om prakash
TRANSCRIPT
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Contending Histories
Politics and Textbook Writing in Contemporary India
Om Prakash
A dissertation submitted for the partial fulfillment of
BS-MS Dual Degree in Science
Under the guidance of
Dr. V. Rajesh
Indian Institute of Science Education and Research
Mohali
April, 2018
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Certificate of Examination
This is to certify that the dissertation titled Contending Histories Politics and Textbook
Writing in Contemporary India, submitted by Om Prakash, for the partial fulfillment
of BS-MS dual degree programme of the Institute, has been examined by the thesis
committee duly appointed by the Institute. The committee finds the work done by the
candidate satisfactory and recommends that the reports be accepted.
________________
Dr. Rajesh Venkatasubramanian
(Supervisor)
Department of Humanities and Social Sciences
IISER Mohali
________________
Dr. Ritajyoti Bandhopadhyay
Department of Humanities and Social Sciences
IISER Mohali
_______________
Dr. Parth R. Chauhan
Department of Humanities and Social Sciences
IISER Mohali
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DECLARATION
The work presented in this dissertation, titled Contending Histories Politics and Textbook
Writing in Contemporary India, has been carried out by me under Dr. Rajesh
Venkatasubramanian at Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Mohali for the
partial fulfillment of BS-MS dual degree programme of the Institute.
This work has not been submitted in part or in full for a degree, a diploma, or a fellowship to any
other university or institute. Whenever contributions of others are involved, every effort is made
to indicate this clearly, with due acknowledgement of collaborative research and discussions.
This thesis is a bonafide record of original work done by me and all sources listed within have
been detailed in the bibliography.
______________
Om Prakash
(MS13147)
20th April, 2018
In my capacity as the supervisor of the candidate‟s project work, I certify that the above
statements by the candidate are true to the best of my knowledge.
_____________
Dr. Rajesh Venkatasubramanian
(Supervisor)
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ABSTRACT
Name: Om Prakash
Registration No. : MS13147
Degree: BS-MS Dual Degree in Science
Department: Chemical Sciences
Thesis Title: Contending Histories Politics and Textbook Writing in Contemporary
India
Thesis Supervisor: Dr. Rajesh Venkatasubramanian
Date of Thesis Submission: 20th
April, 2018
History textbooks play a crucial role in defining nation and national imagination. Contemporary
India experienced a conflict of ideologies in defining nation. These ideologies are constantly
contemplating the public discourse to construct Indian state according to their ideologies. The
ideological discourse of these ideologies is constructed on the basis of history. Events from the
past are used to legitimize the imagined nation of these political parties. History textbooks build
the national identity among citizens. The political parties in contemporary India influence the
process of textbook writing. These parties try to introduce their version of history in the
textbooks so that they can inculcate the imagination of national identity according to their
ideology. This work is an attempt to understand the history textbook controversy by looking at
the ideas presented in textbooks under different political regimes. The work will explore the
significance of history textbooks in Indian context and their relevance in political domain.
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to mummy, papa and Prahalad
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Acknowledgements
I would like to begin by thanking IISER Mohali for providing me the facilities and environment
because of which I could able to explore my quest for knowledge. I would like to extend my
gratitude towards the Department of Chemical Sciences for allowing me to traverse through the
terrain of social sciences.
I am grateful to my supervisor Dr. V. Rajesh, for presenting me with his understanding in subtle
manner, for expanding the domain of curiosity in my mind and for bearing the burden of my own
irregularities with me. He has been supportive in my academic as well as personal life since the
time I have known him. It has been an amazing experience to develop my knowledge by sitting
beside such a wise and rational individual. I am thankful for the immense support of Dr. Ritajyoti
Bandhopadhyay and Dr. Parth R. Chauhan for their thought provoking insights that they have
conveyed to me at various instances as my committee members.
Any workplace posses the potential of giving existential crisis to one who doesn‟t has a home to
go back to. In the rush and hush of my academic life my friends Pandey, Somani and Kausal
have given me the warmth of family love and the cheerfulness of friendship. I am thankful to
Aman Bhaiya and Harpreet Bhaiya for introducing me to the hidden self of my intellect and
developing a self-conscious behavior. They have been like brothers I would always look upto.
The list of my allies is finite but would be incomplete without a compassionate mention of
Garima, Kana, Aditya Mishra, Parikshit, Mukesh Bhaiya, Sidharth, Abhishek, Nitya, Harshal
Bhaiya, Ajit Bhaiya, Bhati Bhaiya, Neeraj, Akhil, Shailesh, Subham Tomar, Shivam, Rakesh,
Vinayak, Prakhar, Kalik, Virendra, Irteza.
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I could not imagine the level of continuity and passion I have shown for this work, if it was
without the taunting and witty injection of positivity through my interactions with Sukhraj. I feel
immense delight in exploring the mystery that she is and her overjoyed passion for life. My
solidarity with Jamna has made me experience the joy of sharing, amidst the chaos of college
life, without distance paying its cost.
The identity crisis originated in my discussions with Devwrat Bhaiya has familiarized me with
acute self-criticism and better decision making. Self-realization, although a gift of time, has
found its way faster towards me with his help.
The acknowledgement would be incomplete without the mention of family and relatives who
showed faith in the unusual attempt of pursuing my interest. Given the finite nature of human
memory I am apologetic to those whom I could not remember while writing the
acknowledgement.
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Table of Contents Chapter: 1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 11
Chapter: 2 History, Nation, and Education ............................................................................... 17
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Nation and Education
2.3 Nation and History
2.4 History and Education
2.5 Intersecting Nation, Education and History
Chapter: 3 Historiography in Indian Subcontinent ....................................................................... 24
3.1 Introduction:
3.2 History Writing in Ancient India:
3.2.1 Notion of Time: Linear and Cyclic
3.2.2 History Writing in Jainism and Buddhism
3.3 History Writing in Medieval India
3.4 History Writing in Colonial India
3.3.1 Orientalism and Indomania
3.3.2 Colonial Historiography
3.3.3 History Teachings in Colonial India
3.3.4 Nationalist Response to Colonial Historiography
3.5 Marxist Historiography in Post-Colonial India
3.6 Subaltern Approach to Indian Historiography
Chapter: 4 Textbook Controversy: Contents and Contradiction ............................................... 39
4.1 Introduction:
4.2 History Textbooks in Indian Schools:
4.3 History Textbook and Politics:
4.4 Hindu Nationalism and Mythification of History:
4.5 NCF Reports:
4.6 Content and Contradictions:
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4.6.1 First Set of History Textbooks:
4.6.2 History Textbooks in the NDA Regime
Chapter: 5 Selective History Writings ............................................................................................ 62
5.1 Introduction:
5.2 Power and History:
5.3 History Textbooks and Representation of Females:
5.4 Representation of Dalits and Adivasis:
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………………………67
Appendix………………………………………………………………………………………………………69
Bibliography………………………………………………………………………………………………72
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Abbreviations
BJP: Bharatiya Janata Party
NCERT: National Council of Educational Research and Training
NDA: National Democratic Alliance
NCF: National Curriculum Framework
ICHR: Indian Council of Historical Research
RSS: Rashtriya Swaymsevak Sangh
UNESCO: The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
VHP: Viswa Hindu Parishad
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Chapter 1
Introduction
“Prejudice is the ink with which history is written.”
Mark Twain1
In the conventional perception history is the chronological order of events that happened in the
past. The stories of kings, wars, conquests comprise the body of earlier history writings.
Herodotus is considered as the father of history because he produced the first historical account
of Persian war in 5th century BC. Earlier history records were war histories, and it was all about
those who won the battles. History writing changed in the modern era, and it started including
people‟s narrative in records. Earlier history writings were concerned about protecting the legacy
of kings and emperor. The inclusion of people‟s narrative changed the way history was perceived
in pre-modern times. History became an essential component in understanding the complex
social structure. While history provided an avenue to understand the complex social structures
and historical processes, it was equally entangled in subjective interpretation of historical events
and processes. Events were interpreted in different ways; debates and discussion became integral
to history writing. Potential of history as a subject to understand social complexities slowly
transformed into explaining history from the perspective of contemporary society2. Nation states
came into existence and history became an integral part of the nation building process. States
perceived history in a way that it could resonate with the imagined identity of the nation3.
Countries with religious, regional and linguistic diversity faced a lot of problems in defining
national history. India is one such example where ideological differences exist within the
1 Saurav Basu, NCERT History Texts: hopelessly degraded, Vijayvaani Open Forum, 2009
2 Kabir Mohammed, The Role of History, Historiography and Historian in Nation Building, International Journal of
Humanities and Social Science Invention, Volume 2, issue 7, 2013, pp. 50-57 3 Ann Low Beer, School History, National History and the Issue of National Identity, International Journal of
Historical Learning, Volume 3, 2003, pp. 1-7
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boundaries and state is imagined in two different ways. These differences are based on the
religious identities; one of this is secular which rely on the inclusion of every religious group,
and the other is communal which is exclusive and talks about a particular religion. These two
ideologies approached history in two different ways according to their imagined nation. My
thesis is aimed at looking at the approach of these ideologies through history textbooks in the
school curriculum.
History textbook has been the center of these political debates. Politicians participate in these
political debates without the appropriate knowledge of the discipline. Their arguments gain
legitimacy in the public domain. My thesis is aimed at understanding the controversies that have
happened in the past. These debates revolve around two things; one is interpreting a particular
historical event from two different points of views, and the other is inclusion or exclusion of a
particular event. These debates come alive whenever there is a change in government. There are
two major political parties in Indian democracy - Congress and BJP. While Congress ruled for an
extended period, the BJP emerged in the late 1980s. In 1999 Lok Sabha election, BJP formed the
government, and it completed a full tenure for the first time. It was one of the most critical
periods in the history of textbook controversy in contemporary India. My thesis will focus on this
period and the changes that have been made in the National Council of Educational Research and
Training (NCERT) history textbooks. I will try to talk about the portions that were removed and
portions that were included in the new NCERT textbooks that came out in 2003 and 2004. My
thesis will try to address some of these questions like why a particular part of history is removed
or included in the textbook? How these changes are related to the ideologies of political parties?
The thesis comprise of following chapters -
1.1 History, Nation, and Education
In this chapter, I aim to examine how history, nation and education are interlinked in modern
historical and contemporary times. The modern day school textbook controversy largely revolves
around understanding the aspiration of the nation in educating citizen. This aspiration is aimed at
constructing national identity through the teaching of history. There are two ways to assume the
role of history in education; one is to identify history as a tool to inculcate pride and patriotism
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among citizens4, and the other is to use the subject for strengthening citizens with skills to
understand society. This chapter will build the background for understanding the place of history
in educational curriculum and its importance for the nation. The intersection of these three
elements will give us an insight into understanding the questions like why history has been
chosen to deliver national aspiration and what is the role of the nation in building educational
infrastructure?
This chapter will analyze how textbook controversy can be understood from this intersection. A
section of the chapter is devoted to history of education and nation. The project of modern nation
state was executed with the introduction of universal education system5. Centralized education
was primary, and the nation was secondary in the beginning, but it changed over a period. Nation
through its authority and governance customized the education system according to its need.
Education slowly moved towards being secondary but these two shares a mutual relationship
with each other.
History has been the driving for the inclusion of nations which are divided along the lines of
region, religion, caste and class. Historical events were used in the past to deliver national
values, and a sense of attachment and pride is used to connect citizens and nation. Nation
stabilizes itself with the dignity and patriotism of citizens. History plays a vital role in school
curriculum not only as an instrument of the nation but also as a subject that develop social skills.
These social skills are used to construct critical understanding among citizens; it also helps them
in understanding the modern political discourse and the events from the past which shaped it.
1.2 Historiography in Indian Subcontinent
In this chapter, I shall deal with the development of traditional history writing. The chapter is
divided into four subsections - ancient, medieval, colonial and contemporary. India has always
been criticized for its lack of historical consciousness. This chapter will explore the different
4J.C.D. Clark, National Identity, State Formation and Patriotism: the Role of History in the Public Mind, Oxford
University Press, 1990, pp. 95-102 5 Terry Haydn, History in Schools and the Problem of “The Nation”, Education Sciences, Volume 2, 2012, pp. 276-
289
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dimensions of historical consciousness in India. Ancient historiography of India is different from
the European traditions because the notion of time that has been adopted in ancient texts follows
linear as well as the cyclic time scale. There is no separate historical record of ancient history for
primarily it relies on the available religious literature of those times. These texts are exaggerated
in the form of mythology, and sometimes it is difficult to distinguish these two clearly. Ancient
Indian literature is mainly comprised of Brahmanic, Buddhist and Jain religious texts. No single
record traces the entire ancient history in a single document. Study of these sacred texts reveals
that it is not entirely true to characterize Indian society as a society that lacked historical
consciousness. The historical knowledge existed but it was different and it would be
inappropriate to comment on the historicity of that knowledge based on contemporary
parameters.
Medieval period in Indian history experienced a new religious culture that emerged with the
coming of Islam. At the beginning of Islamic rule, the history writing tradition experienced
Arabic influence which followed Hijri6 calendar. Writings of this period revolved around the
praise of prophet Muhammad, Allah, and the emperor. The actions of emperors were legitimized
with these records that were produced by the courtiers. Abu‟l Fazl made a shift in the Islamic
history writing traditions by introducing 'secular' history. Records of history writing in ancient
and medieval India influenced religion. There were no separate accounts for history; it was a part
of literature.
European colonial powers aspired for the ideological conquest of the colony, and they explored
the knowledge of colony. Imperial power constructed the history of the colony with the help of
archaeological, epigraphic and literary evidence. James Mill produced the first systematic
historical record of the Indian subcontinent. The process of writing history became a source for
the colonial power to legitimize its interference. Indian civilization was characterized as
backward and a society that lacks the potential to self-rule. Nationalist historians attempted to
respond these criticisms and produced history from an Indian perspective. Postcolonial history
writings made progress in writing history. History writing in post-independence period was
influenced by the application of Marxist theory. The history that was primarily centered on the
6Hijri is the era used in the Islamic lunar calendar, which begins its count from the Islamic New Year in 622 AD.
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political power made a shift towards people‟s history. Subaltern history writing is the recent
development in the discipline. Subaltern historians tried to talk about the marginalized
communities that were missing from most of the writings. This chapter will trace the journey of
history writing in India.
1.3 Textbook Controversy: Content and Contradictions
This chapter will deal with most important part of this thesis that is textbook controversy. In this
chapter, I will focus on the first set of NCERT history textbooks that were published in 1961 and
the second set of textbooks that were published in 2002 and 2003. The chapter shall discuss the
policy documents of NCERT based on which these textbooks are prepared. The chapter deals
with the ideological influence of two major political parties on the content of these textbooks.
Under the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) regime, some of the portions of old textbooks
were removed. The chapter shall highlight the portions that were removed and examine the
reasons behind removing those parts. This chapter also includes the controversial elements that
were included in new NCERT textbooks. These parts from textbooks reflect the ideology of party
under which these textbooks are prepared.
National Curriculum Framework (NCF) is the official document from NCERT which sets the
guidelines for the textbooks that needs to be prepared. The central organizations like NCERT and
Indian Council of Historical Research (ICHR) come under the power of central government. The
government appoints the members in these committees and the selected members are usually
chosen based on their ideological inclination towards a particular party. These ideologies then
reflect in the policy documents and from there to school textbooks. This chapter will try to
explore this link.
1.4 Selective History Writings
The contesting ideologies of Indian nation talk about the homogenizing population with a
universal view of history that can be used to define the nation. The grand narrative of these two
ideologies intersects at a point7; this point is about the approach towards determining nation.
7 Sylvie Guichard, The construction of History and Nationalism in India: Textbook, Controversies and Politics,
Routledge, 2010
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Both of these views present history from an urban, male and upper caste perspective8.
Marginalized groups become invisible in this homogeneous understanding of the nation. Urban,
male and upper caste groups enjoyed the domination over the marginalized groups for an
extended period. History writing is one such discipline where this domination can be recognized
by looking at the representation of these groups. This chapter will discuss the representation of
marginalized groups in history textbooks.
8 Sylvie Guichard, The construction of History and Nationalism in India: Textbook, Controversies and Politics,
Routledge, 2010
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Chapter 2
History, Nation, and Education
2.1 Introduction
Three components history, nation, and education are linked in one way or the other. It is essential
to understand the role of each one of these and the idea that connects them. This intersection
gives a foundational overview of history textbook controversy. This chapter will give an insight
on the significance of history and education in defining nation. The episode will focus on the
origin of the nation as a product of education system, the process through which the state became
the ultimate authority. Each section of the chapter will individually link; nation and education,
history and education, history and nation as these links will establish the background for
understanding textbook controversy. School is a mode through which nation performs the task of
training citizens9; educated citizens maintain the social and economic structure of government.
Through education, nation transmits its aspiration among citizens, ambitions that create loyal and
responsible citizens. There are two kinds of training that country delivers through education10
;
the practice of scientific rationality for individual economic independence, training of social
skills for the betterment of society and nation. History as a subject performs the task of training
individuals with specific social skills based on the past. It plays a vital role in several ways; it
constructs the national identity by teaching shared past. It also induces the sense of community
and builds a connection among citizens of the nation. History as part of curriculum helps in
making nationalism as well as it develops the critical thinking of individuals. History as a subject
delivers the national aspirations and nation is selective in doing that; it results in teaching a
particular account. The idea of teaching a specific history makes it as an instrument of the state;
through which it propagates its positive image. It does not mean that history is merely an
9 Ann Low Beer, School History, National History and the Issue of National Identity, International Journal of
Historical Learning, Volume 3, 2003, pp. 1-7 10 Kabir Mohammed, The Role of History, Historiography and Historian in Nation Building, International Journal of
Humanities and Social Science Invention, Volume 2, issue 7, 2013, pp. 50-57
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instrument; several values are associated with past, and it is more than an apparatus. I will talk
about its instrumental aspect because the textbook controversy is the result of identifying history
as an instrument in the school curriculum.
2.2 Nation and Education
Development of nation and nationalism can be understood in several approaches. Primordial,
perennial and modernist are some of the methods that have been given to understand the concept
of nation. Primordial understanding explains nation as a natural phenomenon something that has
been there since time immemorial. The perennial approach differs with the original
conceptualization of nation, and it identifies the nation as a historical and natural phenomenon.
The modernist approach considers the nation as the product of industrial and modern society11
. It
defines the nation as a unit that came into existence for satisfying the needs of modern industrial
society.
Ernest Gellner in his work12
developed a close link between nation and education. According to
Gellner development of modern education system shares a parallel history with the history of the
nation-state. Modern nation-state came into existence with the development of industrial society.
Industrial society is based on the premise of perpetual growth. The agricultural community had
stable social roles and social structure; it lacked the aspiration of innovation and economic
progress. Industrial society, on the other hand, is based on the idea of innovation and economic
growth. The ambition of perpetual growth characterized industrial society as mobile and
productive. The essence of productivity relies on the division of labor. Agrarian society had a
simple division of work, and the labor class had specialized training in the respective fields; with
this structure, the mobility of the agricultural society was limited because these skilled labors
were not replaceable in case if a section is not working. Industrial community, on the other hand,
could not compromise with its mobility, so the division of labor became complex. The labor class
needed to be trained in a way that in case if a section of this division is not working correctly, it
can be replaced. To maintain the mobility industrial society needed the trained workforce with
specific standardized skills. This workforce should be taught with some shared qualifications that
include the knowledge of numeracy, work habits, and particular social skills. After this standard
11 Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism, Cornell University Press, 1983, pp 19-38 12
Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism, Cornell University Press, 1983, pp 19-38
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training they can be used in different fields based on minor training; this way it became easier to
replace specialized labor force if it is not working correctly. The specialization of labor in
industrial society is based on the foundation of unspecialized and standardized training. These
ideas were new to the community which was transforming from agrarian to industrial. This idea
of training individuals with a standardized knowledge became a foundation for a centralized and
universal education system.
A centralized education system trains the citizens in a way that they can be useful for the
economic progress of industrial society. The standardization of training does not merely produce
but also reproduces social individuals so that mobility of industrial society could be maintained
forever. The reproduction of social individuals implies that the process of training has been
institutionalized. The diverse agricultural communities were incapable of training the citizens
according to the needs of industrial society. The knowledge of these communities was not in line
with the requirements of industrial society. Industrial society transformed the functional structure
of agrarian society and derived a new labor class. The industrial labor class was not trained in a
particular set of skills it had standardized training. These different communities had to rely on
someone for this comprehensive training so that they can provide a workforce for industrial
society and sustain. Exo-socialization became a norm in industrial society. Agrarian societies
which were self-sufficient and there were not many interactions among groups now became
interdependent. The educational infrastructure required for the generic training of this workforce
was large, indispensable, expensive and difficult to maintain. It was difficult to imagine an
organization that can handle the burden of keeping and functioning of the educational system to
train individuals. The state had the potential to take up the responsibility of maintaining the
educational infrastructure. State performed the task of providing similar training to
heterogeneous societies. Education worked as a thread in the developing industrial communities,
and it laid the foundation for the development of modern nation-state.
The relation between nation and education is reciprocal13
, so nationalism influences education
and vice versa. Educational aims of a nation represent the national sentiment. In Indian context
13 John Seiler Brubacher, A History of the Problems of Education, Mc-Graw-Hill, 1947, pp. 16-42
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the nation is recognized for its culture, spirituality and ethical values and the education system is
perceived to play a vital role in delivering these values. In the modern nation, education is
becoming an instrument to teach the understanding of nationalism. Nationalism plays an
essential role in establishing the educational aims; educational curriculum reflects the values held
by the nation14
. Although national education system was meant to produce the trained workforce
with scientific rationality suitable for the mobility of industrial society, it transformed itself
towards educating citizens who are loyal to the nation. This transformation prioritized the
national aspiration over education. The modern education system has become a tool for
governments to produce citizens aligned with the national goal. In the process individuals
became secondary, and nations became primary importance in the modern education system.
2.3 Nation and History
History is defined as a process through which we reconstruct the past. This reconstruction is
based on proper resources and evidence (archaeological, literary, etc). It is a conscious attempt to
explain the existing social and cultural structures of society. In that sense, it helps us in
understanding the community based on its past developments. One of the significant goals of
history is to justify the human quest of knowing its existence concerning the previous events.
Based on the modernist approach the nation is something that came into existence in the
eighteenth and nineteenth century; in the agrarian world homogeneous societies were there, and
these societies shared a common culture and heritage. These communities came together under
the newly formed entity called nation; it was a different entity of homogeneous societies. The
nation as an entity had the role in connecting all the existing communities that were divided
along region, religion, ethnicity, and language. The process of diluting these diversities and
reconstructing a common identity different from the previous characters is called nation-
building. The idea of nation building rests on the premise of creating an identity that is beyond
region, religion, ethnicity, and language. Creation of national history was one of the critical tools
for nation-building. The importance of history transformed into a project of creating a national
history.
14
John Seiler Brubacher, A History of the Problems of Education, Mc-Graw-Hill, 1947, pp.16-42
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The successful nationalization of history has two outcomes15
; the nationalized history has the
potential to create the uniqueness of nation which in turn will produce the feeling of patriotism
among citizens. The nationalist history also establishes the political order of struggle in the past
which can work as a thread that unites the diversity of the nation. The task of constructing
history became a national project in which people from history discipline participated. Historians
engaged themselves in establishing history as an academic discipline and identifying usable
history16
for legitimizing the political order of the nation. Usable history reflects the nation-
building agenda of state; where the nation is portrayed in specific ways, and it establishes its
identity based on certain ideologies. These ideologies are the results of particular events from the
past. The character that is created based on usable history identifies specific events from the past;
the facts that fit into the imagined identity of the nation. Then these events are conceptualized
and interpreted according to the needs of national aspiration. These events from the past help in
stabilizing the existing regime by perpetuating certain ideological consciousness related to the
nation.
History is also understood as an “unending dialogue between the present and past”; this idea
reflects the changing nature of historical knowledge. History is not limited to the chronological
order of past events; it also deals with the implications and interpretation of those events. These
interpretations vary according to the social and political discourse in which they are interpreted.
The democratic nations are governed by political parties; these political parties have certain
ideologies through which they influence the public discourse. It is difficult to identify a truly
national vision in the modern states; it varies with political power. The ideological discourse of
these political parties relies on the instrumental use of past. Events are interpreted in specific
ways suitable for the political aspiration of these parties. The idea of identifying historical
knowledge as changing and not absolute, gives scope for understanding society from multiple
viewpoints. The understanding of history is derived from the development of the nation and its
importance in constructing nationalism. History as a subject build the national identity, develops
a social structure that forms the nation, it helps in creating the modern political discourse of the
nation. 15 Ann Low Beer, School History, National History and the Issue of National Identity, International Journal of
Historical Learning, Volume 3, 2003, pp. 1-7 16
Usable History refers to the idea of selecting particular events from the past that are used for legitimizing power.
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2.4 History and Education
The modern education system produces citizens with a set of skills, and these skills are delivered
through a set of subjects. The education system works on the utilitarian principle; where
whatever is taught has utility attached to it in the modern world. These subjects can be classified
into two broad categories, one is natural sciences, and the other is social sciences. The usefulness
of natural science can be realized because it is an essential component of modern industrial
society. It is difficult to recognize the value of social sciences practically. The contemporary
culture always expects education to serve a utilitarian purpose and the utility of natural science is
visible in industrial society. History is a part of social sciences, and the outcomes of historical
knowledge are not palpable and immediate. The question on the relevance of history as a subject
is common in the public discourse, but it is rarely asked in case of other science disciplines.
The earlier understanding of historical knowledge was limited, and the idea of knowing historical
knowledge had a narrow significance. Historical knowledge was used as a factor to distinguish
educated from uneducated17
. Historical knowledge was limited to the factual information of past
events in the chronological order. It was limited to the mindless memorization of facts, and the
subject had no appealing aspect. Historical facts have been used as a criterion for screening the
knowledge of individuals in several societies. The understanding of history changed over a
period, and it became relevant when the events of present were looked upon as the consequence
of past. It brought in a new aspect of historical knowledge, and from the mere collection of
information, it became a foundation for understanding people and societies18
. History became a
laboratory of information and data from the past were used to understand the complexities of
existing social structure. Events were interpreted in different ways, and the process of analyzing
these events helped in constructing the critical understanding. Development of history as a
discipline reflects that it is a crucial component for the development of a citizen and that is why
it became a part of school curriculum. As a subject history provides both facts and skills.
17 Peter N. Stearns, Why Study History, American Historical Association, 1998 18
Peter N. Stearns, Why Study History, American Historical Association, 1998
23
2.5 Intersecting Nation, Education and History
The intersection of nation, education and history is important in addressing the textbook
controversy. Nation uses education to train citizens with a set of social skills, and the values held
by nation are transmitted to the citizen through education. In that sense the educational
curriculum reflects the aspiration and values held by nation. In turn the citizen stabilizes nation
through social and economic skills that she developed through the education. Education delivers
the national aspiration through subjects that are part of the school curriculum. It is difficult to
utilize scientific disciplines like mathematics and natural science for this purpose. Social
sciences and language subjects are used for the purpose of delivering these values. Scientific
disciplines provide economic independence and the knowledge of these subjects is not limited to
geographical boundaries. It is applicable everywhere and can be used everywhere. Social
sciences in particular deliver the knowledge that is largely confined within the boundaries of
nation. Social science develops the understanding of society where citizen lives, nation produces
an identity of itself which it wants to deliver for its own recognition. This recognition is
strengthened by patriotism and loyalty. History as a subject is taught in the schools so that the
feelings of patriotism and loyalty can be propagated with the help of events and individuals who
participated in shaping the destiny of nation. In Indian context these imagined nations have
different values and ideals because of which they are struggling to assert their idea of nation.
These two poles of national imagination are supported by the political institutions because of
which history has been approached in different ways. These contradictions and importance of
textbook in propagating these visions can be considered as one of the reason behind the
controversy. In the next chapters we will look at the methods and ideas that were involved in the
episode of textbook controversy.
24
Chapter 3
History Writing Traditions in India
3.1 Introduction
Historiography of the Indian subcontinent has various forms beginning from ancient India to
contemporary India. Colonial power criticized the historical consciousness of the subcontinent
and characterized India as land that lacks the sense of history and history writing. It was an
attempt by British power to ideologically control the colony and influence its understanding by
constructing a new past that legitimizes British influence19
. British power propagated the idea
that the historical knowledge of colony is solely built by them and it had no history before the
coming of imperial power. Indians historians made several attempts to reconstruct the historical
consciousness of pre-colonial India because the historiography of ancient and medieval India
was not explored by then. After the exploration of ancient and medieval time, Indian
historiography became vast and diverse. Indian history writing can be classified into five
different categories ancient, medieval, colonial, Marxist and subaltern. Each of these categories
has a different understanding of past. Romila Thapar is one of the prominent historians who
worked extensively on the historical traditions of ancient India and countered the imperial
knowledge about the historical consciousness of colony. She explored the religious text of
ancient India and described the different notions of time adopted in these writings. Harbans
Mukhia explored the historical understanding of the medieval period and gave an overview of
history writing traditions of Islamic culture and their influence on Indian historiography.
Historiography of medieval period has two strands one is the adoption of Arabic literature of
history writing, and the second is writing of Abu‟l Fazl20
who attempted to separate religious
understanding from history writing traditions. His text was one of the earliest work that tried to
change the traditional ways of looking at past from the religious perspective.
19
A.W. Entwistle , An Introduction to Indian Historiography, Groniek, 1985 20
Abu‟l Fazl: courtier of Akbar who wrote Akbarnama, the official history of Akbar‟s reign
25
British colonialism took over power from Mughals and attempted to conquer the minds of people
ideologically. The colony was explored with the purpose of producing knowledge and then using
it for the benefit of British Empire. In the process, historical knowledge was created, and the
existing notions of history writing were rejected. Historical consciousness of Indian civilization
was questioned, and it was considered as a backward society with no historical consciousness.
British power produced the historical knowledge of Indian culture, and it was not attempted to
create historical awareness among individuals. Indian history was written under the influence of
British power to justify their intervention in the colony. History produced was instrumental, and
it was aimed at creating a hierarchy where British power is at the top and colony is at the bottom.
Indian historians responded to these attempts of British power with the nationalist history writing
which was aimed mainly at restoring the pride of past which was lost because of colonial
influence. These writings were projecting a romantic past of Indian civilization, and these texts
were not produced with the quest of knowing history; the nationalist history writing was more of
a defense.
Colonial power had a significant impact on Indian historiography and after independence
historians attempted to decolonize themselves from the European influence to get the intellectual
freedom. Indian historiography in the post-independence period had the significant impact from
the Marxism, and Marxist historians attempted to rewrite Indian history. Marxist historians
occupied the academic space and played a crucial role in constructing modern historiography of
the Indian subcontinent. Subaltern history21
writing is one of the contemporary strands of Indian
historiography; it started in 1980s by some of the historians who were dissatisfied with the
existing traditions, and they criticized modern Indian historiography as elitist. The subaltern
groups attempted to reframe Indian history by considering marginalized communities. The
chapter will trace the journey of Indian historiography from ancient to the subaltern history
writings and the evolution of historical tradition in Indian society.
21
Subaltern Studies: Study by the south Asian scholars which focus on studying history from the perspective of
marginalized.
26
3.2 History Writing in Ancient India
Colonial power described ancient Indian civilization as stable and steady, the society that did not
witness the historical development. Iranian scholar Alberuni was one of the first persons who
commented on the historiography of the Indian subcontinent. In his text Tehrik-i-Hind, he argued
that Hindus did not consider the importance of historical order and they lacked the understanding
of recording past. His knowledge was derived from the puranic sources which have proper
historical records in chronological order. Historical consciousness of ancient India was criticized
by several British historians and Orientalists. It is not true that ancient India had no historical
knowledge and they did not produce the historical texts. Ancient India had an enormous
collection of literature, and there are several texts which reflect the historical consciousness of
ancient India. It would be inappropriate if we evaluate the historical documents of ancient India
in comparison to the modern history writing traditions. The text of those times should be judged
based on the criteria that were prevailing in the contemporary age. The contemporary history
writing tradition is the result of evolution that happened over an extended period. It is true that
ancient history writing tradition had a different notion of time and chronology, but that does not
mean they had no historical consciousness. The tradition of writing history in chronological
order was not developed in ancient India.
3.2.1 Notion of Time: Linear and Cyclic
One of the significant reasons behind rejecting the historical consciousness of ancient India is
based on the fact that the old literature uses the cyclic notion of time. European understanding
correlates historical knowledge with the linear notion of time that is one of the reasons because
of which historical sense of Indian society was questioned. Romila Thapar in her work22
argued
that it is not entirely accurate that Indian society did not know history; based on the ancient
literature the past of Indian society is described in two time frames one is cyclic, and the other
one is linear. There is no point of the boundary between these two notions because the texts are
the intersection of both the frameworks simultaneously. These notions are derived from the
knowledge of astronomy and cosmology. The parent unit of cyclic notion is kalpa, and it is
22
Romila Thapar, Cyclic and Linear Time in Early India, Cambridge University Press, 2002
27
considered infinite and immeasurable, it is a period that starts with creation and ends with the
destruction of the world. Kalpa is divided into Mahayugas which extend in the time span of 4320
million years. Mahayuga is further divided into four distinct Yuga; Satya, Treta, Dvapra, Kali-
yuga. The cyclic time can be considered as a result of religious belief for the recurring rebirth of
the soul; the concept of punarjanma. Puranas describe the events from the past using three
different forms; Cosmological, Genealogical, Dynastic. The genealogical writings were produced
using the linear notion of time. The concept of Era is the other form of time that existed in
ancient India, and it is closely linked to the history. The idea of Smvatsara (era), originated from
the consciousness of political power and specific historical events were the reasons behind the
beginning of eras such as Shaka, Chedi, Gupta, Harsha era. These eras are classified by kings or
their dynasties. Regional histories and the dynastic chronicles primarily rely on the linear notion
of time. Literature from ancient India incorporates both linear and cyclic notion of time; the
choice of using a particular time frame is determined by function and individuals involved in the
process. Generally, cyclic time was considered for the incarnations and deities; events related to
human scale were interpreted using linear time.
Ancient historiography began from the time of Vedavyasa, and it continued until the twelfth
century. The oldest evidence of historiography is found in the Rigveda. These texts are composed
in the form of hymns which reflects the historical consciousness of this era. These hymns are the
earliest forms of history writing that provide the evidence of historical sense in ancient India.
The beginning of ancient historiography is marked by Bharata Itihasa and Purana Samhita; the
text that was said to have been produced by tradition by Vyasa in the Dvapara Age. The
beginning of ancient history writing tradition is known as Itihasa-Purana tradition, and it has
three constituents; Akhyana, Itihasa and Purana. Akhyanas are narratives as history is written in
the form of narratives in this category. Itihasa is the historical records that are written in the form
of stories as these records are described in the form of literature. They serve as the guide to
understand the contemporary culture and civilization of ancient India. Puranas are the old tales
that are not entirely historical because they have the combination of history and mythology.
Puranas are not produced by a single person or a single age, the writing of Puranas began with
the writings of Vyasa, and several writings were added over a period of times. The Puranic
28
literature provides the information about the life and deeds of the Solar and Lunar dynasty.
Puranas were the earliest texts that recorded the dynastic lineage and chronology.
3.2.2 History Writing in Jainism and Buddhism
After 7th century AD, the traditional history writings of ancient India shifted from puranic
tradition to the Buddhist and Jain historiography. Religious literature of these two religions made
a significant contribution in the historiography of ancient India. Buddhist literature is mainly
composed of three pitakas; Vinnaya Pittak, Sutta Pittak, Abhidhamb Pittak. These pittakas have
the information about the foundation of Buddhist religion; pittakas also present the historical
records of Magadha Empire and some of the earliest Magadha rulers like Bimbisara and his son
Ajatsatru. The religious text of Buddhism dealt with the political history of this era in which the
deeds of kings and their stories are mentioned in the form of biographies. Tripitakas describes the
social, economic, religious and political history of ancient India from Buddha to the 3rd century
BC. The Pali chronicles of Buddhism also includes literary works like Jatakas, Divyavadana,
Lalitavistara, and Ceylon chronicles Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa as some of these literary works
describe the early career and succession of Chandragupta Maurya.
Religious literature of Jainism contains twelve angas like Kapsutra, Bhaavatisutra, Marutuna.
These angas contains historical data related to Jainism and its culture. These angas included the
historical records of monarchs like Bimbisara, Ajatshatru, and Mahapadmananda. The other
literary sources of Jainism are classified into Pattavalis and Rajavalis. Pattavalis contains the list
of the political successor in dynasties, and Rajavalis contains the chronicles of kings. Buddhist
and Jain literature provided authentic information of dynasties with the proper chronological
order. Court poets in ancient India also played a significant role in the traditional history writings
although they cannot be considered as historians. They produced biographies and chronicles of
kings which became the political history. The political history written by these court poets
highlighted the achievements of kings, their deeds, and their struggle with native kings.
The wide range of writings from ancient India proves that historical sense of subcontinent was
diverse. The universal time scale was absent from the ancient historiography and it varied while
the concept of cyclic and linear time was parallel. Ancient literature is the blend of dynastic
29
chronicles, biographies, and mythology. Historical understanding of ancient India can be sensed
from these writings.
3.3 History Writing in Medieval India
In the medieval period when Muslim rulers assumed power, they brought in the religious and
cultural practices in the region. Arabs had a limited historical consciousness before the advent of
Islam and the religious text of Quran brought the historical consciousness among Arabs. In the
Islamic theology and history, time is predominantly categorized in two forms23
: one is eternal,
and without boundaries, it represents the infinite totality of time that cannot be predicted. On the
other hand, the notion of time with a definite beginning and a particular end, the notion of time
being precise is a notion that existed in Christian world-view where time is linear, and it started
with the creation of the world, and it will end on the Day of Judgment. Islamic world marks the
beginning of time with the birth of Muhammad; it characterizes the time before the birth of
Muhammad as Jahiliya that is the age of ignorance and savagery. The birth of prophet
Muhammad marks the beginning of Islamic Hijri calendar, the religious calendar of Islam that
will end on the Day of Judgment. Muslim rulers who came to India had courtiers who used to
write about the ruler and praise his actions; these writers cannot be considered historians because
their writing was not aimed at producing historical knowledge. These writings were aimed at
creating literature that legitimizes ruler‟s action. Social structure and the effect of the rule on the
society were never discussed in these writings because the emperor was the only subject of these
texts and everything was interpreted from his perspective. History writing of the period was
limited to reducing universal history to regional dynasty and producing the chronicle records of
ruler‟s action.
One of the unofficial historians of Akbar‟s court, Mulla Abdul Qadir Badauni produced the
earliest account of Muslim history in the Indian subcontinent. He wrote three volumes of
Muntakhab al-Tawarikh, the text began from the rule of Subuktgin, father of Mahmud of Ghazni.
The Muslim state in India started with the invasion of Muhammad bin Qasim, but he did not
begin his narrative from there because Muslim rule could not get the permanent rule in Indian
23
Harbans Mukhia, „Time in Abul Fazl’s Historiography’ Studies in History ,Volume 25, issue 1, 2010 , pp. 1-12
30
subcontinent by then. These historians only employed the Islamic time frame of Hijri and
considered pre-Islamic time as unnecessary. Therefore these historical accounts start with the
praise of Allah, and then they praise Muhammad, then caliphate, past sultans and at the end these
records talks about the current ruler. These historical works reflect the profile of ruler and the
political lineage of Islam.
Abu‟l Fazl, the courtier of Akbar, wrote Akbar Nama and A’in-i Akbari and these historical
accounts broke the traditional history writing culture of Islam. He made several changes in his
history writing and did not adopt the conventional way of producing history. He started Akbar
Nama with the praise of Allah but he did not mention Muhammad and Caliph. He constructed a
journey from Allah to Adam and suggested that fifty-two generations had lapsed in between. He
did not talk about the Islamic lineage and considered Akbar as the fifty-third descendant of
humanity. The existing Islamic texts were centered on the religious doctrine of Islam, they
followed the political descent of Islam, they considered Quran as the book of ultimate truth, and
everything before the origin of Islam was deemed to be useless. Abu‟l Fazl, on the other hand,
portrayed Akbar as the ruler of humanity not as the Muslim ruler. He did not consider any break
in the flow of time from Adam to Akbar; he did not deploy the notion of Hijri era. He described
that the time has the uncertain beginning but a definite goal; and that goal is the reign of Akbar
after which there is the eternity. He adopted a new time frame that was drafted by Akbar as Illahi
era and it substituted Hijri era. The Illahi era was developed in the twenty-eighth year of his
reign by Fathullah Shirazi, the courtier of Akbar. The writings of Abu‟l Fazl made a considerable
shift in the era of religious romanticism24
, and it constructed the secular understanding of time
and history. His view was based on a universal god and universal religiosity which was utterly
opposite to existing notions of sectarian god and denominational religion. The ideological
construction of time in Abu‟l Fazl‟s understanding was based on harmony, not on disputes. Abu‟l
Fazl disengaged history writing from Islam.
The historical knowledge of medieval period experienced a shift under the regime of Akbar. The
Arabic notion of Tarikh was Islamic and the understanding of history was derived from the
premise of religion. The origin of time was related to the birth of religion, and the calendar is
24
Harbans Mukhia, „Time in Abul Fazl’s Historiography’ Studies in History ,Volume 25, issue 1, 2010 , pp. 1-12
31
dictated by the doctrine of faith. Abu‟l Fazl‟s text reflects the profile of ruler dominantly but he
made a significant impact in the history writing traditions of Indian subcontinent. The notion of
time in Indian subcontinent had always been derived from religious texts and the Islamic rule
continued to follow the existing idea of understanding time from the religious lenses. Ancient
India followed the Brahmanic texts to understand time and the medieval period shifts from
Brahmanic to Islamic understanding of time. Abu‟l Fazl was one of the first person who
attempted to separate the religion from time.
3.4 History Writing in Colonial India
European conquest begun in the 18th century, as a result, the British East India Company had
come to dominate the affairs of India after Battle of Plassey in 1757. The British conquest of
colony can be classified into two broad categories25
: one is the conquest and seizure of Indian
territories and economy and other is the ideological conquest. According to Marxist philosopher
Louis Althusser, there are two apparatus through which a central power can control the society,
one is repressive state apparatus and the second is ideological state apparatus. It is not possible to
utilize repressive state apparatus for a longer duration so a stable power requires the ideological
influence among the individuals in the society. In the wake of European Enlightenment theory,
Europeans attempted to explore the Orient, and in the process, they produced information about
the colonies. India was among one of those colonies which became a laboratory for them to
explore. One of the consequences of British conquest of India was that the historical knowledge
of colony was constructed with the help of literature, inscriptions, and archaeological findings.
3.4.1 Orientalism and Indomania
The scientific study of Indian knowledge based on the data collected from India is called
Indology. The earliest attempts were made by Jesuits missionaries who were interested in
expanding the religious ideology of Christianity. In order to understand the culture and social
structure of Indian society they delved into the process of gathering knowledge about the colony.
These attempts were motivated by religious dogma and they did not focus on the historical
25 Dr. Binod Bihari Satpathy, Indian Historiography, DDCE Utkal University, Paper 7, 2015, pp. 152-162
32
background of culture. In the beginning, the colonial power worked on the linguistic
understanding of colony. In 1786 British Orientalist William Jones discovered the Indo-European
family of languages and he advanced the theory of „Common Aryan Race‟. The attempt was
aimed at developing a link between imperial power and colony. This study created an importance
of linguistic studies in historical enquiry. The Indological quest for producing knowledge
introduced methods of historical research in Indian subcontinent. Orientalists like James Princep,
who deciphered the Ashokan edicts and deciphered Brahmi script, set an example for the
epigraphic revelations of Indian history. Alexander Cunningham did an extensive study of
Buddhist architecture and produced knowledge of monuments and inscriptions related to the
religion. The earlier surveyors and Orientalists played a key role in generating the historical
consciousness through the evidences that were not explored earlier. They made a contribution in
the process of building the foundation for the ideological quest of colonial empire.
3.4.2 Colonial Historiography
Colonial historiography can be understood in two different ways. One is the histories of colonial
countries and other is the ideological influence of Europeans on the history writing traditions.
The ideological influence of colonial power on the history writing tradition became prominent
after independence. In this part, we will explore the histories that were written during colonial
period. The intellectual investment of British power was aimed at creating a colonial mindset that
believes in the British Empire so the methods that were adopted by Britishers were with intent of
justifying their influence. Charles Grant wrote one of the first historical works titled
„Observations on the state of society among the Asiatic subjects of India‟ in 1792. He was
influenced by the Evangelical school of thought, which believes that the British rule brought the
light of Christianity in the colony that was sunk in the darkness of superstitions and backward
religious faiths. Britain came out of its first phase of industrial revolution and it was dominating
the world at that time. The British dominance was reflected in the writings of this period.
Three historians James Mill, Vincent Smith, and Elphinstone were some of the most influential
writers of that era. James Mill wrote History of British India in three volumes. This was the first
work that produced the entire history of Indian subcontinent. The writings of James Mill were
influenced by the utilitarian theory of Jeremy Bentham. Mill wrote this work without even
33
visiting the colony and his book was prescribed as a basic textbook for the British Indian Civil
Servants. The book contained prejudices about India and native Indians, the narrative constantly
constructed the British superiority over the colony. Indian society was characterized as barbaric,
primitive and unfit for self-governance. The periodization that was adopted in his writings was
based on the lines of religion. This periodization resulted in constructing the sense of animosity
between Hindu and Muslims, which was oriented in the direction of the British policy of „divide
and rule.‟ The work was influential because Mill came from the prominent school of political and
economic thought that projected the utilitarian agenda of British administration. The book also
delivered the confident message of imperial superiority.
Mountstuart Elphinstone wrote the history of ancient and medieval India. His work was the
criticism of James Mill, and he argued that the European philosophy of utilitarianism is not
applicable on humans; that is why it is not appropriate to produce a historical work based on the
utilitarian principle. He criticized Mill on the fact that he did not visit India and that his own
writing is objective, after spending over a decade in Indian subcontinent before writing History
of Hindu and Muhammedan India. His work became a part of university syllabus in India.
Vincent Smith and Elphinstone were sympathetic towards the treatment of ancient Indian history
as compared to Mill. Smith admired Indian art and criticized the corpus of literature from ancient
India. He argued that India had only two kinds of political institutions autocratic and despotic.
These historical writings that were written in the colonial period had the certain set of ideas that
were common to all. These writings talked about the advancement of western civilization, and
they used it as a scale to measure the progress of Indian civilization. Britishers talked about their
influence on uniting colony, and they believed that the colony was divided along the lines of
region, religion, language, and ethnicity. The 18th century was characterized as „dark century,‟
full of barbarity and chaos which prompted Britishers to take control of the situation by
occupying colony. British historians advanced the notion of social Darwinism26
, according to
which if history is the struggle between various people and cultures then Britain is the fittest to
rule. Indian society was understood as the one which lacked rationality and innovation because
of which it is stagnant and steady, British being an advanced civilization has the potential to
26
Joseph Fisher, The History of Landholding in Ireland, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society,1877
34
show them the path of progress. The British historians focused on the British protagonist to
mythify the heroic empire and did not focus on the colony. They had a critical stance towards the
nationalist movement because the movement was understood as a threat to the empire. It was an
ideological effort on the part of the imperial power to establish a cultural hegemony and
legitimize the British rule over India. The Orientalists made the positive contribution in the
process of producing knowledge about the colony, and their attempts were not firmly biased, but
the colonial historians who wrote about the colony followed the intellectual lineage of utilitarian
philosophy. The history writing was highly biased towards the imperial power, and the historical
interpretations were oriented towards justifying the rule.
3.4.3 History Teachings in Colonial India
History as a subject was introduced in the earliest establishments of British power. In the
beginning, it was started in three universities in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras. The history
teaching in these universities made positive contributions in the Indian context. They were taught
the „History of India‟ by James Mill, also introduced to the concepts of liberty, freedom, and
democracy and made them think about their condition under the British rule. Some of these
students also became professional in the field of history writing that was largely dominated by
British historians. Indians like Bankim Chandra Chatterjee who was the first graduate from an
Indian university, questioned the British historiography and motivated Indians to write their
history. The discontent among Indian scholars about the history writing practices of Britishers
made them write history from an Indian perspective; it resulted in the origin of Nationalist
historiography.
3.4.4 Nationalist Response to Colonial Historiography
Nationalist historiography was the result of discontent with the British writings, and it was
largely written as a response to the colonial criticism. History writing practice was used as a tool
to teach the nationalist feeling and to unify the people who were divided along region, religion,
and caste. In the beginning, history writing discipline was considered as the scientific discipline
based on facts, and Indian historians followed the footsteps of British historiography. These
historians developed a counter-narrative to the colonial understanding which threw stereotypes at
India. Nationalist historians wrote only about the ancient and medieval period. They did not
35
write about the modern period because of two reasons; one is most of these historians were
affiliated with one or other form of government institutions, and they could not criticize colonial
power. The other reason is that they were writing according to the British Historiography which
must not deal with contemporary period. To diminish the stereotypes, Nationalist historians
constructed a positive image of ancient India. The notion of spirituality was used to imply the
greatness of Indian civilization against the materialistic civilization of west. The spiritual
understanding appealed to the middle class of Indian society because they were regularly
struggling for the material gains. They also described the potential of self-governance through
the examples of diplomacy and political institutions of ancient India. They denied the colonial
idea of oriental despotism by projecting Indian rulers as just and democratic. The Gupta period
was portrayed as the Golden Period, and the knowledge of scholars like Aryabhata,
Varahamihira, Sushruta, and Kalidasa was projected as a defense against the British notion of the
backward Indian society. Nationalist historians only talked about the positives of Indian
civilization and the arguments were largely the defense against every single colonial stereotype.
They did not discuss the caste, social, and economic oppression of underprivileged sections and
women. Nationalist historiography had certain drawbacks like all achievements were associated
with ancient India; texts were focused on the Brahminical and Sanskritic form of Hindu culture
and society. The glorification of ancient India merged with the communalism and regionalism.
The medieval period was looked like the composition of Hindu and Muslim culture27
, and the
communal assertion implied by colonial power was rejected. Historians largely relied on textual
sources because they did not have access to the archaeological and survey reports that were
prepared by Britishers. Nationalist historians had several drawbacks regarding their writing
strategy, but they made a positive contribution in the process of building self-confidence, self-
assertion and national pride which became a source of motivation for Indian people to fight
against colonialism.
3.5 Marxist Historiography in Post-Colonial India
Postcolonial India observed a significant change in the history writing traditions. Indian
historiography in postcolonial times had a considerable influence on Marxist historians. D.D.
27
Dr. Binod Bihari Satpathy, Indian Historiography, DDCE Utkal University, Paper 7, 2015, pp. 152-162
36
Kosambi was one of the earliest historians who marked the paradigm shift in Indian history
writing tradition. He rejected all the existing ideas that were prominent in historical writings and
introduced a new dimension in the discipline. He described history as a conflict of class in
chronological order. He understood-
History as the presentation, in chronological order, of successive developments in the means and
relation of production.
Kosambi did a detailed analysis of social formation based on the limited reliable sources. He was
selective in applying the Marxist theory in Indian context and considered that it is irrelevant to
use the concepts of Asiatic mode of production and slave mode of production on ancient Indian
society. He only talked about the feudalism in the Indian context. Development of Indian society
was understood as a transition of tribal society into the caste system. Agricultural mode of
production made it difficult for tribal communities to remain stable which resulted in the
formation of broader social groups, and that is how caste system came into existence. In his
writings, economic and cultural production was related to the social and economic situations.
The feudalism of Indian society was completely different from the European society. Feudalism
can be understood in two forms, one is feudalism from above, and the other one is feudalism
from below. The king or the state levied tribute from the subordinated, who ruled in their
territory, is classified as feudalism from above. Feudalism from below considers the importance
of intermediate landlords, who lies in the middle of peasants and king. The dependence on
intermediates was one of the critical features of Indian feudalism. Kosambi was criticized for his
understanding of feudalism in the Indian context, but the other ideas were considered essential,
his writing marked the beginning of a new history writing tradition in India.
Irfan Habib in his work The Agrarian System of Mughal India (1963), talked about the history of
medieval India from the Marxist point of view. He explained the history of medieval India
regarding the conflict between centralized ruling class and peasants. These conflicts were the
result of; drive for tax revenue, pressure for higher collection which resulted in the devastation of
the country. R.P. Dutt wrote about the history of modern India in India Today; in the text, he
talked about the impact of colonial empire in the economic and political sphere. The formation of
Congress was critiqued by the safety valve theory. He criticized the nationalist movement lead
by Congress because of two reasons; the readiness of Congress to compromise with imperial
37
power and its failure to mobilize people. He did the periodization of modern India based on the
Marxist understanding. The economic expansion of British Empire is discussed in three phases;
merchant capitalism, industrial capitalism and financial capitalism.
Marxist writings have a wide range of ideas; these writings emphasized the importance of
ideology in historical interpretations. The history writing tradition that was mostly dynastic
changed into the history of ordinary people. Influence of social and economic history was
highlighted as compared to political history. Explanations and interpretations became more
critical than description.
3.6 Subaltern Approach to Indian Historiography
This is one of the recent developments that happened in the Indian history writing traditions.
Two significant areas defined the modern Indian history; colonialism and nationalism. The
modern Indian history is defined along the lines of these two elements28
. Two schools Cambridge
school of history writing and Nationalist school of history writing dealt with the areas of
colonialism and nationalism in different ways. Both the schools critiqued the colonialism for the
political, economic and social exploitation of colony but their approaches were different towards
nationalists. Cambridge schools considered nationalism as the product of modern British
education system, which worked for the political and economic interest of elite bourgeoisies.
Nationalists on the other hand defined modern history as a battle between colonialism and
nationalism, the conflict of class and caste is considered secondary in the national struggle for
freedom.
Subalterns critiqued both the schools and consider their history as the product of colonial
education system. In subaltern studies, nationalism is understood as the story of achievements by
the elite class which does not consider the contribution of people. Subalterns attempted to
redefine traditional writings by considering subaltern groups as the subjects of history. Ranajit
Guha is one of the first historians who played a crucial role in subaltern studies. He edited the
first six volumes of subaltern studies. The development of subaltern study is concerned with the
lower and exploited class; it critiques the elite class. The history writing tradition comes under
28 Dipesh Charabarty, Subaltern Studies and Postcolonial Historiography, Duke University Press, 2000
38
the broader Marxist theory. Subaltern history describes nationalism and people differently; they
do not mix the people‟s history with official nationalism.
In this chapter, we looked at the gradual development of historiography in India. Indian
historiography has gone through several phases, and each phase included a new dimension of
looking at the past. It is easy to draw certain characteristics of the historical developments that
happened in the pre-colonial India, but the pattern of history writing became diverse and broad in
the post-colonial India. These developments reflect that history as the academic discipline is
contentious and it is not merely the chronological order of past events. These interpretations are
the outcome of contemporary social understanding, and it may change with the change in the
society.
39
Chapter 4
Textbook Controversy: Content and Contradictions
4.1 Introduction
In the previous section we looked at the development of Indian historiography. The history
writing traditions of pre-colonial India highlights the influence of Imperial power on the sub
continental historiography. This chapter will deal with the impact of history writing in public
domain. The academic history that we studied in the previous section is not relevant for
understanding the public discourse of history. The academic history has a limited audience, and it
works independently without the influence of the state. The history with which most of the
people are familiar is the history that they studied in the school. In this chapter, I will talk about
the NCERT history textbooks as these textbooks have been a contentious issue in post-colonial
political debates. The chapter has a detailed analysis of the curriculum framework based on
which these textbooks are prepared. History textbooks have a prominent place in the school
curriculum, but there has been a political approach to use these textbooks for the political
purpose because of which these textbooks became contentious. Factual information was
interpreted in different ways, and the interpretation was oriented towards specific political goals.
In this chapter, I have included some portions of these textbooks which were published in 1961
and 2002. The content of these textbooks became questionable only because these textbooks
were produced under the rule of the certain political regime and the content of these textbooks is
aligned with the ideology of that particular party in power. The chapter is not aimed at reducing
these textbooks as a state apparatus. I will focus only on the limited portions of these books
because of which these books became an issue of political debate.
4.2 History Textbooks in Indian Schools
History subject is an integral part of Indian school curriculum, the curriculum that is decided by
the centralized institute like NCERT. History as a subject is taught in the schools from class 6th
to
10th
. India being a diverse country has several states, and it has given the autonomy to the states
40
to prepare their curriculum. There are two types of bodies that make the curriculum for schools,
one is state boards, and the other one is NCERT. Many Indian states follow the curriculum
prescribed by NCERT without any change. That is the reason because of which a significant
section of Indian population read the textbooks that are being prepared by NCERT. In this
chapter, I will only focus on the NCERT textbooks. NCERT was the first centralized institution
that was established in 1961 with the aim of modernizing Indian education system for nation-
building. The official documents (Mudaliar Commission Report, National Policy on Education,
National Curriculum Framework) on Indian education system and the idea behind educating
citizens revolved around the aim of nation building. Mudaliar Commission Report that published
in 1952 described the objective of teaching social sciences as-
This group of social studies has to be viewed as a compact whole of History, Geography,
Economics, Civics, etc., whose object is to adjust the students to their social environment which
includes the family, community, State and nation-so that they may be able to understand how
society has come to its present form and interpret intelligently the matrix of social forces and
movements in the midst of which they are living29
.
The recommendations of commission highlighted the importance of social science as a subject
that can construct the social understanding, a feature that enables individuals to become good
citizens. Textbooks have a significant role in Indian education system; examinations are entirely
textbook oriented30
. Teachers use textbooks as the ultimate guide, and their work is limited to
delivering the content of textbook. Indian education system is wholly exam-oriented that no one
questions the content of textbooks and it gives the ultimate authority to the textbooks. There are
three set of history textbooks that were published after the independence of India; books that
published in the 1960s and were used until 2002, books that were published in 2002 and were
used until 2004 and the books that were published after 2004. The content of these textbooks has
always been an issue of several political debates in post-colonial India.
29
Mudaliar Commission Report, Ministry of Education , Government of India, 1953 30 Sylvie Guichard, The construction of History and Nationalism in India: Textbook, Controversies and Politics,
Routledge, 2010
41
4.3 History Textbook and Politics
The first set of history textbooks were written in the 1960s, and the entire process of writing
these textbooks were considered as a work for the national cause. History textbooks were
understood as an instrument that can build the national identity through transmitting a shared
past of glory and struggle. The shared past helps in creating the national identity; state prescribes
the collective past and schools communicate this information to citizens. The knowledge
imparted by school helps in creating the social and personal identity. These identities have a
significant impact on the intellect of the generation that is being trained. School is central to the
idea of nationalization; these institutions homogenize the population and develop a notion of
collective We31
. Political power identifies schools as the capable source through which the seeds
of ideologies can be sown.
It has been a crucial part of Indian politics because of its content. History has always been
invoked as a source of legitimacy for political regimes. The process of preparation and
promotion of textbooks reflect the ideological influence of governmental powers. History
teaching in school education is essential not only because it provides scientific knowledge but
also because it conveys a consciousness of national identity. History textbooks were the priority
of these political parties to spread their ideology because these textbooks shape the minds of
young generation. In India, several attempts have been made to tamper these textbooks for
covering a particular political ideology. We have looked at the academic history writing in India
and talked about the Marxist historiography. We did not discuss the communal history writing in
Indian context because of the limited number of historians who corresponds from this
perspective in academic space. When it comes to textbooks, the communal ideology plays the
role of significant other. In that sense, the textbook writing is approached in two different ways
secular and communal32
. The ideologies were institutionalized by two major political parties of
India, namely, Congress and BJP. The centralized institutions like NCERT prepare the
curriculum of these textbooks and it comes under the central government. The party in power
31
We in this context refers to the idea of a common identity in a nation. 32 Michael Gottlab, History and Politics in Post colonial India, Oxford University Press, 2011
42
appoints the members in the institutions like NCERT and ICHR. Therefore the ideological
influence of these parties remains there in these institutions through these appointments.
Secularism is defined as an idea of not engaging with any religious ideology, but it is different in
the Indian context. Indian secularism is about the state engaging equally with all religions. Indian
state came into existence after experiencing the communal violence, and it got divided along
religious lines. Nehru as the leader of independent India advocated the idea of secular
nationalism and considered it as the only possible solution to the existing problems of communal
antagonism. He believed that history would develop a bond between people and his approach
was constructive. Leading historians like Mohammad Habib who was the head of ICHR
supported this useful approach. Habib also mentioned that history in school text books should be
directed towards national integration. He explained the importance of historical interpretations
and judgments attached to these interpretations. Congress adopted the Nehruvian idea of
secularism although there were small sections within Congress which opposed secular ideology
which disappeared over time. First two decades of Indian independence were in line with the
ideological discourse of Congress and Nehru, but it started changing after Indira Gandhi came to
power. Indira Gandhi and Rajiv Gandhi reshaped the political discourse by introducing religious
elements in the election campaigns. Congress lost its domination by 1989, and it was accused of
pampering minorities33
, and party deviated from its secular discourse which helped communal
forces to expand their influence in Indian politics.
The other reason that can be cited for the origin of communal forces in India is based on the fact
that the modernization of societies brought in the understanding of secularism, and the influence
of traditional institutions declined. Modernization promised political freedom, economic
prosperity, and social justice. The modern state failed to fulfill these aspirations of citizens which
resulted in the decline of people‟s faith in secular nationalism, and religious nationalism started
emerging with the late twentieth century with an idea of restoring traditional institutions.
The other group that was advocating communal nationalism hoped for the strengthening of
Hindu traditions and opposed the politics of secularism. Bharatiya Jan Sangh, the political party
33
Kangkana Sharma, State and politicisation of education in India: A comparative study between NDA and UPA
regime, Joner, 2015
43
which was supporting Hindu nationalism opposed to the secular ideology by claiming that the
representation of past was not by facts. This debate indicated a crucial point that both opinions
follow a particular political ideology to understand history while no one was concerned about its
authenticity. While the secular idea was rejecting the factual information just to propagate the
concept of national integration, Jan Sangh used same historical facts to spread Hindu
nationalism. It indicates that the mission of writing history was utterly exposed to political
pressure. Hindu nationalists believed that history must be written as the available record testifies.
History textbooks were used as a tool and in the process political opinions started reflecting in
school textbooks.
Methods that were applied for constructing these ideologies in public discourse were different in
both the cases. According to secular historians, modern political problems are the outcome of
historical interpretations in the past. Hindu nationalists used religion and tried to orient history
around it. Secular historians focused on the use of scientific knowledge to construct the past and
resist communal ideology of Hindu nationalists. Hindu nationalists used mythology and
interpreted it according to current political needs. All these claims were criticized by historians,
and their historicity was questioned, but the follower of Hindutva always believed that their
claims are valid and they have their claim to authenticity. Historian Vinay Lal used a different
approach to identify the problem in history writing, for him facts and their interpretation are not
so important as compared to their consistency and coherence in the historiographical practice.
Consistency coherence of these facts often makes them reliable and acceptable in public domain.
In his book, “The History of History,” he explains that we try to historicize everything in the
politics, but the idea of history was never historicized. Lal dealt with a series of questions related
to the historical interpretations and proposed that solution is not expected from inside history.
This idea in a way expresses that if something is out of history but is influencing the discipline,
then we should look into that and try to analyze the relation of that particular element with
history. In the Indian context, mythology was something that was related to Indian traditions and
religious beliefs where people believe that it is true, for them it is history, not mythology. That is
the main reason behind the success of Hindu political ideology. Secular historians have to
analyze and investigate these myths to counter Hindu narrative. So, in that case, a historical
methodology not only involves the study of historical facts but it also consists of the study of
44
popular narratives that have nothing to do with history34
. After independence, Indian historians
tried to present a non-ethnocentric history, moving away from ethnocentric European history.
Secular historians were already projecting the importance of national integration thus criticizing
the ethnocentric viewpoint. Hindu history, on the other hand, propagated a new ethnocentric
view where it tried to establish its cultural dominance. It criticized the European history but used
the European ethnocentric approach to develop itself.
The political influence makes it complicated to draw a line between an accurate history and
history influenced by politics. Indian history has several dimensions derived from different
political ideologies. The history that is popular among people rarely fits into old domain, but
still, it is called history. The methodological research has to be concrete with proper evidence; its
practical orientation should be appealing so that people can come out of their religious beliefs
and look for reality.
4.4 Hindu Nationalism and Mythification of History
Historical development of modern India brought in the importance of ideologies with which
events from the past are perceived. Several methodologies can be used to construct an entirely
different narrative of events that have been explained earlier. These interpretations are contested
in the academic spaces, and that is how the historical development takes place. Fundamentally
these approaches differ from each other, but there is a common element in them which makes
them a part of historical discipline. Methods which do not follow these norms by including
myths and history have been used in communal history writings. Series of stereotypes related to
religious identity is rooted in the interpretation of Indian history. The communal politics rely on
two elements35
one is privileging faith over reason and the second is identifying an enemy who is
considered as a threat to their religious beliefs. Communal politics always invoke the revivalist
notion to justify their actions. The revivalist trend is different from the communal ideas. During
the 19th
century, revivalism was used as an idea to revitalize Hinduism and Hindu community.
The revivalist trend was concerned about the internal revitalization, and it did not talk about the
other. The notion of revival was about communitarian perspective not about the communal. The
34 Michael Gottlab, History and Politics in Post colonial India, Oxford University Press, 2011 35
Michael Gottlab, History and Politics in Post colonial India, Oxford University Press, 2011
45
revivalist understanding became communal with time, and it brought in the significance of
outsider. The foundation of Hindu nationalism is based on the fundamental principle of making a
distinction between the original inhabitants of the land and those who settled later. Religious
groups like Muslims, Christians are considered foreigners. Those who are considered the original
inhabitants of land are indigenous and the foreigners should Indianise themselves if they want to
be a part of Hindu nation. Hindu nationalists then considered Aryans as the ancestors of Hindus
and propagated the theory of indigenous Aryans. The argument was contested by the scholars of
ancient India, and they argued that based on archaeological and linguistic evidence Aryans had
migrated to India thus they are not indigenous as proposed by the Hindu nationalists. The Aryan
invasion theory became problematic for the right wing because of two reasons; the very
argument of differentiating Hindus and the others were proposed by India being the land of
Hindus if it is proved that even the Aryans came from a different land then the whole notion of
indigenous and outsiders will diminish. Aryan invasion theory also questions the Vedic lineage of
Hindus. Attempts have been made by Hindu nationalists to disprove the Aryan invasion theory.
The concept of pure and impure was also used as an idea to distinguish indigenous and outsider.
Indicators were used to identify the pure and impure36
, for example, food habit was one of the
symbols, so those who ate flesh were considered impure. Archaeological and literary evidence
show that Aryans consumed beef and animal sacrifice was a part of their culture. The
methodologies that establish the validity of historical facts based on archaeological evidence
always produced information that was against the narrative of Hindu nationalism. VD Savarkar
is considered as the father of Hindu nationalism. In his book “Hindutva: Who is a Hindu?”, he
constructed the image of an outsider in a politically destructive role. The entire narrative is
described as a conflict between Hindus and outsiders. Greeks, Shakas, Huns, Muslims, and
Christians were portrayed as the outsiders who affected the Indian civilization. The religious
strife with outsider remained a major factor of communal discourse. Communal discourse
attempted to construct the religious history and mobilize Hindus with the aim of establishing
Hindu Rashtra. These ideas were introduced in the political domain by the parties like Jana
Sangh and BJP. Methodologies which were used to construct a history that fits into the religious
36 K.N. Panikar, Outsider as Enemy: Politics of Rewriting History in India, Stanford University Speech, 2001
46
schema of Hindu nationalism violated the discipline of history. Historical events were
reinterpreted by including the elements of mythology. The historical knowledge formulated by
Hindu nationalists helped BJP in mass mobilization.
Babri Masjid conflict is one such example that proves the ideological influence of communal
history that helped BJP to gain political power. The Babri mosque was constructed in 1528 AD
by Mir Baquia, who was a noble of Mughal emperor Babur. Communal narrative explained that
the mosque was made by demolishing the temple of Lord Rama. It was considered as an attack
on the pride of Hindus and Hindus were mobilized to reclaim the pride by building the temple on
the place of the mosque. The entire episode was a result of mixing mythology and history37
.
Communal history writing talked about the pride and valor of Hindu religion. The defeat of
almost every Hindu ruler was reinterpreted as a victory. For example the second battle of Train
between Muhammad Ghori and Prithviraj Chauhan, Prithviraj lost the battle, but communal
interpretations consider that it was Muhammad Ghori who lost the battle. These interpretations
are aimed at inculcating two things one is introducing a sense of pride in the Hindu religion, and
the other is to build a feeling of hatred towards the other. It is not only about the ancient history
of India, but events from modern history were also reinterpreted. The contribution of RSS in the
movement of national struggle for Indian independence was approached. Differently, it is a
known fact that RSS did not contribute in the struggle for independent India. Right-wing
historians described the contribution of RSS by projecting Keshav Baliram Hedgewar, the
founder of RSS as a great leader of anti-colonial struggle. ICHR came up with a publication
titled Towards Freedom in which details of nationalist movement were given, and it did not talk
about the contribution of RSS. The work projected RSS in the bad light because of which the
publication was withdrawn by NDA government.
4.5 NCF Reports
National Curriculum Framework (NCF) is a national document from National Council of
Educational Research and Training (NCERT) that serves as a guide for making syllabus in
37
Michael Gottlab, History and Politics in Post colonial India, Oxford University Press, 2011
47
schools. Education has been an instrument for nation-building. Education always serves a
purpose for the state as it can be either implicit or articulated. The curriculum is an instrument
for the state through which state tries to fulfill this purpose. This purpose revolves around
developing a responsible and conscious citizen out of individuals. NCF is a document that carries
state‟s aspiration. Every single subject and the criteria which contribute to building that subject
works in a particular orientation. There are four NCF reports from NCERT 1975, 1988, 2000 and
2005. The first report is not so significant because before 1988 education was the concern of
states individually. Until 1976, Indian constitution allowed the state governments to take
decisions on all matters of school education including curriculum. The centre could only guide
the states on policy issues. It was under such circumstances that the initial attempts of National
Education Policy of 1968 and the Curriculum Framework designed by NCERT in 1975 were
formulated. NCERT developed NCF in 1975 following the recommendations of Education
Policy in 1968. In 1976, the constitution was amended to include education in the concurrent list,
and for the first time in 1986, the country as a whole had a National Policy on Education (NPE-
1986) which envisions National Curriculum Framework as a means of modernizing education. I
will discuss the three NCF reports i.e. 1988, 2000 and 2005. These NCF reports were prepared
from NPE (National Policy on Education) and several reports on education policy of state like
Kothari Commission (1964-1966), Yashpal Committee. Many reports were taken into
consideration while preparing these documents. After closely observing all three reports one can
acknowledge the development of process and document that has happened over a period. The
early two reports 1988 and 2000 were similar regarding their content and the process that was
adopted to make these documents. These two reports were prepared by a committee that was
formed within NCERT. There were no outsiders who were involved in the process. On the other
hand, the committee that was formed in 2005 had only a few members from NCERT. The
National level committee that was formed in 2005 had 35 members out of those only 4-5
members were from NCERT. People from different fields were brought in for drafting the
document. Overall, 350 members were directly involved in the process which was far more than
the previous committees. In the previous reports, corrections were made on the recommendations
of NCERT members. The recent report followed a transparent process. In this document, 18-19
position papers were drafted. 10-14 National focus groups were made to analyze every possible
dimension for drafting the document. Each focus group had one chairperson and several
48
members. All the discussions related to NCF were made available on the internet during the
process. First-time meetings were held in different regions of India. It was projected for the first
time in Indian history that NCERT is a national body. John White the leading scholar in the field
of education says
National education impact on the lives of every individual of the nation that is why everyone
should contribute.
NCF 2005 gave this opportunity to the public; the internet was a platform that was used for
taking suggestions. Anyone could check the documents during the process and participate in the
debates and present individual opinions. NCERT followed a democratic process for NCF 2005. It
was a mature document as compared to the previous reports. Scope for discussion, number of
individuals directly involved in the process and suggestions from the public all these features
made it stand out among the remaining two documents. Now I will explain the core differences
among these three documents.
4.5.1 NCF 1988
It was an outcome of suggestions made in Kothari commission report. The document talks about
education as a critical ingredient for nation-building. Individuals were understood as the national
resource for the nation. The primary focus of the document was on projecting education as a
powerful instrument for social change and national progress.
4.5.2 NCF 2000
It was a controversial document that was prepared under the NDA regime. Academic scholars
criticized the document based on the fact that it carries a hidden political agenda. The
educational aims that were discussed in the report were influenced by the saffron agenda of
education. The document emphasized on value education and instilling universal shared values to
build a strong national identity. The document had several similarities with the previous
document. National pride, Cultural conservation, and Pride in national heritage were at the
center. This document extended the importance of nation. Nation and education were still
connected, but the document gave far more importance to nation. NCF 1988 talked about
education as an instrument for nation-building, but it gave importance to education. In this
49
document, importance was given to nation rather than education. These two documents (NCF
1988 and NCF 2000) mould citizens according to the wants of nation. The sense of individual
importance and role of education in the life of the individual was not discussed in detail.
4.5.3 NCF 2005
This document connected education with democracy and the basic principle of democracy gives
the feeling of individual importance. It aspire citizen as a conscious and rational individual who
can shape the picture of a nation in their way. The document gives freedom to build a nation
from an educated citizen‟s perspective.
These differences gave a broad overview of the structure and formation of NCF reports. In the
next part, I will focus on the projection of social science as a subject in NCF reports.
NCF 2000 and NCF 2005 explained the utility of social science on many grounds that are
common in both these reports. Both these reports consider social science as a discipline that is
mainly aimed at developing a critical understanding of society among students. NCF 2000 talks
about the use of social science for the development of the nation as well as the individual. This
report indicates that development of the individual is necessary because it will eventually
contribute to the development of nation. For example-
Social Science helps the student to grow into a well-informed and responsible citizen with
essential skills so that they could participate and contribute effectively in the process of
development and nation building38
. (NCF 2000 – page no. 62)
These lines indicate that education is an instrument or the development of the state. This
aspiration is completely missing from NCF 2005. NCF 2005 only talks about the development of
critical understanding among individuals and sometimes it also talks about the society. This
section proves that NCF 2000 is aimed at the development of the nation through education and
educated citizen. On the other hand, NCF 2005 is about the development of the individual. NCF
2000 also talks about the national pride. Many passages speak about inculcating national pride
38
National Council of Educational Research and Training (2000).National Curriculum Framework for School
Education. New Delhi: NCERT
50
among students through cultural heritage and Indian contribution in the world history. This
orientation gives an understanding of nation in a particular way. NCF 2005 does not talk about
the past and national pride. It provides scope for constructing national identity. NCF 2000
criticized Euro centric view and demands that the syllabus should avoid the Eurocentric
understanding of history and other disciplines of social science. It also talks about strengthening
national identity. NCF 2005 is concerned about the importance of social science.
It is also necessary to recognize that the social sciences lend themselves to scientific inquiry as
much as the natural and physical sciences do, as well as to indicate ways in which the methods
employed by the social sciences are distinct (but in no way inferior to those of the natural and
physical sciences39
). (NCF 2005- page no. 51)
These lines indicate that those who were involved in the process of drafting this document
realized the way social science is perceived in the public domain. Social science was not a
favorite subject among students that is why its significance was discussed by comparing it with
other disciplines.
The social sciences carry a normative responsibility of creating a strong sense of human
values, namely freedom, trust, mutual respect, and respect for diversity. Social science
teaching should aim at generating in students a critical moral and mental energy, making
them alert to the social forces that threaten these values40
. (NCF 2005- page no. 51)
These lines are pointing towards the groups that are trying to spread a particular ideology in the
mainstream through education. As I discussed earlier that education is an instrument for the state,
it becomes dangerous when the party in power try to use this instrument to spread their political
ideology. These lines are reflecting that concern. Textbook tampering is an example through
which we can understand the social and political impact. It is important to recognize this threat
because there is no other subject in NCF 2005 in which the word „threat‟ is used. NCF 2005
realized this problem and made it clear in its guidelines but it did not discuss the issue in detail. I
39 National Council of Educational Research and Training (2005).National Curriculum Framework for School
Education. New Delhi: NCERT 40 National Council of Educational Research and Training (2005).National Curriculum Framework for School
Education. New Delhi: NCERT
51
think the comparative study gives an understanding that NCF 2000 had several constrains and it
was oriented towards inculcating national pride. Development of nation was critical to the
development of citizen. NCF 2005 gave this freedom to the citizen, and it gave importance to the
citizen.
These documents were used to prepare textbooks for schools. The aims and guidelines proposed
by these documents were realized in textbooks. We have understood that the political power
influenced the appointments of members in the centralized institutions and then these members
participated in the process of making the documents like national curriculum framework. In the
next part, we will look at the content of these textbooks that were prepared under the political
influence.
4.6 Content and Contradictions
In this section, I will discuss about the history textbooks that were published in 1961 and their
criticism. Secondly, I will discuss the content and nature of the textbooks that were introduced
during NDA regime and the controversial content because of which these books were withdrawn.
4.6.1 First Set of History Textbooks
Romila Thapar wrote an article titled The History Debate and Schools Textbooks in India: A
Personal Memoir. In this article, she talked about her experience of preparing history textbooks.
She wrote two textbooks in the first set; Ancient Indian History for class 6th
and Medieval Indian
History for class 7th
. Her first encounter with school textbooks happened when in 1961 UNESCO
asked her to write a review of the textbooks that were used by the schools of Delhi at that time.
She did a review of these textbooks and found out that the textbooks that were in circulation had
outdated ideas and colonial views of history. Later she became a part of the committee that was
formed for writing history textbooks. The committee had prominent historians R.C. Majumdar
who extensively wrote about the periods, Bisheshwar Prasad for modern India and Dasaratha
Sharma for ancient Indian history. Romila Thapar joined the group, and she described the
political aspiration of then education minister M.C. Chagla, who expressed that history textbook
should not recite myth and it should provide a secular and rational explanation of the history. The
sense of national cause was attached to the process of history writing. The syllabus that was
52
prepared for textbooks had two concerns; the first one is that child should envision the ancient
past more than the recital of pride and glory, and the other one is that the books must be heavy
with information rather than explanation. These textbooks written within the frame of
nationalism and colonial power was critiqued. Textbooks talked about the ancient and medieval
period, but they did not discuss the social problems that existed within societies like the issues of
caste and gender were not given importance. The textbooks were oriented towards secular ideas,
and the religious understanding of past was absent from the text. The views of tolerance and
harmony were promoted, and the content of modern history was written from Congress centric
perspective. The periodization of Indian history that was adopted in these textbooks did not take
the religion based categorization of past. These textbooks were written with proper historical
methodologies, and the facts that were included in these textbooks were based on literary and
archaeological evidence. These textbooks were criticized by many religious groups, and under
the NDA regime, several passages were removed from these textbooks. In the next section, I will
talk about the portions that were removed from these textbooks and the contradicting arguments
that were used to justify these changes.
Book: Class 11th
: Ancient India by R.S. Sharma
a) A band of scholars took upon themselves not only the mission to reform Indian society
but also to reconstruct ancient Indian history in such a manner as to make a case for
social reforms and, more importantly, for self-government. In doing so most historians
were guided by the nationalist ideas of Hindu revivalism, but there was no dearth of
scholars who adopted a rationalist and objective approach. To the second category
belongs Rajendra Lal Mitra (1822 - 1891), who published some Vedic texts and wrote a
book entitled Indo-Aryans. A great lover of ancient heritage, he took a rational view of
ancient society and produced a forceful tract to show that in ancient times people took
beef. Others tried to prove that in spite of its peculiarities the caste system was not
basically different from the class system based on the division of labor found in pre-
industrial and ancient societies of Europe41
. (Page 7)
41
R.S. Sharma, Ancient India (Class 11th
), National Council of Educational Research and Training, 1999
53
The italics part has been removed from the textbooks because the paragraph talked about the
beef-eating habits of Aryans and Hindus consider themselves as the descendants of Aryans.
Hindu narrative categorizes the groups who ate flesh as impure therefore the portion was
removed from the textbook because it contradicts with the communal narrative.
b) Archaeological evidence should be considered far more important than long family trees
given in Puranas. The Puranic tradition could be used to date Rama of Ayodhya around
2000 B.C., but diggings and extensive explorations in Ayodhya do not show any
settlement around that date. Similarly, although Krishna plays an important part in the
Mahabharata, the earliest inscriptions and sculptural pieces found in Mathura between
200 B.C. and A.D. 300 do not attest his presence. Because of such difficulties the ideas of
an epic age based on the Ramayana and Mahabharata has to be discarded, although in
the past it formed a chapter in most survey books on ancient India. Of course several
stages of social evolution in both the Ramayana and Mahabharata can be detected. This
is so because the epics do not belong to a single phase of social evolution; they have
undergone several editions, as has been shown earlier in the present chapter42
.
(Page 20-21)
This paragraph questions the authenticity of puranic writings based on the archaeological
evidence. As we have discussed earlier that BJP used the issue of Ram Janam Bhoomi to gain
public support and came to power with the help of this issue. The above paragraph offers a
rational understanding to the school students that historical writings can be verified with the help
of archaeological evidence, but the NDA regime did not want people to question the historicity
of Ramayana and Mahabharata. Therefore, this portion was removed from the text.
c) The agricultural economy based on the iron ploughshare required the use of bullocks,
and it could not flourish without animal husbandry. But the Vedic practice of killing cattle
indiscriminately in sacrifices stood in the way of the progress of new agriculture. The
cattle wealth slowly decimated because the cows and bullocks were killed in numerous
Vedic sacrifices. The tribal people living on the southern and eastern fringes of Magadha
42 R.S. Sharma, Ancient India (Class 11
th), National Council of Educational Research and Training, 1999
54
also killed cattle for food. But if the new agrarian economy had to be stable, this killing
had to be stopped43
. (Page 90)
The highlighted portion was removed from the textbook because it reflects the ritual of animal
sacrifice in the Vedic period. The cow is projected as the sacred mother in the communal
narrative, and these writings prove that Hindus used the cow for sacrifices in the Vedic period.
Therefore, this particular line was removed from the textbook.
d) The Brahmanical reaction began as a result of the policy of Ashoka. There is no doubt
that Ashoka adopted a tolerant policy and asked the people to respect even the
Brahmanas. But he prohibited the killing of animals and birds, and derided superfluous
rituals performed by women. This naturally affected the income of the brahmanas. The
anti-sacrifice attitude of Buddhism and of Ashoka naturally brought loss to the
brahmanas, who lived on the gifts made to them in various kinds of sacrifices. Hence in
spite of the tolerant policy of Ashoka, the brahmanas developed some kind of antipathy to
him. Obviously they were not satisfied with his tolerant policy. They really wanted a
policy that would favor them and uphold the existing interests and privileges. Some of the
new kingdoms that arose on the ruins of the Maurya empire, were ruled by the
brahmanas. The Shungas and the Kanvas, who ruled in Madhya Pradesh and further east
on the remnants of the Maurya empire, were brahmanas. Similarly the Satavahanas, who
founded a lasting kingdom in the western Deccan and Andhra, claimed to be brahmanas.
These brahmana dynasties perfomed Vedic sacrifices, which were neglected by Ashoka44
.
(Page 137-138)
The above passage describes the reason for the fall of Maurya Empire and according to this
passage; Brahmans were one of the reasons because of which the Maurya Empire declined. The
paragraph described the upper caste Brahmans in a negative light. The communal narrative often
describes Buddhism and Jainism as the product of Hindu religion; they are often understood as a
43 R.S. Sharma, Ancient India (Class 11
th), National Council of Educational Research and Training, 1999
44R.S. Sharma, Ancient India (Class 11
th), National Council of Educational Research and Training, 1999
55
part of Hindu fold. This paragraph highlights the ideological contrast between Hinduism and
Buddhism. The entire communal understanding is constructed from a Brahmanical point of view,
and the negative representation of Brahmans was not in line with communal narrative, therefore,
this part was removed from the textbook.
e) The Varna System
Religion influenced the formation of social classes in India in a peculiar way. In other
ancient societies the duties and functions of social classes were fixed by law which was
largely enforced by the state. But in India varna laws enjoyed the sanction of both the
state and religion. The functions of priests, warriors, peasants and labourers were
defined in law and supposed to have been laid down by divine agencies. Those who
departed from their functions and were found guilty of offences were subjected to secular
punishments. They had also to perform rituals and penances, all differing according to
the varna. Each varna was given not only a social but also a ritualistic recognition. In
course of time varnas or social classes and jatis or castes were made hereditary by law
and religion. All this was done to ensure that vaishyas produce and pay taxes and
shudras serve as labourers so that brahmanas act as priests and kshatriyas as rulers.
Based on the division of labour and specialisation of occupations, the peculiar institution
of the caste system certainly helped the growth of society and economy at the initial
stage. The varna system contributed to the development of the state. The producig and
laboring classes were disarmed, and gradually each caste was pitted against the other in
such a manner that the oppressed ones could not combine against the privileged classes.
The need of carrying out their respective functions was so strongly ingrained in the minds
of the various classes that ordinarily they would never think of deviating from their
dharma. The Bhagavadgita taught that people should lay down their lives in defense of
their dharma rather than adopt the dharma of others, which would prove dangerous. The
lower orders worked hard in the firm belief that they would deserve a better life in the
next world or birth. This belief lessened the intensity and frequency of tensions and
conflicts between those who actually produced and those who lived off these producers as
princes, priests, officials, soldiers and big merchants. Hence the necessity for exercising
coercion against the lower orders was not so strong in ancient India. What was done by
56
slaves and other producing sections in Greece and Rome under the threat of whip was
done by the vaishyas and shudras out of conviction formed through brahmanical
indoctrination and the varna system45
. (Page 240-241)
The entire paragraph talked about the origin of caste in the Hindu religion. Caste is one of
the crucial features of Hindu society and in practice it still exists. Communal politics
always tries to include dalits and lower caste Hindus in the wider Hindu narrative to gain
political support. The above paragraph gives a consciousness about the exploitative
character of caste system and it can create a sense of antagonism among the lower caste
people towards the upper castes. The paragraph was removed from textbooks to avoid the
conflict within the existing social structure of Hindus. The caste system highlights the
oppressive nature of Hindu religion that is why this portion was removed from the
textbook.
Book: Class 6th
: Ancient India by Romila Thapar
a) Hunting was another common occupation, with elephants, buffaloes, antelopes and boars
being the objects of the hunt. Bulls and oxen were used for ploughing. The cow held
pride of place among the animals because people were dependent on the produce of the
cow. Infact, for special guests beef was served as a mark of honour (although in later
centuries brahmans were forbidden to eat beef). A man’s life was valued as equal to that
of a hundred cows. If a man killed another man, he had to give hundred cows to the
family of the dead man as a punishment46
.
This portion also highlights the flesh-eating habits of Aryans and cow sacrifice as an integral part
of society. Romila Thapar contested the removal of the portion by invoking both literary and
archaeological sources. She mentioned that in the Shatapatha Brahmana and the Vasishtha
Dharmasutra it is mentioned that guests were served with beef. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
suggests that for the desire of long-lived son rice was eaten with beef.
45
R.S. Sharma, Ancient India (Class 11th
), National Council of Educational Research and Training, 1999 46 Romila Thapar, Ancient India (Class 6
th), National Council of Educational Research and Training, 1999
57
These are some of the portions that were removed from the old NCERT textbooks. It is
interesting to note that the portions that were removed from these textbooks had factual
information based on the archaeological evidence. These portions were excluded because they
conveyed the history that was opposed to the communal view.
4.6.2 History Textbooks in the NDA Regime
The First set of textbooks faced a lot of criticism from the Hindu nationalists on the issues like
the mention of beef eating in ancient history textbooks, Aryan invasion theory, mention of caste
oppression, positive representation of Muslim rulers. In 1977 when Janata party came to power,
it influenced the historical research institutes like ICHR by appointing new members who
favored Hindu nationalism. Janata party proposed to rewrite history textbooks but it failed
because it ruled for a limited period. In 1991 BJP won assembly election in north Indian states,
and these states history textbooks were rewritten, and communal understanding was introduced
in these textbooks. In 1998 NDA came to power and it focused on the reforms in the education
system, and these reforms were aimed at introducing the cultural agenda of BJP. New members
were appointed to the committees of ICHR and NCERT. Subjects like Vedic mathematics and
astrology were introduced at school and college level. The new curriculum was prepared for
textbooks under the guidance of newly appointed members. As we discussed earlier, new report
on curriculum framework came out in 2000, and it faced a lot of criticism. The central theme of
this report was to develop the indigenous knowledge. The idea of indigenous knowledge was
adopted from Sangh Parivar which describes indigenous knowledge as Hindu and Vedic
knowledge of ancient India. The idea of indigenous knowledge that was mentioned in NCF
report reflected the influence of Hindu narrative on the state‟s policy of education. As we
discussed in the previous section, the old textbooks faced criticism during the tenure of NDA and
based on these objections several passages were removed. These objections were raised by
different religious groups, and after a while, some of the leading officials from the NCERT
suggested that the committee should consult the religious groups before including anything
related to religion. NDA systematically introduced the idea of Hindu nationalism first by
appointing new members in the central institutions affiliated with the ideological discourse of the
party and then criticized the content of old textbooks in public space. New textbooks were
58
introduced in the schools, and these textbooks were different from the previous one. The
previous textbooks were considered outdated and ideologically left-leaning based on these
arguments new textbooks were introduced. Newly introduced textbooks were full of errors, and
these textbooks were heavily criticized in the academic space. These newly written textbooks
were written around the themes of glorifying Vedic period and devaluing Muslim rule. A close
link was established between Indian civilization and Vedic period, Aryan migration theory of old
textbooks was reintroduced as the indigenous origin of Aryans. The medieval period was
represented in the dark light, and the positive religious interactions between Hindu-Muslim
communities that were present in the old textbooks were completely removed. Communism was
depreciated in the new textbooks by highlighting the absence of the communist contribution
from the independence struggle. On the other hand, the absence of Hindu Mahasabha and RSS
from the nationalist movement was not discussed at all. New history textbooks were rewritten by
Makkhan Lal, Sima Yadav, Meenakshi Jain, R.C. Majumdar,, Hari Om. In the following
passages, I will include some of the portions of textbooks that came out in 2002 and 2003.
Book: Class 11th
: Ancient India by Makkhan Lal
a) The cow was already deemed aghnya “not to be killed.” The Vedas prescribe a penalty of
death or expulsion from the kingdom to those who kill or injure cow47
. (Page 86)
b) Killings of a cow, slaying of Brahmana, drinking intoxicating liquor, treachery, etc. were
punished by death48
. (Page 96)
These two portions of the new NCERT present a completely opposite narrative from the previous
book. This book also talked about the animal sacrifice, but it excluded cow from the list of
animals. These two portions assert the importance of cow in the Vedic age, and it fits into the
communal narrative which treats cow as the mother.
c) Many scholars think that the Aryans were originally inhabitants of India and did not
come from outside. It has been argued by such scholars that there is no archaeological or
47
Makkhan Lal, Ancient India (Class 11th
), National Council of Educational Research and Training, 2002 48
Makkhan Lal, Ancient India (Class 11th
), National Council of Educational Research and Training, 2002
59
biological evidence which could establish the arrival of any new people from outside
between 5000 BC and 800 BC49
. (Page 89)
d) The above similarities and many others found between the Rigvedic and Harappan
civilization have led a number of scholars to conclude that the Harappan civilization is
the same as the Vedic civilization and the Aryans did not come to India from outside50
.
(Page 92)
These portions reflect that author presented a biased approach to explain the debate on Aryan
invasion theory. In this particular chapter on The Vedic Civilization Makkhan lal dedicated 2-3
pages on establishing a link between Aryan Civilization and Vedic Period. At the end of this
chapter, the author included an excerpt from the work of Edmund Leach which condemns the
scholarly group that believes in Aryan invasion theory. The narrative of old NCERT textbooks
supported Aryan invasion theory and talked about some of the archaeological evidence that
contradicts with the Hindu narrative of Aryans, that is why those portions were removed from the
old NCERT and replaced by this portion. The book focused on the glorification of the Vedic
period, and author also emphasized on the scientific knowledge of the Vedic Age.
Book: Class 7th
: India and the World by Sima Yadav
a) The law givers of this period followed the earlier marriage rules. Remarriage was also
permitted during this period. Women had the right to inherit property. After coming into
Muslim contact there began the purdah system. The practice of Sati became more
prevalent to save themselves from falling into the hands of invaders51
.
As glorification of Vedic age was highlighted in the textbooks of ancient India, similarly the
medieval period was portrayed as „Dark Age‟ for Indian civilization. The condition of women in
ancient India was shown in a positive light and the oppressive rituals that existed in this period
49
Makkhan Lal, Ancient India (Class 11th
), National Council of Educational Research and Training, 2002 50
Makkhan Lal, Ancient India (Class 11th
), National Council of Educational Research and Training, 2002 51 Sima Yadav, India and the World (Class 7
th), National Council of Educational Research and Training, 2002
60
were considered mild. Muslim invasion was described as the reason for the oppression of
women. This portion projects Muslims in the bad light, and it also dilutes the impact of Hindu
rituals that are responsible for the abuse of women.
These books were prepared in a short span of time and contained several grammatical as well
factual errors. These books were also accused of plagiarism. Overall, the content reflects two
ideological motives one is to glorify Vedic age, and the other is to construct the negative image
of Muslim rule by portraying medieval period as Dark Age.
The content that was removed and material that was included was based mainly on the
suggestions proposed by historians who worked closely with RSS. The portions that were
removed from NCERT can be found in a book titled The Enemies of Indianisation: The Children
of Marx, Macaulay, and Madarassa, the book was published in 2001 by Atul Rawat a regular
columnist Organiser (RSS Mouthpiece). The book suggested 42 deletions from the old NCERT
textbooks; NCERT did not consider all the suggestions, but the portions that were removed from
old NCERTs can be found in this book.
Hindu nationalism prospered under the umbrella of organizations like Hindu Mahasabha, RSS,
and VHP. RSS established Vidya Bharati Akhil Bharatiya Shiksha Sansthan in 1978 with an aim
to spread the ideas and values held by RSS. The organization owns as many as 12364 schools
spread across the country. These schools follow the syllabus prescribed by NCERT and state
governments, but they also include some supplementary readings in the syllabus. The additional
reading material is intended to provide the insight into Indian culture. I completed my senior
secondary education from one of these schools, and I have read that supplementary material.
These schools construct a Hindu pride in the minds of children through the teachings of myths,
and they promote dogmatic knowledge.
In this chapter we looked at the content of NCERT textbooks and how the content reflects the
ideological influence of these political parties. The influence is implemented through a
mechanism first by appointing members in the higher institutes, then by preparing the policy
document and finally implementing it in school textbooks.
61
Chapter 5
Selective History Writing
5.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter, we looked at two different narratives of nation. Both the narratives
perceived nation as an entity with two different ideological discourses. These narratives develop
the similar category of people and do not identify the diversity that exists within nations. The
current discussion secular and communal define the nation by constructing the notion of We/Us52
a collective identity. Secular understanding is inclusive and it includes all the sections of the
society in determining We/Us. Hindu nationalism is not all-inclusive and it defines the collective
identity based on a single religion by excluding many segments of the population like Muslims
and Christians. Indian society is divided along region, religion, gender, and caste. In the existing
division, individual sections are privileged, and others are oppressed. Discrimination based on
caste, gender and religion is a crucial feature of Indian society. Individual segments of the
population always had their dominance in the public domain, and the others were oppressed
because of which most of the academicians, politicians, and leaders were from the socially
privileged background. The idea of excluding diversity from the nationalist discourse was against
the underprivileged sections because the voice of this section was always unheard and the notion
of assimilation will make them invisible. The disadvantaged section in Indian context comprises
Dalits, tribals, Muslims, and women. We talked about the subaltern historiography in previous
chapters. The inclusion of people‟s narrative was the primary concern with which it was started.
It was a development in academic history writing which made a shift from elitist history writing
traditions in India. Similar evolution did not happen in the textbooks, and that is the reason
because of which school textbooks are primarily dominated by upper caste, urban and male
perspective. Secular and communal ideologies converge at this point because both of these ideas
52
Sylvie Guichard, The construction of History and Nationalism in India: Textbook, Controversies and Politics,
Routledge, 2010
62
are aimed at the homogenizing population which dilutes the diversity of society. This chapter
will look at the representation of these subaltern groups in history textbooks.
5.2 Power and History
History is often understood as a narrative of power because the understanding of past is centered
on political power. Popular history talks about the people and processes that are part of the
political power. Social and economic history is included in the political events of conquering and
expansion. Preparation of textbooks requires identification and prioritization of content. The
preparation itself is an act of power because it involves choice about what needs to be taught and
what needs to be discarded. These selections and prioritizations primarily depend on the
individuals involved. School textbooks talk about the individual rulers; society is understood
from the perspective of kings and emperors. Centralized leadership and nationalism remains the
crucial feature of these textbooks. In the process of producing power centric history subordinated
groups were not given importance. The national documents on education like NCF also represent
a bias towards specific groups. For example, some of these policy documents use quotations
from the Sanskrit language which is considered as the language of Aryans. These excerpts are
often portrayed as the cultural expression of Indian civilization which is not true. Sanskrit as a
language is limited to north India, and the languages which come from Sanskrit are only used in
North India. South Indian languages come from Dravidian, and it is entirely different from
Sanskrit. These languages are divided along the lines of race, region, and caste. Sanskrit as a
language reflects the cultural heritage of north India, not the entire nation. This example proves
that whenever we symbolize some aspects as national pride, we do not consider the importance
of other. History constructs the national pride by projecting specific sections and their past, in the
process it leaves out diversity. In the next parts, we will look at some of these groups and their
representation in textbooks.
63
5.3 History Textbooks and Representation of Females
To understand the visibility of gender bias in school textbooks we can use two aspects53
; one is
to look at the representation of females as compared to the other gender, and the other is to look
at the promotion of gender-related stereotypes. The notion of power that we understood in the
previous section is deeply gendered54
. Representation of women from the past is limited, and
most of the icons are masculine in Indian history. These writings are the outcome of a patriarchal
society in which power is limited to a particular gender. Secular and communal approaches talk
about the role of females in two different ways, but the understanding remains almost similar.
Hindu nationalist discourse valorizes the idea of masculinity and nation is understood as female
(Bharat Mata) that needs to be protected. Hindu nationalism built itself on the premise of
mobilizing people on the name of masculinity. Visible symbols of Hindu nationalism like Hindi
language (Matri Bhasha), Cow (Gau Mata) were understood as feminine. These symbols that are
feminine in nature are projected in danger, and a masculine strength is invoked as the protector
of these symbols. The discourse strengthens female subordination towards male, and the idea of
masculinity was propagated as the protector of Hindu values. Secular discourse conceptualized
femininity from the Gandhian perspective in which the role of the female was recognized
through Hindu traditions. Both the views understood females within the limits of cultures and
these traditions advocate the idea of female subordination. Female representation is limited in the
history textbooks because females were confined to motherhood in Indian society and their
participation in history is not significant as compared to males.
Colonial India had separate school curriculum for boys and girls. After independence the
government appointed the National Committee on Women‟s Education which recommended
common school curriculum for boys and girls. The Hansa Mehta committee in 1961 recognized
the role of working women, and it brought a positive reform in the educational curriculum. The
role of the women was identified in state‟s policy, and the documents on educational curriculum
talked about the gender equality. Education was considered as the efficient weapon for bringing
53
Dipta Bhog, Disha Mullick, Purwa Bharadwaj, Jaya Sharma, Textbook Regimes: a feminist critique of nation and
identity, Taylor & Francis, 2014 54
Dipta Bhog, Disha Mullick, Purwa Bharadwaj, Jaya Sharma, Textbook Regimes: a feminist critique of nation and
identity, Taylor & Francis, 2014
64
balance. Importance of women‟s education remained a crucial part of national rhetoric on gender
equality, but it is difficult to realize these aspirations through textbooks. Sylvie Guichard in her
book The Construction of History and Nationalism in India talked about the pictorial
representation of women in school textbooks. In the old NCERT textbook Modern India there are
total 84 illustrations out of those 59 features men and only 9 of them features women. The same
book on Modern India that was published during the NDA regime features total 42 illustrations
out of those women appear in only three pictures. This data shows that although state took a
stand on women‟s education school textbooks still reflect the gender bias. These biases are not
there because textbooks are written with a biased perspective; limited participation of women in
the historical events is also a reason behind the representation.
5.4 Representation of Dalits and Adivasis
Dalits and Adivasi comprise a large section of the Indian population, and they have been at the
bottom of the social hierarchy. Caste is a dominant feature of India society which divides people
based on their birth. Indian history is primarily dominated by those who were at the top of this
hierarchy Brahmans and Kshatriyas. Kings and Emperors from Indian mythology and ancient
Indian history were always a part of the upper caste. History of Dalits and tribal communities is a
tale of oppression and subordination. In the previous sections we looked at the role of power in
representing history. These subordinated communities did not get any place in the narrative of
powerful. In the process of defining nation, caste has always been considered as an irrelevant
question because those who were assigned the task of establishing nation come from a privileged
background. Ambedkar is an influential person in the history of Dalit struggle; he framed the
constitution of India and proposed the reservation for underprivileged sections of society. His
role in framing constitution remained one of the reason because of which it became almost
impossible to ignore him. His representation differs in both the nationalist narratives. Hindu
nationalists portrayed Ambedkar as a social reformer and anti-Muslim. The hidden agenda
behind this portrayal is primarily based on the fact that this representation will include Dalits in
the Hindu narrative. The nationalist discourse remained a conflict between imperialist and
nationalist before independence, and it changed into a battle between communal and secular in
post-colonial India. The caste always remained an invisible factor in these narratives. These
communities remained alien to the social arena, and that is the reason because of which they
65
never figure in the history textbooks. After seventy-one years of independence, caste-based
discrimination still exists in practice. The stories on Dalit oppression are widely reported in
media, but they did not figure in the school textbooks. Social science textbooks are meant to
introduce the sense of social understanding among citizens the questions related to gender, and
caste-based discrimination needs to be discussed in detail. Looking at the condition of these
subordinated groups in Indian society it is essential that these issues should be a part of school
textbooks. One of the reasons behind ignoring these issues can be attributed to the insecurity of
those who are enjoying the privileges of being at the top of the hierarchy. The caste-based
question will undoubtedly bring a negative character of those who are at the top of caste
hierarchy.
Selective history writing represents that the production of knowledge is mainly in the hands of
elites and privileged. It is difficult to talk about those who are suppressed and oppressed because
this subordination is an outcome of graded hierarchy. Textbooks can be a useful tool to teach the
importance of equality, but textbooks have been ignoring these issues to avoid the conflict within
the groups.
66
Conclusion
I started my thesis with an aim to understand the history textbook controversy in post-colonial
India. The wider understanding that I had in the beginning was limited to identifying this
controversy as an act of political parties to spread their ideologies. The detailed analysis of the
controversy constructed a critical understanding of historiography in both academic and the
textbook writings.
Modern historiography is more about perspectives and interpretations then facts. Sometimes
these interpretations can be influenced by political motives. History can be an important source
in legitimizing present actions and constructing the social imagination. Historical interpretations
are often contested and there is no absolute interpretation for a particular event, these
interpretations are different ways of looking. These interpretations need to be in line with
historical facts based on literary and archaeological evidences. The textbook controversy
presents some of these conflicts by interpreting a particular event from the past in two different
ways. In case of textbook controversy the interpretations are aimed at constructing a social
understanding in the present for political motives. Importance of interpretation in historiography
and the motives hidden behind these interpretations are two components that came out from the
first observation on textbook controversy.
Significance of historical knowledge in the modern nationalist discourse is also important to
understand the textbook controversy. In my thesis I tried to explore the relation of history and
nation. Education plays the role of bridging history and nation, through education nation transmit
its aspiration among citizens. History constructs a narrative for defining nation through past
events; these interpretations build the national identity. In Indian context national identity is
imagined in two different ideologies and that can be considered a reason behind the conflicting
content of these textbooks.
I explored the Indian historiography from ancient India to the contemporary period. Imperial
power played an important role in constructing historical consciousness in contemporary India.
The colonial historiography is an example to understand the state‟s interest in producing
67
historical knowledge. Imperial power used history as a tool to legitimize its actions similarly in
contemporary politics the political parties are trying to do the same through school textbooks.
The textbook controversy can be linked to the historiography that was produced in colonial
period.
School textbook can present a selective portion of historical events; the curriculum has certain
boundaries within which it has to prepare its syllabus. Indian nation is divided along the lines of
region, religion, caste and class and the diversity is graded in a hierarchy. Marginalized sections
of Indian population did not get a fare share of representation in the history writings. History
textbooks carry the same problem by representing history from the perspective of those who are
privileged. The reason for the underrepresentation of marginalized can be attributed to the
relation of history and power. Historical records reflect the narratives and tales of those who
were in power not the ones who were subordinated and oppressed.
68
Appendix
Based on my reading I have made a set of questions, these questions are intended to understand
the textbook controversy from a different perspective.
Q1) National Curriculum Framework (NCF) 2005 came out only five years after the publication
of NCF 2000 and the main reason cited for this revision is that NCF 2000 failed to effectively
address the issue of 1993 report “Learning without Burden”. It did not talk about the
communalization of textbooks that came out in National Democratic Alliance (NDA) regime.
The 2005 report did not address the issue of political influence on textbook writing. It also
ignored the religious value laden bias and anti-secular character of NCF 2000.
Why were these questions ignored in the report even when one of the major reasons for NCF
2005 to come out so early was that the textbooks based on NCF 2000 were biased and full of
errors?
Q2) NCF 2005 considered the importance of child‟s native wisdom and it demands that schools
should respect the native wisdom and help her create her own knowledge.
We know that caste and gender prejudices are dominant in Indian [or, for that matter, any]
society. The native wisdom of a child comes from family and society. It is important for schools
to address those prejudices.
What are the limitations of this freedom that is given to a child for creating her own knowledge?
If the child is left to create her own knowledge based on her native wisdom then can it not be
problematic given the influence of family and society around her?
Q3&4) NCF 2005 emphasized on the importance of local knowledge and it also mentions that
schools should respect the local knowledge. It is possible that the local knowledge is in variance
69
with the institutionalized scientific and rational approach. It is also possible that centralized
curriculum may reflect some contradictions with the local knowledge?
Why do we need to acknowledge the importance of local knowledge even if it is not scientific
and rational in character?
If local knowledge is in contradiction with the textbook how to address this problem?
Q5) It is written in the preface of the document (NCF) that social sciences should be studied
from the perspective of marginalized. There is no detailed guideline related to this point in the
entire document. Textbooks generally do not address the seriousness of caste problem.
There are several structural problems in the Indian society based on the religious doctrine but
these problems are not addressed in the textbooks.
Do we lack the attitude of constructively criticizing these issues?
Q6&7) History as presented in textbooks has been a site to build the feeling of nationalism
among citizens. We have been used to the stories of glorified past in textbooks in the past both at
regional and national level curricula. There are several instances which reflect the darker and
problematic aspects of the „nation‟, but we do not read those instances in the textbooks.
If history is about knowing our past then why are we selective in choosing themes portraying a
particular way of thinking our past?
Is it possible to read history as a subject with autonomy without the influence of state which
treats it merely as an instrument for legitimacy?
Q8) Textbook controversy in NDA regime proves that political parties can use history as an
instrument to propagate their political ideology.
Do you think that this idea of tampering history came into existence only because the very
motive of teaching history in schools was aimed at installing the feeling of nationalism among
citizens and political parties used it to redefine nationalism by tampering textbooks?
70
Q9) We have encountered two competing political ideologies in our history textbooks - Congress
centric and the Saffronized version. Both the versions talk about their contribution in defending
India against the British power.
Why do we ignore the social problems of Indian society while discussing modern history and
only talk about our fight against imperial power?
What about the conflicts that existed among different communities of Indian society?
Q10) Indian communities (Hindu-Muslim, Upper caste-Dalits) always had differences among
themselves but we do not talk about these internal conflicts and focus only on anti-colonial/anti-
imperial struggle. These problems surface time and again. Do you think addressing these
issues/themes in textbooks will sharpen our understanding of past, especially social issues that
will result in thinking about justice for marginalized communities?
71
Bibliography
Books:
1. Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism, Cornell University Press, 1983
2. Romila Thapar, Time as a Metaphor of History: Early India, Oxford University Press,
1996
3. Sylvie Guichard, The construction of History and Nationalism in India: Textbook,
Controversies and Politics, Routledge, 2010
4. John Seiler Brubacher, A History of the Problems of Education, Mc-Graw-Hill, 1947 5. Jawaharlal Nehru, Discovery of India, John Day, 1946
6. Michael Gottlab, History and Politics in Post colonial India, Oxford University Press,
2011
Article and Research Papers:
1. Yogesh Snehi, History Revisited and Rewritten: A Review, Indian History Congress, 2003
2. Louis Althusser, Ideology and Ideological State Apparatus, positions, La Pensée 1970,
pp. 67-125
3. Terry Haydn, History in Schools and the Problem of “The Nation”, Education Sciences,
Volume 2, 2012, pp. 276-289
4. Ann Low Beer, School History, National History and the Issue of National Identity,
International Journal of Historical Learning, Volume 3, 2003, pp. 1-7
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), National Council of Educational Research and
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3. Makkhan Lal, Ancient India (Class 11th
), National Council of Educational Research and
Training, 2002
4. Sima Yadav, India and the World (Class 7th
), National Council of Educational Research
and Training, 2002