives have to be
discouraged.
A study by Barber (2001:218-219) gives a similar observation of what could
be an effective educational leader. This study was conducted in England, and
considered the lessons learnt from the educational reforms of the previous 15
years. Some of the features noted may perhaps be employed by Tanzanian
Set high standards for all and provide extra support for those who need it
most.
An effective leader is the one who sets challenging but manageable goals
in collaboration with the other employees. Setting challenging objectives
could motivate both learners and teachers. Nevertheless, objectives set
have to be achievable. This could be possible if staff development
through further training and provision of seminars and workshop is
conducted. Furthermore, school heads, too, need development and
support so as to manage the pre-determined standards.
Provide comparative data to enable schools to set targets.
One of the problems which face Tanzanian school heads is the failure to
use data in decision making. It is argued that an effective leader is the
one who can conduct research and come up with findings to support
decision making. Additionally, availability of data is likely to enhance
the process of target setting by comparing different points in time.
Spend on ICT
An effective leader is the leader of change. One of the changes to be
effected is investing in information technology; IT/ICT. Investing in
information is most likely to facilitate teaching and learning.
Nevertheless, many schools in Tanzania are in rural areas where there is
no electricity. Investing in ICT could be impossible without new
technology. However, the use of solar system as source of energy could
serve the purpose. In light this Tanzanian government need to invest in
solar energy as well as initiating simple and less costly electricity
schemes for rural schools.
Ensure world class standards
An effective leader would be one who prepares learners to world-class
level. This is a big challenge to educational leaders in Tanzania. A world
class learner may perhaps be made, if: firstly, the curriculum fits
international standards. Secondly, educators have to have a good
education themselves. Thirdly, the school environment should be
conducive to learning, and last but not least, school heads need to possess
the ability to lead: this is when they will be prepared before the job, and
supported in the job.
An effective leader is mostly likely the one who practises distributive
leadership. A school leader has to share her/his responsibilities with lower
levels of management and with teachers for effective implementation of school
goals. Discussing this line of thought, Bennett et al. (2003: 4) explain:
hasis on collaboration of
teachers and school heads in decision making. He sees collaboration among
school leadership and teachers as a way forward for success in leadership in the
21st -first century approach to organisational behaviour
calls for collaboration and school principals should move away from being sole
2005:321).
Features of an effective school leader
NCSL (2007:7) suggested the following features of effective leaders for both
support and teaching staff (see Table 2).
For teachers, effective
Recognise and value the work of others Are visible andapproachable
Communicate fully and effectively with all staff
Are supportive
Define roles and responsibilities Have in-depthknowledge of the schooland wider community
Provide development opportunities Are interested in widerissues rather than justresults
Adopt an open, consultative approach Understand classroompractice
Are visible Are non-hierarchicaland consultative
Have a constructive approach to performanceManagement
Distribute leadershipeffectively
Act and feedback on concerns raised Act and feedback on concerns raised
Source: NCSL 2007:7
The illustration in Figure 8 also identifies features of an effective leader.
Despite the fact that the Figure is about effective middle leadership, it could
apply to both senior and junior educational leaders.
Identification with a profession
Personal values Knowledge & expertise
Understanding own professional identity
Understanding/valuing professional identity of others
Understanding organisational needs and systems
Relating own professional identity to its organisational context
Relating organisational function to its national context
Effective middle leadership
Effective leadership
Adapted from Briggs (2008: 130)
A lesson can be learnt within educational organisations in both developed
as well as developing countries. Leaders need to have clear vision which is to
be communicated to their followers, because with clear and shared vision,
achievable goals can be formulated and reached. Senge (1993:209) stresses the
need for educational leaders to have clear vision for their organisations when he
states:
You cannot have a learning organization without shared vision. Without apull towards some goal which people truly want to achieve, the forces insupport of the status quo can be overwhelming. Vision establishes theoverarching goals.
The above different types of schools require different types of leaders, and more
important they demand effective leaders. For instance, a strolling schools,
struggling schools and sinking schools would be so difficult to come out of
their situations unless they have effective leaders who visionary and leaders of
change. Moreover, schools in cruising or moving school need effective leaders
so as to either maintain the level [improving schools] or achieve another higher
level [cruising schools].
Good schools and effective schools
A number of studies try to distinguish between two closely related terms;
good school and effective school. Silver (1994:6) for example notes that
historically a good school may have been seen in terms of gender, and many
Good schools have been ones which have trained girls to be good wivesand mothers, or that trained boys to serve the commercial ethic or theempire. Good has been an infinitely adaptable epithet, used of schools, ofmany kinds, by interested parties of many kinds.
2003:176). Thus, according to Riley and MacBeath, school effectiveness
depends on the extent to which it fulfils curriculum goals and aims. The aim of
education is to prepare the learner for his/her holistic development. However,
Riley and McBeath note that several weaknesses are evident in some studies
since they ignore the role of school culture, organisational change and socio-
economic status as elements of effectiveness (Riley and McBeath, 2003:176-
177). The effectiveness of a given school depends on many factors: those
within the school boundary and external factors which sometimes are beyond
good school, and to be good, the school is influenced by various factors
including: economic status, culture; need for change, and the community around
it.
Efficacy in leadership
Riley and MacBeath (2003:179-184) depict a range of factors
contributing to effective leadership. In their study, a group of nine year old
learners described the qualities of a good teacher: these qualities could equally
apply to an effective leader.
has a good education and is able to solve problemsis very experienced as a teacheris easy going but firmknows how to look after the building and create a nice environmentand safe place for childrenknows how to take responsibility for things happening in the schooland does not blame othersis able to make children, adults and the community feel confidentabout the things they do in schoolprovides a good example in their behaviour (by not smoking, ordrinking in school)is not racist and makes others see that the colour of their skin does notmatterkeeps in touch with local community, letting them know what ishappening in the school
A good school leader maintains relationships inside the school compoundand outside the school.
A good school leader ought to respond to change, since schools areconstantly experiencing change.
A good school leader shares leadership; avoids a charismatic or heroictype of leadership.
Good school leaders make choices, and decide based on priorities.
A good leader is one who is willing to learn and make appropriatechange.
How could one be an effective educational leader?
Schools and other educational organisations need effective leaders who can
lead the process of furthering educational goals. Southworth (2005:76) notes
of an effective leader are as well offered by the University of Bristol (no date)
as explained below:
Have a plan: effective leaders know where they are going. Besides,
effective leaders should be able to share information on strategies and
available resources so as to be able to implement the pre-determined
goals. With a clear plan, followers know what is required to them and the
direction where they are heading to.
Communicate: communication is the key to success. Good and timely
communication helps to remove bottlenecks to the implementation of the
given plan. Effective leaders need to be in touch with all followers in the
organisation. Each individual within the organisation should understand
will set up a framework for regular discussion with individuals as well as
teams, so that progress can be monitored, performance tracked and
Are available: good leaders are the ones who are mostly available. Good
leaders have to be ready to listen and learn from others, besides good
leaders are the ones who are easily approached and they are open. If any
change is necessary, a leader should communicate the intended change
effectively to her/his followers.
Trust people: to be an effective leader, you need to be able to delegate
responsibilities and be confident that duties delegated can be performed
accordingly. Leaders should establish the culture of open communication
and trust of followers. Calculated risk is sometimes seen as appropriate.
The possibility of failure is, of course, minimised, but is also accepted.
There no culture of blame
Are consistent in their behaviour: contingent leadership style is important
in leadership. Responses to a follower have to take account of the
prevailing circumstances. However, an effective leader is the one who
respects all kinds of followers. Besides effective leaders need to have
emotional competency.
Are decisive: an effective leader has to make logical decisions; decisions
made must have comprehensible explanations.
Are fair: effective leaders need to be firm and clear, not aggressive.
Deal with conflicts: an effective leader is the one who can resolve
conflicts peacefully. Moreover, a good leader is the one who can deal
with conflicts early; avoid escalating conflicts. In dealing with conflicts,
sometimes you can involve some of your followers, for example,
experienced employees.
motivated, hard working and enthusiastic; in this way they can be
respected. Effective leaders have to create the culture of mutual respect
among followers.
leadership seldom co-exist. Management of emotions when conflicts
arise is very vital to the leader of a given organisation. Calmness builds
confidence among followers in the ability to deal with the conflict which
has arisen.
Possession of power in effective leadership
Power is defined as the ability to influence others. The ability to
influence others depends on the structure of the organisation, for instance, in
bureaucratic organisations; power is concentrated at the top and is very low at
the bottom. In a decentralised organisation, power is somewhat distributed,
while in flatter organisations, power is more distributed. Odhiambo defining
examples of people who have the potential to influence us. When they do, they
(Odhiambo 2007: 32). Power exits both in formal and informal organisations,
that is people with posts and those without posts can have ability to influence
others.
The concept of power is inter-connected with leadership. Any leader
should have power to be able to influence her/his followers. Below are
identified types of power which may be possessed by the leader so that
organisational goals can be accomplished (Bal et al., 2008: 8):
The power of position: is the formal authority that derives from a
The power of charisma: is the influence that is generated byip or persona
Power of relationship: is the influence that leaders gain throughtheir formal and informal networks both inside and outside of theirorganisationThe power of information: is the control that is generated throughthe use of evidence deployed to make argument
The power of expertise: is the influence that comes fromdeveloping and communicating specialised knowledge (or theperception of knowledge)The power of punishment: is the ability to sanction individuals forfailure to conform to standards or expectationsThe power of rewards: is the ability to recognise or rewardindividuals for adhering to standards or expectation.
In the study conducted by Bal et al. (2008:8), participants ranked the top
three as mostly practised at their place of work, while the power of punishment
was the one of lowest exercised types of power.
The power of charisma: a charismatic leader is the one who encourages
and inspires his/her follower to the best. But, it is advised with the power of
charisma, one has to maintain the features that make him/her the way he/she is:
maintain the characteristics that make you who you are, but try to identify two
or three behaviours that might increase your ability to connect with others (such
as making eye contact, smiling more (Bal et al., 2008:8).
The power of relationships enhances collegiality; it is likely that a leader
who practises relational power enhances performance at their place of work.
The power of reward is prevalent in a transactional type of leadership. This is a
mentioned in their research, but this power is mostly used when a leader
reprimands followers in case of indiscipline matters.
To be an effective leader, this research found the following types of power
were reported by the respondents: the power of relationship [89%], the power of
information [57%], the power to reward others [51%] and the power of
expertise [48%]. The least reported was the power to punish others [3%] (Bal et
al., 2008:10).
Below is a summary of what was concluded by this study on effective
leadership.
Make relationship a priority; do not overplay your personal agenda [be a team
player instead of self-serving]; maximise your communication network; be
generous with information [share information]; make the most of your position
(find subtle ways to communicate formal authority); develop your brand of
charisma (for example, making more eye contact and smiling); be expert; tailor
your power to reward others; reward with words; punish with purpose; teach
others (see Bal et al., 2008: 17-18).
Even though, this research was not conducted in educational settings,
still, it provides a good example which could be employed by educational
leaders for effective leadership. Educational leaders, too, need to command
good relationships with followers as well as students in the school boundaries.
Moreover, they have to command good relationships with the community and
other educational stake holders in order to further educational goals. The ability
to influence others is an important requirement for educational leaders; this
could be possible if the leader possesses adequate information. Enough
information enables the educational leaders to make sound decisions. What is
more, the power of expertise is needed by educational leaders. Effective
educational leaders are more likely to be the ones who possess a strong
educational base. It is strongly advised that leaders within the Ministry of
Education and Vocational Training (MOEVT) together with other educational
leaders have to have excellent knowledge in educational leadership. Effective
educational leaders are the key for improving teaching and learning.
An effective leader of change
leaders are constantly leading change. Schools need, for instance, new
technology; new ways of content delivery; improved ways of relationship; new
ways of addressing new culture; new curriculum to cater for the current
demands and future needs of learners. Effective leaders are the ones who can
manage the challenges of change. Good leaders, too, are the ones who can
effectively communicate vision, mission and strategies of the school as an
organisation for learning. According to Odhiambo (2007:35), an effective
leader of change is the one who employs a transformational approach of
s are seen ...to be
sensitive to organisational building, developing shared vision, distributing
leadership, and building school culture necessary to changes taking place within
-9) too, identifies features of an
effective educational leader who can lead change:
fairness and equality, caring for well being, whole development of
nts in this
research acknowledged that moral values can be a central part of effective
leadership. According to the participants involved in this study, a head-
teacher, who cares both staff and students, is an effective leader; she/he is
a leader of change. For instance, one of participants said:
I have a core belief in equal opportunities for all and I try to letthis determine my leadership style. I believe in fairness andequality for pupils. I try and demonstrate this by treating staff andpupils with courtesy and kindness but ultimately I try anddemonstrate that the school is a place where everyone has thesame chance to succeed. (S7).
Maximising staff potential: an effective leader of change is the one who
puts more weight on staff development. Staff development should focus
on whole staff development; staff development should benefit the school
as well as benefiting staff as individuals. School heads have to
understand the importance of staff development especially in a period of
change, because developing staff enables them to acquire necessary skills
and knowledge as important elements for change.
High expectations, setting and monitoring standards: the effectiveness of
a leader of change could observed in the in the ways he/she involves or
influences her/his followers towards the achievement of organisational
objectives. An effective leader of change in an educational context ought
to have a clear sense of direction; be honest; willing to take risks;
courageous; and above of all be able to set challenging but achievable
goals. An effective leader of change is the one who promotes trust and
cohesion among members of staff. In this study by Day et al. (1999:6),
one of the participants said:
I see leadership as being the front person of the organization, fighting our corner and coming up with certain broad ideas that
there is somebody who they trust to go out there and give a good
Where a leader provides motivation, gives prompt feedback, appreciates
every effort of workers, and establishes a sense of trust, these could be
essential fundamentals for effecting change in an educational setting.
This is because it creates a situation where teachers and supporting staff
see change as a process towards the success of their organisation.
Making tough decisions: an effective leader of change is one who has the
capacity of making tough decisions as well as dealing with the
consequences. Change is always followed by resistance from staff and
students. In this study, Day and his colleagues found that tough decisions
are usually associated with two major dilemmas. These problems are:
- . School
heads sometimes find themselves at a crossroads, whether to continue
working with a member of staff who is not performing his/her work or
dismissing her/him. This is one of the problems which need tough
measures to be taken. However, one subject in the study suggested:
I think that is one of the things which is perhaps more difficultabout management, as opposed to leadership, in teaching. If youare manager or a director of ICI and a member of staff has beengiving problems there comes a point where you say "Oh I think this
hard that there is a class of children who nobody is pitching in for. You can support somebody who is incompetent for as long as youlike but there comes a point where you know that it is not going tomake any difference; particularly if they have been doing it for along time (S2).
This comment is very vital, even though sometimes controversial, how
can you remain with the worker who is not performing? If the worker is not
performing well due to lack of skills and knowledge, the way forward could be
training. However, sometimes, dismissal in unavoidable if an employee does
not fulfil the organisational interests; developing the learners. Yet, this should
be last resort after all the necessary consultation has been made.
The second dilemma is in situations where the head has to choose
between sub-contracting and mediation. From time to time the school heads get
into conflict, between fulfilling external demands against fulfilling
externally imposed changes and internal needs or the values of staff moves from
being a management issue and becomes a dilemma when it presents head-
-
In the study of Day and colleagues, many of the characteristics of an
effective leader are similar in different countries like Denmark, Scotland,
England and Australia (see Day et al., 1999: 13). These features are:
Leadership means having a clear personal vision of what you wantto achieve.Good leaders are in the thick of things, working alongside theircolleagues
from extraneous demands. Good leaders look ahead, anticipate change and prepare people for
Good leaders are pragmatic. They are able to grasp the realities ofthe political and economic context and they are able to negotiate
Good leaders are informed by and communicate clear sets ofpersonal and educational values which represent their moralpurposes for the school
The education sector in Tanzania is not performing well; one of the main
problems facing secondary schools, for example, is poor quality. The increase
in the number of secondary schools has brought a high demand of teachers, and
teaching resources but the government is failing to meet the increased demand.
As a result many secondary schools lack teachers and essential teaching
resources like books and laboratory equipment. Furthermore, school heads in
general lack proper leadership skills. The educational sector needs major
change. Effective educational leaders are needed who can change the education
system. Studies of effective leaders of change could be a vital tool for making
significant transformation for the benefit of the learners. Research carried out
successful school reform has been documented in a small but growing number
needs the collaboration of teachers. School heads in Tanzania should not fail to
remember to involve teachers when planning for educational reform.
Nonetheless, educational leaders should also involve supporting staff, students
and the community when they are planning and leading educational change.
Concluding remarks
Effective educational leaders in the Tanzanian context are likely to be the
ones who can prepare learners for full growth; both mentally and physically.
An effective school head will have a clear vision and be able to communicate it
effectively to teachers, supporting staff as well as students. As Odhiambo
foster relations with teachers, students, and the community through shared
vision making and promotion of professional interaction and those will develop
should be that which inspires learners for good outcomes at the end of the
lesson. Besides, an effective Tanzanian head should be assessed by the capacity
she/he has to train learners to be critical and analytical thinkers. Additionally,
learners should have the skills and knowledge that can lead them into self
employment. Lastly, learners from an effective leader should be able to
compete at an international level.
However, emergent questions which need detailed investigation are: first,
does Tanzania have effective schools? The second question is: does Tanzania
have effective school leaders? These two questions can be well answered if
detailed studies are conducted. Currently Tanzanian schools operate within a
bureaucratic leadership context. School heads are accountable to higher
hierarchies; this, every now and then limits their accountability to the learners.
Accountability to the learners together with decentralisation of authority could
make Tanzanian school heads more effective leaders.
Decentralisation of authority could be carried out to school level, where
schools are allowed to prepare their own curriculum, employ competent
teachers and determine their pay according to merit and working environments.
Allowing schools to employ and determine teacher remuneration may help to
reduce the shortage of teachers, especially in rural areas where the shortage is
acute. Decentralisation could also allow schools to utilise funds raised from
school fees and other learner contributions for school development. However,
transparency and external auditing of funds, together with the strengthening of
school boards ought to be emphasised.
Chapter five is about middle leadership. Subjects covered in this chapter
include:
Middle leadership
Roles of a middle leader
Conclusions
Middle leadership
A leader can be a formal leader or an informal leader. In formal
organisations, such as schools, leaders have vision which needs to be explained
to their followers in order to fulfil the pre-determined objectives. On the other
hand, managers are those who execute the vision, mission and policies set out
In educational settings, for example public secondary schools in
Tanzania, there are usually three layers of leaders, arranged hierarchically. The
first layer is made up of the senior leadership team which includes the head of
school, assistant head, senior academic master/mistress, and senior discipline
master/mistress. The middle layer is that of heads of departments; this includes
all heads of various subjects departments like the history, mathematics and
economics departments. The last layer is that of class-masters or class-
mistresses or dormitory masters/mistresses. The organisational structure of
public secondary schools in Tanzania is illustrated in Figure 1.
The heads of academic departments are the middle leaders within the
school. The other middle leaders include: class masters/mistresses, senior
discipline master/mistress; masters/mistresses in culture and sport and
dormitory masters/mistresses. Busher and Harris, (1999:306) describe a head of
middle man
world-wide, although they have different names. In the UK, for example, they
are called subject leaders, department heads or middle leaders/managers
(Sammons et al., 1997:203; Busher and Harris, 1999: 305; Wise and Bush,
1999:183; Glover et al., 1999:331; Earley and Weindling, 2004:14 Briggs,
2005:27; Tranter, 2006:15). There are also school middle leaders in Sweden,
Hong Kong, Singapore, New Zealand, the USA, Canada, Australia and The
Netherlands (see Bennett, 1999:289; Witziers et al., 1999:.294; Bush and
Jackson, 2002:423). Heads of department are both middle leaders and middle
managers. Earley and Weindling (2004:113) explain that, in English schools
key leadership role -
The Teacher Training Agency (TTA) in the UK refers to middle managers or
curriculum co-ordinators as subject leaders (Earley, 1998:152).
The position of head of department in Tanzanian secondary schools has
been established by rule. The heads of schools are required to appoint teachers
to become heads of different academic departments. The selection of a
particular teacher depends on the type of subject a teacher is teaching. In
addition, a teacher should have a considerable number of years of service at that
particular school. The literature shows that the situation is different in other
countries, for example, in the UK, a middle leadership position is aspired to and
the person who applies for that job is supposed to have training (Blandford,
A study by Bush and Jackson (2002: 423) gave evidence about middle
Singapore and the USA (Chicago), before they become middle leaders. In
countries like Sweden, Australia, New Zealand and Canada there was no well-
423). The reason behind providing leadership skills for middle managers is to
enable them to meet the increased challenges of the job.
Middle leaders, as other leaders in schools, play a pivotal role in enabling
the achievement of the major objectives of any given school: quality teaching
and learning. The study by Harris and Chapman (2002: 6-16) identify a number
of qualities for an effective leader. Although Harris and Chapman ascribe the
qualities to heads of school, they are also essential to middle leaders, as can be
seen below:
Firstly, effective leaders execute vision; middle leaders should involve
departmental members in the execution of vision and values. Middle
leaders should be able to articulate that vision to followers.
Secondly, an effective leader focuses on learning; middle leaders should
focus on effective learning within their department. Middle leaders
should pay attention to the high performance of each learner in the
department s/he leads. Moreover the middle leader has to inculcate the
spirit of learning to each member of the department.
Third, consistency in decision making; a middle leader has to be
consistent in their decisions and their day-to-day routine work.
Fourthly, insist on and maintain a high degree of relationship in the
department; a middle leader has to be focused on high-quality
relationships with department members and students. He or she should
possess well-developed social skills.
The fifth, combine moral purpose with willingness to be collaborative
and to promote collaboration amongst colleague, whether through team
work, or extending the boundaries of participation in leadership and
decision-making.
Lastly, commitment is one of the key factors for effective leadership.
Middle leaders need to be creative, responsible to students and staff
needs, also to be role models.
Examining the above background and context of middle leaders in Tanzania, the
UK and other countries globally, it is clear that middle leaders play a vital role
in secondary schools. This chapter explores this role in a Tanzanian context,
while making comparisons with what takes place in other countries, especially
the UK. Middle leader roles to be discussed are: putting systems and structures
in place, communication, curriculum management, resource management and
performance management. Furthermore, roles like organisational improvement;
modelling; and professional improvement will be discussed. Lastly, motivation,
liaison, monitoring and evaluation roles will be examined.
Putting Systems and Structures in Place
In Tanzanian secondary schools, within each department, the head of
department is required to establish a subject log book. This is a book which all
members of the department are supposed to fill in after the completion of a topic
within the syllabus and sign it as proof that he/she has covered that topic or sub-
topic taught. The head of department is also required to sign. In addition to
that, a head of department is required to establish departmental meeting files.
Other files established include: one file for internal examinations and another
file for external examinations (National Examinations). Moreover the head of
department is required to establish files for keeping schemes of work, one file
- plans and a file for keeping records of
The roles played by the heads of department in Tanzania with respect to
putting structure and system in place are to a large extent similar to what takes
place in UK secondary schools (Sammons et al., 1997:205; Wise and Bush,
1999:191-192; Harris and Chapman, 2002:14; Busher, 2005:145). Differences
come from the level of technology. In Tanzania most records are on paper; it is
highly likely that in the UK, record documents are kept in computer files.
Besides this in the UK middle leaders prepare plans and curriculum for their
respective departments, while in Tanzania plans are made by the senior
management team and the curriculum is set by the Tanzania Institute of
Education (TIE) on behalf of the Ministry of Education and Vocational
Training.
Communication
Communication is a leadership role played by the head of department. In
communicating, the head of department acts as both a buffer and bridge
between members of the department and students on the one hand and the
Senior Management Team (SMT) on the other. The head of department has the
responsibility of ensuring that vision and plans are clear to members of the
department. In addition to that, grievances, suggestions and demands from the
department team and students reach the senior management team via the Head
of Department in a smooth way. A National College for School Leadership
report (NCSL, 2003:14) enumerates the communication tasks done by the
middle leaders in UK as: upward communication, communication to SMT,
downward communication, communication between members of departments
which involves interpretation of aims. Other communication tasks include:
communication receiver, when one member of department conveys a problem
to the departmental head instead of communicating with a departmental
member.
In effecting the communication process, the head of department has to
convey information skilfully so as to avoid conflict between Senior
Management Team (SMT) and teachers or students. Earley and Weindling
(2004: 115) note that communication skill is one of the necessary four skills
identified by the Teacher Training Agency (TTA) which subject leaders should
possess. Busher and Harris (1999:307) also observe that the TTA and Office
for Standards in Education (OfSTED) see communication as one of the essential
functions of the head of department in the UK.
The different methods of communication enumerated above are practised
by middle leaders in Tanzania, but middle leaders can communicate outside of
the school through the senior school leadership.
Curriculum Management
This is one of the crucial roles of the middle leader; he/she has to make
sure teaching and learning are carried out smoothly and in an effective way.
Earley (1998:153 observes that subject leaders have a major responsibility for
the curriculum and effecting quality teaching and learning. And a study carried
out by Busher and Harris (1999:307-308) describes the curriculum management
role as two-fold: the first aspect is where the middle leader applies transactional
leadership in monitoring the achievement of school goals and sets the standard
of performance of both teachers and students. As for the second aspect, citing
Glover et al. (1998), they describe the middle leadership role with respect to the
curriculum as mentoring and support so as to develop pupils academically and
socially. Another study by Busher (2005:145) also shows the middle leader as
the key person for improving teaching and learning for all students. An
effective middle manager develops quality teaching and learning for all
students. The research carried out by Witziers et al. (1999:301) emphasises that
departments are crucial for quality education in Dutch schools.
Earley and Weindling (2004:116) mention six steps for improving the
quality of teaching and learning employed by middle leaders in Welsh
secondary schools. These steps are: enhancement of in-service training; good
planning and sharing experiences within departmental meetings; promoting
Some aspects of the curriculum role of a middle leader explained above
could be adopted in Tanzania. For example the transactional way of monitoring
performance is inevitable. Besides, mentoring of students could help to improve
their performance, especially students coming from poor families or single-
parent families. Furthermore the study by Turner quoted by Earley and
Weindling highlights to a large extent the requirements for heads of
departments for improving curriculum delivery in Tanzanian secondary schools,
despite the fact that the research was conducted elsewhere. What is needed is to
interpret it in the Tanzanian context.
Resource Management
The head of department manages human resources, financial resources
and physical resources. In Tanzanian secondary schools, the head of
department is responsible for keeping safe departmental curriculum resources,
files, tables and chairs and books. The situation is different from that of the
UK, Canada and the Netherlands. The middle leader in the UK manages
finance, human resources and curriculum resources like books which are owned
by the department. In the Netherlands departments influence the employment
of new teachers (Witziers et al., 1999:295). The study by Hannay and Ross
teachers provides political support for allocation of human and financial
s that middle managers in the UK
have the responsibility of determining and managing their departmental
budgets. Furthermore, the NCSL report (2003: 13) shows that middle leaders in
the UK and USA own both curriculum resources and financial resources; they
have the responsibility for preparation and management of departmental
budgets.
In the process of managing staff, the middle leader requires competence
trust is created among team members (Glover et al., 1999:338). Moreover the
middle leaders need to enhance collegiality within the department. This means
involving members of department in decision-making. Involving members
creates a collaborative culture and hence effective performance (Busher and
Harris, 1999:307).
The research by Turner and Bolam (1998:385) acknowledges the need for
the head of department to control his/her departmental members so as to
effectively accomplish all responsibilities. Although heads of department have
no responsibility for finance in Tanzania, this responsibility could still be of
importance, especially for a department owning funds for purchasing
curriculum materials.
Performance Management
Performance management is another important role of middle managers.
The role aims at teaching and learning enhancement. In the UK, secondary
schools, middle leaders are provided with a self-evaluation guide. According to
evaluation guide advises middle leaders on how to make performance
evaluation:
This guide is aimed at middle leaders in secondary schools: subject andyear leaders, SENCOS and other coordinators of aspects of schoolimprovement. It provides guidance for middle leaders in evaluating the
-evaluationprocess, and the inspection process, through evidence gathering andmaking judgement (DfES, 2005:2).
Specifically the middle leaders play the following role with respect to
performance management (DfES, 2005:4-7):
Firstly, about judging standards; the middle leader makes analysis and
s a
review with teachers about the evaluation of class progress, categorised
groups and individuals. Furthermore, he/she has the responsibility of
Secondly, he/she evaluates teaching and learning through assessing
schemes of work, observing teaching and participating in reviewing
Thirdly, the middle leader is to enhance sustainable improvement, s/he
leads discussion on priorities, setting SMART (Specific, Measurable,
Achievable Realistic and Time bound) targets. In addition the middle
leader leads improvement in teaching, review and constructs the
curriculum. Moreover s/he has the responsibility of identifying and
providing staff development needs.
Lastly, the middle leader shares experiences with other middle leaders
and teachers on different suitable approaches for teaching and learning.
Some aspects of performance management mentioned above are not
performed by the heads of department in Tanzanian secondary schools. For
example, self-evaluation has not yet been introduced in Tanzanian secondary
schools although there is a plan to implement it in the near future; the system is
nce, discussion on discipline
matters about students, encouraging teachers to prepare standard schemes of
work and sharing experiences with other heads of department, are found in
Tanzanian schools. In this way Tanzania could learn from other countries about
through self-evaluation.
Organisational Improvement
The prominent tasks of the middle leader under organisational
observing school culture and in-service training.
Heads of departments in Tanzanian secondary schools do not have the
responsibility of proposing or appointing teachers for training; this is the
responsibility of the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training. At school
level a head of school proposes teachers for further skills enhancement. But the
head of department can persuade members of the department to apply for
training. A good example is when the head of department advises teachers who
are working without professional teaching qualifications to go for the Post-
graduate Diploma in Education (PGDE) course. The situation is different in the
UK, where middle leaders have responsibility for the professional development
of their team-members (Earley, 1998:153; Glover et al. 1999:340; Bush and
Wise, 1999: 189).
Promoting school culture is another aspect of organisational
improvement. The head of department has to develop and observe both culture
and sub-culture for the benefit of the whole school. For example, the middle
leader has to promote the culture of discussing issues related to teaching and
learning within her/his department. In addition, heads of departments have to
promote a sense of optimism within their departments and a culture of
cooperation among departmental members.
Team Management
A team is a group of people with a shared meaning, values and norms.
Crawford (1997:4) defines teams as formal groups with a common goal. In
most schools middle managers perform their day-to-day tasks in teams
successful team-work depends on a clearly defined set of aims and objectives,
Hannay and Ross (1999:346) in Ontario, Canada, gives evidence that putting
teachers together in a department enhances interactions. Everard and Morris
(1996:162-
problem, Objective setting, Success criteria, Information and ideas, Plan,
manager with his/her department for effective team building. A head of
department is supposed to understand his/her department members and their
capabilities so that they can be given different roles in meetings. Everard and
Morris (1996: 158-160 citing Belbin, 1993) discuss various roles which have to
be played by departmental members in meetings:
Firstly, coordinator: this role is played by a teacher who has the ability
to lead the meetings; he/she is the chair of the meeting.
Secondly, shaper: his/her role is to influence direct attention and
motivate his/her fellow members to reach sound decisions.
The third role is that of a plant: this is the teacher who is creative,
innovative and who has problem-solving potential within the
department.
The fourth role is that of monitor-evaluator: this should be a member
of department who has ability to make assessments and analyse
problems so as to provide advice on how to make adjustments.
Other roles include: implementer; this is the one who can put plans
into practice within the department and the resource investigator role;
this is the one who has the ability to find sources of new funding and
other resources.
The last role is of completer-finisher; this should be the member of
the department who pays attention to various details, standards and
specifications.
The roles mentioned above are vital for effective implementation of the
goal of quality teaching and learning in a particular subject within the
department. It can be suggested that heads of department have to learn how to
distribute responsibilities to departmental members because these particular
roles are rarely applied. Furthermore distribution of responsibilities within the
department can create motivation among members and enhance performance.
Professional Development
Middle leaders in secondary schools in some countries are responsible for
developing their teachers professionally. The case is different in Tanzania,
where professional development is the role of the Ministry of Education and
Vocational Training. Sometimes teachers develop themselves, for example,
through pursuing studies at The Open University of Tanzania. In the UK, heads
of departments pla
Earley, 1998:154; Wise and Bush, 1999: 189; Glover et al., 1999:340; Harris
and Chapman, 2002:3 and Briggs, 2005:32). Professional development enables
teachers to improve their performance through acquiring new skills. Teachers
should be lifelong-learners and this is possible if they get support from their
leaders and employers.
Blandford (1997: 186) emphasises that learning is supposed to include
challenge facing Tanzanian teachers is lack of professional development. The
problem is made worse by the state of poverty facing the country. But, school-
based initiatives, like providing seminars or workshops at the place of work
could help to ease the challenges of obsolete skills. Programmes like
mentoring, coaching, seminars and reflection can be useful tools for improving
the quality of teachers within the department.
-Burnham (1998:6) offer a concept-map which was
proposed by the Department of Education and Science (DES) in the UK about
the in-
orientation (5-8 years), advanced seminars 8-12 years), mid-career advanced
studies (12-15 years) and senior management/refreshment (for senior and
was originally proposed, due to limitations of funding, but it seems that it was a
good idea for the professional improvement of teachers. It is likely that the
concept can be adopted in the Tanzanian context if the budget allocation to the
Ministry of Education and Vocational Training increases. Training of teachers
can be arranged in zones and most of the training could be conducted through
seminars or workshops. In these ways departments could have better quality
teachers
Modelling
A middle leader is required to be a good example to his/her department.
The study by Harris and Chapman (2002:3) identifies some qualities of
effective leaders; these qualities are: optimism, wider view, self-confidence and
value-driven leadership. Others include: realistic, resilient, determined
individuals, strategic, setting challenging goals and observing culture. The
noted characteristics are needed by any middle leader regardless of the situation.
For the successful accomplishment of educational goals, for example, the
middle leader ought to create a sense of optimism among members of
department that every pupil has the ability to perform better. In addition to that,
the middle leaders have to be at the forefront of completing the set-pieces of
work within the department. Creating a strong feeling of love of work and
commitment to work among members of department is also a crucial aspect of
th
teaching, preparation of schemes of work and lessons plans. It would be a bad
example to find a head of department without schemes of work or lesson plans,
and failing to attend classes for no good reason. The study by Busher
(2005:147) in the UK shows that middle leaders have to be good teachers; and it
is in this way they are respected. This presents a problem, that being a middle
leader while at the same time having the responsibility of teaching is a big load.
Motivation
drives, forces and influences - conscious or unconscious - that cause the
plex forces,
drives, needs, tensions, states, or other mechanisms that start and maintain
and Miskel, 1982:137). Middle managers motivate departmental members in
order to meet departmental and school goals. It is one of the core and delicate
roles of the head of department. It is a core role because motivated teachers
work hard, they have high interest in the job, they cooperate within the
department and they can accept change; in general, teaching and learning is
enhanced when teachers are motivated. The opposite is also true, because when
there is a lack of motivation among members of department the likely outcomes
are indifference within the department, minimal or no cooperation, resistance to
change, persistently poor time management: in general workers do not like the
job.
Herzberg in his two-factor theory proposes factors which can motivate
employees in any given work setting. These factors can be used by the head of
department to motivate his/her followers. The factors are termed as motivators
job satisfaction (ibid, 149).
The middle leader, through creating a challenging environment for his/her
department members, for example by the introduction of Information
Technology in the classroom, can motivate his/her department members and
students for the particular subject. Similarly, teachers can be motivated if they
participate in decision making.
Providing opportunities for advancement for teachers within the
department is another way of motivating followers. Introducing new ways of
learning within the classroom, for example a learner-centred approach motivates
students. A distributive leadership style is another way of motivating
departmental members; the head of department has to distribute some of his/her
responsibilities to other members of department. Distributive leadership can be
carried out by middle leaders even in a centralised education system like
Tanzania. A study conducted in the UK shows that middle leaders motivate
their followers through praise, putting into practice new ideas, professional and
competence recognition. Furthermore, teachers are motivated through
encouragement and delegation of responsibilities (Glover et al., 1999: 340).
Liaison Role
In the Tanzanian education setting, liaison is the responsibility of the
head of school. The head of school communicates with the surrounding
community, parents, members of the school board, other schools and the
Ministry of Education and Vocational Training, and sometimes even other
education stake-holders like local donors. On issues concerning a particular
subject area, the head of department can communicate with other departments
within the school and outside the school, for example borrowing books and
laboratory equipment, also by sharing experiences with middle leaders in other
departments in his/her school or in neighbouring schools. In the UK, the
situation is somewhat different; middle managers have the responsibility of
liaising with outside organisations like parents, guardians, and school governors
(Earley, 1998:154; Wise and Bush, 1999:187; Busher and Harris, 1999: 308).
One advantage associated with the ability to communicate with external
organisations is that it is easy to share experiences with other schools especially
on matters within the same subject area. Another advantage is that the middle
leader could acquire funds from outside the organisation for the benefit of
her/his department.
Monitoring and Evaluation
Monitoring is about tracking data or recording data, and evaluation
involves assessment. The head of department is required to monitor and
evaluate the process of teaching and learning in his/her subject area. Through
keeping records and involving teachers in assessing the teaching and learning
process, strengths and weaknesses can be identified and rectified. It is only by
evaluating what is being done now and what has been done in the past that the
future can be planned with confidence. This is true not only for individuals but
also for groups and indeed the whole organisation (Hardie, 1998:175).
Middle managers monitor and evaluate the quality of the teaching and
learning process by inspecting plans: long term, weekly and individual lesson
plans. Moreover middle managers have to conduct lesson observations in
and administering
various tests. Last but not least, the middle leaders can use questionnaires to
assess teaching and learning progress within his/her subject area. In order to
improve the performance of all students, middle leaders have to establish a
proper system of keeping records and ensuring sound assessment. Evidence
from the study conducted by Busher (2005:145) in the UK shows that effective
middle leaders establish a proper filing system to facilitate the monitoring and
evaluation process. The study by Wise (2001: 338) confirms that, in English
schools, middle leaders have the responsibility of monitoring and evaluating the
quality of teaching and learning within their departments.
In the Tanzanian context, heads of department in secondary schools do
most of the tasks noted above, for example keeping marks records for all
students within the subject area and checking classroom attendance registers. In
addition to that they have to make sure that teachers prepare schemes of work
and lessons plans; sometimes they talk with students to get their ideas on how
teaching and learning is being conducted. But classroom observation and
administering questionnaires is not used as means of monitoring and evaluating
teaching and learning. Nevertheless, these could be some of means to be used
by the Head of Department to get feedback from students on how teaching and
learning is conducted.
Conclusions
In conclusion, this review of middle leadership literature shows that the
middle leader plays a pivotal role in secondary schools to enhance the quality of
teaching and learning. A number of responsibilities performed by the middle
leaders examined include: establishing systems and structures, bridging senior
management and lower level management, and students in terms of
communication. He/she is also responsible for supervising both curriculum
implementation and management resources within the department. Other
functions of middle leaders are: management of performance within the
department, ensuring organizational improvement and team building. Moreover,
the middle manager is responsible for the professional development of his/her
members of department. Lastly, the middle manager plays a modelling role,
liaison role and he/she participates in monitoring and evaluation.
A number of the studies reviewed show that the middle management
position in secondary schools is found in developed and less developed
countries globally; examples of these countries are the UK, USA, Sweden,
Australia, The Netherlands, Canada, Hong Kong, New Zealand, and Tanzania.
This chapter has demonstrated relationships and differences between the roles
performed by the heads of departments in Tanzanian secondary schools and the
UK in particular and other countries in the world in general. The literature
surveyed shows more similarities and fewer differences in terms of the role
performed by the middle leaders in Tanzania with respect to other countries.
For example, both in Tanzania and the UK heads of department keep
documentation like st
examination papers. In addition to that, heads of departments facilitate the flow
of information from senior management to members of departments, and
information from students and teachers to the senior management team.
Furthermore, in all countries surveyed, heads of departments are responsible for
quality learning, monitoring and evaluation. The major significant differences
observed are on fund management and professional development of
departmental members. In Tanzania, heads of department do not have their own
funds and staff development is the role of the Ministry of Education and
Vocational Training. With the increase in numbers of students in secondary
schools the job of the Senior Management Team is becoming more complex and
demanding. Therefore, Tanzania may learn from other countries about how to
utilize heads of department more effectively.
Making choices is a natural phenomenon in human life. Human beings plan
for effective and efficient utilisation of resources in order to gain the most out of
what is available. It is a common event for human beings before taking any
decision to think, for example, how; when; where; to whom; and for what
purpose they will take any action. Any decision is done after some sort of
thinking. Thinking before making decision could be termed as planning. This
chapter discuss two major concepts related to planning: strategic planning and
strategic intent. The main questions discussed include:
Origin of planning
Strategic planning
Strategic planning in relation to leadership
Models of strategic management in schools
School accountability in relation to planning
Strategic intent
Strategic competence
Decentralisation of educational planning in Tanzania
Origin of the term Planning
Babyegeya (2002: 11) explains that educational planning at a national
scale resulted from socialist economies; the command economy led by the then
USSR. Western Europe adopted this practice in education after the World War
II because of the high demand for reconstruction which rose after the Second
World War in their countries:
The theoretical basis for planning education in the Soviet Union was thepolytechnic education principle of practical training for the young, tomake them active and productive members in the communes, an idea thatwas developed by Karl Marx in the nineteenth century. Educationplanning at the state level became embraced in Western countries andJapan, after the Second World War, as a response to the need foreconomic reconstruction, and to compete effectively with the USSR.
Furthermore, Babyegeya argues that other theorists like Theodore W.
Shultz (1961), Becker (1964), and Harbison and Myers (1964) who advocated
for the human capital theory had a great influence on western countries to adopt
planning in their education systems (Babyegeya, 2002:12).
A range of definitions about planning are offered in the literature,
especially in economics, for instance, Kilonzo (1992:2) defines planning as:
making
over the long run and to influence, direct, and in some cases even control the
ariables such as income,
-making that is involving
choices about directions for the future and about immediate actions needed to
2002: 3). Educational planning as in other sectors, like business and economics,
involves a systematic process of making sound decisions on where to go and
how to get there. It aims at achieving an effective and efficient outcome from
education for the benefit of the learners. Educational planning is both strategic
and operational: the operational plan sets out the action needed to fulfil the
intentions of the strategic plan.
Strategic planning
West-Burnham writing on strategic planning defines it as:
... a process operating in an extended time-frame [3-5 years] whichtranslates vision and values into significant, measureable and practicaloutcomes. Although the primary responsibility of senior management, theprocess requires two-way communication at all stages and has to befocused on the core purpose and practical activities of the school orcollege (West-Burnham, 1994: 84).
West-Burnham acknowledges the involvement of members of staff in the
process of preparing a strategic plan. Normally, the strategic plan is in the
hands of higher levels of management; however, educational leaders, for
example secondary school principals, have to get a range of advice and
suggestions from teachers, supporting staff, students and other educational stake
holders in the process of preparing a strategic plan. Involving members of the
staff could be advantageous as long as these are the implementers of the plan.
Once they are involved, implementation is more likely to result in good
achievement, since the plan becomes theirs.
Plans prepared, whether strategic or operational, have to be flexible.
Plans prepared too rigidly can bring resistance from the implementers.
Resistance to the top-down type of plan could be costly in terms of time and
energy used to remove resistance, and resources may be lost due to the failure
of meeting the expected outcomes. This is because plans can tempt resistance
from implementers when they are not involved in the planning process, and
unclear plans also provoke resistance. Morgan (1993: 55) cautions about
strategic planning which is not collaborative:
...strategic plans quickly become straitjackets because of the political andother alignments that are created. They are often inflexible and theirimplementation often mobilises cynicism and resistance from manyquarters. All too often, they become an end in themselves, saluted inannual reports and launched with great fanfare, but fizzing inimplementation because all the real energy has been put into creation ofthe plan itself.
Lumby (1999: 75) also acknowledges the need for having unanimous agreement
between top management, who prepare strategic plans, and lower levels of
management including workers [teachers and non-teaching staff] who are the
implementers of the plans. When researching strategic planning in English
Further Education Colleges, Lumby found that the plan itself could be relatively
unimportant, as the rapidly changing environment could make it redundant as
soon as it was produced. What her respondents saw as important is taking part
.
Strategic planning Operational planning
Focus Achieving goals Routine activities
Purpose Planning the best course of action Achieving the best use ofavailable resources
Rewards Effectiveness, impact Efficiency, stability
Information Future opportunities Present situation
Organisation Entrepreneurial, flexible Bureaucratic, stable
Problem solving Finds new ways andAlternatives
Relies on past experience
Risks High Low
Adapted from Chang, 2006:5
Planning is a process which takes place continuously. Briggs (2002:177)
provides the illustration in Figure 12 of the continuous process of planning;
which is known as a planning cycle. In this process, planners have to ask
themselves questions, these include: where are we going? Planning has to
define targets, goals and expected outcomes. An additional important question
is: are we getting there? Activities planned to be carried out are to be
monitored, and any deviation from what was planned has to be recorded. More
to the point, any success is to be noted. Lastly, another crucial question which
needs attention is: are we there yet? This type of question demands the whole
of the activities which are conducted to be evaluated based on the anticipated
questions include what overall results (strategic goals), the system shouldachieve and the overall methods (or strategies) to implement policies. Action planning is a process whereby one translates the policy directionsinto executable, measurable and accountable actions. In a broader sense,action planning includes specifying objectives, outputs, strategies, responsibilities and time lines (what, what for, how, who and when).
The planning process suggested by Chang could be adopted by the MOEVT
with respect to secondary schools in Tanzania; however, to make it effective,
the involvement of stake holders is essential. It is advised that teachers,
students, parents, publishers, economists and authors could play a vital role
through saying what they need to be included in the MOEVT strategic plan. At
school level, for example, a good approach could be involving teachers,
students and supporting staff to prepare a strategic plan, which will be compiled
and sent to the MOEVT. It strongly advised further that monitoring and
evaluation should not be forgotten, and the process ought to include all
educational stake holders.
The Educational Sector Development Programme (ESDP) as given by the
MOEVT highlights many aspects of planning which are most likely to prepare
Tanzanian learners to full growth: this is encouraging. Yet, the programme
needs to be participatory; it also needs to put into account the whole issue of
collaborative monitoring and evaluation. But, one of the big challenges is to
reach many rural schools on the issue of Information and Communication
Technology (ICT); rural schools, especially Ward schools, lack electricity.
Some questions do not have concrete answers. How, for instance can
computers be introduced to rural schools where there no electricity? How can
ICT be taught if teachers do not know how to use computers? This could be
possible if the government invests in electricity production or other simple and
easily adapted technology, for example, by using solar power.
Encouraging development partners, for example, Swedish International
Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA) to expand its project of supplying
electricity to many rural areas could as well enable rural schools to get
electricity. Currently SIDA is working hand-in-hand with the Tanzania
Electrical Supply Corporation (TANESCO) to enhance the supply of electricity
in some rural areas of Tanzania (see SIDA, 2012). Furthermore, Tanzania as a
country should start thinking about new ways of providing computer knowledge
to students in remote areas, for example, by using new discovery knowledge,
where learners can learn computers themselves (see Mitra et al., 2005:21). The
following is the ESDP explanation downloaded from http://www.moevt.org.tz
website
Education Sector Development Programme is an attempt to realize theobjectives of Education Sector policies. It was formulated to addresscritical issues and problems facing the education and training sector ingeneral. The Programme is a comprehensive and complex undertakingentailing many fundamental changes including Information andCommunication Technology (IT) as well as the participation of many andvaried actors in education and training. These interventions are focusedprimarily on the learner, the teacher and the teaching/learningenvironment, ultimately intending to improve the academic achievementsand competences of the learner
Strategic Management and Leadership
implementation of strategy in response to and in anticipation of future events
and trends in the outside world ... is concerned with deciding on strategy and
planning how to implement it. It consists of analysis, decision-making,
organisation is its constant change. Organisations are regularly externally
influenced, for example, by regulatory frame-works, economy, politics, science
and technology as well as social factors. To be able to work effectively,
organisations need constantly to adapt to the external environment. Strategic
management is necessary for organisations to fit into their external
environment.
Chang (2008:3) offers a similar definition of strategic management to that
system, policy formulation and appraisal, action planning management and
as informed decision-making structure which involves all staff members from
the top to the bottom.
Fidler (1996:50) outlines strategic decisions made at organisational level,
these include:
-term direction
Devising activities which are sustainably given the level oforganisational resources.
In order for the organisation to be able to survive and thrive, it has to
make decisions about its capacity; for instance, a school has to decide firmly
how many students will be enrolled yearly depending on the availability of
physical and human resources. However, in organisations where a bureaucratic
system of leadership is dominant, where most decisions are made at the top, this
could be rather difficult to implement.
One more important decision which has to be carried out concerns the
organisation is going, what the long-term goals are and what is expected to be
achieved in the long term. The organisational vision and mission could be the
guiding principles of this plan.
Organisations too, need to identify external factors which could hinder
their development. Activities to be carried out should equate to what is agreed
by national policies, and the regulatory frame-work. Also, the prevailing
political situation and economic situation of the country could be the
determinants of what is carried out by the organisation. The last but not least
consideration is resource availability. Resources are scarce in comparison to
demand, and determining priorities could prevent the organisation from going
into crisis. Below is a basic model of strategic management as given by Fidler
analysis weaknesses and threats to the school will be identified. Also,
strengths and opportunities pertaining to the school will be made known.
The third process will be deciding how to choose; stage C. Under this
stage alternative strategies will be put down.
The fourth stage is developing strategies and choosing the best strategy
which will then be adopted; phase D
Deciding on a plan and putting it into implementation [E]. All involved
in preparing a plan document have to agree on the format of the plan and
how that plan will be executed.
Plan execution [F]. Plan drafts will be produced and re-produced and
thereafter refined to suit the pre-determined objectives of the school.
After a draft is agreed by all participants, it will be put into practice.
A different model of strategic management in schools is that of Fidler and
Bowles. It is a linear model; this model was developed by Fidler and Bowles in
differences from school development planning ...at analysis stage there are
inputs from outside the school...the second difference is the presence of creative
Hall acknowledges the importance of monitoring and evaluation. Besides,
collaboration is stressed; the strategic school management process is to involve
teachers as well as supporting staff. School leaders ought to communicate
vision and mission clearly to members of staff, as they are the main
implementers.
A number of questions are posed here for Tanzanian secondary schools: do
secondary schools prepare strategic plans? Do Tanzanian secondary schools
monitor and evaluate performance? It is high time that these crucial questions
are given answers by the Tanzanian education system so as to improve
outcomes and educational outputs for learners. The challenge to the MOEVT is
to enhance the capacity of school leaders in the area of planning, since many
school heads lack the capacity to prepare plans, or to prepare school vision and
mission statements. Moreover, school heads need support to develop
monitoring, review and evaluation skills.
School Accountability in relation to Planning
ility; professional
accountability, market accountability; political accountability, technological
accountability; community accountability; and economic accountability.
Different areas of accountability pose challenge to the entire exercise of
planning. However, opportunities available in the environment could be used as
opportunities to facilitate the formulation of strategies and goals. The presence
of negative entropy can be used by schools as an opportunity to strengthen the
spirit of top management to involve educational stake holders in the planning
process. Also, planning in teams and implementing in teams could lessen
negatives from outside schools. In addition, schools can use opportunities from
the environment for expansion.
Strategic intent
Minniti (2009:1) distinguishes two similar concepts; strategic planning
and strategic intent. Strategic planning is more management based, while
strategic intent is based on leadership within an organisation. Citing Hamel
2005, Minniti (2009:1) explains:
Strategic intent is more than simply unfettered ambition. (Manycompanies possess an ambitious strategic intent yet fall short of theirgoals.) The concept also encompasses an active management process that
on on the essence of winning, motivating people by communicating the value of the target, leavingroom for individual and team contributions, sustaining enthusiasm byproviding new operational definitions as circumstances change, and usingintent consisten
The term strategic intent is here used in a business context, although it
can apply to other settings, such as education. Hamel and Prahalad (1989:66)
express strategic intent as dealing with creativity, and innovation; planners ask
how will next year be differently winners ask what must we do differently?
-level statement by which
your organisation will achieve its vision. It is a statement of design for creating
a desirable future (stated in present terms).
Strategic intent focuses not only on effective leadership but also on active
management which involves the whole organisation in the process of achieving
worldwide leadership. Additionally, with strategic intent, the organisation sets
targets that have staff commitment. Strategic intent puts more emphasis on the
long term nature of planning, although it does not forget short-term planning.
One of the most critical tasks for strategic leaders is to lengthen the
Strategic intent provides consistency to short-
term action, while leaving room for reinterpretation as new opportunities
05 cited by Minniti, 2009:3). Supporting the role of
management in enhancing strategic intent Hamel and Prahalad (1989: 64)
acknowledge:
...the concept also encompasses active management process that includes:essence of winning;
motivating people by communicating the values of the targets; leavingroom for individual and teams contributions; sustaining enthusiasm byproviding new operational definitions as circumstances change ...
Developing independent technology-based learning for all
Creating and sustaining a high achievement and success culture
Davies acknowledges strategic intent as a powerful means to be
employed by contemporary schools which are constantly facing rapid global
changes. He stresses that strategic intent could be a means of leveraging-up
school performance. In effecting change, Davies offers the following model in
the process of building strategic intent:
Articulate 1 Current understanding and desired new strategy
Build 2 Images, metaphors and experiences of desired new
understanding
Create 3 Dialogue and conversations with shared
understandings to frame new understandings
Define 4 Formal plans and frame of reference for the school
Adapted from Davies, 2011:84
Davies emphasises a strategic intent model to be a strong means of
building capability and capacity for major change in the school (Davies,
2011:86). Concerning the four steps for building a strategic intent shown in
Table 4, Davies says:
The key to building strategic intents is for leaders in the school toarticulate the desired new objective (strategic intent) and to work througha process with staff of sharing experiences of good practice anddeveloping images of what the new strategy can look like...the leader willcreate a dialogue through strategic conversations to frame newunderstandings of where the school can be in future. The school can thenmove to agreed formal plans on how to implement the new strategy(Davies, 2011:84).
convinced me that ... we need to start with strategic intent, create a strategic
architecture, understand core competencies and products ...and that the
leverage is based on continuous configuration of these compet
1993: 47).
Strategic competence
Davies (2011:88-89) discuss the concept of core competencies or
strategic capabilities in educational settings. He lists a number of strategic
competencies which are core attributes of sustainable and successful schools.
He emphasises that these capabilities are essential for organisational effecting a
substantial change. Competencies enumerated include:
Fundamental understanding of learning
High level of trust and communication
Using assessment for learning and not just assessment of learning
A creative and innovative culture
A positive team approach to problem-solving
Decentralisation of educational planning in Tanzania
The education sector for many years in Tanzania has been planned from
the top. The Ministry of Education has sole responsibility for formulating
educational policies and planning. Nevertheless, due to difficulties encountered
in the implementation of top-down plans, it was seen as logical for the process
of planning to be devolved to lower levels. Districts became the focal point for
preparing educational plans. Still, most of educational plans prepared at district
level are micro-plans and the master plan is still prepared at the Ministry of
Educational level. As MOEC (2002:1) obse
Education and Culture, in collaboration with various international organisations,
has initiated school mapping as a pre-requisite to sound educational micro-
However, the challenge which faces districts and schools is the lack of
competent people to utilise the school mapping reports so as to prepare school
and district educational plans. Many secondary schools, for instance, have
teachers who have completed a diploma in education. At diploma level
procedures on how to prepare development plans are not taught. But, some
school are headed by head-teachers who completed university level, and some
have heads who have attended training on how to prepare development plans. It
is possible that some of these schools prepare development plans. But, most of
schools where development plans are prepared rarely involve lower levels of
management, normal school teachers and non-teaching staff or students.
Decentralised planning is participatory: the school, community and district are
perceived as a core for the successful implementation of decentralised planning
as shown in Figure 17.
participate in planning. With clear vision, mission and strategies educational
leaders are mostly likely to lead the planning exercise successfully. In addition
to strategic leadership among educational leaders, strategic intent could be
another liberating tool for the poorly performing educational sector in Tanzania.
concentrating too much on present problems. Moreover, Tanzanian schools are
working in an open system; they cannot, for instance, avoid the influences of
globalisation; that is why strategic intent could be a beneficial approach to
educational planning. It can be said confidently that Tanzania needs leadership,
strategic planning and strategic intent to improve its education system.
This chapter focuses on school culture, and aims at introducing the concept of
culture as it is used formally or informally in Tanzanian secondary school
leadership settings. The following issues are addressed in this chapter:
Meaning of school culture
Origin of the concept of organisational culture
School culture under bureaucratic leadership
Changing school culture
School culture as a ladder to achievement
Cultural norms
Comparing school cultures
Meaning of school culture
Organisational culture is not depicted on the formal structures of
organisational charts, yet the notion of culture is deep-rooted in both formal and
informal organizations. It influences the day-to-day activities of organisations
such as schools and hospitals, as well as non-governmental establishments.
Raywid (2001:108) defines culture as a kind of the underlining set of norms,
values, beliefs, rituals, and traditions that make up the unwritten rules of how to
a way of seeing and doing things, a set of attitudes to life and accompanying
explanation about culture:
Culture is an expression that tries to capture the informal, implicit- oftenunconscious-side of ...any human organisation... culture in everydayusage is typically described as the way we do things here. It consists ofpatterns of thought, behaviour and artefacts that symbolise and givemeaning to the workplace.
Bush and Anderson say that organisational culture depends on the context
and is dynamic. What is believed, valued, assumed and celebrated at school A
might not be the same as school B. Besides, school culture could be shaped to
suit the requirements at that particular time. Nevertheless, there could be
similarities influenced by societal / national culture, for example, the same
curriculum; school rules imposed by the Ministry of Education; comparable
education philosophy and educational policy.
Brady (2008:1) describing culture which operates in the background of
education notes:
These include: (a) artefacts, those rites, symbols, ceremonies, and mythsthat serve to make organizational behaviour routine; (b) espoused values, systems of beliefs and standards that provide the basis for an
institutional practices that are so deeply ingrained in the collectiveconsciousness of the group that to act in any other manner is unthinkable.
Table 5 adapted from Johnson (2008:78) sums up some elements which
influence organisational culture. The paradigm expresses the following
elements: control systems, organisational structures, power structures, symbols,
rituals and routines, and stories and myths.
Element Expression
The paradigm
expresses
What the organisation is about; its mission; its value. However, it should be
recognised that formal mission statements, although designed to encapsulate the
goals and values of an organisation, may not accurately reflect the real culture
as practiced within the organisation.
Control
systems
The degree to which they seek to direct and monitor what is going on.
Organisational
structures
Management hierarchies, lines of reporting, and the way that work flows
through the business.
Power
structures
Who makes the decisions, how widely spread is power, and on what power is
based?
Symbols Telling features of organisational culture. Formally adopted logos and designs
can tell much about how the organisation would like to portray itself, but less
obvious symbols (such as executive dining rooms and reserved parking spaces)
are more telling indicators of the true state of affairs.
Rituals and
routines
Many of which are habitual rather than necessary, also give an indication of
what people within an organisation consider to be important.
Stories and
myths whereby the values of an organisation are promulgated without the necessity to
formally promote them.
Adapted from Johnson, 1988:78
Origin of the concept of culture
Morgan explains the origin of the term culture as a metaphor derived
we talk about culture we are usually referring to the pattern of development
-
to-day rituals. The word is also frequently used to refer to the degree of
refinement evident in such systems of belief and practice, as in the notion of
being cultured
According to Bush, the concept of culture gained more recognition as
bureaucratic leadership had a number of limitations (see Bush, 1998:32).
Bureaucratic leadership puts more emphasis on rules and principles; it is
mechanistic, based on structures and systems. Additionally, bureaucratic
leadership overlooks the beliefs and values of organisational members (Bush,
1998:33). On the other hand, school culture, for example, stresses relationship
between staff and learners and between staff and the community (Durrant and
Holden, 2006:16).
Culture can be seen at two distinct interdependent levels: the society level
and the organisational level. The society or national level is a supra-level whilst
the organisational level is the micro level. Organisational culture is a sub-set of
national culture as shown in Figure 18, where ten aspects of societal culture
form a continuu
Bush observes that this model (in Figure18) could be used in an educational
context in different countries depending on the leadership approach prevailing.
Bush (2003:158-159) discusses societal culture in a range of educational
settings as follows (Refer Figure 18):
In some educational settings, power is either distributed or concentrated,
for example, in schools where collegiality is predominant, collaboration
is an overriding culture, nevertheless, in some educational backgrounds,
power and authority is rigorous (in formal models).
Self-oriented/ group- oriented settings: staff working in a self-oriented
culture are more self-contained and self-governing. Yet, in group-
oriented culture workers are more rooted to team work.
In some work settings, employees are involved in goal formulation. Any
change is prevalent among workers. This is mainly in working places
where workers are hardly involved in decisions; their attitude is to admit
things as they are (fatalism), that is, the culture of conformity is
prevalent.
Some cultures stress creativity and innovation, some culture encourage
duplication.
Limited relationship/holistic relationship: in some organisations rules
and procedures govern the day-to-day work; this is where a limited
relationship culture exists. In holistic culture lateral relationship in the
organisation is more highly emphasised than formal relationship.
Male influence/female influence: In some cultures, a large number of
school heads are male, for instance, in Tanzania, China, and Thailand. In
other organisations, for example, in economic and political leadership
most of leaders are also male. However, in some educational settings
female influence plays a notable role.
School culture under bureaucratic leadership
Bureaucratic leadership is hierarchical in nature. Usually communication
from the top is in form of orders and directives. Workers provide suggestions
and demands while leadership provides rules and regulations as well as
supervising implementation. A bureaucratic type of leadership is mechanistic;
leaders are decision-makers while the lower workers are primarily
implementers. The organisation chart of a bureaucratic school, for instance,
indicates how members of staff should behave. Figure 19 shows how the
authority flows from the top in a bureaucratic model of leadership.
Organisational culture influences organisational structure (Morgan
1986:131). In bureaucratic leadership, for example, the values and beliefs of
schools are in a formal relationship. Roles and relationships are found in
hierarchies depicted in an organisation chart.
organisational
culture found in complex establishments and culture in small organisations:
The relationship between organisational structure and culture is of crucialimportance. A large and complex organisational structure increases thepossibility of several cultures developing simultaneously within the oneorganisation. A minimal organisational structure, such as that found inmost primary schools, enhances the possibility of a solid culture guidingall areas of organisational activity.
The difference n
school leadership. Despite the formal manner of relationship in Tanzanian
schools, a unitary school culture could enhance teaching and learning as beliefs,
values and norms are skilfully transmitted. Yet, the prevalence of sub-cultures is
inevitable; these sub-cultures could hinder or facilitate better performance of
school organisations depending on how the school leaders take care of them.
lear description of
the aims of a school, college or any section within it, helps to provide a
common vision and set of values. Well-
World-wide some countries practise a bureaucratic style of leadership,
these countries include: Tanzania, Czech Republic, China, Greece, Israel,
Poland, South Africa, Slovenia and many countries of South America (Bush,
2008: 45). Bureaucratic culture which is largely based on replication is
dominant in these countries compared to most of western countries where
creativity is the leading culture. It can be argued that the slow development of
schools in many developing nations may possibly be influenced by an
inadequacy of creativeness, innovation and inventive ideas during the teaching
and learning process.
In a bureaucratic style of leadership the following relationships between
for planning and control...issues instructions are in line with own perception of
clear that in bureaucratic schools, a formal relationship is the order of the day;
s accept the authority relation because
they agree, within certain limits, to accept directives of their supervisors. The
organisation has the right to command and the employees have the duty to
sence of sub-
cultures; teachers who have skills and know-how are constantly in strain and
tension with the school leaders.
According to Durrant and Holden (2006:17) a top-down decision making
culture, especially one which is externally imposed, causes workers to feel
disturbed and defeats their sense of worth. This could be a lesson to Tanzanian
secondary schools most of whose decisions are highly centralised. A shift from
top-down to bottom-up could most likely enhance the quality of decisions in
schools.
It is believed that school culture is inextricably linked to classroom
culture,
curricular focus; extra-curricular activities; decision-making processes; and
because what happens at school level could influence
what happens in the classroom (Raywid, 2001: i). Examining what is said by
Raywid could well raise challenging questions such as: Do school cultures in
bureaucratic organisations focus on the learner? Can bureaucratic leadership
enhance the preparation of the learners? Are learners involved in determining
their learning destiny? For instance in the Tanzanian context, educational
philosophy, policy and school curriculum are prepared at national level; the
system is centralised. The Tanzanian Institute of Education (TIE) has the sole
responsibility for preparing school curriculum. In Tanzania, students are not
involved in determining what they should learn. Also, the lecture method is still
a main teaching method/technique. This is dissimilar to what Nyirenda and
Nyirenda and Ishumi (2002:84) propose a participatory method of content
delivery; a teacher should not be the only source of knowledge. They advocate
the change of teaching and learning culture, they emphasise teaching and
learning to be learner centred. Delegation of authority should take into account
all activities within the classroom and those outside of the classroom, and the
central focus should be learners.
A study conducted in Quebec in Canada (Deblois et al., 1994:2) supports
participatory climate at all levels and where high but realistic expectations for
explains the role of culture to boost productivity. This observation could apply
to any organisation including the education sector in Tanzania. Peterson
(1985:109) observes:
...Culture affects what people focus on and ...what is important to payattention to. Culture affects motivation. Motivation affects productivity.And finally, culture affects the willingness of staff members, students, and administrators, to put into continuous improvement and refining theircraft. So, culture is input in productivity.
A mutual kind of school culture could be a good way for Tanzanian
secondary schools to improve academic achievement. Students, teachers,
supporting staff and parents could celebrate their achievements together by
identifying appropriate heroes and heroines. Furthermore, shared leadership
could allow the use of action research as an approach to improve practice at the
plac
are often structured differently; schools being hierarchical; formal; and
bureaucratic while action research is collegial; informal; open; collaborative and
crosses boundaries...for action research to be successful, the conditions of
way to enhance performance and achievement in any undertaking; shared
leadership could be a way forward. Foskett and Lumby (2003:177) also observe
that organisations cannot work effectively within power obsessed cultures.
Sharing in running of schools, for instance, is more likely to improve
performance. Beatty (2007:50) as well like Foskett and Lumby criticises the
reliance on a bureaucratic style of leadership since it undermines educational
development.
In the educational discourse the call for a departure from traditionalbureaucratic hierarchies has been heard for some time; for instance in theadvocacy for teacher empowerment in shared decision-making (e.g.Malen and Ogawa, 1988; Blase and Blase, 1994; Short; and Greer, 1997)and the associated necessity of different, more collaborative relationship(e.g. Dunlap and Goldman, 1991).
Changing school culture
In the rapidly moving world, change is inevitable. Various studies have
identified the importance of changing school culture to the benefit of the
organisation. These studies stress the need for changing culture to suit the way
goals will be implemented; a change of goals has to go together with a change
of school culture. Deal and Kennedy (1982:15), commenting on business
organisations that could as well apply to educational settings note:
Companies that have cultivated individual identities by shaping values,making heroes, spelling out rites and rituals, and acknowledging theculture network have an edge. These corporations have values and beliefsto pass along - not just products. They have stories to tell - not just profitsto make. They have heroes whom managers and workers can emulate -not just faceless bureaucrats. In short, they are human institutions thatprovide practical meaning for people, both on and off the job. In order to effect a change of school culture, understanding of both the
nature of the change and the existing sub-cultures is necessary. The school
leader has to understand, for instance, the significant symbols (school motto;
common language; rules; organisation aims; prize giving behaviour; school
uniform; corporate worship; heroes/heroines). For instance, symbols are
essential in the process of constructing organisational meanings, and rituals are
important as well in putting together members in a given organisation.
-heroes) around whom
a saga is built personify the values, philosophy and ideology which the
Furthermore, Lewis (1996: 14-15) stresses the need of reviewing the
sential task if
differently regarding cultural change; Fidler says that cultural change should
results, large-
school culture may bring good academic performance to schools where negative
micro-politics are dominant. The establishment of a sense of mutual respect as
well as collegiality may reduce micro-political behaviour among members of
and Smith (1982) also acknowledge the beneficial effect of a positive school
culture on school improvement:
We have argued that an academically effective school isdistinguished by its culture: a structure, process, and climate ofvalues and norms that channel staff and students in the direction ofsuccessful teacis such that it points to increasing the organizational effectivenessof a school building and is neither grade-level nor curriculumspecific (p. 68).
A body of literature gives recommendation about methods to adopt so as
to effect cultural change, for example, Gorringe (1994: 186) outlines six steps to
be followed when changing culture:
Clarity of purpose: a clear visionPresentation: of vision and strategyA published action planConfidence building: supporting and guiding people to act effectivelyLeadership: setting the vision and strategy, and leading in process ofimplementationA focus on underlying principles: referring back to the values whichguide management action
Gorringe emphasises the responsibility of a leader to effect change for a
given organisational culture. This is further supported by Nias et al. (1989:103)
founders
advocates collaborative leadership, where members of staff understand the
reason for change and the benefits therein. Additionally, school leaders have
the responsibility of communicating clearly the process of transforming their
school beliefs, values, norms and symbols to external education stake holders.
But, change should not entirely be a school leader role; the involvement of all
members in the school could make change successful. Renchler (1992:3)
advises how school leaders may change school culture. The focus is to look
forward, leaving behind some of the old norms, customs and beliefs. Take the
good and leave the bad ones behind:
Old practices and other losses need to be buried and commemorated. Meaningless practices and symbols need to be analysed and revitalised. Emerging visions, dreams, and hopes need to be articulated andcelebrated.
It can be argued that school heads in Tanzania need to learn how to
change school culture so as suit the learning and teaching process. Participatory
methods as a replacement of lecturing methods in classrooms could enhance
teaching and learning. What's more, involving subject-teachers in the process
of preparing the curriculum may well be an added advantage; however, this
depends upon willingness at a national level to involve teachers. Using
different motivation methods may increase the morale of teachers and
supporting staff as well as students. Furthermore, collaborative decision
making may cultivate a spirit of good performance among teachers, non-
teaching staff as well as students. Additionally, the shift from rule-of-thumb to
action research as a means of finding answers for making decisions could
possibly increase efficiency in decision making. In general schools have to take
into account the school culture and sub-culture that would facilitate effective
change.
Creation of vision and mission which may well be transformed into good
strategies and plans that will be shared among teachers, supporting staff,
students and the community can improve academic performance among learners
in community secondary schools. In addition, a change of culture from personal
work to team work may be a catalyst for academic success in community
secondary schools. One of the key elements of school culture which is mostly
forgotten by Tanzanian schools is evaluation. Evaluation helps to pinpoint
success and failure. School heads have to establish the culture of appraising
success and failure at their respective schools. This could minimise repetition
of errors and poor practice.
Furthermore, school heads should break the culture of isolation; that is,
neighbouring schools could establish cooperation, be it in academics, sports and
games, and various ways of solving common issues affecting their schools. In
addition, school heads, especially beginners, can formulate associations or
establish networks which will help them to learn better ways of leading their
schools. Above and beyond, academic visits among neighbouring schools could
make stronger academic performance for struggling community secondary
schools. The emphasis is that school leadership ought to break the culture of
development and growth. In so doing, the possession of a particular cultural
norm will depend mainly on the context, together with the weight of that norm.
be that practice be und
Understanding cultural norms is an essential challenge to educational
leaders in Tanzania. For example, many community secondary schools are
poor, some schools face strikes. In addition, community secondary schools face
books as well as reference books; and a high student drop-out rate particularly
for girls. Adoption of various cultural norms could bring ways out of some of
these problems. Fuller and Clarke (1994:119) support the use of cultural
models instead of policy mechanics models as tools for school effectiveness by
explaining:
...the classroom culturalists focus on the implicitly modelled normsexercised in the classroom and how children are socialized to acceptparticular rules of participation and authority, linguistic norms, orientations toward achievement, and conceptions of merit and status. Itis the culturally constructed meanings attached to instructional tools andpedagogy that sustain this socialization process, not the material characterof school inputs per se.
Furthermore a study by Deblois et al. (1994:1) in Quebec, Canada, found
a positive correlation between strong organisational culture and improved
academic performance together with low drop-out rate. Considering students,
Tanzanian school heads should create among students the culture of
responsibility. Learners ought not to rely on good-luck, the Japanese word
Gambatte; persevere, do not give up should be their motto. Park (2002:148)
advocates:
...the Academy believes that the very same spirit is at the heart of what
bthat reason, every day at the Academy begins by publicly honouring astudent who has demonstrated this gambatte spirit.
Additionally, school leaders are needed to motivate students in particular
and staff in general. The culture of motivation to learn in schools could be one
of important factors for improving academic performance in Tanzanian schools,
especially struggling schools. The culture of motivation to learn is one way or
another absent in Tanzanian schools. It is worst amongst teachers; teachers are
poorly motivated. Renchler (1992: 3) demands that school heads take into
consideration the whole of issue of motivation by stating:
...thus, a principal interested in establishing the motivation to learn and
persuade everyone students, teachers, parents, staff, and school boardthat goals related to those areas are desirable, achievable, andsustainable...
According to Renchler, cultural symbols like rituals; school shared
values; stories; cultural networks; school motto, newsletters; statement of goals;
behaviour codes; school song; unspoken expectations; cherished traditions
ought be communicated and celebrated as motivational tools. Renchler offers a
lesson to school heads in Tanzania. It is most likely that motivation could be a
vehicle to upturn the struggling secondary schools in Tanzania.
A number of studies have found a positive correlation between school
culture and good academic performance. For example, the findings of a study
made by Purkey and Smith (1983: 440), despite the fact that it was done about
30 years ago, could still be relevant today:
chance for success in learningcognitive skills heavily influenced by the climate of the school...A school-level culture press in the direction of academic achievement helps shapethe environment (and climate) in which the student learns. Anacademically effective school would be likely to have clear goals relatedto student achievement, teachers and parents with high expectations, anda structure designed to maximise opportunities for students to learn. Apress for academic success is more likely to realise that goal than would aclimate that emphasises affective growth or social development.
Additionally, a recent study by Cleveland et al. (2011:35) still supports
establishing successful school learning environments. It provides one of the
Building the culture of collegiality and collaboration in Tanzanian
schools could be another criterion for success of community secondary schools.
All teachers and supporting staff should feel as they are an essential part of the
school. Supporting this kind of culture (www.teacherbulletin.org, p.1)
culture is one where people feel valued, safe, and share the goal of self-
Lumby (2003) advise openness among school leaders, teachers, supporting staff
and students, and school heads who accept open constructive criticism from
their lower level staff members. Despite the dominance of a bureaucratic model
of leadership, allowing followers to comment negatively towards schools
leaders, especially in meetings may possibly enhance cooperation among school
leaders and followers. Besides, this can build a culture of tolerance and
accountability among school leaders. Foskett and Lumby (2003:176) note,
to a school or college, some realistic hope of openness and of sharing power
amongst the hierarchy of staff and between staff and students and between the
schools are operating in a formal style of leadership, it highly likely that Foskett
among secondary schools. Besides, celebrating the good performance of
individuals can be another motivational factor. Heroes and heroines have to be
recognised.
Comparing school cultures
School culture differs from one school to another. Norms, beliefs,
values, traditions and customs vary from one school to another. Furthermore,
school culture is not the same from one region of the world to the other; in most
of the developing nations, schools emphasise replication whereas in the west,
schools stress innovation. Table 6 gives examples of school culture from
various regions of the world.
African schools Chinese schools andFar East schools
USAschools
Australianschools
Language, race,gender and class inSouth Africa are deepsocial re-arrangementin the country wherethe post-apartheid isbeing given newmeaning; howeverracial integration isstill a challengingissue (Soudien,1990:108)
Most importantemphasis onTanzanian education(primary andsecondary) is oninput: classrooms;teachers; books;laboratories anddesks whileforgetting learningoutcomes: creativity;innovation;numeracy; literacy;writing; analysis andcritical thinking(www.uwezo.net,2010:7). Conformity isdominant culture inTanzanian schools
Some research found thatstudents and teachers incountries of the Far East oftensee memorisation andunderstanding as workingtogether to produce higherquality outcomes. In contrast,in the West it is more commonto associate memorising with'surface' and understandingwith 'deep' approaches tolearning (Dahlin &Watkins, 2007:65)
Power is concentrated inhands of few leaders, collective benefits is stressed , culture too stressesconsideration rather thanaggression (Bush and Qiang, 2000: 60-62)
In Thailand the dominantculture is of power-concentration, stressingreplication (Bush, 2008:159)
Culturalcapital due todominance ofcapitalismplays a greatrole onperformance, controllingfamilybackground
aptitude inthe USA
Curriculum offersa range of skillsenhanced throughcollaboration andcompetitionamong schools
School fees arearranged byschools in privateschools
Conclusions
A big question which needs an answer from all Tanzanian stake holders
values, beliefs, used as means to good achievement? The educational sector in
Tanzania is underperforming. The difficulty lies in the mode of delivery - the
process of leaning. It is mainly teacher centred instead of learner centred, even
though this is from time to time led by a large number of learners in the
classroom. The kind of education that puts less emphasis on quantity is an in-
put oriented form of education. The belief of this sort of education is that the
availability of essential facilities like classrooms, desks, laboratories and
teachers enable learning to take place. However, it forgets about motivating
educators; it does not celebrate heroes and heroines, its beliefs focus on quantity
rather than on outcome. This type of education is not likely to prepare learners
to achieve their full potential. The education that is provided in Tanzania is that
which emphasises reproduction instead of creativity and innovation.
The culture of centralisation of curriculum preparation, the failure to
involve educators and learners in making major decisions, for instance policy
making, is another hindering aspect. The belief is that lower levels are mainly
recipients of what the elite formulate at the top. This undermines creativity in
both learners and teachers.
Various schools possess cultural symbols like the school motto, uniform,
school song, shared values, norms and beliefs: the question is how they are
being used as a vehicle for success? Most of these are taken for granted. Still,
it has to be acknowledged that school culture might be an important factor for
future success of teaching and learning in Tanzanian schools as Duignan
(2006:6) believes:
Educational leaders and teachers have a particular responsibility to ensurethat students in their care receive the type of education and learningexperience that help transform their lives so that they can break the bonds
responsible citizens, to the common good
Chapter eight is about leading change in education settings. The entire
discussion in the chapter focuses on effecting change in Tanzanian Community
schools by using SEDP I and SEDP II as a case in point. Issues discussed in this
chapter include:
The concept of change in education
Challenges of change from the internal environment: the case of SEDP I
and SEDP II
Difficulties emerging from external environment: the case of SEDP I
and SEDP II
Opportunities for organisational change
The concept of change in education
241) supports the meaning given by Morrison by stating t
the Greek philosopher Heraclitus noted that you cannot step twice into the river;
everything flows and nothing is static; cool things become warm, the warm
The urgent reasons for reform are now familiar, the global society isincreasingly complex, requiring educated citizens who can learncontinuously and who can work with diversity, locally andinternationally. Although the source of blame arises, it is now anundeniable conclusion that the education system and its partners havefailed to produce citizens who can contribute to and benefit from theworld that offers enormous opportunity, and equally complex difficulty
Fullan is possibly advocating for educational change that will prepare a
learner to be a lifelong learner, at the same time for educational reform that will
enable a learner to acquire skills relevant for the fast changing world. Morrison
and reform in education are inescapable.
Regardless of how one views society, education, as a significant component in
Various forces like technology, demography, and legal, economic and
political conditions cause disequilibrium in a school and necessitate change
(Babyegeya, 2002: 212). Leading change, whether internally or externally
generated, involves facing many barriers and limitations; in fact barriers to
change emerge both within the organisation and outside it. According to Stoll
and Fink (1997:55-57) school change involves many challenges.
Mobility of teachers and principals. A high level of turn over causesproblems of continuity, commitment to goals and school vision, andcan disrupt momentum of the improvement process. The difficulty of sustaining commitment. Fullan (1991:89) comments
programs irrespective of whether they arise from external initiative orare internally developed, new staff may not be committed to particular
Micro political pressure. Micro political issues significantly challenge
not paid to the alteration of power relationships. Schools are places inwhich control is a key issue. Principals are faced with the problem ofmaintaining control while trying to generate enthusiasm and
Decentralisation. Less effective schools are left to flounder withoutsystem-level checks and balances to ensure they do not decline, to theextent that they find themselves in big difficulties when is already toolate.Maintaining the distinction between means and end. While is oftendifficult to measure the outcomes of a specific improvement, itessential to keep them in mind. Contextual differences. Does one size- fit- all? A problem of genericschool improvements is insufficient detail in attention to variations inimprovement conditions and strategies in different types of school. Concurrent agendas. At the same time as the schools are involved indevelopment work, they must also maintain their focus on othercommitments and respond to external directives
Challenges of change from the internal environment: the case of SEDP I
and SEDP II
Internal difficulties associated with leading organisational change at a
community secondary school may arise from five sources namely: curriculum,
teaching and supporting staff, school environment, and school management
team and school culture.
to reach 50 percent cohort participation and transition rate from primary to
i). The goal seemed to be ambitious as long as the increase of students did not
correspond to the training of teachers; SEDP II shows that the training of
teachers is still low compared to demand (MOEVT, 2010:12). This is a
practical barrier, where change is impeded by the insufficiency of resources, as
denoted by Morrison (1998:122). A further difficulty in African countries and
particular in Tanzania to reach and meet the demand of the disadvantaged
groups: students such as those with HIV/AIDS; hunters; gatherers; fishermen;
orphans; people with disabilities; street children and in general the girls, few of
whom are sent to school in developing countries (Ministry of Education and
Culture, 1995:18).
Secondly, teachers and non teaching staff: SEDP II explains clearly the
role of
includes a head of school, assistant head of school, senior academic master
/mistress, senior master/mistress in charge of discipline, sports and cultural
affairs master/mistress, senior master/mistress for school maintenance and
It can be clearly seen that the role of teachers and supporting staff within SEDP
is not evidently stated, although these are the key players in the implementation
of the plan. A study by Stoll et al. (2006:221) acknowledges the role of the
teachers in effecting change:
ty and its links withschool-therefore critical. Capacity is a complex blend of motivation, skill, positive learning organisation conditions and culture, and infrastructure
of support. Put together, it gives individuals, groups, whole schoolcommunities and school systems the power to get involved in and sustainlearning over time.
It is more likely that without the collaboration of teachers and non-
teaching staff the success of SEDP will be in reasonable doubt. Sarason
although it is true that the principal is the gate keeper in regards to change
effort, the ultimate outcome depends on when and how teachers become part of
leading class of post-industrial world; it is time to rethink leadership as it relates
Another contribution is made by Fullan (2007:3) on problems encountered
administrators introduce change for their own self aggrandizement and they
to the transformation of teaching and learning , they do this by engaging in the
classroom innovation , the challenges for the school is to identify, deploy and
The third important internal challenge to the head of the community school
in the implementation of SEDP concerns the school environment, which
includes all the physical resources inside and outside of the classroom. The
School Management Team (SMT) under the head of a school has to ensure the
quality of any newly constructed building and maintenance of all available
buildings at their respective school (Ministry of Education and Culture,
2004:15). This argument fails to recognise the financial difficulties facing
Tanzania as one of the poor countries in the world and the fact that such
maintenance is beyond the capacity of the school head with his/her management
team. The money provided to the school is usually not enough especially for
maintenance of old classrooms, library and dormitories.
The fourth internal challenge emerges from the School Management Team
whose chairperson is the school head. The School Management Team does the
- to-
day activities, preparation of school development plans and budgets,
supervising the implementation of education and training policy, taking care of
new building construction and maintenance of old buildings, lastly working
with village governments to identify students in need of government
and Culture has
a positive will to decentralise some of its roles to lower levels. The challenges
are: Are the School Management Teams prepared to implement the given roles?
Are the school heads prepared to implement the given roles? Literature
indicates that most of educational leaders in Africa and Tanzania in particular
lack leadership training (See Mathibe, 2007: 523, Onguko et al., 2008: 721 and
Bush and Jackson, 2002:418). In a study by Khamis and Sammons (2007: 2)
about developing countries the following observation is made:
Head teachers have a pivotal role in deciding the fate of any change,especially regarding sustainability and continuation towards improvementonce the improvement integration ceases. A more focused training ofheads relating to their roles in a school where the innovation is takingplace could be effective in ensuring the continuing support which isnecessary once head teachers have been through the training process.
It is also certain that the education sector in Tanzania to a large extent is
still dominated by a formal leadership style; and decision making is still top-
down despite the obvious measures of decentralizing education. Because of the
nature of this leadership style, even at school level a formal type of leadership
exists. Sarason (1982: 160) gives evidence for the educational institution
working under the bureaucratic type of leadership:
The principal wants to be and feel influential .The dilemma begins whenthe principal realizes that words and power, far from guaranteeingintended outcomes, may be ineffectual and even produce the opposite ofwhat is desired. When hostility and resistance to his recommendationideas of change is encountered for example with a teacher, the principaluses two alternatives to respond: assert authority or withdraw from thefray.
The last but not least source of challenge when a school head is leading
change is that of changing school culture. Morrison (1998: 152) defines
itudes to and care
for its employees, rites and ceremonials, celebrations of achievements, formal
and informal networks and systems of communication, the ideology,
perceptions, expression of needs and interest, patterns of expectations and the
general orie
2006:13).
Fidler (1996: 113) outlines three factors relevant to changing organizational
culture:
(i) Evident crisis: where an organizations evidently in trouble or
heading for trouble, there is a greater willingness to consider deep-
seated change
(ii) Attractiveness of change; the proposed change needs to have all its
highly desirable features emphasized
(iii) Strength of present culture: the stronger the present culture, the
more difficult it is to change.
nally
mandated, top down seems to be most associated with the feelings of alienation
Babyegeya (2002: 206) uses a hypothetical example of two schools with
different assumptions that produce different values and behaviour:
School A
Truth comes from older, wiser , better educated and higher status
members of the organisation
People are capable of loyalty and discipline in carrying out
directives
Relationships are linear and vertical and each member has her/his
own territory
School B
Ideas come from individuals
People are responsible, motivated and capable of governing
themselves and truth can be determined by testing ideas from
different people
Members of organisation now themselves as a family who will take
care of each other
Taking into account the various definitions of culture and the two different
hypothetical school cultures given above, it is highly likely that a head of a
community school in Tanzania will have many challenges in the
implementation of both SEDP I and II, especially if s/he works in culture of
school B, because SEDP gives a little room to members of the school (teachers,
supporting staff and students) to participate in the process of education reform.
For example, the school management team does not directly include class room
teachers, supporting staff and students in the preparation of development plans,
budgets, ensuring quality constructed classrooms and the other day to day
affairs of the school (Ministry of Education and Culture, 2004). However,
School A would have a reasonable chance of implementation, because the
school culture is one of respecting and obeying directives from the older, trusted
members.
Morrison (1998:122) emphasises that before effecting any change,
members of any given organisation have to be motivated. The whole process
should be discussed by members: for example what are the likely benefits and
problems of that particular change will bring to the organisation? Central to any
discussion of change is the analysis of the personal motivation...people must be
motivated to change, to face novelty, to cope with the disequilibrium that
change brings.
Difficulties of change arising from the external environment
A school does not exist in isolation; in the process of implementing
education reform under SEDP I or SEDP II it interacts with the external
environment. This includes: the global influence, the Ministry of Education and
Culture, the regional leadership, district leadership, the ward and community at
large including parents. It will also face cultural influences for example belief
diversity, together with the fact that students come from different ethnic and
economic backgrounds.
instance, have the exerted pressure to make sure that students are taught the use
of computers. Fullan (2007: 6) describes reforms in the world brought by civil
are lifelong learners and who can work within changing contexts. Managing
The Ministry of Education and Vocational Training, formerly Ministry of
Education and Culture is responsible for policy formulation and monitoring, it
provides finance and recruits teachers (Ministry of Education and Culture,
2004:14). The possibility is remote that the planned policy can be well
implemented when the heads of schools are not involved in the process of
formulating the plan; lack of teachers, high rate of teacher turnover especially in
rural areas and financial difficulties facing schools also limit leading effective
change. An article by Simkins (2000:330) concerning education in the UK
observes top down change rarely work:
Evolving policy environment which educational institutions havefaced over the past 10 years in the United Kingdom has exerted a
number of common pressures on those who lead and manage them. These pressures include:
The need to perform in the quasi market and take more customerfocused approach to those they serve.The need to set and meet demanding targets in terms of measurableperformance indicators which are set by the central government orits agents. The need to exhibit appropriate forms of management andorganisation which can be inspected and for which institutions canbe held to account.
The coordinating organs for SEDP are: the regional education office,
district education office, the ward education office and the school boards
(Ministry of Education and Culture, 2004: 14); however, the school head and
his/her team have more responsibilities in terms of accountability.
Education reform touches the community; parents/guardians of learners.
Parents usually worry about changes introduced in education (Fullan, 2007: 3);
in most cases significant changes in school to be effective should involve
parents/guardians. Sarason (1982:2) supports the argument;
understand the failure of efforts to change and improve schools unless one deals
Durrant and Holden (2006:22) emphasise that:
School based and extended communities of practice foster criticalfriendship and sharing of good practice across departments, school anddistrict boundaries. Such partnership offers the opportunity for
professionalism founded on the following principles and increasedopportunities for professional dialogue:
Reducing teachers professional isolationConnecting professional development to meaningful content andchangesCreating an environment of professional safety and trust
SEDP involves the community in various ways; for example parents who
cannot afford to pay school fees for their children are provided with government
scholarships, the community has the responsibility of constructing of
classrooms (Ministry of Education and Culture, 2004:15). The limitation on the
community collaboration for school development is the prevailing state of
poverty among parents in the country. Because of poverty heads of school relies
much on the Ministry of Education for finance.
Sometimes the head of a secondary are in poor relationships with the
community around the schools, for example schools get into land disputes with
organisations and the community in general tend to encroach on schools land
earmarked, allocated and demarcated for
Education and Culture, 1995: 27).
Finally, a head of a community school faces cultural challenges from the
external environment: A study by Riley (2008:311-315) some problems
regarding schools working with the community, this observation could as well
face Tanzanian schools despite the fact that observation is in developed world:
We live in fragile some might say dangerous-times. There may be citiesacross the globe, from San Paulo, to Los Angeles, to London in whichcommunities are marginalised or isolated: white working-classcommunities, refugee or immigrant communities, each with their owntensions and complexities, but nevertheless rich in culture and socialcapital. For the children and young people in those communities, successneeds to be achieved in partnership with their home communities, not inspite of them. Otherwise there is a risk of alienation. This requiresreciprocity on the part of schools and communities: it means bringingschools into communities, and communities into schools.
Billot et al (2007: 15) take a similar view:
It has been noted that continual and increasing immigration is puttingpressure on school communities both in terms of resourcing and changingcharacteristics of the school community, in such a context it imperativethat schools recognise the differing needs and goals of students andrespond to this diversity.
A school cannot exclude itself from cultural influences like religious beliefs,
ethnicity, rituals, heroes and heroines, celebrations, stories and informal
networks; the challenge to the head of the school is how to handle them. Fullan
process of analyse-think change. They are much more likely to change in a see-
feel sequence. The role of the leader is to help create a process that helps people
see new possibilities that engage their emotions and thus change behaviours or
Opportunities for organisational change
A leader of change encounters many barriers associated with personal
values, psychological effects, and fear of losing power as well as practical
limitations. Yet, there are positive forces toward organisation change
(Morrison, 1998:22). It could be possible that the head of a community
secondary school under major secondary education reform in Tanzania has
opportunities for successful management of change; support from the
community for construction of classroom for example is one of the
opportunities for positive change, availability of financial resources from the
Ministry of Education is another opportunity, utilisation of available resources
like teachers, classroom and available books is an added advantage. He/she also
gets advice from higher levels of hierarchy; the regional level, district level, the
ward level and from the school board. Ministry of Education (2004: ii)
acknowledges that:
The plan clearly recognises the current strengths, weaknesses, andresource limitations in the present system. It is predicated on acommunity based development approach intended to elicit greaterparticipation from below. Its implementation will demand commitmentand hard work of all stake holders. Furthermore, it provides us with asecondary education that can meet challenges and exploit opportunitiesprovided by globalization and liberalization.
Stoll and Fink (1997:50-54) propose a number of possibilities for leading
successful change.
Schools need to address internal conditions that maintain andsupport improvement, readiness for change and capacity to takeownershipEstablishing trust and openness between staff, pupils and thecommunity before embarking on substantive changeHaving vision, it helps the school to define their own direction andto develop an attitude that we are in charge of change
Joint planningCommitment to change is more likely when those involved inimplementation of school improvement are consulted and involvedin making decisionsSystematic planning, monitoring and evaluation of the process andof final outcomes is essentialThe ability to deal with problems actively, promptly and in depth isimportantSchools require flexibility to accommodate external ideas withinthe own context and needs.
Fullan and Ballew (2004:5) take the similar view on reinforcing the forces for
positive change by outlining the following measures:
Moral purpose; acting with the intention of making a positivechange in the lives of employees, customers and societyUnderstanding change; it essential for leaders to understand changeprocess. Building relationshipsCreating and sharing knowledge
The ideas set out by Stoll and Fink (1997) together with Fullan and Ballew
(2004) are restricted by the way SEDP was prepared. The plan has been made
at the top and the head of the community secondary school and his/her
management team are just implementers, and they have to be accountable for
that at higher levels. There is a good possibility that the implementation of the
plan will be difficult, especially in securing strong support from teachers, non
teaching staff and the students and community.
Morrison (1998: 16) advocates a number of enabling factors for leading
positive change; the model has some advantages when addressing resistance to
educational change. The factors enumerated are:
CommunicationInvolvement and ownershipClarity at all times in all thingsClear focusEncouraging successLooking at the causes of problems and difficultiesProviding evidence of benefitUsing evaluation and self evaluationInvolving and addressing personal responsesBeing sensitive to peopleIdentifying the kinds of threatsBuilding trustLooking at cultural factors in the organisationProviding support
Playing to people strengthsOffer compensationUndertake task analysis
Babyegeya (2002: 208) advocates strongly for positive change of culture to
accommodate new stories, symbols, rituals, structures, promotion of heroes and
heroines as opportunities for leading positive change. Kotter (1996:59)
concludes that a transforming organisation succeeds if a sense of urgency is put
on fellow managers and employ.
Conclusions
In conclusion, a leader of a community secondary school would experience
a number of barriers in the process of effecting change; difficulties arise from
within the school and outside the school. Although the overall aim of the reform
is to benefit the leaner, there is only a slight possibility of implementing the
objective successfully, since neither learner nor teachers were involved in the
preparation of the plan; SEDP comes from the top. Another limitation is the
capacity of the school; it is suggested that more students have to be enrolled to
meet the demand of secondary education (Ministry of Education and Culture,
2004: vi). Schools face a number of problems like financial difficulties,
shortage of teachers, inadequate books and few classrooms; it highly likely that
the quality of education will be negated by the number of students. SEDP
specifies that the head of school together with his/her management team will
form a steering committee, that committee will be responsible for the overall
implementation of the plan. The head and the team have limited capacity to
implement the plan because they were neither involved in its formulation nor
they are given skills to implement the plan.
There are also challenges from school culture, where a school receives
students from different tribes with different customs, norms, beliefs and
traditions. Cultural diversity is one of the barriers to leading effective change
within the school. It is unlikely that change will be led successfully where
students, teachers and supporting staff are not motivated toward change; how
will heroes and heroines be decided? How will the rites and rituals be
reinforced? How will the cultural diversity be managed? Whenever the plan is
top down there is only a small possibility of managing school culture.
development, pressure for economic development, trade liberalisation, shortage
of job opportunities, political turbulence, spread of killer disease like
HIV/AIDS, street children and orphans. Students need computer knowledge and
parents are after a better education for their children: all these are challenges
which face a head of school under SEDP reform.
There are also accountability issues. Schools work under Ministry of
Education and Culture, with the school board, ward, district and regional
education offices having a supervisory role: there is a strong possibility that the
school head with his/her Management team works under pressure.
Despite the fact that the head of a community secondary school faces many
difficulties in leading the reform introduced by Ministry of Education under
SEDP, there are some opportunities for success. Communities have the
responsibility of constructing classrooms to be used by the increased number of
students in addition to finance that comes from the Ministry of Education, and
parents have a strong demand for secondary education for their children. The
Ministry of Education provides scholarships for students who are unable to pay
school fees, it also employs new teachers. The school head also receives advice
from the higher organs in the hierarchy; the school board, ward, district and
region education offices in addition have existing structures and resources
economic take-off of Tanzania, but capacity building of implementers and the
involvement of key stake holders in decisions relating to education reform in
Tanzania is essential for successful implementation of this education plan.
Chapter nine aims at addressing the issue of quality education. The chapter
considers the role of school heads as key players for achieving quality
education. A number of questions are raised and answers sought concerning
how school heads could be fully involved to achieve quality of education in
Tanzanian secondary schools. This chapter is divided into seven parts namely:
Factors responsible for quality education
Style of leadership needed to meet quality education
How could be a good school be made
Involvement of school heads
Involvement of parents
Linkage of theory and practice
Factors Responsible for Quality Education
UNESCO (2000) identifies a number of factors to be considered when
aiming to make the process of teaching and learning of high quality. These
factors identified in a study by Mbelle (2008:8 quoting UNESCO, 2000)
comprise:
Learner background (gender, age, home language).Home background (distance to school, meals received, parents in thehome).Home learning support (assistance with home work, activities other thanschool related work, parent education).Teacher background (age, gender, training, experience).
Teaching conditions (furniture, learning materials, availability of chalkboards and chalks).
resources, teacher activity after school).School head background (gender, qualification, experience).School characteristics (school safety, school size, school shifts, schoolfacilities, buildings, and amenities).
The four main settings pin-pointed by UNESCO so as to achieve quality
teaching and learning include: the home environment; the school; teachers; and
play a big role with respect to child growth and development, while at school,
the school head together with teachers lead the way towards quality teaching
and learning. The investigation by Mbelle (2008:8) shows further that analysis
done in Botswana, Malawi, Madagascar, Mali, Mauritius, Morocco, Senegal,
Uganda and Zambia, regarding on the relati
performance against the above factors indicated that teacher background,
characteristics played a big role in quality education.
Zombwe (2008:8) is concerned about poor management strategies in
remember that the school administration has either motivating or de-motivating
role for teachers. Dictatorial leadership may contribute to teachers running away
Educational quality in terms of outcome does not stand on its own: it
depends on the quality of inputs. In short poor input is mostly likely to lead to
poor outcome, while inputs of high-quality could likely result in high-quality
output. The framework in Figure 21 shows the interdependence of input and
characteristics. All these have a bearing towards achieving quality education.
Figure 21 summarises some the main elements regarding the relationship
between educational input and educational outcomes (EFA Global Monitoring
Report, 2005:35-37)
Context: cognitive development and the accumulation of particular
values, attitudes and skills are important objectives of education systems
in most societies. Their content may differ but their broader structure is
similar throughout the world...in one sense the key to improving the
quality of education to helping education systems better achieve these
objectives could be equally universal.
Enabling inputs: other things being equal, the success of teaching and
learning is likely to be strongly influenced by the resources made
available to support the process and the direct ways in which these
resources are managed.
Outcomes: the outcomes of education should be assessed in the context of
its agreed objectives. They are most easily expressed in terms of
academic achievement (sometimes test grades, but more usually are
popularly in terms of examination performance), though ways of
assessing creative and emotional development as well as changes in
values, attitude and behaviour have also been devised. Other proxies for
learner achievement and for broader social or economic gains can be
used; an example is labour market success. It is useful to distinguish
between, achievement, attainment and other outcome measures-which
can include broader benefits to society.
and how-quickly is
strongly influenced by their capacities and experience. Assessments of
the quality of education outcomes that ignore initial differences among
learners are likely to be misleading.
Teaching and learning: the teaching and learning process is closely nested
within the support system of inputs and other contextual factors.
Teaching and learning is the key arena for human development. It is here
that the impact of curricula is felt, that teacher methods work well or not
and the learners are motivated to participate and learn how to learn.
Tanzania has made a notable effort towards educating its citizens since
independence. Nonetheless, the quality of education especially at primary level
started to deteriorate in the early 1980s. In recognition of that, various
programmes were put in place, for instance the Primary Education Development
Programme (PEDP)-2002-2006 and Secondary Education Development
Programme (SEDP)-2005-2009. Various efforts have also been put in place for
children out of school, for example, Complementary Basic Education in
Tanzania (COBET).
With all these initiatives, the number of enrolments of children to school has
2010:7) study shows:
..., as a result of Primary Education Development Programme (PEDP)and Secondary Education Development Programme (SEDP), there hasbeen a significant increase in children enrolled in primary and secondaryschools. In 2000, there were 4,382,410 children enrolled in primaryschools; by 2005 the number of children enrolled increased to 7,541,208,an increase of 72 percent. In 2003, there were 345,441 students enrolledin Forms 1to 6. In 2010, there are 1,638,699 students enrolled insecondary schools, an increase of 374 percent...
For a poor country such as Tanzania, this is quantitatively a notable
achievement; however, the quality of education is still poor. Much advice has
been offered to improve the quality of education in Tanzania. But the role of
school head as a leader for change towards high quality in the process of
teaching and learning is not often emphasised. The following section considers
the means of progress towards quality education with the school head as driver.
What style of leadership could be put in use?
Leading in an educational context involves various approaches, for
example, transformational, transactional, or instructional leadership. The main
factor to enhance performance of any school organisation is the quality of
leadership. The student outcomes and the success of any school organisation
depend a great deal on the style of leadership employed.
A recent study by Robinson et al. (2008:635) in New Zealand on the
importance of the style of leadership in influencing academic and attitudinal
instructional leadership and between the five leadership dimensions suggested
that the more leaders focus their relationships, their work, and their learning on
the core business of teaching and learning, the greater their influence on student
ly the benefits of transformational and
instructional approach to leadership and its good impact in improving learner
outcomes.
Also, Crippen
advocates for educational leaders who can develop strong, effective and caring
A transformational style of leadership
as well as an instructional style of leadership is likely to fulfil the named
conditions. By successively involving lower levels in leadership and by putting
attention on the need of the learner and on the curriculum, the quality of
education could be improved.
Crippen and Wallin (2008:547 referencing Murphy and Seashore-Louis,
1999: xxii) acknowledge the role of transformational type of leadership which
when they say:
In these new post-industrial educational organisations, there are importantshifts in roles, relationships, and responsibilities; traditional patterns ofrelationships are altered; authority flows are less hierarchical; roledefinitions are both more general and more flexible; leadership isconnected to competence for needed tasks rather than to formal positions;and independence and isolation are replaced by cooperative work.
Attention should be given to studies on the usefulness of the
outcome [academic as well as attitudinal]. A transactional style of leadership is
still dominant in Tanzanian secondary schools. For instance the relationship
between educational officers and schools heads is top-down. At school level,
the dominant feature of relationships between a school head with teachers and
students is hierarchical. The complexity o
responsibilities is for the most part likely to be reduced if a lateral relationship
at school level as well as at Ministry of Education level exists. Distributed type
of leadership is mostly likely needed to enhance performance in educational
settings.
How can a good school be made?
High quality schools are keys for good student outcomes. Yet, better
schools are made by good school leaders. School heads have the responsibility
of making good schools. School heads, for instance, have a key role in creating
favourable teaching and learning environments as well as establishing good
relationships with the outside environment: parents, guardians, the community
and policy making bodies. Muijs observes the positive influence of school
-teachers you are the critical agents for
change and higher standards school by school. There is literally no more
In the US, Bush
smart, capable person, who is motivated and dedicated and who believes every
2010:46 quoting, Bush, 2003). These two political leaders recognise the role of
Besides, Bush goes further in his speech by identifying some important
variables for school heads at their particular schools: innovation and treating
each learner as an individual. School heads as leaders of change need to be
innovative and creative thinkers. This is because modern schools have to cope
with fast moving science and technology and other new demands in educational
settings.
Mulford and Silins (2010:78) in their recent study suggest that effective
principals have an indirect influence on learner outcomes through teachers
working with students in classrooms as well as outside classrooms, for example,
in extra-curricular activities. Furthermore, a study by Mulford and Silins gives
evidence about the involvement of classroom teachers in leadership as having a
positive impact on learning and on the capability of school leadership as a
whole. In addition, improvement in school culture as well as school structure
and systems brings a positive impact on learner outcomes (Mulford and Silins,
2010:78). The study by Mulford and Silins is consistent with the study
conducted by Day et al. (2009) on the quality of leadership. High quality
leaders have a major bearing on the success of any school, compared to the
effect of policy made from higher levels (Mulford and Silins, 2010:80 citing
Day et al., 2009).
their followers; align followers and supporting systems; empower their
followers; and lastly motivate their followers (Kantabutra, 2010:382).
school. School leaders have to have the ability to communicate effectively what
they dream to be the reality. Moreover, to improve the performance of a given
school leaders need to establish effective communication networks and set up
purposeful delegation of duties and responsibility, to empower followers, as
well as giving staff the capacity to perform through professional development.
One more factor which makes a good school is motivating followers as well as
students. Motivation encourages performance. De-motivation depresses
performance. A good quality school could be the one whose leaders motivate
both students and staff.
Are school heads involved in the preparation of high-quality curriculum?
A school head is an internal inspector on all matters related to curriculum
implementation at a given school. She/he is also involved in the supervision of
curriculum implementation at the school. In Tanzanian secondary school
settings, a school head is accountable to higher educational hierarchies [district,
region or national level] for learner achievement at their school. In order to be
able to supervise curriculum implementation, it is important for school heads to
be involved in the whole process of curriculum preparation and development.
But, when one examines the process of curriculum preparation in Tanzania,
school heads are rarely involved, either in school curriculum preparation or
curriculum change. This argument is supported by the study of Chediel et al.
(2000:38) which indicates no involvement of school heads even in text book
preparation. The questions which arise are: school heads as instructional
leaders, how they can supervise curriculum implementation while they are not
acquainted with what they are supposed to supervise?
In study conducted in Botswana, Pansiri (2008:486) identifies three
major skills in the curriculum management: instructional supervision, classroom
observation and activities at school aimed at professional development.
Findings from this study suggest that 75% of teachers acknowledged that Senior
Management Team (SMT) members visited them in the classroom, 70% of
teachers said that SMT praised them. Besides, 70% said the SMT gave them
helpful feedback (Pansiri, 2008:486). Furthermore, Pansiri acknowledges the
usefulness of routine classroom visits in enhancing curriculum implementation.
In a Tanzanian context, similar to Botswana, SMTs are to be found in
most secondary schools, consisting of: school head, second head (second-
master/mistress), Senior Academic Mistress /Master, Discipline
Mistress/Master, Maintenance Teacher, store-man/store-keeper and school
nurse/doctor. In most cases the supervision of the curriculum is left to the
school heads, because school heads are the ones accountable to higher levels.
Occasionally, the school head delegates his/her authority to the second heads or
the academic masters/mistresses. But, SMT has little knowledge and skills in
matters related to the management of curriculum change, because the Tanzania
Institute of Education (TIE) rarely involves school heads or other senior staff at
school level in the process of curriculum preparation.
In this era of rapid technological and socio-economic change, a new
outlook is needed to enhance student outcomes (academic, attitudinal and
psychomotor change). The integration of instructional and transformational
styles of leadership could improve student outcomes. For example, in a study
of 24 schools in the US involving elementary, middle and high schools, findings
show that integration of both instructional and transformational styles of
leadership led to improvement of learner outcomes (Robinson et al., 2008:666).
MOEVT, in addition to advising the Tanzanian Institute of Education (TIE) on
involving a number of education stake holders in the preparation or change of
school curriculum, it should advise the involvement of school teachers and non-
teaching staff as well as students in curriculum management. The major role of
the school heads towards having quality curriculum management, which aims to
ability to share it with staff, outstanding strategic intent, the creation of an
enabling school culture, as well as good interpersonal and intrapersonal skills.
Above and beyond, school heads as well as other SMT members need training
on all matters relating to curriculum management, through short courses,
seminars and workshops to enhance their skills.
School heads have the role of curriculum control; regarding this
responsibility they work in collaboration with the school inspectors. School
heads have internal quality control of the curriculum at their respective schools.
However, for effective and efficient control of education quality, they need to
work together with School Inspectors who are external quality controller of the
curriculum. School inspectors are the quality controller of education in
Tanzania.
Could involvement of parents improve academic achievement?
The Secondary Education Development Plan Phase II (SEDP-II)
recognizes the problem of deterioration of the quality of education in Tanzania,
especially in public owned secondary schools. SEDP-II clearly admits that,
despite the extensive planning under SEDP-I: to raise the overall pass rate from
36% (2004) up to 70% (2009) by the following means: providing in-service
training; reviewing the curriculum; enhancing library services; restructuring
examinations; increasing funding as well as raising the production of Diploma
teachers (MOEVT, 2010:10), still, there was an improvement of just 4% in the
pass rate.
The pass rate from Div. I-III rose to 40% during the five years of SEDP I
(MOEVT, 2010:11). SEPD-II
science and mathematics teachers have been conducted. However many
ordinary levels was improved in 2005, funding to secondary schools was
increased, more books were sent to schools, more teachers were employed, and
new teacher trainees were sent to Teachers Colleges and Universities.
Regarding establishing libraries, only 57 out of 2406 planned libraries were
built by 2009 (MOEVT, 2010:11).
Furthermore, a number of studies conducted in Tanzania, for example, a
study by Mbelle and Katabaro (2003:12), disclose poor performance among
learners at ordinary level schools; the situation being worse for girls than boys.
ision zero) the proportion of females is very high (20.52
percent in 1992; 17.3 percent in 1997; 17.28 percent in 1998 and 14.43 percent
in 1999 and 14.0 percent in 2000 compared to male figures of 7.94 percent; 4.45
percent; 6.06 percent; 6.54 percent and 4.38 percent respectively) (Mbelle and
Katabaro, 2003:12). The most recent study conducted by Uwezo (2010:5) still
shows quantity compromising quality. Despite the fact that this study was done
at primary school level, the situation is most likely the same at secondary level.
Another study by Wedgwood, discussing the state of secondary education in
Tanzania gives comparable data to those offered by Mbelle and Katabaro
above:
Low quality of education and the financial burden of fees on parents havehad negative effects on efficiency in terms of high dropout rates. Out of83,509 students in Form I in 2001 there were only 60,851 in Form IV in2004, meaning that less than 73% of the original cohort continueddirectly to form IV (Wedgwood 2006:389 citing MOEC, 2004b). Thelowest transition rate is for form II to form III, with the form II nationalexaminations acting as barriers to progression. Retention is much lowerfor girls than for boys, so with the gender balance close to 50:50 in formI, girls make up around 40% of those leaving school. This is largely due
2005:9).
One of the ways to prevent the deterioration of provision of education in
secondary education can be through school heads involving parents in the
process of provision of education. In the course of meetings with parents, for
example, a school head might get good advice on how to implement curriculum
delivery at his/her school. The head might also give advice to parents about the
need for girls to stay and to achieve within the secondary school system.
Additionally, currently, most of secondary schools are ward schools (shule za
kata). Communities are involved in construction of classrooms, laboratories,
s or water wells by either contributing money, or through
offering labour power. Establishing a good relationship with the community
can be a major component towards quality academic attainment of a given
secondary school.
A different way of involving parents/community is through choosing some
of parents to be on the School Board; in this way parents will have
representation in school decision bodies. But, the ability to create a good image
of the school outside of the school compound is a skill which has to be learnt.
Tanzanian school heads need to acquire this skill before or during their course
of headship, either through mentoring and coaching or through specialised
educational leadership training colleges. The curriculum prepared for education
students at the different educational levels needs to include content regarding
or workshops one of the emphases could be the possession of social skills.
Can linkage of theory a
At present, the globe is experiencing remarkable economic, demographic
has been transformed by extraordinarily economic, demographic, technological
requirements of learners, teaching and non-teaching staff and the community at
large. Increased new roles and heightened expectations could be met where the
capacity of school heads is improved through training. A number of studies
support the significance of leadership training as a way of improving school
(2002:418); Briggs et al. (2006:260); Pheko (2008:72); Onguko et al.
(2008:718); Duncan (2009:3); Webber et al, (2009:1). Furthermore Wildy and
Clarke (2008:484) emphasise the training of school leaders as follows:
We acknowledge that continued professional development is essential, especially the kind of structured reflective learning activity that helpsprincipals to review their practices and analyse their tacit professionalknowledge in a systematic way.
Findings from various pieces of research demonstrate further that the
complexity and pressure of the job can overwhelm school heads, particularly
novice principals (Draper and McMichael, 2000:471; Walker and Qian,
2006:300; Slater et al, 2008:702). Furthermore, Wildy and Clarke (2008:731)
challenge of their new appointment at
a cost to their confidence, self-efficacy, and ability to manage multiple and
are put into the job because of their ability and experience in the classroom, yet,
their lack of skills in leading human resource makes their job hard. Worse still,
in some developing countries of Africa school heads may be appointed without
any experience in teaching (Bush and Oduro, 2006:363).
Provision of knowledge, along with skill enhancement, contributes to
quality improvement. Nevertheless, a topic which is widely discussed by
numerous studies is the failure to link theory with practice. Lashway (2003:2),
for example, acknowledges:
... Putting academic knowledge at the centre of programs is inevitablyself-defeating. No matter how effectively professors package and presentthe knowledge, they (or their students) ultimately face the problem ofcreating a bridge between theory and practice..., it turns out to be bridgeto nowhere.
Lashway explains the limitations of academic knowledge in practical work in
the field, since academic merit may be of little use in practice when the experts
lack, for instance, emotional intelligence (see Goleman, 1999:22). A teacher
with academic distinction might not be an effective leader if s/he lacks social
skills, empathy, self-regulation and self-awareness. Furthermore, in an
investigation carried out in Slovenia, researchers call for a further study to find
if there is significant difference between theory and practice. Trnavic and
Roncelli-
Huber suggests PBL (Problem-Based Learning) as a way of solving the
dilemma of bridging theory and practice. In his model, the leadership
curriculum for school heads focuses on real situations found in their day-to-day
link to its reality, the situat
Levine (2005), further exemplifies the debate on preparation and development
of school leaders. Levine argues that the problem lies in the kind of curriculum
to satisfy the current demand of educational leaders; Levine (2005:27) denotes,
being a principal. In fact, it appears to be a nearly random collection of
In a comparative study made in the USA and Australia, principals ask for
pre-service programmes which connect theory and field work (Su et al.,
2003:52). Improvement in field-experiences and internships are seen as an
input to success in the implementation of theory addressed throughout training;
short of that, the connection between theory and practice will be missing. Some
... to have more hands-on experiences, more mentoring by experiencedsite administrators, more emphasis on practical skills, and realistic issuesand problems that principals may face, more shadowing and mentoring, more in-work, more observation on exemplary principals, longer commitment tofield work...
A study by Ronald and Martha in the USA on the preparation of
principals also suggests that the preparation of school heads should take into
account what really happens in the work place. This observation is made in
respect of the failure of many programmes to link theory and practice. Ronald
and include some field-
The body of literature noted above proposes the linkage of theory and
practice so as to improve teaching and learning. Curricula prepared to increase
the competence of school heads have to take into account what happens in real
situations, on the ground. Besides, follow-ups of what is offered at training
institutions are necessary. In African countries, and Tanzania in particular, this
is a challenge to all curriculum developers. Our leadership and management
training colleges ought to consider the challenges which face our school heads
and prepare content aiming to enhance their capacity to deal with those
d
Tanzanian education problems, especially the question of poor quality.
Furthermore, studies on the applicability of leadership training could be useful
if they are carried out by our persons who deeply understand Tanzanian
educational culture.
Conclusions
The effectiveness and efficiency of a given school depends for the most
part on the quality of the school head. And, many studies conducted into school
headship have the same opinion: that school heads play a pivotal role in their
and skills depends mainly on the excellence of school leadership. It can be
argued that the outcome of schools in all situations: moving schools, struggling
schools, strolling schools, cruising schools or sinking schools depends strongly
on the ability of the school leader. A number of factors may help Tanzanian
secondary schools to improve the quality of their learner outcomes. One the
factors which could lead to the improvement of Tanzanian secondary schools in
terms of quality are the development of the competencies of school heads.
Another is the involvement of schools heads in different spheres of decision
making.
Another important aspect is the effectiveness of school boards. Each
secondary school is supposed to have a school board, which is the main policy
making body at school level. It is made up of: Regional Educational Officer
(REO), a District Educational Officer (DEO), twelve members (ten chosen by
the Regional Administrative Secretary and two elected by members of the
board) together with the school head as Secretary to the board. The school
board as the main policy making body ought to work hand-in-hand with the
school head to improve the quality of the school through formulating enabling
policies. Another organisation which has a big role to play is the Inspectorate.
This body is concerned with inspecting the implementation of school
curriculum. But, all
outcome must not be under-estimated.
The traditional top-down educational model needs to change to enable
schools as well as learners to achieve good educational outcomes. And, if real
change is aimed for, school heads have to be source of the transformation,
instead of being the recipient of the change. The reason is simple; the school
head knows exactly what happens on the ground [at the school]. Moreover,
she/he is acquainted with the school culture, which is one of the main
determinants of change. The MOEVT, REOs, DEOs and other higher
educational organisations have to work hand-in-hand with schools heads to
effect high quality educational change in Tanzanian secondary schools. In this
This chapter explores the concept of the professional growth and
development of school heads. Issues discussed in this chapter include:
Induction
Mentoring
Coaching
Introduction
Heads of school play a critical role in ensuring smooth teaching and
learning as well as provision of quality education in schools (Bush and Oduro,
2006:359, Wildy and Clarke, 2008:469 and Rhodes et al., 2008:311).
means knowing where one is going and working to achieve a shared vision with
schools.
But, school leaders of the 21st century bear pressing demands from
learners, teachers, the community and educational stake holders at large (Hale
and Moorman, 2003:7) in the process of fulfilling their duties. The pressure
depends on the type of leader and his/her focus.
Instructional leader - is focused on strengthening teaching andlearning, professional development, data driven decision making andaccountability.
Community leader - is imbued with a big picture awareness of thesociety; shared leadership among educators,
community partners and residents; close relations with parents andothers; and advocacy for school capacity building and resources.
Visionary leader - has a demonstrated commitment to the convictionthat all children will learn at high levels and is able to inspire othersinside and outside the school building with this vision.
Thus school leaders do face leadership complexity and challenges depending on
the type of leadership mention by Hale and Moorman above.
A report by NCSL (2003:15) also summarises a number of common challenges
which face the beginner school heads in England, Scotland and possibly with
other countries world-wide. These include:
feelings of professional isolation and lonelinessdealing with the legacy, practice and style of the previous head teacherdealing with multiple tasks, managing time and priorities dealing with the school budget dealing with (e.g. supporting, warning, dismissing) ineffective staffimplementing new government initiatives, notably new curricula orschool improvement projectsproblems with school buildings and site management
Harris et al. (1994: 375) paint a picture of an outstanding leader, where they
emphasise that possessing vision is a key feature for a superb school leader.
Possession of vision together with sharing a vision is seen as the tool that directs
the whole process of providing education.
Outstanding leaders have a vision for their schools- mental picture of apreferred future which is shared with all in the school communityand which shapes the programmes for learning and teaching as well as
policies, priorities, plans, and procedures pervading the day-to-day lifeof the school...
Kitavi and Van Der Westhuizen (1997:251) admit on the role of the principal to
the learners and what they become.
In many ways the school principal is the most important and influentialindividual in any school. it is his/her leadership that sets the tone of theschool, the climate for learning, the levels of professionalism and themorale of the teachers and the degree of concern for what students may ornot become. If a school is a vibrant innovative, child-centred place, it hasa reputation for excellence if students are performing to the best of theirability, one can alwthat success.
Furthermore, various studies describe different contexts where school
leaders work (see Draper and McMichael, 2000: 466-469 and Bush and Oduro,
2006:361-462). Context to the school heads may well provide a supporting
environment, yet sometimes a given context can work as a hindering factor to
both beginner and experienced school heads. The following frame-work; Figure
-environment. It is
advisable that preparation of new school heads and supporting experienced
school heads should focus on these contexts
Harris (2003:437) acknowledge that improvement of
relies heavily on the effectiveness of the school leadership.
Many writers state the importance of training school heads before they
take up their post. Van der Westhuizen et al. (2004:705) address the advantages
of training inexperienced principals in South Africa before they take up
headships. Advantages include: enhancement of quality of performance;
sustainable performance in the situation of change; knowledge and skills
enhancement; and increased capacity to perform day-to-day tasks. Stroud
(2006:89) observes that as long as leadership is seen as a key factor for school
effectiveness and better performance, the training of beginners in, and those
aspiring to, leadership in the UK schools should be given high priority.
Furthermore, Rhodes et al. (2008:331) emphasise the need for preparation of
school heads when they state:
Given the potential leadership crisis in schools both in the UK andinternationally, those individuals in schools charged with theimportant task of managing and developing their human resourcesneed to be prepared for this important role.
performance in their review of research conducted from 1980 - 1995; the
outcome shows that there is a significant relationship between an effective
critical to school improvement and student succ
On the other hand, studies conducted in developing countries show that
school heads are rarely prepared for the job of leading schools. For example,
the research by Lungu (1983:85) acknowledges that the obvious problems
facing education in Africa are the lack of planning and development of
educational leaders.
Bush and Jackson (2002:418) also explain the shortage of training for
show little effort being made by
developing countries to train and develop school leaders, for example, the study
the
government of Botswana the need for launching an educational training policy
as a guide for the training of heads of secondary schools. DeJaeghere et al
(2008:1) and Onguko et al. (2008:715) observe the lack of leadership training
and insufficient training colleges available to school heads in Sub-Saharan
Africa and East Africa respectively.
Furthermore, a body of literature discusses the shortage of educational
leadership skill training to heads of school before the job and during the job in
developing countries. Harber and Davies (1997:61), for instance , show that in
less developed nations, heads of schools come from teaching, usually with no or
little training for the job. What's more, they argue:
A major concern of school management debate in recent years hasbeen the need to train head teachers. Head teachers are chosenbecause they are good at one thing (teaching) and then put into amanagerial role which can demand quite different skills (p.77).
Most educational leaders lack leadership skills; as Everard and Morrris
(1996:4) put it, the education system expects three things from educational
managers and leaders: leaders who combine resources to achieve the
predetermined aim, leaders who are catalysts of change and leaders who affect
sustainably the development of resources. Literature shows that most school
heads in developing countries lack these skills. Dadey and Harber (1991:1) note
that the obvious problems facing African education systems are lack of planning
and support of educational leaders. There are no guidelines for preparation, in-
service training and development for school heads (Dadey and Harber,
1991:26). Otunga et al. (2008:371) confirm the state of affairs facing principals
in South Africa, where most principals fail to cope with radical global change
because of inadequate skills for leading their schools.
Tanzania faces an acute shortage of prepared and developed school leaders
like other African countries. The condition is worse in many recently
established community secondary schools. A good number of heads promoted
to community schools lack both experience as well as training in educational
leadership. Most of these school heads depend mainly on intuition and rule of
thumb in decision making in various matters arising at their respective schools.
Inadequacy of institutions involved in training school leaders is likely one of the
institute namely the Agency for the Development of Educational Management
in Tanzania (ADEM). Various leadership training approaches could enhance
the effectiveness of school leaders. These include: Induction; mentoring; and
coaching.
Induction
receiving employees when they begin work, introducing them to the company
and to their colleagues, and informing them of the activities, customs and
and Bennett refers to employees in a business environment, but a new employee
in the education sector needs induction too. Novice school leaders, for instance,
need to be oriented to new tasks, for example how to formulate school plans,
and prepare school budgets, and on school culture. In general new heads need
orientation in their new school setting. Tranter (2006:146) emphasises the
importance of orienting a new member of staff as follows:
The first principle is that the person should have a very pleasant day andleave the school pleased with the decision they made-maybe by having ablend of activities and meetings, with some unstructured time forinformal conversation and findings ways around the school anddepartment.
Even though, Tranter discusses the introduction of a new member of
staff, a middle leader, this principle may well apply to school heads also. But,
orientation of novice school heads should take a considerable number of days to
enable them to learn many things which are not familiar to them. A number of
countries have embarked on induction programmes to equip beginning school
(Connolly et al., 2002: 339). The programme is aime
aptitude and self-confidence as well as contributing positively to learner
outcome (Connolly et al., 2002:344).
...that was a main purpose ...to offer a structure which would help peoplefeel less exposed in the early stage of headship, while at the same timepromoting one of the key underlying themes of the whole headshipprogramme which is to raise standards and one of the best ways of doingthat is to provide support and challenge in equal measure (NAfWofficial).
In Scotland, findings from a study conducted by Draper and McMichael
show that notable development has been made with respect to novice school
heads preparation (Draper and McMichael, 2000:459). Yet, this investigation
indicates that the Local Government Authorities provided inadequate induction
for beginning head-teachers. The school heads needed an induction programme
which they all worked; and (b) their own particular context, and that this
induction should not be a single day but rather a longer term more iterative and
Briggs et al. (2006: 264) summarise difficulties facing new heads in
English schools in Figure 24. The difficulties listed are similar to those facing a
principal in Mexico, as can be seen in Figure 25.
Immersion phase: areas of impact
Source: Briggs et al., 2006: 264
In Botswana, uneven induction is provided for beginning principals.
Some novice principals are given induction for three weeks while a number of
principals are inducted to new jobs after two years (Pheko, 2008: 79). Since
new principals generally experience inadequate support at the beginning of their
job, some rely on their peers for learning new skills in leadership like financial
management; public relations; human resource management; external
accountability; planning and budgeting. Nevertheless, the research indicates
that lack of support from the Ministry of Education frustrates beginning head-
teachers (Pheko, 2008: 79).
In Mexico, Slater et al. (2008:710-711) explain difficulties which face
beginning principals. Some of the difficulties facing a Mexican school head are
similar to those facing a novice school head in England (see Figure 6.2) despite
the fact that Mexico and England have different settings. Using a school
beginning school heads struggle due to poor leadership preparation and support
from the Government. In Mexico novice heads are not prepared, professional
support and development is only for experienced principals.
Framework of challenges facing beginning principals
Source: Slater et al. 2008:710-711
In Australia, according to Wildy and Clarke (2008a: 471) there is no
on the traditional apprenticeship model, by which future school leaders are
prepared mostly by moving up ranks from classroom teachers to master teachers
discredit such a model, since it is impracticable under complex circumstances
and inflexible at a time of change (Daresh and Male, 2000:91). Induction is
mainly provided by employers concerning financial management and legal
NEWHEAD
Human resource:
Conflict between people
Insecurity in his performance tohis supervisor concerning
paperwork
Structure:
Conflict over how to allocate / spend time
Difficulty with paperwork / moretime is devoted to paperwork
instead of learning
Symbolic:
Conflicts in the culture
Conflicts with other sub-culturesor systems
The system is too formal
Political:
Conflict in the broader system
making waves
issues; in many cases, new principals rely on peers for human resource
management. Wildy and Clarke conclude that beginning principals need
adequate preparation instead of being given very few days (three days) for
induction. Otherwise, a novice principal would face many technical hitches
pertaining to the new job (Wildy and Clarke, 2008a:484).
Training of school heads could be done traditionally at school level,
when, for instance a deputy head is delegated some duties and responsibilities
by the school head, although this method is criticised by Gorham et al. (2008:3).
Gorham and colleagues give the following limitations against this traditional
model of preparing school leaders:
When training, mentoring, and on the job leadership assignments
thorny leadership issues without threat repercussions (either real orperceived) may be awkward. As a result, root issues may not getdiscussed adequately, if at all discussed.
While many school leaders receive good ideas from training programs,many do not obtain follow-up support to transfer that learning to theirreal life situations, limiting the application of that learning to 5 to 10percent.
In many instances, there is either minimal or no system of
identified and being met. While most school leaders have an annualperformance review, such reviews may not focus on leadership skillsbeyond minimum requirements.
In many African countries, school heads are put into the new job of
headship with little or no induction at all; a traditional model of preparation is
mainly practised despite the limitations outlined by Gorham above. In most
cases, experience acts as a major criterion for appointment to headship. In an
African study conducted Bush and Oduro (2006:366 -367) the following is
revealed:
...often without consideration, principals in developing countries likeKenya are tossed into the job without pre-service training, withoutguarantee of in-service training, and without support from theiremployers. In Ghana...it a common practice, especially in rural schools, for head-teachers to be left unsupported after appointment. Most head-teachers assume duty with little or no knowledge of their job descriptions.
Bush and Oduro (2006:367) offer options which could be employed by
Tanzania and other African countries to familiarize newly-promoted heads of
school; these include:
Assign veteran principal to assist new appointee
Provide manuals for new principals
Orient the new principal to the school and the community
Encourage networking with other principals
Visits to other schools
Some of the above suggestions could be adopted by the Tanzanian
government for new school heads notwithstanding the financial difficulties
facing the country; for example, heads of nearby schools assisting newly-
appointed heads, providing guiding handbooks, in-service training of second-
masters/mistresses by their respective heads, networking with other heads and
paying visits to other schools and observing what is happening in terms of
leadership.
Draper and McMichael (2000:468-469) advise the use of previous heads,
Senior Management Team (SMT) and deputies for inducting novice school
heads; this is a cost-effective method of induction which may well be employed
in Tanzania. Walker (2008:23) observes networking as an important tool for
reducing isolation:
...a network of support is crucial - it is absolutely essential. I am workingin a situation now with this authority where there is no immediate
contact with women that I have known previously from other authorities. I think it is important that women learn not to work in isolation, whatevertheir job or whatever area they happen to be in: that they do have thatnetwork of support; that they develop themselves in such a way that theyfeel comfortable.
Here Walker discusses isolation as one of challenges facing black women
in management, but the theory could be extended to all novice school leaders;
women and men. Because of the unfamiliarity of the job, beginning principals
face isolation. Networking is likely to reduce the sense of isolation as well as
enabling faster learning of the new job.
Mentoring
experienced individual seeks to assist someone less experienc
process where a more knowledgeable person willingly shares information with a
less experienced person on a basis of reciprocated respect. Mentoring in
educational settings could be conducted with experienced school heads,
inspectors, advisers and consultants. Furthermore, Hobson referring to Kram
career progress-oriented dimension and, on the other hand, psycho-social
development functions, incorporating counselling and friendship...mentoring
(Hobson, 2003:5 citing Kram and Isabella, 1985). Mentoring is being practised
in various countries world-wide, for example, development programmes in
France, England, Singapore and the USA include mentoring in their course for
developing school leaders (Huber, 2008:173).
with experience, expertise, wisdom and/or power who teaches, counsels and
helps less experienced or knowledgeable persons to develop professionally and
is commonly described as a person who offers advice, support, and guidance to
a less experienced person with the objective of career and personal
with different levels of experience and expertise, which stimulates interpersonal
and psycho-
Hobson reveals factors which can make mentoring successful; factors
listed by Hobson (2003: 2) include:
Supporting novice school heads to solve problems they encounter at their
working stations
Acting as a catalyst or a change agent
Linking the school head to resources and people
Discussing various issues relating to school leadership and management
New principals encounter many challenges, such that they need someone
who can provide mentoring. For instance, in a study by Draper and McMichael
(2000:464), new principals consulted a mentor on how to continue with several
stages in their career despite the fact that they had access to training in
mana
and technology are enlarging the role of organisational executives as well as
school heads. Increased duties for school heads could be well affected if school
heads are well prepared at the beginning of their jobs, and further supported in
the course of their career. A recent study conducted in the USA found that both
novice and experienced school heads benefit from mentoring (Duncan, 2009:
12). Areas identified by participants which need most attention include:
media; outside agencies; personal issues; data-driven decisions; instructional
leadership; creating collegiality; legal issues; budget and finance; and diversity
take the above list for headship training programmes.
There is a strong possibility that mentoring may be a good means of
assisting newly-appointed heads as well as experienced school heads in
Tanzania to acquire leadership and management skills for effective
implementation of educational objectives. Experienced school heads, retired
education officers, inspectors, peer support and retired heads of schools can be
resourceful personnel for the job. The exercise could be profitable but it needs
central and local government support in terms of funding and training of
mentors.
A study carried out in the UK by Briggs et al. (2006: 262) suggests that
newly-appointed principals could get mentoring and support from experienced
heads. It is also advisable that new heads can seek a mentor who may be her/his
former head or educational leader for knowledge on how to implement their
new role (Draper and McMichael, 2000:464). Above and beyond, major studies
carried out by Bolam et al. (1993) in the UK and Grover (1994) in the USA also
support the effectiveness of mentoring for school heads (Hobson, 2003:2).
Similarly, studies carried in Hungary, The Netherlands, Norway, Spain and
Wales give a comparable observation (Hobson, 2003:12).
Figure 6.4 shows different persons who could be used by Ministry of
Education and Vocational Training as mentors. This team of experienced and
skilled personnel may possibly be used to mentor both newly-appointed and
experienced school heads on various issues. Mentoring could start at assistant
principal-ship level where a principal may perhaps play a role of mentor. For
example, a study conducted in 1995 in North Carolina in the USA admits that a
principal can work as a mentor. This study stresses the preparation of
educational leaders to acquire good grounding in field-
to a quality principal who is also a good mentor is a key to have a successful
internship [fie
Furthermore, Huber examines various methods which are currently in place to
enhance the quality of school leaders; among them is mentoring (Huber, 2008:
164).
New ways of learning are being explored using workshops andincreasingly located at the work place itself (using methods likementoring and internships).
Huber, too, acknowledges the advantages of school leaders possessing
skills for mentoring. Existing School heads for instance, by mentoring deputy
school heads, could benefit the whole school since these deputies are
responsible for day to day activities on behalf of principals. Nevertheless, he
funding for implementing this key exercise. More important, proper strategies
have to be put in place; short of that, the exercise will not be profitable as well
as successful.
Coaching
Hobson acknowledges that coaching is different from mentoring, as
coaching aims at helping a person in practical tasks, while mentoring is a broad
kind of support carried out by an experienced to a less experienced individual
(Hobson, 2003:5). The following observation on coaching made by Graham
and Bennett supports the meaning provided by Hobson above. The emphasis
put here is, a coach gives a hand to a trainee on a specific job.
Often, coaching consists of demonstration followed by trainee imitating
questions, and progressively attain higher level of skills. Simple tasksshould be demonstrated first; then more complex tasks once the simpleones have been mastered (Graham and Bennett, 1998: 302)
Coaching and mentoring
ll
Bentsen (2010: 37) offers a different explanation regarding coaching, whereby
the coachee is transformed instead of adopting exactly what is given by a coach.
...A reciprocal learning relationship, where constructed knowledge andco-produced goals planning are taking place between two or more people.She defines coaching as a structured conversation that keeps the personbeing coached focussed on professional issues and moves systematicallyahead to achieve goals...she describes coaching as participatory, collaborative and reflective discourse where the person being coached isable to elicit needs, thoughts and ideas. Through coaching theprofessional becomes transformative in their professional developmentrather than merely a reproductive agent of existing social patterns.
Coaching Mentoring
Practical tasks Broad support
Recording transactions inaccount books
Balancing account books
Store keeping
Writing minutes
Counselling
Peer support
Socialisation
Sharing experience andinformation
Coaching is one of the widely used approaches used to support
educational leaders in developed countries, for instance, in the UK and the
USA. Hobson (2003:7 accepts:
New head-teachers need to develop new skills and to extend skillsdeveloped in their earlier teaching and management careers. Drawing onwork conducted in the field of cognitive psychology, real life skills...areusually learnt with the aid of some form of coaching.
Bush and Jackson describe the mode of coaching in Ohio, Chicago, and
with trainee principals for a period of a half a year coaching them.
In New South Wales coaching is carried out online (Bush and Jackson,
2002:425).
Coaching could be a different approach which could be used in Tanzania
to help newly-appointed heads of community schools to fulfil their
responsibilities. This observation is further supported by Barnett and
-term assistance to newly-
appointed headmasters/headmistresses might help them to learn tasks
success
improvement (West-Burnham, 1998:72). Coaching may well also be a useful
means of developing inexperienced heads of secondary schools in Tanzania by
using retired and experienced education leaders, and also through peer support.
Methods practised in Chicago, Ohio, and New South Wales may perhaps
be adopted in Tanzania, but the Tanzanian environment should be considered
while planning coaching programmes for school heads. For instance, instead of
online coaching, school heads may well be coached by using mobile messages
and through cellular phones for those in rural areas and by on-line as well as
mobile phones for those in urban centres. Another means might be through
using experienced heads to coach deputy heads before they are appointed to
headship. However, both local government and central government should put
aside a budget for this exercise.
A recent study conducted in Australia on evidence-based coaching for
training and education indicates benefits derived from coaching. Although this
study was done in a developed country setting, it is likely to work in a
developing country like Tanzania.
Participation in the programme was associated with reduced anxiety,increased goal attainment, enhanced cognitive hardiness and higher levelsof personal insight. Participants also had higher end-of-semester marksas compared to the cohort that did not participate in the intensive personal
psychological well-being (Grant, 2008:56).
Day et al. (2008:215) discuss a variety of experiences encountered by the
coach in the coaching process. In a qualitative based study, they found that
coaching is occasionally characterised by intense moments [emotions and
anxiety] between the coach and the client. These moments are described as
some times causing distancing, gaining insight or break-down of bond between
the coach and the client. However, results explain the significance of the
tudy shows that by using supervision, the
personal insight of the coach, reflexes in relationship and emotional competence
of the coach and the client are the key issues to the success of the coaching
process.
Experienced school heads as well as beginners need coaching at some
point in time. Coaching could be facilitated by external specialists who come
from outside the organisation or a specialist who comes from the school
concerned. An investigation conducted by Grant et al. (2009:396) reveals that
coaching by using external professional executives reduced stress and
depression among respondents. Furthermore, this study shows that coaching
enhanced performance, personal confidence and personal insight, and improved
respondents increased. Besides, this study stresses that short term coaching
together with evidence-based executive coaching is effective. Despite the fact
that this study was conducted in a psychology setting per se, it is likely to work
also in an educational setting. Educational executives in Tanzania, for example:
Regional Educational Officers; Regional Academic Officers; District
Educational Officers; together with District Academic Officers could be
involved in short-term coaching of school heads in their respective districts and
regions.
Wilson (2010:16) identified various methods which could be used by
coaches with educational leaders. Her emphasis is that the coach should make
an evaluation of the level of the skills her/his client has. Prior to coaching,
investigations have to consider mainly four factors: novelty to the job,
familiarity with the task, familiarity with the duty, and experience of the task.
Her model is likely to be beneficial to education, since the abilities of school
heads differ in ways similar to those given by Wilson. Figure 28 depicts
approaches to coaching which could be employed by the coach to his/her
coachee depending on the level of familiarity with the tasks.
Coaching skills for educational leaders
Source: Wilson (2010:16).
Furthermore, Wilson (2010:18) cites various skills which can be imparted
to the learner [coachee]; these skills include: listening, enquiry, giving
feedback, and sharing.
Concluding thoughts
Tanzania faces an acute shortage of specialised institutions for preparing
and supporting school leaders. School heads need skill enhancement in areas
such as: preparation of school vision and mission; devising school strategies;
action research; conflict management; instructional leadership; creating
collegiality; legal issues; planning; resource management; community relations
and implementation of the education and planning policy. Furthermore school
heads require knowledge on how to organize the school calendar, and send
different reports to parents, the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training
Coaching
If they are newto a task or
goal, you canTELL
(instruct, train,guide, offer
advice)
If they aresomewhat familiar
with a task, yethesitant, you can
COACH(with someinstruction)
If they arefamiliar with the
task, yetsomething is in
the way, you canCOACH
(be a thoughtpartner)
If they areseasoned at atask, you mightDELEGATE
(and continue tocheck in as they
need you to)
(MOEVT) plus various educational stakeholders. Lastly, but not least, school
heads need skills in managing school buildings like classrooms, toilets,
-
to-day activities of school heads.
The scarcity of training institutions for educational leaders causes a good
number of educational leaders including school heads to lead by rule of thumb.
Devising a number of strategies for preparing educational leaders is likely to
minimise this problem, for example, the use of mobile phones as one of the
methods for mentoring and coaching both rural and urban school heads.
According to Tanzania Communications Regulatory Authority (TCRA), April-
June Report 2013, Tanzania had 28 million mobile phone subscribers
(http://www.biztechafrica.com/article/tanzanian-phone-users-28m/4975/). It is
to be expected that a good number of school heads possess mobile phones. A
cheap means of support could be a coach or a mentor using phone text messages
for providing induction, mentoring or coaching.
Another method which can be employed to prepare and support
educational leaders is through on-line communication. However, this method
can be used only in urban areas where the internet is available. This is one of
the very effective means of reaching many persons at a modest cost. But, the
government could investing in solar energy and less-costly rural electrification
could help to serve the on line communication for heads available in rural
schools.
Additionally, mentors and coaches can distribute learning materials like
leaflets, brochures and hand-outs to enable educational leaders acquire relevant
skills in leadership and management in addition to face-to-face meetings.
Distributing learning materials can be through post offices; most of schools in
rural areas as well as urban centres can be reached though the post office.
Last but not least, the entire process of preparation and development of
school leaders may be achieved through encouraging peer-coaching and
networking. Through networking, school heads may be able to share
experiences and reduce professional isolation, particularly among beginner
heads. Lastly follow-ups and evaluation of the entire exercise are important to
the success of any on-going programme of preparation and support of school
heads for the benefit of learners and the educational sector at large.
CHAPTER ELEVEN
PROFESSIONAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF WOMEN ASEDUCATIONAL LEADERS
Chapter eleven examines the concept of preparation and development of
women as educational leaders. The chapter is divided into seven sub-headings:
The historical aspect of women as educational leaders
Gendered style of leadership
The current trend
Can there be a different approach?
The historical aspect: women in educational leadership
Women have historically been overlooked in regard to education and
leadership world-wide. For example a recent UNESCO review noted, regarding
We live in a world in which education is characterised by extensivegender inequalities. Two thirds of all those who have no access toeducation are girls and women. Sixty-five million girls never even startschool, and an estimated 100 million do not complete primary education, often because its quality is poor and their opportunities are far from equalto those of boys (Herz and Spurling, 2004: 2). More than 542 millionwomen are illiterate, many as a result of inadequate or incompleteschooling. Lack of literacy is generally associated with poverty anddiscrimination. (UNESCO, 2003: 87)In the developing world, studies have identified factors which limit the
number of women in leadership positions in educational sectors, Oplatka
(2006:2008), for example, mentions cultural norms that depict women as
ineffective in leadership, male domination and dormant discrimination as some
their lack of awareness of how the promotion system works, fear, and lack of
gender-based socialisation.
In Africa, and particularly in East Africa, women are given few chances
as regards to leadership positions, including leadership in educational settings as
women with ambition in politics, among other sectors of life such as education
from aspiring to leadership positions and their marginalised position is still a
In Africa cultural practices have contributed to a large extent to the
absence of women from educational leadership. In African communities women
were historically rarely given opportunities to attend school. For a long time, a
school was for a boy, and a girl was a source of wealth to a family when she got
married.
An investigation by Pirouznia of the obstacles facing women in
principalship identifies two main barriers to leadership, both internal to the
woman herself and externally induced by society. Internal obstacles include:
sex-role stereotyping, lack of aspiration, role conflict, and low self-esteem.
External obstacles include: lack of encouragement, family responsibilities, lack
of mobility, and hiring and promoting practices (Pirouznia, 2009). However, the
role of women as informal leader in families and communities has been noted
since historic time. Women, for instance, in Africa have sole responsibility of
taking care of children. In some single-parent families, women are responsible
for the up-bringing of children and are main bread winners. Women too have
been main producers of goods and services particularly agricultural products,
both food and cash products, in Africa and in most developing nations. The
literature on educational leadership indicates that the main hindering factor for
women in educational leadership is family obligation. For instance Oplatka and
UNICEF describes three main factors hindering education in Tanzania:
-cultural beliefs and practices; gender biased socialisation in schools and
which allow early marriage among girls and pregnancies when they at school
contribute to few women achieving high levels of education.
Furthermore, at school girls are encouraged to be passive and boys to be
higher levels of education becomes minimal. On top of that, poverty among
families accelerates early marriage among girls, since families take girls as a
source of income. Besides, poor belief among parents leads boys to have a first
priority of being sent to school, thinking that girls could get pregnant in their
course of study, and hence be a loss to the family. Ozga (2008:3), writing from
a broad-
educational management...their absence is caused by structural, societal
Findings from recent research in Greece suggest that the proportion of
female students to male students in secondary and higher education is still low
(Mitroussi and Mitroussi, 2009: 505). Another recent study conducted in the
USA shows disparities in educational leadership between men and women, in
spite of women gaining the majority of graduate and doctoral degrees. In this
study, Lee Gupton (2009: 3) notes:
Women make up 57 percent of the undergraduates in the U.S collegestoday, and they earn a majority of the doctoral degrees awarded in thiscountry (States News Service 2009). Yet, men continue to dominate inthe most coveted leadership positions through the profession ofeducation...it is clearly evident, Arlton and Davis wrote fifteen years ago,
administration] decreases as the level of positions and responsibilityincreases...
A different recent study conducted in the UK institutions of further
education (FE) acknowledges the small number of women in managerial
only four of the 43 Scottish colleges have females as board of management
Miller, 2009:353). Arar, writing about women in the
-8, women constituted 75 per
cent of all primary school principals and 32 per cent of secondary school
principals (Arar, 2013). In Tanzania statistics indicate that the number of
females in education is increasing, Table 8 shows a good proportion of female
teachers in comparison with male teachers in secondary schools.
Type Male Female Total % of female
teachers
% of male
teachers
Government 19666 10586 30252 34.99273 65.00727
Non-
government
8155 2110 10265 20.55528 79.44472
Adapted from the MOVET [BEST] statistics, 2013
However, data shows that since Tanzania got its independence, only two women had been
Ministers for Education (see Table 9).
Source: MOEVT data, 2013
But, despite continuing male-dominance, for instance in most of poor
countries of the world, some policies have b
struggle towards equal opportunities; for instance, Oplatka (2006:606) notes the
spheres of life:
No Name of mister Period
1 Mr. O. Kambona 1960 1963
2 Mr. S.N. Eliuofoo 1964 -1965
3 Mr. C. Mgonja 1965 1970
4 Rev. S. Chiwanga 1971 1974
5 Mr. I. Elinawinga 1975 1977
6 Mr. N.A. Kuhanga 1978 1979
7 Mrs. T. Siwale 1979 1982
8 Mr. J.A. Makweta 1983 1985
9 Prof. K.A. Malima 1986 1989
10 Mr. A. Mayagila 1990 1991.
11 Mr. C. Kabeho 1991 1994
12 Prof. P. Sarungi 1995 1995
13 Prof. J. Kapuya 1995 2000
14 Mr. J.J. Mungai 2000 2005
15 Mrs. M. Sitta 2005 2008
16 Prof. J. Maghembe 2008 2010
17 Dr. S. Kawambwa 2010 To date
Egypt and Kenya,for instance, have challenged the male-dominated structures in theircountries and gender inequalities. They strived for the introduction ofgender-sensitive policies and programs so as to improve the lives ofwomen in their countries...women hold higher percentage of professionalpositions in Latin America...and have access to management positions inmany occupational sectors within developing countries in Africa andAsia...women hold 14 percent of school administrator positions in Korea, 13 percent of Chinese principalship positions, half of the primary andsecondary school principalship positions in Trinidad and Tobago. Even inMuslim countries like Turkey, there are reports of women in educationalleadership positions, although in Pakistan, the power is in the hands of theschool boards that are held by men only...
Women face various barriers to career progression in general and
headships in particular. The literature gives different reasons, varying according
to the location where women are found. For example, Oplatka names factors
developing countries (such as Turkey, China, Islamic countries) attribute certain
tasks and spheres of responsibility to each gender, assuming that one must
Oplatka,
2006:612). Another factor discussed by Oplatka is gender discrimination, where
men are preferred for leadership over women by the authorities in place
(Oplatka, 2006:612). The situation is further stressed by Barmao who says:
not
Barmao, 2013:28).
In some African countries, cultural barriers and the cost of education are
two contributing factors to few girls being in school, because parents prefer
boys to girls when it comes to education issues. For example, sometimes girls
are taken from schools to go for circumcision ceremonies in preparation for
marriage. As regards the cost of education in Tanzania for example, before the
removal of school fees in primary schools the cost of educating one child was
approximately half of the annual income of poor rural families ( see Watkins
2000: 178).Because of the cost of education many families opted for boy-child
education instead of girl child education. But, despite the fact that at the present
no school fees are paid at primary school level, there are a number of charges
which parents have to pay, and they are too costly taking into account the
economic status of most of the parents. Charges paid include: examination fees,
stationery contributions, watchmen contribution, buying of uniforms, building
funds and transport cost to and from school for schools available in towns and
cities. These other educational charges as well contribute to some families not
sending their girl-children to school.
Studies on women in education leadership also mention a number of
-confidence and job-family
conflicts (Oplatka, 2006:612). Referring to barriers facing women in leadership
Fitzgerald paints a gloomy scenario of indigenous women as a numerical
minority who face challenges in a white world; walking between two worlds.
trying to work within two systems but I am also a woman in a white
western values and values placed on male leaders. Then again, I can be
always walking between two worlds. (Fitzgerald, 2006:207).Faced with the same problem, Walker explains how one head of department
was able to overcome a number of obstacles in an English system and succeed
in her career as well as maintain her culture, Walker notes:
For me, political awareness had to go alongside academic achievement. Itwas important because I had actually seen what had happened to the fewblack girls that did succeed going to the good school I went. It was as ifto succeed they had to forfeit their own cultural background...so youcould become academically successful, you could go on to a professionalcareer, and still maintain some sort of integrity towards your culture andhard working for your people. So I did a lot of reading that...had to dowith my own culture development..., and that has been a strong motivatortowards helping me become the woman I am today. (Walker, 2008:19).
Gendered Style of leadership
Ozga (2008: 11) and Oplatka and Tamir (2009: 233) describes gendered style of
leadership: masculine and feminine. But, some of the characteristics described
as masculine can be taken by female leaders, and also features described as
feminine could be characteristics of a male. Some of the features of gendered
leadership styles are similar to those found in formal, managerial, transactional,
transformational or collegial styles of leadership.
masculine characteristics. Whatever the methods of supporting the growth of a
female leader, the emphasis must be: work according to the prevailing situation.
The current trendAs the body of literature and research indicates that still there are few
women in senior school leadership positions, the question which needs critical
analysis is whether the situation can be changed. If women are good leaders at
family and community level, it is likely that they can be good school heads if
they are developed. Nonetheless, recent studies show an upward trend of
women into educational leadership. For example, in recent research conducted
in the US, Gupton shows that the number of female heads increased to 35% in
1993 from 25% in 1987 and currently women principals are about equal to men
principals (Gupton, 2009:4). A different study by Arar also shows an upward
-4, in the USA the percentage of
female school principals in elementary schools reached 56 per cent of female
school principals and rose 26 per cent in high schools (Arar, 2013:33).
This might be a good sign to many countries globally which are lying behind interms of female leadership. But, just as men require preparation anddevelopment, women too require professional growth. In addition to buildingtheir capacity through various courses on educational leadership, women stillneed another type of training; to challenge the patriarchal assumptions ofsociety. Women have been discriminated against for many centuries fromfamily level to national level. Building their confidence to challenge thisdiscrimination may enhance their performance in the leadership arena.Leadership training directed at men should also challenge patriarchalassumptions, in this way both women and men would be fighting for equal rightof both men and women into leadership.
Can there be a different approach?
Discrimination against women is grounded in history. As the literature
indicates women have been isolated from some spheres of life since time
immemorial. In African traditional education for instance, some elements of
education was gender biased. A range of knowledge, skills and values given to
boys in certain circumstances was different from that given to girls. Girls were
raised to be future mothers and boys were raised to be future fathers. For this
reason, their responsibilities determined the type of education given to children.
When formal education was introduced in Africa, mostly boys were given the
chance to attend school while a few girls were allowed to attend.
In some parts of the world discrimination against women can be seen in
job areas, for example where women are paid differently from men. If history is
the root of the problem, the solutions of the problem have to address this
historic bias. Pirouznia (2009:227) gives the following suggestion to overcome
female discrimination in leadership:
...there is a need to challenge gendered behaviour in society and bring
be projects for boys and girls at school level pretending as if they were ina family situation, and learn how their roles could be modified and acteddifferently. Therefore, schools need to incorporate pretending familysituation projects in their curriculum. The most important is for teachersthemselves to ensure that they model appropriate gendered behaviour(i.e., that they do not allow gendered scripts to be part of their classroomenvironment). Reconstructing or redefining masculinity requires socialchange. It must occur in early childhood, in schools, in the media
(especially television), in universities, in organisations, and throughgovernment policies and initiatives.
starting at home, then to school level up to higher levels where policies are
made. If women care for families and some in single families are bread winners,
why cannot they be educational leaders? Making a change of attitude from the
family level could mostly likely empower women into educational leadership.
Girls have to be encouraged to compete for various positions starting at the
lower levels of education, for example at primary schools. More to the point, at
primary and secondary levels extra-curricular activities must not be gender
biased.
In Tanzania there is a science project for female learners at secondary school
level. The project is run by Forum for African Women Educationalists (FAWE);
the forum focuses on promoting school-girls in Science, Mathematics, and
Technology (SMT) (see http://www.fawe.org). In promoting Science,
Mathematics and Technology (SMT) among girls the model pursues a number
of activities and resources which include:
Science camps and clubs. Study tours. Profiles on women achievers in science-based fields. Exposure to role models. Awards to female achievers in SMT subjects.
The comparable project could be initiated to prepare adolescent girls as
future leaders all aspects of life. Such a training programme would emphasise
courage; equality; human rights issues; emotional intelligence; collaboration;
team work; gender differences; conflict management; action research and other
managerial responsibilities of an educational leader. These trained girls would
be a catalyst for change. Through these trained young girls in leadership, more
girls will be encouraged to participate in educational leadership. In addition,
sensitization seminars and workshops and meetings that involve both male and
female teachers are likely to be a useful vehicle for changes in attitude. With
time a country would get a good number of female educationists into leadership.
In addition to training, seminars, workshops, and meetings could play the role
too. The advice given by the participants in the recent study by Gupton (2009: 7
and 11) in the US may be the motto of women in educational leadership:
Excel in your workI made sure that I knew more and produced more!
more responsibilityWomen can lead just as well as men, but they must work much harderto get to the same levelDo the best job possible and respect will comeBe best you can be
is sufficient!!...help other women, even those who may be your competitorBe the nurturer and supporter of othersEstablish both professional and personal support systemMarry someone who can handle your successMaintain strong, supportive personal relationships and supportsystems - marriage, family are absolute essential
Tend to your personal relationships as astutely as you do yourprofessional ones...network, not just for job advancement, but also to learn, to share,and to maintain professional friends.
In the process of preparing and developing women into educational leadership a
number of external and internal factors are necessary. Some factors depend on
the woman herself, and other factors emerge from peer groups. Working harder
may perhaps give her credit. Teaming up with other workers is another factor
emphasised by Gupton. Through teaming up, each one in a given school will be
able to complement each other. Coaching one another in various peer groups is
leadership. For instance, women who have been in leadership positions for a
considerable time, have a role to play helping novice women principals into
leadership through coaching. Coaching can work if women in leadership
practise networking. Last but not least, the support of the family is essential for
her professional growth and development.
Conclusions
Women are still few in educational leadership despite the fact that they
constitute a large percentage of the labour force in education especially at lower
levels of education. Nonetheless, there is a positive trend. In Tanzania for
instance, the number of female Regional Educational Officers (REOs), District
Educational Officers (DEOs) and school heads is increasing. Still, a deliberate
effort is needed, and this endeavour has to begin at family level as well as
primary level. Girls must be encouraged to participate in leadership. Besides,
initiating a special project for training adolescent girls as future leaders is highly
recommended. The preparation of adolescent girls for leadership should not be
only considered at national level, but this should be a global effort, as in both
developing and developed nations, women are still few in leadership positions
in education and in other areas in society. Fighting the negative attitude of
seeing women as lacking competence in leadership and management will most
likely bring positive results for women in educational leadership and other
spheres of life.
Chapter twelve draws together all the recommendations implied in or
made in previous chapters about educational leadership in Tanzanian secondary
schools. The chapter briefly summarises various issues discussed in the
previous eleven chapters as follows:
Chapter one explored the Tanzanian education system. Both education
systems before independence and after independence are discussed.
Furthermore, two concepts about school ownership and school leadership for
the Tanzanian schools are discussed at length. Chapter one briefly sets a scene
of the following chapters about educational leadership in Tanzanian secondary
schools.
Chapter two examined the theories of leadership. The chapter concludes
by suggesting that every educational leader to consider leadership as
contingency. Context (contingency) is the main determinant of the type of
leadership in operation at any one time: when leaders of different organisations
Chapter three of this book is about emotional intelligence (EI). The
chapter tries to examine the role of emotional intelligence in educational
settings. The specific focus is on three aspects of leadership: transformational
leadership, interpersonal leadership and participatory leadership and how these
three parts are related to the concept of emotional intelligence. The chapter
summarises that EI is vital in leading in educational backgrounds, despite the
fact that the style of leadership is a collaborative one or another style of
leadership. It concludes by calling upon Tanzanian educational leaders to take
into account emotional intelligence in school leadership.
One of the important factors which contribute to the achievement of
school goals is the presence of effective school leadership. Thus chapter four
examines the concept of effectiveness as related to school leadership, mainly
heads of schools. This chapter concludes that effective educational leaders in
the Tanzanian context are likely to be the ones who can prepare learners for full
growth; both mentally and physically. Furthermore, effective school heads will
have a clear vision and be able to communicate it effectively to teachers,
supporting staff as well as students.
Schools comprise departments, leaders of the departments are known as
middle leaders. This notion of middle-leadership and different role performed
by middle leaders is described in chapter five. It is generally concluded that
with the increase in numbers of students in secondary schools in Tanzania and
world-wide the job of the heads of schools is becoming more complex and
demanding. As a result, Tanzania could learn from other countries about how
to utilize heads of departments more effectively so as to easy the work-load of
heads of schools.
It is common for human beings before taking any decision to think, for
instance: how, when, where, to whom, and for what purpose they will take any
action. Two important concepts basing on planning are covered in chapter six:
strategic planning and strategic intent. Strategic planning is simply described as
a process operating in an extended time-frame [3-5 years] which translates
vision and values into significant, measureable and practical outcomes.
Strategic intent is a high-level statement by which
your organisation will achieve its vision. It is a statement of design for creating
a desirable future (stated in present terms). Simply put, a strategic intent is your
to achieve in the long term. The chapter
summarises by arguing school leaders in Tanzanian secondary schools to adopt
these two important concepts in planning: strategic planning and strategic
intent.
Chapter seven is about culture in educational context. The chapter shows
explicitly that organizational culture operates at several levels simultaneously.
One of the levels is made up of artefacts: those rites, symbols, ceremonies, and
myths that serve to make organizational behaviour routine. The second level
include: espoused values, systems of beliefs and standards that provide the basis
assumptions, those institutional practices that are so deeply ingrained in the
collective consciousness of the group that to act in any other manner is
unthinkable. It is also argued that the relationship between organisational
structure and culture is of crucial importance. A large and complex
organisational structure increases the possibility of several cultures developing
simultaneously within the one organisation. And for a minimal organisational
structure, such as that found in most primary schools, enhances the possibility
of a solid culture guiding all areas of organisational activity. In concluding the
chapter, few pertinent questions are raised: Is Tanzanian school culture enabling
Educational change is theme given in chapter eight. Briefly in this chapter
the following is discussed and emphasised: the urgent reasons for change are
now familiar, the global society is increasingly complex, requiring educated
citizens who can learn continuously and who can work with diversity, locally
and internationally. The chapter employs the Secondary School Development
Plan (SEDP I and II) in Tanzania by means of an example of a community
school to explain the difficulty for effecting change. It is concluded that barriers
for change emerges within the school and outside of the school, and these
internal and external barriers limit effectiveness to change.
Chapter nine is about the part of school heads on the quality education. It
is well argued in this chapter that effectiveness and efficiency of a given school
depends for the most part on the quality of the school head. This is why
numerous studies conducted into school headship have the same opinion:
school heads play a pivotal role in their school. Furthermore, the quality of
erms of knowledge, attitude and skills depends
largely on the competence of school leadership. Briefly, it is argued in this
chapter that the outcome of schools in all situations: moving schools, struggling
schools, strolling schools, cruising schools or sinking schools depends strongly
on the ability of the school leader. The chapter concludes that a number of
factors may help Tanzanian secondary schools to improve quality of their
improvement of Tanzanian secondary schools in terms of quality are: first, the
development of the competencies of school heads. Secondly, is the
involvement of schools heads in different spheres of decision making. The third
one is about the MOEVT, REOs, DEOs and other higher educational
organisations to work hand-in-hand with schools heads to put into practice the
high quality educational in Tanzanian secondary schools.
Tanzania faces an acute shortage of institutions for preparing and
supporting school leaders. But, heads of schools need skill enhancement in
areas such as: preparation of school vision and mission; devising school
strategies; action research; conflict management; instructional leadership;
creating collegiality; legal issues; planning; resource management; community
relations; planning; finance management; and implementation of the education
and planning policy. Alternatives methods for capacity building of school
leaders in Tanzania are discussed at length in chapter ten. These alternatives
include induction, coaching and mentoring.
The last chapter; chapter eleven, is about preparation and development of
women into educational leadership. The chapter begins by giving a gloomy
situation of women into education: We live in a world in which education is
characterised by extensive gender inequalities. Two thirds of all those who have
no access to education are girls and women. Sixty-five million girls never even
start school, and an estimated 100 million do not complete primary education,
often because its quality is poor and their opportunities are far from equal to
those of boys.
However, the chapter offers optimism of women into education and
educational leadership: women hold 14 percent of school administrator
positions in Korea, 13 percent of Chinese principalship positions, half of the
primary and secondary school principalship positions in Trinidad and Tobago.
Even in Muslim countries like Turkey, there are reports of women in
educational leadership positions, although in Pakistan, the power is in the hands
of the school boards that are held by men only. The chapter concludes by
suggesting that putting programmes on preparation of adolescent girls for
leadership at nationals and global levels could put more women into leadership
who are still few in leadership positions in education and in other areas in
society. And also fighting the negative attitude of seeing women as lacking
competence in leadership and management will most likely bring positive
results for women in educational leadership and other spheres of life.
In conclusion, I hope that the book, will in some way guide heads of
basic principles are: informed leadership; shared leadership; and leadership
focused on learning. Written for students, educational leaders and policy
makers, this book will provide useful concepts and theories which could shape
the way secondary schools are lead in Tanzania and other countries in the
world. Furthermore, the book is expected to be a useful tool for policy makers
and practitioners in educational leadership.
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AADEMAdmissionAdministrationAccountingAcquisition of materialsA leader of changeAssistant headAuthoritative leadershipAutocratic leadershipBBarrier for changeBehavioural difficultyBoarding schoolsBoard and committees for educationBridging senior management& lower level managementBureaucratic leadershipCCapacity buildingCoachingCore competenceChallenge-leading change-new principlesCharismatic leadershipClass master/mistressCOBETCoercive leadershipConceptual frame workConsensus decision-makingCounsellingCollegial modelCollective leadershipConflicting management skillsCommunity relationsCommunication skillsCommunication steps-upward communication-downward communication-communication between membersCommunity school leader
Contingency theoriesContextCritical reflection & analysisCurriculumCurriculum implementation-management-change
DDecentralisation, -planning, Delegate leadershipDemocratic leadershipDepartment meetingDepartment membersDepartment for Education and Skills, (DfES)Department of Education and Science (DES)Dictatorial leadershipDifficulty of changeDirectorate of secondary education, Directive leadershipDisciplineDistributive leadershipDivision of teaching loadDormitory masterEEducational changeEducational reformEducational input, Education and Training PolicyEffective leadershipEffective managerEfficient leadershipEmotionsEmotional competenciesEmotional controlEmotional intelligenceEmotional growthEmpathyEmployment of school teachersESDPEquifinality
EvaluationFFormal AuthorityFormal leadership styleFollowersFEFunctions of middle leaders, GGender behaviourHHawathorne experimentHead boy/girlHead of departmentHead of schoolHierarchyHomeostasisHypothetical secondary schoolIIdealised influenceICTIEInexperienced principalsInductionInformationInformal leaderIntellectual simulationInterpersonal leadershipInternal challenges for leading changeInspirationalInstructional leadershipKKinaesthetic intelligenceLLeadership-collegial-distributive leadership-transformational-instructional-transactional-participatoryLeadership style-women,
-men, Leadership as influenceLeadership and valuesLeadership and visionLeadership paradigmLearning outcomeLiaisonlegal rational dominationLogical/mathematical intelligenceMManagerManagerialismManagerial leadershipManagementMasculine type of leadershipMatron/PatronMentoringModellingMOECMOEVTMiddle leadersMiddle leaders-Sweden-Hong Kong-Singapore,-New Zealand-USA-Canada-Australia-The Netherlands-UK
Middle managerMissionMoral leadershipMoraleMotivationMotivation theoryMonitoringMulti-Factor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ)NNegative reinforcement
Negative entropyNetworkingNovice school leaderNCSLNurturingOObstacles to leadershipOffice for Standard in Education (OfSTED),Operational planningOrganisational cultureOrientationOrganisational improvementOrganisation as biological systemOrganic approachOPRASOpen systemOpportunities for changePPace setting style of leadershipParticipative leadership/collaborativeParticipatory type of learning Participative leadershipParticipatory planningPEDPPeople oriented management stylePersonal feelingsPersonnel managementPerformance managementPeer supportPersonal supportPlanningPlanning cyclePlanning processPolicyPowerPublic secondary schoolPutting system and structure in placePracticePreparation of school headsProblem Based Learning (PBL)Professionalism
QQualities of effective leadersQualityQuality curriculum RRational style of leadershipREOReflectionRelational managementRational legal dominationReportingResearchResource managementReprimandSSenior Academic Master/MistressSenior Discipline MasterSenior Management Team (SMT)Self-awarenessSelf-confidenceSelf-other awarenessSelf-managementSelf-regulationSelf-other/self-awarenessSelf perceptionSEDP strategiesSEDPSchool leaderSchool contextSchool cultureScientific theorySupport to school heads
Strategic decisionStrategic management/leadershipStrategic planningSMART targetsSocial awarenessSocial skillsSocial interactionSuccessful changeSubject leader
School cultureSchool environmentSchool effectivenessSchool secretarySchool inspectionSchool community relationshipSchool Management Team (SMT)School Management roleShortage of leadership skillsSports and cultureStaff potentialSteps for improving quality teachingStore-keeperStrategic IntentStrategic Development Plan (SDP)Strategic managementStudent governmentStudent unionStudent personnel servicesStudent welfareSWOTT
Teacher Training Agency (TTA)Team buildingTeam managementTeaming upTheoryTCRATIE, 181Top-down changeTough decisionTraining school headsTrait theoriesTransformational leadershipTransactional leadershipTrustworthinessTwo factor modelTwo factor theoryUUNESCOUNICEF
UwezoVVerbal /linguistic intelligenceVisionVisionary leaderVisionary model-content-attribute,Visual/spatial intelligenceVoluntary organisationWWomen into leadership