OFFAL:

AS A FOOD CULTURE IN ISTANBUL CUISINE

Pelin DUMANLI

110611050

Istanbul Bilgi University

Institute of Social Sciences

MA in Cultural Studies

Asst. Prof. Dr. Özge SAMANCI

2013

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This thesis might not have existed without the valuable contributions of my supporters.

Therefore, I feel gratitude for many people. First, I would like to express my sincere

gratitude and appreciation to my advisor Asst. Prof. Dr. Özge Samancı, for her teaching,

support, care, understanding and guidance throughout this thesis study, which started out

only as a final project.

Second, I am very grateful to the Department of Cultural Studies for the interest that

they showed in my thesis as well as to Prof. Dr. Levent Yılmaz and Assoc. Prof. Dr.

Erdem Kabadayı, who accepted to be in my jury.

I would like to thank my friends Ayfer Yavi, Olcay Bingöl, Tangör Tan, Pelin Tan and

Sümer Aka Umuç, with whom I had joyous conversations, and who shared their

memories about food culture, during my research period after deciding on my thesis

topic; Seray Öztürk, who were always by my side with her full support, and my dearest

friends Ödül Eren and Alper Akça. I thank Georgi P. Kostandov for sharing his

profound knowledge with me, and my dearest friends; İpek Doğan, Ömer Doğan and

Dilek Eröz for introducing me to him and always supporting me. Also, I would like to

thank Refika Birgül and all my colleagues, who supported me to finalize my studies in

spite of all the challenges caused by having a full-time job.

I thank my dear aunt Pınar Özkan, who guided me through the translation of this thesis

into English language and Nurinisa Beşer, who helped me in every aspect, tirelessly and

patiently. Without their contributions, it would have been very hard for me to overcome

all the translation and redaction. Additionally, I also thank Sayat Özyılmaz, who gave

me my enthusiasm back with his valuable comments after reading every page of this

thesis and Nil Erdoğan for the beautiful photographs, which I used in the appendix

section.

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Certainly, I thank my family for their support, trust and contributions. Offal was one of

the leading components of my grandmother’s dinner tables. If nothing else, there would

be a pot full of livers boiling for the cats. It is most likely the reason I developed an

interest in offal at such an early age. I feel as lucky as those cats that savored my

grandmother’s livers, for I grew up in a family of Old Istanbul and began to learn about

the food culture through the stories told by my grandfather.

Finally, there is another point I would like to add. Offal, which is my thesis topic, has

not only inspired me to make a study about this topic, but also has been an instrument in

meeting with very special people. I regard this thesis as my luck, especially for it gave

me the opportunity to meet offal seller Cevdet Sertbakan, who appreciated my curiosity,

when I first decided to write my thesis on offal after examining the window display of

his offal shop. I thank him for the important details and priceless professional secrets he

shared with me during our friendly conversations. For this reason, I would like to

dedicate this study to Cevdet Sertbakan and other offal sellers like him, the people, who

are the members of this valuable profession - offal selling.

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ABSTRACT

This master thesis is one of the first studies, in which offal is discussed from the aspect

of culinary culture. In the former academic studies, offal was handled between the lines.

As a general definition, offal is the edible parts -mostly organs- of the slaughtering

animals, excluding the meat, and it has an important place in Istanbul’s culinary culture.

This thesis aims to analyze the place of offal in Istanbul cuisine from the early days of

the Republic to the present day by gathering the findings related to offal. Primarily,

historical journey of offal consumption was analyzed based on the cultural facts of

Istanbul cuisine. Furthermore, the cookbooks that were printed in the last century were

examined in order to reveal the place of offal in Istanbul cuisine. Since offal is directly

related to meat, the thesis is focused on animals and their meat. Slaughterhouses,

“cig ̆erciler” (where offal is sold), restaurants, mobile sellers and home cooking are the

additional important topics explored in this study. The study has been compiled

chronologically in order to understand the development process of offal consumption

and preparation techniques. Based on these facts, the progress of offal consumption has

been analyzed.

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ÖZET

Bu yüksek lisans tezi, sakatatın yemek kültürü alanında irdelendiği ilk çalışmalardan

biridir. Daha önce yapılmış akademik çalışmalarda, sakatat genellikle mutfak kültürü

araştırmalarının satır aralarında ele alınmıştır. Kültürel etkileriyle önemli bir yere sahip

olan sakatat, genel tanımıyla, kasaplık hayvanların eti dışındaki yenilebilir organ ve

bölümleridir. Bu tez kapsamında, sakatatın cumhuriyetten günümüze İstanbul

mutfağındaki yeri incelenerek, sakatat hakkındaki bilgilerin bir araya getirilmesi

amaçlanmıştır. Çalışmada öncelikle, İstanbul mutfağını oluşturan kültürel etkiler

ışığında sakatatın tarih boyunca tüketimi üzerinde durulmuştur. Ayrıca, sakatatın

günümüzde hangi algı yelpazesi içinde yer aldığına, son yüzyılda en çok baskı yapmış

yemek kitaplarındaki sakatat tarifleri incelenerek ışık tutulmaya çalışılmıştır. Başvurulan

kitapların yanı sıra sakatatın doğrudan et ile olan ilişkisinden ötürü, et ve hayvanlar

hakkında bilgi toplanmıştır. Mezbahalar ve sakatatın satıldığı ciğerciler, tüketildiği

restoranlar, seyyar satıcılar ve ev mutfaklarına dair yapılan gözlemsel araştırmalar,

çalışmanın oluşmasında başvurulan diğer kaynakları teşkil etmektedir. Çalışma,

sakatatın tarihsel boyutu incelenerek, sakatat tüketimi ve hazırlama tekniklerinin

gelişimini görebilmek için kronolojik olarak hazırlanmıştır. Bu bilgiler ışığında, yemek

kültürümüzde sakatat tüketiminin seyri incelenmiştir.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgment ............................................................................................................. ii

Abstract ........................................................................................................................... iv

Özet ................................................................................................................................... v

INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 1

CHAPTER I ..................................................................................................................... 4

The Historical Background of Istanbul Cuisine ........................................................... 4

CHAPTER II ................................................................................................................. 12 Offal ............................................................................................................................ 12

Definition ................................................................................................................. 12 Classification and Specification ............................................................................... 15

Stages of Offal Provision ........................................................................................... 26 The Animals ............................................................................................................. 26 Slaughterhouses ....................................................................................................... 31 Offal Shop: Ciğerciler ............................................................................................. 34

CHAPTER III ................................................................................................................ 41 Offal in History .......................................................................................................... 41

The Use of Offal in Anatolia ................................................................................... 43 Offal in Central Asia & Seljuk Cuisine ................................................................... 50 Offal in Ottoman Culinary Culture .......................................................................... 59

CHAPTER IV ................................................................................................................ 71 The Consumption of Offal in Istanbul Cuisine ....................................................... 71

Eating Out: Street Vendors and Restaurants ............................................................ 71 Eating at Home ........................................................................................................ 82

CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................. 97

APPENDIX .................................................................................................................. 102

A TABLES B FIGURES C PHOTOGRAPHS D INTERVIEWS BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................................................... 134

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INTRODUCTION

This thesis makes part of food studies that share similar interdisciplinary methods used

in cultural studies. Food studies represent a broad term that covers many fields related to

food such as food history, anthropology and sociology of food, food science, and

culinary arts.1 Even though food as a popular subject becomes prominent in the world

with the publication of books, television shows and conferences; study of food is a

relatively new issue in the academic world. In Turkey, there has been a considerable

growth in the number of the studies about culinary culture and history, since two

decades.2 Recent works that were published are especially about Ottoman culinary

culture. Many research topics related to Turkish culinary culture still need to be

explored.

Food being an important cog of the survival machine has a socio-cultural structure. The

search for food has played a major role in the cultural evolution of man. Early mankind

used to feed by hunting and gathering, and then he discovered farming and different

cooking techniques with the settled life. In time, the people, who were not satisfied with

cooking, created different culinary techniques and dishes in search for taste and variety.

Among the essential food items, meat is vital in many cultures including many

civilizations that have reigned in Central Asia and Anatolia soils. The dietary habits of

Turks are based on animals and animal products, as a result of the nomadic life on

horseback. It is assumed that offal’s widespread use and consumption also come from

1 Jeff Miller, Jonathan Deutsch, Food Studies, An Introduction to Research Methods, (New York: Berg, 2009) p.3. 2 Özge Samancı, “Ten Years in Ottoman-Turkish Food Historiography”, Food & History, Vol:10, No:2, 2012, Brepols Publishing, pp. 233 -242.

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the nomadic influence. Offal as a general definition is the edible parts of the animal

excluding the meat. It has been a part of the food culture of Turks and other tribes who

lived in Central Asia. Offal was considered as a food for poor people, but at the same

time it was a sign of richness in Central Asian culinary culture.

Offal culture is not a subject studied in detail in academic writings. Studies realized

about the ancient past of Turkish cuisine refer briefly to offal. The lack of studies about

this subject encouraged me in realizing this research. This thesis aims to understand the

meaning and value of offal in Istanbul’s culinary culture that forms the basis of

contemporary Turkish cuisine. In order to understand the present I looked to the past and

then studied the history of offal in Turkish culinary culture. I tried to emphasize the

reflections of offal in the last century, by tracing offal as a cultural component of these

lands and determining its position in the culinary culture of Istanbul. Historical and

observational methods are the research methods used in this thesis. Historical research is

a valuable method in food studies, because it helps us discover the food choices,

commensal eating patterns and other important food related issues, and explains how we

have got to where we are today. Also, history can help us understand the things that are

deeply rooted in a culture, by examining what human beings have thought, attempted

and accomplished. When using the historical method, I classified my sources as primary

and secondary. Secondary sources were the pathfinders while exploring my research

topic. Articles and books published about the various historical periods of Turkish

cuisine (such as Central Asia, Seljuk and Ottoman) are used in order to have information

about offal. The cookbooks published in Istanbul in the last century are the primary

sources that helped me understand the offal consumption from the past to present.

Observational method is another method used in this study. I made depth interviews

with offal tradesmen, who have been practicing the profession since generations in

Istanbul. These interviews helped me understand the production chain of offal in

Istanbul cuisine, from slaughterhouses to liver shops.

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Istanbul, the capital city of both Byzantine and Ottoman Empires that hosted many

civilizations and people through history, played a very significant role in the formation

of Ottoman elite food culture that represents the basis of Turkish cuisine. Ottoman

palace kitchens that symbolize the wealth and abundance of the empire’s territories

constitute the basis of Istanbul cuisine. Different religious communities and people from

different ethnic origins contributed much to the formation of Istanbul culinary culture. In

order to understand the different culinary heritages that survived in Istanbul cuisine, the

first chapter of the thesis is devoted to a brief history of Istanbul cuisine.

The second chapter is dedicated to the definition and specification of offal. It has two

main parts: the definition and stages of offal provision in Istanbul cuisine. In the first

part, different kinds of offal that are consumed by Istanbul inhabitants are studied one by

one. The definition of each kind of offal is done on the basis of culinary terminology

used in Istanbul. In the second part, the animals, of which the offal is eaten; and the

slaughterhouses, in which the offal is primarily processed, are discussed. Ciğerciler, the

places, where offal has been sold, are also explained in this part.

The third chapter focuses on the history of offal in culinary cultures, of which we see the

marks in Turkish cuisine. The consumption of offal from the early civilizations in

Anatolia to the late Ottoman era is studied in detail. The Central Asian Turkish era in the

11th century, the Anatolian Seljukid era in the 13th century and the Ottoman Empire era

from the 15thcentury to early decades of the 20th century make up the historical periods

studied in this chapter. Based on the culinary cultures that affected Istanbul cuisine, the

history and culture of offal are tried to be explained in this part.

The differences about the consumption of offal from the past to present are explained in

the fourth chapter. I tried to differentiate the consumption patterns of eating out and

eating at home in Istanbul. Cookbooks were my sources while discovering the use and

consumption of offal in Istanbul households. By analyzing a series of cookbooks

published since the early days of Republic to contemporary days, I tried to understand

the changing and continuing consumption patterns of offal in Istanbul culinary culture.

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CHAPTER I

The Historical Background of Istanbul Cuisine

As for the site of the city itself, it seems to have been created

by nature for the capital of the world. It stands in Europe

but looks out over Asia, and has Egypt and Africa on its

right. Although these latter are not near, yet they are linked

to the city owing to ease of communication by sea. On the

left lie the Black Sea and Sea of Azof, round which many

nations dwell and into which many rivers flow on all sides,

so that nothing useful to man is produced through the length

and breadth of these countries which cannot be transported

by seas to Constantinople with the utmost ease. On one side,

the city is washed by the Sea of Marmara; on another side a

harbor is formed by a river which Strabo calls, from its

shape, Golden Horn. On the third side, it is joined to the

mainland, and thus resembles a peninsula or promontory

running out with the sea on one side, on the other bay

formed by the sea and the above-mentioned river.

Ogier Ghislain de Busbecq – Turkish Letters3

In order to appreciate the essence and the complexity of Istanbul cuisine, we need to

understand not only the geographical and climatic conditions, but also the circumstances

that define the social, economic and cultural life. As the bridge between two continents

3 Ogier Ghislain de Busbecq, The Turkish Letters of Ogier Ghislain de Busbecq, trans. Edward Seymour Forster (London: Eland Books, 2005), p. 34.

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and a gateway to a third, Istanbul is located on both Spice and Silk Roads and it

connects nations around the Black Sea to warm seas through the Mediterranean,

therefore it is not a coincidence for Istanbul to have such a rich cuisine.

Istanbul cuisine has been developed through centuries within the limits of its geography,

parallel to its historical development. This cuisine that reflects the heritage of ancient

culinary cultures and traditions, has reached to present day through cooks who

performed their art at home, in imperial kitchens, imarethanes (kind of a soup kitchen),

restaurants and taverns.

Primarily, culinary cultures exist of their own geographical crops and products. Without

a doubt, Istanbul cuisine was born from natural sources of its environment. The land is

suitable for the cultivation of many fruits and vegetables such as apples, grapes, apricots,

cherries, onions, cabbages and carrots. Nearly all kinds of fish and sea products could be

found in Istanbul peninsula and Marmara Sea. Being the capital city of the Byzantine

and Ottoman Empires, Istanbul had the privilege of receiving different kind of foodstuffs

even from the remotest regions of its reign. Istanbul, a port city, has been an important

station on the trade roads. Certainly, each civilization has left its cultural heritage in

Anatolia and especially in the capital city of Istanbul. Beside Muslim and Christian

beliefs, other subcultures such as Arab-Iranian, Armenian, Jewish and Rum4were also

constituting elements.

In order to understand the culinary culture of Istanbul, it will be useful to take a look at

its historical development. Istanbul cuisine is a product of a long historical process;

therefore it is possible to say that its roots go back to ancient times. In recent years,

archaeological excavations in Yenikapı region have showed that the city had been

established before the Greek colony. Even if it is a new approach to the city’s history,

Istanbul has been a great shelter and the center of population for various civilizations,

4 The name referred to Orthodox Greeks living in many different regions such as Trabzon, Central Anatolia, Cappadocia, Aegean Coast and İstanbul.

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who have done cultivation and fishing. Archaeologist Mehmet Özdoğan emphasizes that

archaeological history of Istanbul goes back to 8.500 years ago.5

Later, during the period of Roman Empire, the city was enriched by the Roman culture,

and then became the capital city of the Byzantine Empire (East Roman Empire) in 395.

The consumption of fish was important during the Byzantine era. Byzantine coins that

have bonito and dolphin reliefs, demonstrate that fish had been a significant value at that

time. Fermented fish sauce called garum or liquamen was also popular. Garum mixed

with wine, olive oil or vinegar was used in cooking. Spices imported from the East were

also used in imperial cuisine.6

Byzantines used to eat three meals per day; breakfast, lunch and dinner. The meal

generally consisted of fish, roasted meat (usually pork), veal, wild games, egg, fruit and

dessert. A great quantity of duck and fish, and soups of complex composition were also

consumed. Meals, which require long hours of cooking, used to be prepared. The offal,

such as tripe, was cooked in different ways; besides, casseroles and various salads were

also common on the menu. Cheese and fruit were also popular. Fruit could be eaten

fresh or used in stews.7

Even after the conquest of Istanbul by Sultan Mehmet II in 1453, Christian beliefs

continued to leave their marks on Istanbul culinary culture. In order to make a detailed

portrayal of Istanbul cuisine, it is important to take a look at the surrounding lands,

which provide the needs of the city. In the Ottoman period, besides Anatolia, entire

territory of the empire including Rumeli (Balkans) and Egypt had been generous in

sharing the fertility of their soil and animals with the capital city. Even so, we cannot

deny that Anatolia has played an important role, because the Anatolian lands have

hosted not only the Byzantines, but Turks as well. During the Ottoman era Istanbul

5 Mehmet Özdoğan, “Yenikapı Kazıları İstanbul’a ne öğretti?” 90 Depar, Garanti SALT, 27 Ekim 2011. http://vimeo.com/31435755 6 Andrew Dalby, Bizansın Damak Tadı (Kokular, Şaraplar, Yemekler), (İstanbul: Kitap Yayınevi, 2002), p. 61. 7 ibid.

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cuisine was shaped under the influence of different cultures such as nomadic Turkish,

Byzantine, Jewish, Armenian and Levantines. As Artun Ünsal mentions in his book

İstanbul’un Lezzet Tarihi, Istanbul cuisine during the Ottoman era has become a new

synthesis combining the culinary cultures of Central Asia, Middle East, Byzantine and

also Anatolia.8

Since the 11th century, nomadic Turkish tribes coming over from Horasan and Iran have

stepped into Anatolia carrying their own food cultures with their traditions of generosity

and hospitality that formed the basis of their feast traditions. When we look at the

historical journey of Istanbul’s culinary culture, we can say that the traces of the culinary

culture of nomadic Turkish tribes have survived at the capital city of the Ottoman

Empire.

The Turks, known to have led a semi-nomadic life starting from the earliest periods of

history, carried traditions with them when they immigrated to new lands. When they

came to Anatolia at the end of the 11th century, the Turkmen that lived under the

governance of the Turkish Seljuks also carried on these traditions and animal husbandry.

As the natural result of a lifestyle where animal husbandry was very important, animal

products made up the most important aspect of the cuisine.9

Meat and dairy products were the main consumption items. Mutton, veal, beef, camel

meat and horseflesh were commonly consumed. Meat was eaten fresh in spring and

summer; frozen or spiced in winter. Pastırma and yogurt were two important legacies of

nomadic Turkish cuisine. These food items such as mutton, pastırma, yogurt and offal

maintained their importance during the Ottoman Empire. Even today, when we look at

8 Artun Ünsal, İstanbul’un Lezzet Tarihi (Geçmişten Günümüze Sofra Sohbetleri ve Evimizin Yemekleri, Beyhan Gence Ünsal’ın Tarifleriyle), (İstanbul: NTV Yayınları, 2011), p. 31. 9 Haşim Şahin, “Cuisine During the Turkish Seljuk and Principalities Eras,” Turkish Cuisine (ed. Arif Bilgin, Özge Samancı), trans. ed. Cumhur Orancı, (Ankara: Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2008), pp. 39-57.

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supermarket stalls, we can see a wide range of yogurt and pastırma, which exemplifies

the continuing legacy of nomadic Turks.

Istanbul cuisine has constantly grown by being the imperial capital city and with the

contributions of Istanbul migrants’ culinary habits. These interactions have developed

new characteristics and rendered today’s Istanbul culinary culture. Surely, Istanbul

cuisine has its peak times in the Ottoman period. The Ottoman Palace was established in

Topkapı, when it came to Istanbul, the third capital city of the empire, following Bursa

and Edirne. Matbah-ı Amire, the palace kitchen, was feeding 5,000 people in the 1500’s;

but later in the 17th century it became the food provider of 10,000 people. Hence, we

understand that the palace was a place of consumption.10

In the classical period of Ottoman cuisine, food habits were well-balanced. The cuisine

of the Ottoman Palace was not based on one or just a few basic ingredients, but rather

there was an attempt to use the available ingredients in a holistic manner. When one

spoke of meat in the Ottoman period, one was referring to mutton or lamb. Muslim

Ottomans never ate pork, which is proscribed in the Quran. They were generally meat

lovers, but complied strictly with religious instructions on matters of meats to be

consumed, and the hunting and slaughter of animals.11 The table of Ottoman Palace in

the classical period was surprisingly modest; soup and the dishes made with meat and

rice were the leading components of it. The most consumed meat was mutton. Chicken

were also consumed in the palace. In the classical period of the Ottoman Empire, fish

was eaten, but not often. Other seafood such as oyster, shrimp, caviar and roe were

found in the 15th century Ottoman palace kitchen registers. Pickles had an important

place in Ottoman cuisine. The classical period dishes were very different from the food

of the 19th century. Ottoman Empire cuisine has been through some changes during the

long reign period of 600 years. When we come to the 19th century, we see that new

10 Arif Bilgin, “Ottoman Palace Cuisine in the Classical Period,” Turkish Cuisine(ed. Arif Bilgin, Özge Samancı), trans. ed. Cumhur Orancı, (Ankara: Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2008), p. 79. 11 Marianna Yerasimos, 500 Years of Ottoman Cuisine, (İstanbul: Boyut Publishing: 2007), p. 75.

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cooking techniques were applied, the tools used in the kitchen were changed and also

new ingredients such as tomato, pepper (capsicum) varieties, green bean and maize were

introduced.12

Matbah-ı Amire records, in other words the imperial palace kitchen records, list the

types of ingredients used in the palace. According to these records; mutton, rice, flour

and clarified butter were the most consumed food items in the 19th century. In addition

to mutton, the offal such as boiled sheep’s head, trotter, liver, tripe and large intestine

were used often. Beef was still not being consumed in the Ottoman palace kitchen; it

was used only for making sucuk and pastırma and sometimes for the preparation of

European style food such as fillets, beef fillets and rib roasts since the 1880’s. More fish,

caviar and roe were consumed in the 19th century in comparison with the earliest

centuries. Bonito preserved in brine (lakerda) and dried mackerel (uskumru çirozu) were

frequently consumed in the palace. A type of stew, pilaki, was often cooked in 19th

century Istanbul and served cold. Pilaki prepared with veal, trotter, mussels and fish was

a delicacy of the Christian community cuisine in Istanbul. Yalancı dolma (stuffed

vegetables cooked in olive oil) was also a special dish. Christians used to prepare it

especially during their fasting periods.13

The migration movements in the Ottoman Empire played an important role in the

formation of food culture. For example, when the Sephardim Jews left Spain in 1492

they took refuge in the Ottoman Empire. As they had many features of Mediterranean

culture, they quickly integrated with Ottoman culture. Living on both shores of the

Mediterranean Sea for centuries, they adopted the common flavors of these lands.

Another significant migration is the Balkan Migration started in the late 19th century.

The immigrants did not only carry their traditions, but also the food cultures along with

them. Today, it is still possible to find many similarities in those regions, when

12 Özge Samancı “The Culinary Culture of the Ottoman Palace & Istanbul during the Last Period of the Empire,” Turkish Cuisine ed. Arif Bilgin, Özge Samancı, trans. ed. Cumhur Orancı, (Ankara: Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2008), p. 199. 13 ibid. p. 213.

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comparing to Istanbul cuisine.

Considering all the historical process, Istanbul cuisine can be defined as the Ottoman’s

elite and palace cuisine in terms of reflecting the characteristics of Ottoman elite’s food

culture, which has been changed and diversified alongside with the palace cuisine. These

two closely related cuisines were still distinguishable: palace cuisine and the popular

folk cuisine. Palace cuisine had the priority of consuming all the best food items. Palates

as well as preparations became sophisticated in the palace kitchens.

The early origins of the Ottoman cuisine come from Byzantium, Rome and maybe even

before that time. Istanbul cuisine has filtered different culinary cultures in time.

Nomadic past, heritage of medieval Arab-Persian cuisine and Seljuks have contributed

to the formation of this imperial capital city’s cuisine. Istanbul cuisine may be defined as

a cosmopolitan cuisine. It reflects different culinary heritages of the various territories of

the Ottoman Empire such as the Balkans, Arabia, the Caucasus, the Aegean Region and

Anatolia. Religious communities such as Muslims, Christians and Jews shared the same

cuisine. Their religious beliefs contributed to the formation of certain dishes such as

yalancı dolma, aşure, helva and topik. However, in time, these dishes have formed one

unique Istanbul cuisine that has been shared by all residents of the city. Therefore, it

should be noted that defining separate Istanbul cuisines such as “Armenian”, “Rum” or

“Turkish” cannot be possible.

Religion has a great impact on food culture. Istanbulites, who believe in celestial

religions, have been very understanding to each other’s religious beliefs and traditions.

They have observed and sometimes even participated in sacred and special occasions

such as fast, Easter, circumcision, New Year’s Eve, Christmas, Passover or Carnival,

even if they have not been familiar with the details. In fact, Ramadan Fast, in which

Muslims do not eat anything during the time period between the sunrise and the sunset

through all Ramadan month; the Diet in which Greeks and Armenians do not eat animal

products for 40 days; and Jewish Diets and Fasts, they all aim at inner discipline. It is

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possible to observe the impacts of these occasions on meals, which have been created by

Istanbul cuisine.

The roots of our traditions, which are a part of our daily life, come from very ancient

times. The appetizers that are the legacy of the Greek and the Armenian and still exist on

the menus of few true Turkish meyhanes (taverns) in Istanbul; the indispensable yoghurt

and cheese of the Central Asian Turks that we buy from the supermarkets; a Byzantine

delicacy bonito preserved in brine (lakerda) that can be found at the fish markets, and

cooked head (pişmiş kelle) of the Ottoman’s street vendors are some examples.

Today, when we look at the food terminology, we come across the etymological roots of

such words as bastırma (pastırma derived from bastırma) and külbastı (a type of kebab)

of which the origins are Central Asian Turks. Apart from these, some technical words

derived from French such as tabldot, antrikot and sote; or the word pirzola (ribs) derived

from Italian, actually prove today’s Istanbul cuisine is a synthesized one.

Some of these traditions belong to Byzantines, while some belong to Ottomans and

Central Asian Turks. Today, all are getting together in Istanbul cuisine with the same

cultural heritage and they are all eaten at the same table. So, those which have been once

on the Ottoman elite’s table have emerged today as an ordinary lunch made by our

mothers. Perhaps, these days they are being cooked with sunflower oil or margarine

instead of butter; and even tomato paste is one of the ingredients now. Tomato, the

American based new world fruit, has become the leading component of our dining

tables. Some tourist restaurants, who claim that they serve Ottoman cuisine, fill their

display windows with the meals that seem vividly red by the help of tomato paste. In

recent years, without regarding their season, the same plain mezes are served in some

Turkish taverns, which are becoming more and more money-oriented.

Istanbul cuisine is an amazing synthesis of the intertwined social, economic and cultural

structures. In summary, Istanbul cuisine is alive and will continue to live by carrying on

the traditions, but blending them with new techniques.

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CHAPTER II

Offal

Definition

Ask any chef of any three-star Michelin restaurant what their favorite single dish to eat is and you will often get an answer like ‘confit of duck’ or ‘my mother’s pied de cochon’ or a well braised shank of lamb or veal. These were the dishes that first taught many of us to cook, the absolute foundation of haute cuisine. Nearly anyone - after a few tries- can grill a filet mignon or a sirloin steak. But it takes love, and time and respect for one’s ingredients to deal with a pig’s ear or a kidney properly. And the rewards are enormous.

Anthony Bourdain*14

“Sirkeyi sarımsağı hesap edersen paçayı yiyemezsin.”15

Turkish Proverb

The different varieties of offal constitute an important part of today’s Turkish cuisine.

As I explained in previous chapters, the consumption of offal is an ancient tradition in

Turkish culture since the Central Asian nomadic Turkish tradition. During the Ottoman

era, offal consumption continued both in elite and popular circles. In this part, I aim to

represent and define the variety of offal known and produced in Turkish culinary

*Anthony Bourdain is a famous American chef, author and a television personality. He is also known as an offal enthusiast. 14 Fergus, Henderson, Nose to Tail Eating, A Kind of British Cooking, (London: Bloomsbury Press, 2004). 15 You cannot eat the trotter, if you mind the cost of vinegar and garlic.

13

culture. While doing this I aim to answer the following questions in order to contain the

perspective of offal. Which parts of the animal were being used as offal in Istanbul

cuisine? What were the offal types and the preparation techniques? What were their

qualities, and how were they collected at the slaughterhouses? The offal to be mentioned

will be of bovine and ovine animals. In order to handle the subject essentially; poultry

offal called giblets, and the offal consumed in Europe or Far East such as nose and ear,

which are not a part of Istanbul cuisine, will not be covered.

Offal (sakatat), variety meat or the fifth quarter, are the internal organs and external

parts of the animal, which are removed before the carcass is cut up. It is also known as

specialty meats or organ meats and called giblets in poultry. In Turkish Food Codex, et

(meat) is defined as the edible parts taken from bovine and ovine animals which are

cattle, buffalo, sheep and goat; domesticated winged animals such as chicken, turkey,

goose, duck, guinea fowl; and rabbit and pig. Sakatat is defined as the following parts

taken from the animals listed in the meat definition above, excluding the poultry; liver,

kidney, brain, spleen, testes, heart, tongue, external red muscle meat of oesophagus,

muscle of diaphragm, tripe, intestine, trotters, head, organ and organ parts; additionally

parts taken from poultry, liver without gall bladder, heart, gizzard (emptied and internal

membrane taken), and skin that came out during the cutting into pieces.16

Etymologically, sakatat comes from Arabic and means low quality food product.17 In

the dictionary by Ahterî (Ahterî-i Kebir 1545), “saḳaṭāt” means the useless part of every

object and the inedible parts of the animal.18 Depending on the cultural context, offal

may be considered as waste material, or as delicacies that command a high price.

Although it has a negative meaning in Turkish dictionaries, it is certain that it has been

one of the most preferable food items among Turks.

16 Head Office of Food and Control, “Communiqué On Fresh Meat, Prepared Meat and Prepared Meat Preparations”. http://www.gkgm.gov.tr/mevzuat/kodeks/2000-04.html 17 Sevan Nişanyan, “Nişanyan Dictionary”. http://www.nisanyansozluk.com/?k=sakatat 18 ibid.

14

Beside Turks, offal is also prevalent in the rest of world. The English term “offal” comes

from old English and formed by the words “off” and “fall”, referring to the pieces that

fall from an animal carcass during the butchering. Among Americans, offal is known as

“variety meat” or “organ”, which reveals the attitude towards offal. The term “Fifth

Quarter” (il quinto quarto), which Anissa Helou chose as the title of her book, is used

for offal in Italian.19 Beside Italians, French butchers are using the fifth quarter to

describe the parts that do not belong to the four quarters of the carcass.20 There is

another phrase, çeyrekçi (quarterer). It was used for the street butchers in the Ottoman

and Turkish languages. It can be assumed that the word “quarter” is used because of the

carcass’ getting separated into four main parts after the animal is slaughtered.

It is apparent that the meanings and applications of some words are global. As the

negative perception of the word offal (sakatat) in Turkish or the sound resemblance of

the words sakat (crippled) and sakatat, the words that derive from each other; offal’s

pronunciation is the same as the word “awful”, which means “extremely bad”. The word

“quarter” that refers to the carcass of the animal, is another example for the same

situation. Offal has different roles that emerged from different requirements other than

being a foodstuff. For instance, traditional Scottish dish Haggis was born from the need

to preserve the organ meat that spoils quickly after butchering, but, when it is salted and

stuffed into a stomach and boiled, it could be kept for an additional few weeks; also, the

evidence of Paleolithic era showed that animal stomach was used as a container.21

Among Turks, this need comes from seeking benefit from all parts of the animal as a

source of food and sometimes a preservative container. Since animal skins and some

internal organs provided storage vessels for a range of foodstuffs, it is considered that

cheese and yogurt were discovered accidentally when storing milk in the stomach of an

animal. According to the sources, ewe's milk was carried in bags made from dried

19 Anisa Helou, The Fifth Quarter: An Offal Cookbook, (London: Absolute Press, 2011), p.10. 20 M.Tayar. op.cit. 21 R. Tannahill, op.cit p. 16.

15

stomach of the sheep. Then, the heat of the sun turned the milk sour and by the help of

the natural rennet in the sheep's stomach, it simply became cheese.22

Classification and Specification

Offal definitions below are mostly based on the storage and selling processes of offal

shops, for this reason I interviewed Cevdet Sertbakan, the owner of an offal shop. I

benefited from dictionaries while defining the offal parts, so there are some consumption

styles and dish names too. Some of the other sources that I used are Ottoman Cuisine

Dictionary23 written by Mary Işın and Musa Dağdeviren’s article24 about meat in

Anatolian food culture. These sources help us understand the variety of offal. Moreover,

two other books helped me reveal the European approach. The Odd Bitts25 and Offal26

are the books that I consulted to be able to make the intercultural comparisons. Larousse

Gastronomique helped us understand and compare offal definitions and offal dishes in

French cuisine.

In Larousse Gastronomique,27 offal is divided into two categories as red and white, as in

some other countries. However, there is no such division in Istanbul cuisine; as it is

stated in Turkish Food Codex, sakatat (offal) is the main title and mostly mentioned

with organ names.28 As in every profession and its products, offal has its own jargon.

Before we start defining the offal parts, it would be appropriate to mention that. There is

this phrase, takım ciğer in Turkish cuisine. It consists of lungs, liver, spleen, heart, a

22 Jenny Ridgwell, Judy Ridgway, Food Around the World, (Oxford University Press: 1986), p. 51. 23 Priscilla Mary Işın, Osmanlı Mutfak Sözlüğü, (İstanbul: Kitap Yayınevi, 2010). 24 Musa Dağdeviren, “Etin Bütün Parçaları ve Yemeklerde Kullanım Biçimi”,Yemek ve Kültür, 28, (2012):122-133. 25 Jennifer McLagan, Odd Bits (How to Cook the Rest of the Animal), (Berkeley: Ten Speed Press, 2011). 26 A.Helou, op.cit. 27 Larousse Gastronomique, L-Z (İstanbul: Oğlak Yayınları, 2005). 28 Head Office of Food and Control, “Communiqué On Fresh Meat, Prepared Meat and Prepared Meat Preparations”.http://www.gkgm.gov.tr/mevzuat/kodeks/2000-04.html

16

layer of fat named çöz yağı attached to the throat, and meat lump. Meat lump is

considered as highly valuable meat, mostly used for making meatballs.

Brain is called beyin in Turkish. Lamb and veal brains are widely consumed. Lamb

brain is usually 90-100 grams, while veal brain weighs 300-400 grams. Brain is very

fragile by nature. It has a soft and creamy texture. It requires great attention while

preparing. It needs to be soaked for about half an hour in cold water by changing it

several times to get rid of any excess blood and the surrounding membrane has to be

peeled before eating. Especially, boiled and pan-fried styles are common and ongoing

cooking techniques, which we encountered in Istanbul cuisine. Boiled ones are generally

served as salad. Also it is served with roasted lamb head. Sometimes it gets banned in

some countries and takes its place in the banned offal lists. For example, it is stated in

Larousse Gastronomique that it had been banned in France with the concern of

infectious disease. In the same source, it is defined as slaughtering animals’ brain, and

sectioned as white offal, and also there are some recipes with it. In these recipes, a

similar technique to Istanbul culinary culture is mentioned. According to these recipes,

brain is soaked in cold vinegar water for an hour after being properly washed with cold

water, and then washed again, and it is served with various sauces and techniques.29Even

though the cooking techniques are similar, Istanbul cuisine has simpler serving methods

and uses less sauce. Salad and fried versions are widely consumed within Istanbul

cuisine. According to Ottoman Cuisine Dictionary, brain is served as a salad, a pan-fried

dish and pilaf.30

Head is called kelle or baş in Turkish. When one refers to head, it is skinned head of a

sheep or lamb, because generally calf or other big animals’ heads are boned before

selling, due to its size and the meat (tongue, brain, cheeks) and they are sold separately.

Generally, only lamb head is cooked and served as in the form of “on the bone”.

Sometimes it is cut in half with cleaver before cooking, because of its size. One can look

29 Larousse Gastronomique, op.cit. p. 114. 30 P.M.Işın, op.cit. p.

17

at the deciduous teeth at the end of its lower jaws to see if it is a lamb head. When the

deciduous teeth of the lower jaw are replaced with the permanent ones, the middle two

teeth become much bigger and distinct than the former ones, so they can be easily

distinguished. The head of lamb, fired on coal or tandoor, used to be called iki dişli (two

toothed).31

Sheep heads are usually boiled until the meat comes off the bones. This type of head is

called kelle söğüş, and roasted ones are served as pişmiş kelle (cooked head). It can also

be sold as just head meat (kelle eti). When cooked head is ordered, usually eyes, brain,

tongue and somak (face) comes with, so even if they are just samples, tasting them is

satisfying and eating with hands is appropriate. Additionally, head meat was not only

popular by itself, but used in head-trotter soup too.

Heart is called yürek in Turkish. It is both an organ and a muscle. One must pay

attention whether the heart is vividly red and firm when purchasing. It is usually at

affordable prices and very delicious when properly cooked. Since being muscled, it is

firm textured. If slowly braised, it becomes tender. It is convenient to make kebab on

skewers, sauté or dolma by stuffing it as well as making stew. When buying, generally it

is cut into halves, trimmed of excess fat and sinews. Then, each half is scratched

vertically and horizontally. These shallow scratches help cooking properly. Generally

two types are available in the offal shops, lamb and veal heart. Lamb heart weighs about

100 to 300 grams, whereas the heart of veal weighs about 1 kilogram. In Ottoman

Cuisine Dictionary, two versions of heart dishes are mentioned. The first one is yürek

külbastı32 and the other one is a bumbar dish, which is prepared by stuffing bumbar with

31 Georgi P. Kostandov, İstanbullu Bulgarlar ve Eski İstanbul, Geçmişten Günümüze Osmanlı Bakiyesi Bulgarlar Üzerine Bir Araştırma 1800-2000, (İstanbul: Kreatif Yayınları, 2011) p. 273. 32 Külbastı is a type of kebab, which is cooked on a charcoal grill. The old and original version used to be prepared by burying the pans inside the ashes.

18

minced heart. However, today it is usually eaten at home sautéed with spices or as heart

skewers wrap at wrap houses.33

Intestine is called bağırsak in Turkish. It is also known as chitterlings, for pig’s

intestine is called chitterling in the West. While the word intestine is used for bovine and

ovine slaughtering animals, large intestine is specifically called bumbar. At first, they

might not sound as things you would want to eat, but all of us who have eaten high

quality sausages, have eaten intestines; because they are generally used as sausage

casings. Ovine animals’ intestines are more appreciated. Intestine is the first thing that is

taken out the moment animal is slaughtered and it should be washed immediately with

lots of water in order for it not to be burned by its feces. This process is described as

follows: intestine is filled with water with a funnel starting from one end and washed

until it is totally cleansed; and after it is positioned as kelep (sarma - wrap) in order to

prevent it from intertwining, it is soaked and kept in salt to use later. It is the main

ingredient of kokoreç made of seasoned, skewered lamb intestines. As in all intestine-

based food, it has a long and important process of washing and cleaning.

Today, it is not possible to buy an intestine from offal shops because of the kokoreç

market; however you can keep the intestine for yourself when you have an animal

slaughtered yourself. Though, it is not very easy to handle, and the multiplicity of the

processes created a profession called bağırsakçılık (intestine craftsmanship). Cleansing

an intestine requires a certain kind of craftsmanship. It is said that partially cleaned

intestines get to be cleaned again before being used in restaurants. According to Georgi

P. Kostandov, each intestine is cut all the way down with a sharp and thin knife with a

little cotton wrapped around on the tip, and washed with lots of water, and then each one

is folded and made into a braid.34 Besides, dry intestine is sold for making it into wiener

or sausage. You can find that from Mısır Çarşısı, Eminönü, not from the butchers or

33 P. Mary Işın, op.cit. p. 409. 34 G P. Kostandov, op.cit. p. 270.

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offal shops; and you must perfectly cleanse it by the help of a funnel, in boiled vinegar

water by changing the water several times.

Even though it is an organ of feces, it has a place in almost every culinary culture in the

world since ancient times. To name a few; chinchulines of South America that resembles

kokoreç, Italy’s pajata, Lebanon’s stuffed intestine meal, and minced dim sum of China.

Besides, the English, Irish and American have their own chitterlings called fried

intestines, and there is a festival called “Chitt’lin Strut” in South Carolina since 1965.35

Kidney is called böbrek in Turkish. Generally two types are available, veal and lamb.

Although kidney is a type of offal, lamb kidney is sold only in butchers not in offal

shops, as an exception. This is because lamb kidney is buried into the layer of fat that is

attached to the ribcage, so the kidney is taken out and sold by the butcher, not the offal

seller. A casing of fat protects the kidneys inside the animal’s body. This fat is called

suet if it is from the veal and it is special, because it is firmer than the fat that comes out

from the rest of the animal. It is highly valued in Western cuisines and used for making

pastries. The fat and the membrane prevent the kidneys from drying out. Kidneys should

be firm and shiny with no dry or discolored spots and no smell.36 It should be separated

from the fat layer wrapped around it before cooking. The preparation part is done after

the membrane wrapped around the kidney; the nerves; and the fat in the middle are taken

out. While veal kidney consists of many lobes; lamb and sheep kidneys are white bean

shaped and in one piece. Veal kidney is generally sautéed and stewed, whereas lamb is

mostly grilled. Besides being sautéed, it can also be grilled after being medium diced

and put on a skewer. Further, it enriches the mince when blended into the mince mix of

meatballs.

Liver is called karaciğer or ciğer in Turkish. It is the blood-purifying organ. Generally

two types are available in offal shops; lamb and veal liver. It is the most popular offal in

35 J.McLagan, op.cit. p.165. 36 ibid. p.169.

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the world as well as in Istanbul cuisine. Every cuisine has its liver specialty. On the

contrary to Turkish cuisine, the liver of duck, goose, poultry and big fish have

reputations in other cuisines, especially in terms of traditional pate recipes.

As with any offal; it must be stored loosely wrapped, in the refrigerator and for no more

than one day. Livers consist of two lobes, one slightly larger than the other. It should be

shiny, resilient when touched with its outer membrane intact; and it should not have a

bad smell. This membrane keeps the liver fresh. When buying, first this membrane and

all the large connective tissue should be removed, and then the large blood vessels

should be trimmed. Lamb liver weighs approximately 500 gr to 1 kg and has a distinct

odor. Veal liver is bright colored; has a moist but not slippery surface, a fresh smell and

it can range from 3 to 5 kg. Eating old animals’ livers might be toxic because as they get

older their livers become toxic; this is the reason why young animals’ livers are

preferred.

The most common dishes prepared with liver are Arnavut ciğeri (pan-fried chunks,

served with fried potatoes and spicy onion garnish) and Edirne ciğer tava (fried, very

thin, leaf-shaped slices). There are also other cooking styles such as stuffed, sautéed and

kebabs. In Anatolia, it is enjoyed for breakfast with spicy onions on the side. In the

Middle East regions, especially Lebanon, it is eaten raw, still warm straight from the

recently slaughtered animal, and regarded as a delicacy.37

Lungs are called akciğer in Turkish. It is also known as lights in Anglo Saxon, which

means bulky, but full of air.38 They have a spongy texture and are very red when raw,

but they turn grey as soon as the cooking starts. In Istanbul cuisine, it is usually not eaten

by itself; generally accompanied by liver, sautéed or used as a filling ingredient in börek.

Those are considered as old dishes and rarely cooked nowadays. In Anatolia it is used

for making ciğer taplaması together with bulgur, which resembles meatball. Also we

37 Anisa Helou, The Fifth Quarter: An Offal Cookbook, (London: Absolute Press, 2011). 38 J.McLagan, op.cit. 161.

21

learn from Osmanlı Mutfak Sözlüğü (Ottoman Culinary Dictionary) that it was used for

bumbar and şirden dolma and the meal called yalancı ilik (faux marrow), and it was

eaten as soğanlı kavurma (braised meat with onions).39 Lungs have been forbidden for

human consumption in the United States since 1971, but in many countries they are used

mostly in sausage making.40 In Turkey, a pair of lungs costs about 1.50 TL as of today,

same as bread; which is inexpensive. It is considered as pet food, especially for the cats.

Tripe is called işkembe in Turkish. There are four chambers in the stomachs of cud-

chewing animals, which mean there are four kinds of tripe. In Istanbul, generally two

types are available in offal shops; veal and mutton. It is usually served as a soup and has

a special place in Turkish traditional cuisine. Besides soup, işkembe dolma and other pot

dishes such as stew are also popular.

İşkembe is the first stomach, the rumen, the biggest. It has a rough texture and more fat

than other tripe. İşkembe (tripe) is named after this first part and blanket tripe is the

specific name for it. Börkenek is the reticulum, the second stomach. It is known as

honeycomb tripe with the distinctive honeycomb pattern. It yields the meatiest and the

tenderest tripe. It is deeply cleaned after being emptied like the other parts of the

stomach, and scratched out with a knife, rinsed with lots of cold water, and then it is

ready for taking its place in the tripe soup. Kırkbayır is the omasum, the third stomach

also known as book tripe with its lining of overlapping layers that resemble the pages of

a book (forty leaves, thousand layers). It is very hard to clean for it has many layers. For

this reason, it is not preferred for cooking. No matter how much it is cleaned there can

still be some remains, so it is mentioned as “kadıya bok yediren”, meaning “the one

which makes the Muslim judge eat shit”. Şirden is the final part of the stomach known

as abomasums. It is also called reed tripe or black tripe in English. It has a popular

reputation especially in Adana region. Traditional işkembe soup shops still serve şirden

to people who ask for it.

39 P.M.Işın, op.cit. p.24. 40 J.McLagan, op.cit. p.161.

22

Tripe’s outer surface touching the other organs is smooth and the inner surface is

granular. When the tripe is cleaved and emptied, granular surface comes in contact with

oxygen and the thin membrane wrapped around it darkens. Once this membrane

becomes dark, it is impossible to scratch out. Thus, it is very troublesome to clean. First,

it is soaked in 80 Celsius degree water, so black membrane softens and automatically

falls into pieces and then it is properly scratched out with a knife under cold water and

gets ready to be used and sold. Today, many people who do not want to go through all

that trouble prepare tripe with dilute lye solution, which is a type of chemical called

kostik (caustic). The tripe that is cleaned this way tastes and smells different for it

contains chemicals.41

The processes do not end until right before the purchasing. Offal butcher firstly cleans

out the fat layers on the outer surface of the tripe and the remaining membrane parts are

scratched out with a knife. If the tripe is to be cooked as a soup, the smooth and thick

part, called damardan (from the vessel), is palatable.

Trotter is called paça in Turkish. It is also known as feet. It is rich in gelatin and

cartilage with varying amounts of meat. It requires prolonged cooking to soften. Sheep

and lamb trotter are preferred; veal trotter is not commonly consumed. Goat trotter was

also popular and preferable, but nowadays it is almost impossible to find. When buying,

you have a choice of getting either the front or the back feet. The back feet are bigger

and meatier. Trotters are creamy white and have pinkish coloring around the toes. It

should be smooth, slightly moist and plump. When buying, one must be certain that its

hair had been removed. If bought with hair on it, the hair can be burned by quickly

holding it to fire. When the trotter is cooked, it becomes gel-like because of the gelatin

inside and freezes as it gets cold. Usually, sick people are fed with it for quick recovery.

There are trotter diners like the places that serve tripe soup. Kelle-paça çorbası (head-

trotter soup) is another specialty of them as well as trotter soup.

41 G.P.Kostandov, op.cit, p. 269

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Sweetbreads are called uykuluk in Turkish, and also defined with the word özden in

Osmanlı Mutfak Sözlüğü, meaning the thymus gland of the lamb.42 Sweetbreads are the

thymus glands and/or pancreases of lambs and calves. In Turkey, almost all sweetbreads

come from lambs. Sweetbreads occur especially in March, April and May, for winter is

the birth giving time of the animals, both bovine and ovine. They are supposed to be

taken out before the weaning time comes. As the animal grows and matures, the gland

gets smaller and it eventually disappears.

There are two separate glands, which fall under the category of sweetbreads: the thymus

and the pancreas. Thymus sweetbreads are more irregular in shape than those from the

pancreas. It has a light, bright and rosy color. They seem like brain texture, but they are

firmer than brains. The thymus gland is located inside the young animal's neck, called

gerdan uykuluğu in Turkish. Also it has a rounder twin called “heart sweetbread”. Heart

refers to its shape, not its location.43

The thymus glands become atrophied as the animal ages, so as I explained above

sweetbreads are only found in young animals. The pancreas, also a gland, is located near

the animal’s stomach, and produces insulin and other digestive enzymes. This type is

generally larger and rounder in shape than the thymus. Unlike others, it does not

disappear as the animal ages.44 It is also called fındık sweetbread in Turkish.

Various other glands used as food are also called sweetbreads including the throat and

the cheek sweetbreads. Sweetbread is considered as one of the most delicate among the

offal. Though, one should be careful when buying, for there are confusions over

sweetbreads even among butchers. Price is usually a decent clue. It is important not to

forget that there are many types. Heart sweetbread is round and smooth, whereas throat

sweetbread is longer in shape. Both are not solid pieces of flesh, but they are a collection

42 P. M.Işın, op.cit. p.389. 43 J.McLagan, op.cit.pp. 91-92. 44 ibid.

24

of nodules held together by a membrane, which will help indicate that you have the

accurate product.

When demand is high, restaurants experience some difficulties due to the lack of

sweetbreads. For this reason, some similar parts may be sold pretending they are

sweetbreads. When compared, udder is the most resembling one in terms of texture.

Rumor has it, when they are short of sweetbreads some restaurants process the udders,

grill them and serve with spices as if they are sweetbreads. The difference might not be

realized because of strong spices. While we do not need to put too much emphasis on the

rumors, we should not ignore the fact that they could be true.

Sweetbreads must be prepared as soon as possible after purchasing. Outer membrane can

be removed before or after cooking. Generally it is grilled, but can be prepared in a

number of ways, from sautéing to deep-frying.

Oxtail is called dana kuyruğu or pöçük in Turkish. It is the skinned tail of an ox, cattle

or veal. Ovine animals’ tails consist of mostly fat and it is not used for anything other

than that because it has no meat. Oxtail is a long, tapered piece of red meat covered in a

layer of fat. You can buy it as a whole, and usually sliced across the central bone.

However, it is more practical to ask your offal butcher to cut it for you. There are some

sections on the bone; proficient butchers recognize those sections and the oxtail can be

sliced properly only if they cut on the right spot. Otherwise, it might be obligatory to

smash it by a cleaver. As it has bones, it should be slowly cooked. It can be cooked in

pressure cooker or in the oven. It has not a taste or texture like an organ, because it is a

meat with fat.

Testicles, Ram’s Testicles or Balls are called koç yumurtası in Turkish. It is also

known as billur and taşak. It is the testicle of ram or veal. Ram is the most preferred

animal when it comes to testicle, so ram’s testicle is the most common phrase to this

offal; it is kind of a generic name. The testicles directly go to the butchers attached to the

meat, so it cannot be found at offal shops just as kidneys. At offal shops, you can find

25

veal testicle instead. An interesting fact is that the vessel prints on them resemble

Arabic, and are read as a religious word by some people.45

Like other organ meats, testicles may be cooked in a variety of ways. They are slippery.

When preparing they are usually separated by cutting. Besides grilling as a whole, they

can be skewered too. It is known that testicles are impermissible in Islam. In the West,

especially in Spain, bull’s testicles are very popular. Further, it is the main ingredient of

the meal called rocky mountain oysters, which is very well-known in some American

states. This dish, purportedly cowboy fare, is most commonly served at festivals in

Montana and Arizona.

Tongue is called dil in Turkish. The tongue of veal and lamb are made of skeletal

muscle and covered with taste buds. Generally bought whole and intact with no bones or

gristle attached. Veal tongue can be both boiled and smoked, while lamb tongue is

boiled. Once cooked, a tongue must be skinned. This should be done, while it is still

warm, otherwise the skin would be very difficult to remove. During the Ottoman period,

Edirne style smoked cattle tongue was popular and it used to be exported to Marseille in

the 18th century.46 Besides, goat tongue would be consumed often. Today, it is mostly

consumed in the form of salami, sold as tongue salami or just plain tongue at the

delicatessens after being smoked.

Spleen is called dalak in Turkish. It is the blood cell producing organ of ovine and

bovine animals. Sheep spleen is mostly preferred. Since it contains too much blood, it is

preferred by the people who have blood deficiency. The color of spleen is very dark red.

The spleen resembles liver when looked at closely. Usually the outer membrane is

already taken off when you buy it. It used to be consumed as an appetizer during the

Ottoman period. The kebab of the spleen used to be called kara tavuk (black chicken).

Since the spleen is easy to give form, they used to stuff it and make dalak dolması out of

45 Yıldız Cıbıroğlu, “Senin Ciğercisi,” Yemek ve Kültür, 6, (2006):142-151. 46 P.M. Işın, op.cit.p. 89.

26

it.47 Today, it is mostly used by Armenian households, but not as much worldwide.

Spleen is famous for its sandwiches in Sicily; this is how it is recognized in the world.48

Apart from the described ones above, another part that is accepted as offal is marrow.

Marrowbone is called ilikli kemik in Turkish. The hind legs of the animal have a thick,

sturdy shin bone which contains the rich marrow; it is eaten by scooping out. Veal and

beef marrow are the most popular ones due to their higher ratio of marrow. Apart from

roasting and eating it straight from the bone, you can use it like you would do with any

other fat. The bones can be cut to any length you want. Unlike other countries and

cultures, marrow does not come to mind at once, when speaking about offal cooking in

Istanbul. The ones, who prefer it, usually buy it due to its nurturing quality for babies.

When they ask for a marrowbone, the butcher helps taking out the marrow by cutting the

bones with a saw. Lately, the use of it has increased at fine dining restaurants.

Some animal fats are known as offal just like in marrow’s case. For instance, gömlek

yağı (caul fat) and iç yağı (suet). They are not available at the offal shop and not

categorized as offal; however, especially lamb caul fat is used when making dolma and

we occasionally see that it is stuffed with filling prepared with offal such as liver and

spleen in the cookbooks, so we can consider some recipes made with lamb caul fat as

offal. Besides, suet is used in kokoreç.

Stages of Offal Provision

The Animals

Animals have been used for food from the time man learned to hunt and fish. After the

domestication of animals between 9000 - 5000 BC; men have used their meat, fat, skin,

fur and milk. As mentioned previously; in order to talk about offal, first we need to

47 ibid. p.96. 48 J.McLagan, op.cit. p.129.

27

know the animals. Globally, most cuisines have a big variety of offal due to the large

number of animal species on their menus, whereas Turkish cuisine is limited with

bovine and ovine animals’ offal.

Animal species and names that are known and consumed in today’s Turkey will be

briefly mentioned in this chapter. I think that it will be useful to emphasize that sheep is

the leading component of the Ottoman Empire’s subsistence. Thus, the changing meat

preferences will be perceived better in the last hundred years.

Unlike today, cattle and calf meat were not palatable in the Ottoman period; sheep and

lamb meat used to be preferred for the dishes. As Greenwood stated in his work, since

the 16th century meat was obtained and brought to Istanbul by the system of

celepkeşanlık (animal trading) in the Ottoman period. The sheep were brought mostly

from Balkans, Thrace and Near Black Sea shores.49 They were named concerning the

seasons they came during, such as the “spring sheep”. In the 14th, 16th and 17th centuries,

sheep obtain was not conducted only from Balkans, but also from Anatolian cities and

Iran. Suraiya Faroqhi states that the red sheep raised by Turkmen, was a popular kind.50

Anatolia is suitable for animal husbandry in terms of its natural environment and the

structure of cultivation. However, ovine animals such as sheep and goat have had more

chance to breed rather than bovine animals like cattle, because of the dry climate, poor

pasture conditions and lack of maintenance and feeding. Sheep breeds vary according to

the regions in Turkey. Generally, fatty tailed ones are common in the central districts of

Anatolia, and thin tailed ones are common in the seaside regions. In today’s Turkey,

sheep is listed under the title of ovine animals, alongside goats. Occasionally, ovine

animals gather under the name “sheep”. Sheep and goats are closely related species of

ruminant animals. The sheep are called lamb (kuzu) until they turn four months,

regardless of the gender. Its meat is lightly fatty. Milk-fed or suckling lambs (süt kuzusu)

49 Anthony Greenwood, “Et İaşesi ve Osmanlı Ekonomi İdaresi”, Yemek ve Kültür, 11, (2008): 49-69. 50 Suraiya Faroqhi, Osmanlı’da Kentler ve Kentliler (Kent Mekanında Zanaat ve Gıda Üretimi 1550- 1650), (İstanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları, 2011), pp:271-296.

28

range from 4 to 9 kilos and are generally available from January to late March. Those

from 10 to 15 kilos, which are available from May to December, are grazing and have a

different quality of meat. The male sheep, which are ready to mate and have horns, are

called ram (koç). A one year or two years old sheep that has never given birth or cannot

give birth anymore is called şişek; while a one year or two years old male sheep that is

emasculated is called toklu. While there are many local sheep kinds (Kızıl Karaman,

Akkaraman, Dağlıç, Sakız, Kıvırcık, Karayaka, İvesi, Malya, Gökçeada, Tuj, Herik,

Hemşin, Tahirova, Ödemiş, Ege), today we see generally three sheep breeds in Turkey:

Dağlıç, Karaman and Kıvırcık. Kıvırcık breed is the most desirable one. It has long, thin

tail and is considered as the most desirable for meat. It is divided into two sub-breeds,

Karnabat and Merinos. The meat of Karnabat is pink and delicious. Merinos is darker

and it may be slightly gamey. Regardless of the breed, the male is more desirable than

the female.

The race, which we know as Merino type sheep today, has also a story behind it. We can

briefly say that they are the sheep that were crosbred with the purpose of using their fur

in textile sector. In 1839, the Ottoman administration decided to increase the quality of

wool in textile production by crossbreeding a new kind of sheep with high quality

Merino type wool. Since the Merinos were exempt from the ondalık tax, breeders had an

extra motivation. Soon after, private breeders began to claim that their regular sheep

were Merino crossbreeds. Thus, in the 1870’s, the government had to take action and

Merino crossbreeding was embargoed; however there were 50% increase in sheep

population.51

As Musa Dağdeviren stated, there was an ethic of slaughtering the animals in the

Anatolian culture, today this ritual is not followed exactly; with the industrialization of

the animal husbandry, lambs are available in every season, and suckling lambs are

51 M.Erdem Kabadayı, “The Introduction of Merino Sheep Breeding in the Ottoman Empire: Successes and Failures”, Animals and People in the Ottoman Empire, ed. by Suraiya Faroqhi, (İstanbul: Eren Yayınevi, 2010) pp: 153- 169.

29

slaughtered before the spring, starting from January. For instance, potential birth givers

and infants cannot be eaten. Suckling lambs are only slaughtered during April and May

in the name of Hıdrellez feast.52

Goats are related to sheep and both were domesticated at the same time. While there is

diminishing of the goat breeds in Turkey throughout the years, the interest in raising

goats, increased over the last couple of years. Today, in Turkey there are many

goatspecies. (Kıl Keçisi, Ankara, Damaskus, Norduz, Honamlı, Abaza, Alpin, Saanen,

Gökçeada, Malta, Akkeçi, Bornova) Intact males are known as billy (teke). Emasculated

ones are called wether (erkeç).

Cattle are the most important animals in the food production business, when meat and

milk are in question. In Turkey, bovine animals are called cattle (sığır) in general. The

female cattle is cow (inek) the male cattle is ox (öküz or boğa). The newborn babies are

called calve (buzağı or süt danası) until they turn four months. The babies between two

weeks and one year are called young veal (dana). It is less fatty than the meat of weaned

veal, which is preferred over young veal, for good veal should be brilliant red. As it is

less fatty, it is especially preferred for mincemeat. A year or two years old male is called

tosun, and female is called düve. There are many local cattle breeds in Turkey. (Yerli

Kara, Doğu Anadolu Kırmızısı, Güney Anadolu Kırmızısı, Boz Irk, Kırım, Zavot,

Maraş). In recent years, Angus meat is also sold in Turkey with the animal import. It is

calculated that offal prices became higher since the meat import started, because the

offal of the animals slaughtered outside of the country borders, stay where they were

taken out.53 Another animal that falls under the category of bovine animals is buffalo

(manda). It is an animal usually raised for its milk; its meat is consumed locally and not

sold at the butcher shops.

52 Musa Dağdeviren, “İstanbul’da Mezbaha ve Et Ticaretinin Bugününe Dair Gözlemler”, Yemek ve Kültür,11, (2008): 114. 53 Ntvmsnc Article, “İşkembe Çorbası Hayal Olabilir” http://www.ntvmsnbc.com/id/25302293/

30

In addition to the bovine and ovine animal categories above, it is also possible to divide

the animals as edible or inedible from the religious point of view. For example, in

Koran, animals such as pigs, horses and donkeys are considered impure and inedible.54

For this reason, sheep and cattle are the basic animals raised in Turkey.

Musa Dağdeviren explained the factors that make an animal’s meat qualified and

delicious, as follows:

“Quality of the meat depends on the region, but breed is an effective

factor too. If we raise two animals that are same kind, in two different

regions or posture areas, there would be taste difference in the animal’s

meat and milk. Thus, each region’s animal tastes better when it is

consumed at the region where it is fed. The feedstuff must be natural.

The meat of the animal, which was fed with artificial foodstuff with

hormone, does not taste good. The meat of the animals especially raised

for its meat, tastes good too. If the animal is castrated and the unwanted

hormonal changes that come out of mating are prevented, all the

nourishment of the animal stays inside and the meat becomes delicious. It

is recommended that the animal should be slaughtered until turning three

years old.”55

Meat comes to Istanbul from all over Turkey. However, mostly consumed ovine animals

come from Marmara, Aegean and Central Anatolia regions, bovine animals come from

54 Yaşar Nuri Öztürk, Kur’an-ı Kerim Meali (Türkçe Çeviri), (İstanbul: Yeni Boyut Yayınevi, 1993), Bakara, 2/173; Maide, 5/3; Enam, 6/145. 55 Musa Dağdeviren, “İstanbul’da Mezbaha ve Et Ticaretinin Bugününe Dair Gözlemler”, Yemek ve Kültür, 11,(2008): 118.

31

Black Sea and Eastern Anatolia regions in addition to those other regions.56 Good meat

is only obtained from an animal that was fed a natural and balanced diet.

Slaughterhouses

Slaughterhouse is an industrial facility, where animals are processed for consumption as

food products. Slaughter is the term, which is used to describe the killing and the

butchering of the animals, usually for food.

Salhane was the Ottoman name used for slaughterhouses. The first term used for

slaughterhouse is ölütlük etlik by Uighur Turks. Structurally, it must have meant the

place of cutting. In Divan-ü Lügati’t Türk, the place in which the animals such as cattle,

sheep and goat are slaughtered, called ekdi. Etçi is used for the butcher, etlik koy for the

sheep to be slaughtered, tokunmak for slaughtering the animal and tugum for the

slaughtered animal.57

Before slaughterhouse, animals that were bought directly, used to be gathered up in

special places called saye and distributed in accordance with the needs of each region in

Istanbul. Head butchers were responsible for the sayes. Founding the slaughterhouses

(salhanes) near a river or sea was a must, because of hygiene and working conditions.

The first Ottoman slaughterhouse and tannery in Istanbul were founded by Fatih the

Conqueror, by Golden Horn. During the truce period, in 1918, there were salhanes and

special slaughterhouses in ten to fifteen regions, especially in Tophane, Tavuk Pazarı,

Fatih, Bakırköy, Erenköy and Beşiktaş.58

56 Interview with Cevdet Sertbakan. 57 Mustafa Tayar, “Meat Consumption in Ottoman”, http://www.dunyagida.com.tr/yazar.php?id=12&nid=2935 58 Mehmet Aydın, “Mütareke Döneminde İstanbul Basınında Karaağaç Mezbahası’na Yönelik Tartışmalar,” The Journal of International Social Research, volume: 3, Issue: 14, Fall 2010, pp.100-105.

32

Yedikule Slaughterhouse started to be used in the 15th century and it is known as the

oldest slaughterhouse in Istanbul. It was located outside the city walls. During the period

of Fatih the Conqueror, slaughtering an animal inside the city walls was forbidden, the

only time it was allowed was during the feast of Sacrifice period. Later, these

prohibitions started to be transgressed. Especially in the Tanzimat Period, all

prohibitions were disappeared. Yedikule Slaughterhouse had the advantage of

convenience due to being so close to the sea and settled in a flat area. As a result of the

need growing in time, some other slaughterhouses were built, but Yedikule remained the

most popular at all times, when it came to meat collecting for the janissary. Outside the

slaughterhouses, slaughtering was only done by the butchers of Atmeydanı, in open-air.

Those tradesmen used to hang and sell the meat of sheep and goats they slaughtered.

Slaughtered sheep and cattle were brought to the city center through Kasap Yolu

(Butcher Road), which has never changed since Byzantium. It used to start from

Yedikule Kapısı and end at Et Meydanı (Meydan-ı Lahm) formerly known as Forum

Bovis back in the Byzantine period. The meat that had been brought to Et Meydanı by

specially designated janissaries, were distributed to the janissary.59

The butcheries were kept separate as Muslim and Non-Muslim in the Ottoman period

too. Other than that, Muslim butcher tradesmen were divided into two groups as sheep

and cattle butchers; but the tradesmen selling offal were kept apart from butcher

tradesmen. Evliya Çelebi wrote that there were 999 butcher shops and 1700 butchers in

Istanbul back then. During the Ottoman period, sheep and cattle meat used to be sold

both in shops and by itinerant butchers on the street. The skinned sheep brought from the

slaughterhouse would be cut into two or four by the butchers and then sold. The name

çeyrekçi (quarterer) that was given to itinerant butchers could be originated from the

sheep being transported in quarter parts.60 This “quarter” saying reminds us the fifth

quarter term Italians use for offal.

59 M.Tayar. op.cit. 60 ibid.

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The construction of Sütlüce Slaughterhouse started in November, 1919 and completed in

1923.61 It was both a slaughterhouse and a place for the people to earn their living and

has influenced the social life of the region with street vendors selling sweetbreads and

fresh meat. Besides slaughtering, the house provided ice for public with an ice

production facility inside. Sütlüce Slaughterhouse was a facility in which the meat of

animals coming from different parts of Anatolia were inspected and displayed for the

market on Monday Wednesday and Friday early mornings. Also during the same days,

approximately nine - ten thousands of ovine and 250-300 bovine animals were

slaughtered as well. The slaughtering of pigs was also done in this house. The

slaughterers and their assistances were generally Rums.62

Istanbul's main slaughterhouse Sütlüce was abandoned in 1984, due to causing air and

water pollution in the Golden Horn. Now, In Istanbul, the slaughterhouse in Tuzla is the

only authority, which is private and leased in these days. This house is supplying only

30% of Istanbul’s meat need. Some amount is being supplied from integrated facilities,

the rest is coming from unknown places and the process is unregistered. In the

slaughterhouse, there are one bovine and three ovine animals slaughtering areas and also

there are coolers. There are some other sections as well. In one of them, offal are

processed, in another, intestines are cleaned. Slaughtering is done on Mondays and

Fridays. The price of slaughtering for ovine animals in the year 2011 is 6 TL and bovine

animals is 35 TL.63

In some religious communities, animal slaughtering may be controlled by religious laws,

most notably as halal for Muslims and as kashrut for Jewish communities. Jewish people

also use Tuzla Slaughterhouse for slaughtering in their own way. When they came to the

house, routine work would stop to allow them do their own work.

61 M.Aydın, op.cit. 62 Musa Dağdeviren, “İstanbul’da Mezbaha ve Et Ticaretinin Bugününe Dair Gözlemler”, Yemek ve Kültür, 11, (2008): p.110. 63 ibid.

34

The main job of the slaughterhouses is to protect consumer’s health. Slaughtering

animals on a large scale poses significant logistical problems and public health concerns.

The collecting process of live animals from different farms has to be monitored.

Animals coming from different regions are inspected in detail and certified by

veterinarians of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs. If there are unhealthy

ones, they are taken to quarantine to be destroyed. The healthy ones are taken by

commissioners and brought to auctions, the wholesaler butchers bargain with

commissioners and select the good ones and mark them with colors to recognize them.

These animals are taken to slaughter, that is around 1 km away. The animals to be

slaughtered do not see the slaughtering area until they are killed. Behind the slaughtering

area, there is a 50 m² wide and 1.5 m high space connected to a tunnel, where a

conveyor is moving. On this moving band, there are shackles to grasp animals’ legs and

make them lie on their side just before they come to slaughter. After they are killed, the

bodies are taken to blowing, then flaying and finally sakatatçılar64 remove organs of

animals, and bağırsakçılar65 take intestines. Carcass of the animal is taken to the market.

The next step is the controlling of the carcass by veterinarians. If the carcass is found

unhealthy, it is destroyed straightaway. After selling, the sold ones are wrapped with

cloths and delivered. The meat is transported to distribution centers and then distributed

to the retail markets and offal is transported to the offal markets.

Offal Shop: Ciğerciler

In Ottoman Istanbul, the word ciğerci was associated with a place or a person that is

selling liver and other offal just like a butcher. Today, especially for young people,

ciğerci refers to a restaurant type place, where you can sit and eat a proper ciğer meal. In

this part, the butcher style offal shop is going to be introduced. Although, there is not

64 People who are in charge of the offal dissection. 65 People who clean intestines.

35

any information on offal being sold in butchers or shops we know that in old Istanbul,

liver and other offal were being sold by mobile vendors. These vendors were carrying

their shops on their backs.66 It was a simple cupboard of which the back side was

covered with wood and zinc, and its side walls and frames were made of wood. There

was a net inside to create blocking against flies. Liver, lungs and heart were hanging

through hooks over the zinc part of the back side.67

“While sellers (ciğerciler) were walking in the neighborhood, they were

shouting in both Italian and Turkish as “ciğer,ciğer”, and for tongue and

brain “linka çervelo”. Nevertheless, housewives did not show any

interest in these liver sellers wandering around the neighborhood; while

pussy cats in groups with nice and tall tails were chasing “ciğerci” and

looking at the housewives as if they were begging them meow.”68

Istanbul Encyclopedia (İstanbul Ansiklopedisi) written by Reşat Ekrem Koçu, is another

resource that mentions the liver shops. He told separately about the offal shops and the

people who sell cooked liver while telling about the street vendors under the title of ayak

takımı (the rabble).69 The shouting of liver sellers is said to be heard mostly in the

morning time. He too wrote that it was always the Albanians who have done this job.

The picture is like this:

66 Reşad Ekrem Koçu, İstanbul Ansiklopedisi (İstanbul’un Alfabetik Kütüğü) Cilt: III (Aşiret Mektebi-Baba) (İstanbul: 1960) p.1395. 67 Interview with Cevdet Sertbakan. 68 Haris Spataris. Biz İstanbullular Böyleyiz! Fener’den Anılar, (İstanbul: Kitap Yayınevi, 2004), p. 110. 69 R.E.Koçu, op.cit.1395.

36

“A stick as long as a ceiling broom on the shoulders of the Albanian, and

takım ciğer hanging down in balance at the two sides of the stick with

lots of flies over them. While the liver seller is bargaining and not paying

attention, he bends to one side and the needy, hungry cat of the

neighborhood takes this chance and paws the liver. Poor seller, now

angry, lowers both sides of the stick and another sneaky cat gets the other

side.”70

From all these statements, we understand that liver sellers only sold takım ciğer, then

what about the other offal parts? It is not possible to say anything certain for the early

period; however the shops, which were selling head, trotter or tripe, were providing

these offal parts directly from the slaughterhouses. Every tradesman used to send his

staff to the slaughterhouse for collecting the offal, on Mondays, Wednesdays and

Fridays.71

As I said before, liver sellers became the owners of offal shops in time, a kind of a

butcher in which every kind of offal is sold, only except lamb kidneys and ram’s

testicles. These parts are inside the carcass of the animal, so they are supposed to be the

butcher’s belongings following the slaughtering. However, veal kidneys and veal’s

testicles can be found in the offal shops.

Since the Ottoman period, nearly all offal sellers were Albanian. Some of them are also

from Ioannina.72 During the Balkan War, Albanians who migrated to Istanbul became

offal sellers. They were working at the Sütlüce Slaughterhouse. They learned this job

there and as time has passed they started to open offal shops. Beside Albanians, people

who are coming from the city of Bayburt have been also doing this job. They were

70 ibid. 71 G.P.Kostandov, op.cit, pp. 267-269. 72 Abdülaziz Bey, Osmanlı Adet Merasim ve Tabirleri, (Istanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları, 1995) p.140.

37

porters before they became offal sellers. They have learned it while they were carrying

the offal from Sütlüce to Galata Bridge on their backs.73

I can say that I have collected most of the information I had from Cevdet Sertbakan,

with whom I had deep interviews. Third generation owner of Recep Ciğercisi, Cevdet

Sertbakan’s shop is serving at the fish market since the year 1925. He told that his

grandfather used to sell offal in cages on horses before the shop:

“I was born in Fatih, in 1960. My father’s name is Recep, my

grandfather’s name is Hamit, and Sertbakan is our surname. My

grandfather Hamit Sertbakan had migrated to Istanbul from Yugoslavia’s

Manastır town (Bitola) as a refugee of Balkan War; so there is the

heritage of Albania in our family. He opens this shop in 1925. Actually,

it was the store right across, but he came to this one later. I keep my

father’s name as a souvenir. As my paternal grandmother told me, my

grandfather had a black horse and he used to sell offal in cages, riding his

horse. This black horse used to live under their house in the barn; he was

so beautiful that everyone was scared of nazar [jinx]. In fact, one

morning in 1920’s, they found the animal dead with its feet up. After his

horse died, my grandfather opens this place and here we are today.”

He explains why the shop is in this neighborhood with the multicultural and multi-

religious population. Due to the demand being high, offal selling profession has found

its place in the Balık Pazarı by time, and people have got used to buying offal from

there.

73 Y.Cıbıroğlu, op.cit.

38

Today, the offal shops can be found everywhere in Istanbul. Once, there were 8 shops

between the 1920’s and 1980’s in Balık Pazarı, Beyoğlu; now there are only 4 offal

shops. Recep Ciğercisi, Senin Ciğerci and Beyoğlu Ciğercisi are examples to those.

When we look at the daily duties of offal sellers; they go to slaughterhouse at dawn on

Monday, Wednesday and Fridays or to the storages of the slaughterhouses, obtain the

offal and take them to their shops for the processing. There were some duties that were

the responsibilities of the slaughterhouses too; for example, keeping the tripe in

cauldrons or the trotters in water. Making the heads buyable by skinning them out and

putting the trotter into the water filled barrels were also among the duties of offal sellers.

The process starts at dawn. First, skulls of the lamb heads get to be broken by an axe.

Afterwards, skinning starts from the nose area, then follows with the ears and finishes

with the ears’ coming off. Cevdet Sertbakan says he heard that these lamb ears are being

eaten in some regions, he even says that some people came asking for lamb ears. After

the brains are removed, the ears are cut and the skin is excoriated, the head gets to be

hanged on hooks and it is ready to be sold. During the selling, the eyes are taken out

with a knife.

The goat head does not have this eye hole, only the lamb head has it. The heads that cost

8-10 TL have a very intricate preparation process. In this case, because of the tradesmen

who do not want to go through all that trouble or the new generation who do not want to

deal with the family business; it seems that this craftsmanship will be fading away. Since

most offal types are meat, you cannot preserve it very long. Therefore, the storage of the

offal is very important. They should be bought fresh and eaten fresh. Even though some

people freeze some organs, it is not the way to go in this sector. When the trotter freezes,

its snow-white color is gone and it becomes a dark pink; and the tripe loses its texture

and becomes sheet-like when it freezes.

39

In the beginning, the liver sellers were out carrying a stick on their shoulders; from

foundation of Republic to today, this profession kept up with slaughterhouses’ systems

and formed its current situation. In the 1990’s, chicken market has developed; offal

shops seized the demand and took their places in the chicken sector. Some offal shops

started to sell chickens as an additional business. This additional business provided a

raise in the income for a certain period of time, but today it does not bring much

benefit.74

When we look at the products, we see that offal prices vary according to the season and

the demand. The most demanded offal is the liver. It is so popular that some people eat it

as if it is a meat, not knowing that it is offal. The liver prices get higher and higher due

to the demand. It is almost the same price with tenderloin, which is the most palatable

and pricey member of the meat category. This is the case for the sweetbreads as well.

Demand and season conditions make the prices very high. The pricelist of an offal shop

comparing the dates of April 2010 and December 2012;

74 Interview with Cevdet Sertbakan.

40

2010 2012

1 kg lamb's liver TRY24.00 TRY32.00

1 kg veal's liver TRY22.00 TRY24.00 1 piece of lamb's trotter TRY1.50 TRY2.50

1 kg lamb's tripe TRY4.00 TRY6.00

1 kg veal tripe TRY8.00 TRY8.00

a head of a lamb TRY8.00 TRY8.00

a lamb's brain TRY3.00 TRY5.00

1 kg. sweetbread TRY20.00 TRY30.00 1 kg. gerdan sweetbread TRY20.00 TRY24.00

1 kg. fındık sweetbread TRY15.00 TRY20.00

1 kg. oxtail TRY10.00 TRY10.00

1 kg. veal heart TRY12.00 TRY14.00

a lamb's heart TRY2.00 TRY2.50

1 kg ram's testicles TRY6.00 TRY8.00 a şirden / final part of a stomach TRY1.00 TRY1.50

1 kg tongue TRY18.00 TRY20.00

1 kg lungs TRY1.50 TRY1.50

It can be observed that when the demand is high, price gets high too and vice versa.

Season is also effective on the prices. When we look at the table above, we see that

while the price of lungs stays the same after two years; an 8 TL worth increase occurs

for the liver; this points out the difference in demand between the two. It can be

understood that liver and sweetbreads that are popular and sold in restaurants, are high

priced. Moreover, it is possible to say that tongue is among the most priced offal parts,

which is very popular in delicatessens and costs 18 to 20 Turkish liras. A tongue is

approximately 3 or 4 kilos, so its price can reach to 100 Turkish liras; while prices of

home-cooked offal parts such as heart, trotter and oxtail are very reasonable.

41

CHAPTER III

Offal in History

Food has been fundamental for human race throughout history. It is vital in constructing

culture; and quest of food has helped shaping the society. The search of dietary habits

and culinary preferences of ancient societies help us understand our present culinary

choices.

When we look at the food of prehistoric times; due to lack of written records, nearly all

of our knowledge to Paleolithic human culture and lifestyle comes from archaeology and

ethnographic comparisons of hunter-gatherer cultures. Archaeologists have discovered

tools and other artifacts with dug up food residues that allow us to make predictions

about the diet of prehistoric man, which was vegetarian. For hundreds of thousands of

years, the evolving human race had eaten its food raw, but at some point between the

first deliberate use of fire -Africa in 1.400.000 BC or Asia in 500.000 BC- cooking was

discovered.75 In time, man’s diet has changed into a mixture of vegetarian and flesh.

Man has developed his skills on hunting and learned how to kill animals. They hunted,

gathered food plants, fished and made tools especially for these activities.76

The search for food played a major role in cultural evolution of man. Around 75.000

BC, Homo sapiens men became very skilled hunters. When hunting small animals such

as birds, rabbits and other small game, early hunters used a variety of weapons. They

consumed mostly game such as rabbits, deer and birds and also the meat of big animals

like bison. They used drying and smoking method, especially after a large hunt, which is

the most effective way to cure and preserve the meat.77

75 Reay Tannahill, Food in History (NewYork: Three Rivers Press, 1988), p.12. 76 ibid. 77 ibid.

42

As Tannahill mentions in her book Food in History; before the invention of pottery,

animal stomach was used as a container:

“Hunters in Paleolithic ages seem to have regarded the highly perishable

parts of their quarry (heart, liver, brains, the fat behind the eyeballs and

some of the soft internal organs) as their own special prize and may also

have relished the partially digested stomach contents as the Aborigines of

Southern China did during the T’ang period and Eskimos did until almost

the present day.”78

The use of offal as a food container continued in history. For example, in the 5th century

BC, Herodotus says that the nomad Scythians put all the flesh into an animal’s paunch

(tripe), mixed it with water and boiled it over the bone-fire. The bones burn very well

and the paunch easily contains all the meat once it has been stripped off.79 This system

still has its uses today, like traditional Scottish dish Haggis.80

Although there is not any evidence to offal’s direct consumption in the prehistoric era, it

is known that man had used offal as a container, which gives us the concept of offal

consumption at that time. With the emergence of the first civilizations, legacies occurred

and now we can profit noteworthy information about their way of life, dietary habits and

so on by looking up their archaeological heritage, clay tablets and some other evidence.

It is possible to look for the roots of today’s eating habits in Anatolia and the legacies of

surrounding civilizations.

78 ibid. 79 ibid. p.16. 80 Haggis is a traditional Scottish dish, containing sheep's pluck (heart, liver and lungs); minced with onion, oatmeal, suet, spices, and salt, mixed with stock, and traditionally encased in the animal's stomach and simmered for approximately three hours.

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The Use of Offal in Anatolia

After Sumerians and Babylonians, there was a great civilization that ruled Anatolia,

which was Hittites. Hittites prevailed around Middle and East Anatolia, at times around

North of Syria and also Mesopotamia between 1900 and 1200 B.C. Hittites used

cuneiform writing on clay or wooden tablets. Many of them, especially wooden ones,

were lost or burned, still it is possible to see thousands of clay tablets, which have

various treaties and laws written on them.

In recent years, studies about Hittites’ food culture have been conducted. According to

Ünal’s book about Hittites food culture, the number of animal species existed in old

Anatolia were large: gazelle, cattle, sheep, pig, fox, bear, lion, rabbit, various kinds of

ducks and various bird species are just a few examples to it. There were not any chicken.

Hittites had many animal species, but they preferred to eat mostly the meat of cattle,

sheep and goat; and pork was also consumed, but not as much as the others. Mutton was

the most common meat compared to beef and goats.81 Even though there is not any

information or drawings that reflect how animals were slaughtered, shot, killed,

sacrificed, flayed or dissectioned; by examining the storage conditions and dissection of

the bone remnants, we know that they had consumed not only the meat, but also the

brains and marrow.82

Hittites named animal organs after human organs. According to this, a corpse of an

animal consists of meat, bone, skin, nerve, innards (organs) and blood. The blood was

the sign of life. Once blood was fully drained out of the body, the subject was

considered dead regardless of being human or animal. The slaughtering process is

unknown; but it is known that once animal is slaughtered, the skin was removed and the

81 Ahmet Ünal, Anadolu’nun En Eski Yemekleri (Hititler ve Çağdaşı Toplumlarda Mutfak Kültürü), (İstanbul: Homer Kitabevi, 2007), p. 138. 82 ibid. p.105.

44

organs were cut one by one and categorized. Especially, the offal such as heart and liver

were offered to gods as a sacrifice as we will cover with more details later. It can be

assumed that heart and liver were the favorite parts of an animal. Other preferential parts

were meat, ribs, head, ears, feet and rarely skin. Except the sacrificed organs, they were

boiled or roasted inside kettles and casseroles, and were eaten by the crowd who had

joined the ceremony.83

Ünal gives specific explanation of some meat dishes in his book, especially offal ones.

Hittites had two special offal dishes that resemble our “paça” dish. First one is a mixture

of different kinds of offal. They boiled thebreast meat, crotch, ribs and half-cut head and

the feet of an unknown animal together in a kettle. The second one consists of goat’s

right ear that was cut off and singed. Additionally, the skin of a sheep was used as a

foodstuff. It is told that they made an offal dish consisted of breast, head, feet and skin

of a sheep.84

Hittites cooked offal in other ways as well. For example, they prepared meat on skewers.

Neck parts of goat, its liver and heart were used. The same book refers to another offal

dish composed of roasted liver, heart and colored-kidney (probably spleen) on fire.85

Roasting was an important cooking technique mentioned very often in Hittites’

documents. Especially, meat, shoulder and feet were cooked on fire with sheep-fat.86

The book entitled as Deneysel Bir Arkeoloji Çalışması Olarak Hitit Mutfağı (Hittites

Cuisine as an Experimental Archaeological Study) stands out more than other studies

that cover Hittites cuisine. It has brought a deeper and more practical approach by the

recipes of the time. According to this book, almost all meat dishes are made with offal.

83 ibid. p.124. 84 ibid. p.138. 85 ibid. p.140. 86 ibid. p. 202.

45

Sheep ear, kidneys, spleen, heart, lungs, head, even skin, and goat ear, goat liver and

goat heart are the kinds of offal used in Hittites cuisine.87

It should be mentioned that Hittites’ culinary culture contributed much to the formation

of Anatolian cuisine, throughout the history. Anatolian soil has hosted not only the

Hittites, but also the Ancient Greek civilization, and later the Romans. Anatolia has been

generous in giving the fertility of her soil and animals to her people. Classical Greek

culture had a powerful influence on the formation of Roman culture, which was spread

to many parts of the Mediterranean region and Europe. For that reason, Classical Greece

is generally considered to be the seminal culture that provided the foundation of Western

civilization. It is mentioned that food relied mainly on meat, which was depicted in Iliad,

Homer's epic, as a great source of early Ancient Greek civilization. During the feasts, the

heroes used to feed themselves with meat and bread.88

Offal is used with different and interesting techniques in Ancient Greek and Roman

cuisines. Phyliss Pray Bober mentions a special dish that reflects the taste of medieval

Europe, in her book about Ancient Greek and Roman culinary cultures. It is made by

boiled womb of a sow (female pig), preferably in postpartum, and stuffing it with grain

and some other ingredients; and this dish is called “metra”.89 It is probably similar to

famous Scottish offal dish “haggis” in terms of the cooking method. According to the

same book, offal was used as an ingredient in several recipes like “veal trotter and

shank”, “sheep head”, “raw ox liver” and “stuffed intestines with pork”.90 It should be

mentioned that in Ancient Greek and Roman cuisines, offal was particularly prepared

with the stuffing technique like in Central Asian nomadic cuisine.

87 Asuman Albayrak, Ülkü M. Solak, Ahmet Uhri, Deneysel Bir Arkeoloji Çalışması Olarak Hitit Mutfağı, (İstanbul: Metro Kültür Yayınları, 2008). 88 İnci Delemen, Antik Dönemde Beslenme, (İstanbul: Türk Eskiçağ Bilimleri Enstitüsü Yayınları, 2003), p. 5. 89 Pray Phyllis Bober, Sanat, Kültür ve Mutfak, Antik ve Ortaçağda Yemek Kültürü, (İstanbul: Kitap Yayınevi, 2003), p.143. 90 ibid. See recipes.

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Researches made in Ancient Roman cuisine are much more detailed in terms of culinary

techniques compared to Ancient Greek culinary culture; that is because the first known

written cookbook in history belongs to Roman era. It was named De Re Coquinaria and

written by Marcus Gavius Apicius. This cookbook contains approximately 500 recipes

and gives very important information. Beside special occasions, Romans ate beef rarely;

it was a mark of luxury. Pork was the most popular. We see that meals made of pig

womb and smoked pig head were served at a feast.91 Moreover, Apicius mentions a

recipe of a vegetable dish; finely chopped offal parts, various spices, vegetables and

unshelled snail are stuffed into a piglet and then roasted on fire.92

Feasts were very common in Ancient Rome and Greek period. Those feasts were mostly

held in the agora markets that were called “makellon” in Greek, and “macellum” in

Latin. They were open-air buildings, surrounded by the walls, with enclosed shops

inside, and they were suitable for all kinds of events such as meetings, feasts and

sacrificing.93 During those feasts that were arranged frequently, the heroes used to start

their meal with offal that they had roasted on fire. The most preferred sacrificial animal

was sheep. Also, goat, veal and pig were popular for sacrifice ceremonies. Animal used

to be cut just before the feast. At first, the pieces taken from the filet were wrapped with

suet and then burnt in order to offer to gods as a sacrifice.94

Sacrifices were the occasions, where ordinary people also consume meat in ancient

societies. It can be argued that the concept of sacrifice having a religious meaning was

also a social matter. It was also related to animal consumption including offal and

entrails. The word sacrifice that originates from Latin, means “performing priestly

91 İnci Delemen, “Ek2 – İÖ 73-63 Yılları Arasında Augur Makamında olan Lentulus’un Şölenine Ait Menü”, Antik Dönemde Beslenme, (İstanbul: Türk Eskiçağ Bilimleri Enstitüsü Yayınları, 2003), p.56. 92 ibid. 93 Mükerrem Anabolu, Antik Çağda Et ve Balık Pazarları, (İstanbul: Türk Eskiçağ Bilimleri Enstitüsü Yayınları, 2003), p. 1. 94 İ.Delemen, op.cit. p.56.

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functions or sacrifices”.95 Kurban, which signifies oblation in Arabic, has the meaning

of being close, getting closer and giving a gift as well as oblation in Hebrew language.96

Each society has adapted the concept of sacrifice to their customs, which is an important

issue in the history of religions and it has been in existence in different forms and for

different purposes since the birth of mankind until today. There is a detailed recipe taken

from the documents related to Hittites:

“After the sacrifice of a sheep, its organs used to be torn into pieces, and

then liver and heart would be roasted on fire, and the femur part of the

sheep used to be filled with pomegranate kernels and fatty small chucks

of meat were served to gods.”97

How cattle is sacrificed, torn into pieces, burned and wrapped with caul fat in order for it

to fume better, is told in the sacrifice ceremony section of Iliad written by Homer in the

7th century B.C. There is detailed information about the sacrifice at the second part of

Iliad:

“The offal of them were skewed and fired, the legs were roasted, the

livers and hearts were eaten, and the leftover meats were torn into pieces

and then skewed.”98

95 Online Ethymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=sacrifice&searchmode=none 96 Sevan Nişanyan, “Nişanyan Dictionary”. http://www.nisanyansozluk.com/?k=kurban 97 A.Ünal, op.cit. p.140. 98 Homeros. İlyada, trans. Azra Erhat, A. Kadir, (İstanbul: Sander Yayınları, 1975) p.107.

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Another source, which examines the relation between sacrifice and offal, is the History

of Herodotus, which was written in the 4th century B.C. It is understood that the

sacrificed animals were being eaten after the ceremony.

“Ceremonies arranged for cleansing the sacrificed animal from its

entrails and burning them, differ according to the sacrifice. I will cover

the ceremonies they had during the feasts, which they count as the

greatest of all gods. After the animal is skinned and sacrificed, it is

emptied, but the heart, lungs, liver and suet are kept inside; legs are cut as

well as shoulders and neck. After tearing the pieces, the body is stuffed

with wheat bread, honey, raisins, figs and various aromatic herbs,

abundantly covered with fat and burned as a sacrifice; sacrificial animal

is slaughtered after fasting, and while the offered parts are burning, the

people beat themselves to death and they feast with the leftovers of the

sacrificed animal.”99

We see that offering methods for the sacrifice vary according to the breed, receiver and

purpose of it. If the holy existence, who accepts the sacrifice does not eat it, but accepts

its soul or life, the sacrificial animal may be burned in order for its soul to be out, in the

form of smoke.100 Considering the examples above, we understand that offal is

important in terms of the parts offered to God and is covered with fats in order for it to

fume better.

99 Herodotus, Herodot Tarihi, Çağının Dünyasını Anlatan İlk Büyük Tarih Kitabı, trans. Müntekim Ökmen, (İstanbul: Remzi Kitabevi, 1983) p.103. 100 Nermin Öztürk “İlahi Dinlerde Yemin, Kefaret ve Kurban”, Selçuk Üniversitesi I ̇lahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, 13(2002): 191.

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Additionally, it is useful to add that the leading actor of the haruspicy ritual is offal.

According to Etruscan and Roman religious practices, there were these priests called

Haruspex, and they were doing haruspicy, which is the inspection of sacrificed animals’

entrails, especially the livers of sacrificed sheep and poultry. Its purpose was using

sacrificed animal entrails to predict or divine future events. Haruspicy, a specific form of

the general practice of extispicy, was originated by neither Etruscans nor Romans. It is

now considered to have originated in the Near East, where one would once find Hittites

and Babylonians performing similar rites with entrails and producing comparable

stylized models of the sheep's liver.101

As the sacrifice ceremonies vary depending on the religion and the region, also the parts

of the animal offered to God and given to the poor vary too. It is known that entrails are

skewed and roasted, and then offered to everybody or just the people who worked, at the

sacrifice rituals in the Orthodox villages of contemporary Greece.102 According to some

documents, it was stated that the best parts of the slaughtered animal are legs, arms,

trotters and head.103 In Judaism, it is written in Torah that the animal offered to God as a

penance, is asked to be burned completely and is not considered as food. This is because

the essence of penance is punishment and it is believed that denying the food quality of

the sacrificed animal will fend off the evil carried by it.104 In Islam, sacrificial animals

can be slaughtered by anyone who is competen. There is no difference between

slaughtering an animal as a sacrifice or simply for the purpose of eating. However, if a

person has the intention of penance, the meat of the sacrificed animal should be

distributed to the poor in order for the action to be complete.105

This may be the reason that offal is being given to the poor in our day. Usually, the offal

101 William Smith, D.C.L., LL.D., A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, (London: John Murray, 1875). http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Haruspices.html 102 Stella Georgoudi, “Modern Yunanistan’da Kutsanmış Hayvan Kesimi: Azizlere Adak Kurbanları (“Kurbania”)”,Yemek ve Kültür, 10, (2007): 89. 103 ibid. 104 N.Öztürk, op.cit. p.191. 105 ibid.

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parts of the animal slaughtered as oblation or sacrifice are also distributed alongside the

meat of it. Apart from the fact that this situation points out offal was not popular, it is

believed that it formed the basis of the consequences that lead to the perceptions and

stereotypes that occur regardless of religion issue, which we will mention in the

following sections.

Offal in Central Asia & Seljuk Cuisine

The ancient Turks who settled in Central Asia, in the steppes between the Ural and Altay

Mountains, were nomadic people. As Koşay mentions in his research about the

homeland and the food names of the old Turks, the ecological and geographical factors

shaped the formation of their nomadic culinary culture. This is still extremely visible in

the folk cultures of the Turkish tribes in Central Asia today.106

Since the earliest days of Turkic history, one of the most important bases of Turkic

economy, and sometimes the only one, has been animal husbandry. The most important

foodstuffs that the steppe provided them were the ones they acquired from animals.107

Turkish nomadic groups lived mainly on animal products sustained in their immediate

environment. As Tannahill points out, most of their needs were supplied from their

flocks and herds.108 Whether in Central Asia or in Anatolia, even after the adoption of a

settled lifestyle, Turks never abandoned animal husbandry.

When we look at the food culture of Mongolian and Turkic tribes, we see that they have

benefited from the same soil’s blessings. While it is another issue whether Mongolians

are Turks or not, we can say that both tribes had similar geographical circumstances and

106 Hamit Zübeyir Koşay, “Eski Türklerin Ana Yurdu ve Yemek Adları,” Türk Mutfağı Sempozyumu Bildirileri. (31 Ekim – 1 Kasım) (Ankara: Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı, Ankara Üniversitesi Basımevi, 1982), p. 48. 107 Mehmet Alpargu, “Turkish Cuisine in Inner Asia up until the 12th Century,” Turkish Cuisine ed. Arif Bilgin, Özge Samancı, trans. ed. Cumhur Orancı (Ankara: Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2008), p. 17. 108 R.Tannahill, op.cit.

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carried similar cultural elements. In the 13th century, Marco Polo described that nomadic

people of Central Asia consumed kumis (kımız), dried milk-type product (probably

kurut) and also horsemeat. Another interesting fact that Marco Polo generated was that

every Mongolian horse rider pierced a vein of his horse and drank the blood; so they

could sustain themselves by drinking blood and ride quite ten days' march.109 Since the

time of the Huns, horses were the most important breed including sheep, goats, camel

and cattle. The general perception in terms of pork consumption is that Turks have not

been eating or raising pigs. Today we can explain this with religious concerns, but there

are a lot of theories why Turks had not eaten pork during the pre-Islamic period. There

have been some arguments about the reasons, such as pork being too fatty, pigs eating

everything without any elimination or totemic beliefs. However, in 1922, Otto Antonius

had a very different approach and he explained the reason of pigs not being eaten with

the hatred of nomad people to settled ones. Antonius’s notion is cited by Gidi Yahalom

as follows:

“Let us look at one piece of evidence, the absence of pigs with the

nomads. The pig, as opposed to other mammals, cannot travel long

distances to pasture. Therefore, its existence in the livestock of some

tribes testifies that they are sedentary. Nomads, real herdsmen, never

raised pigs. Because they saw themselves as superior to sedentary tribes,

they also scorned the pig as a domestic animal of such people. As a result

they rejected the pig itself and declared it to be impure. Herodotus

described such a situation with relation to the Scythians. But this

phenomenon is well known especially among shepherds who were

nomads, Semitic and Hamitic. Those tribes overlaid a religious

framework onto their relation to the pig, even when the nomads became

109 Cited by R.Tannahill, op.cit. p.122.

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sedentary themselves […]. The religious prohibition on eating pork is a

result of the nomads’ loathing of sedentary farmers.”110

Considering the geography of Central Asia, we cannot say that Antonius is not right. It is

comprehensible why the tribes, who lived on animal husbandry, have not eaten pork

despite all the famine. After Islam declared pork as illicit, it could not find a way into the

cuisine of Turkic tribes and it is obvious why pork and its offal have never been

mentioned. Central Asian Turks preferred sheep, goat, cattle and horse to meet their

need of animal food products. Certainly, it would not be accurate to speak for all Turks.

There are some Turkic people who eat pork, such as the Gagauz, Christian Turks in

China and Orthodox Turks in Istanbul.

Apart from the meat, their food generally consisted of wheat flour products, milk and

dairy products including kumis made from fermented mare’s milk. The names of several

dishes they created are living in our current language, in the Urals, Central Asia and

Anatolia.111

The great 11th century Turkish writers Yusuf Has Hacib and Kaşgarlı Mahmud gave us

very detailed information on Turkish cuisine of the time. Kaşgarlı introduces us to the

11th century Turkish cuisine, and also provides partly detailed information on various

dishes and their preparation. Except for the dishes cooked with different grains, food

made with vegetables has almost never been seen.112 Reşat Genç benefited from Yusuf

Has Hacip and Kaşgarlı Mahmud’s studies in his work.113 As Kaşgarlı noted, one of

Turks’ favorite meat was this fatty meat gotten from horse’s belly. On the other hand,

fresh fatted lamb was also held in great esteem. We know that what the Oghuz called

lamb and kid suitable for making kebab is söklünçü.

110 Gidi Yahalom, “The Pig’s Testimony”, Antiguo Oriente Volume 5 (2007): 195-204. http://www.sandiegojewishworld.com/2008-SDJW/20080323-Antigue%20Oriente.pdf 111 H. Z. Koşay, op.cit. p.47. 112 Reşat Genç, “XI. Yüzyıl’da Türk Mutfağı,” Türk Mutfağı Sempozyumu Bildirileri,(31 Ekim – 1 Kasım) (Ankara: Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı, Ankara Üniversitesi Basımevi, 1982), p. 60. 113 ibid.

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Besides consuming freshly, the meat was also being preserved by freezing or sun-

drying. Turks were calling the dry meat kak et, which is still a valid use in Turkish.

Moreover, the meat was being preserved as pastırma, and it was called yazok et.

Kaşgarlı often mentions offal and dishes made of offal. A sausage type foodstuff called

soktu was stuffed intestine prepared with a mixture of meat with black pepper and other

spices. Kaşgarlı mentions also a dish called sımsımrak:

“The cooked head was chopped, and then put into the casserole with

spices and sour yogurt. It is kept for a while and then eaten.”114

Another fact we learn from Kaşgarlı is that mustard and vinegar are added to the liver

while cooking, for it to be well cooked. Additionally, we also learn from the same

source that Turks cooked trotter soup (paça çorbası). There was a type of bumbar

dolması stuffed with meat and spices, and an offal dish called yörgemeç. According to

that, tripe and intestine are finely chopped up, stuffed into an intestine and then fried.

Kaşgarlı states that, animal’s brain was very valuable during the 11th century. Turks used

to serve the brain to their guests when they slaughtered a sheep. When serving guests,

the distribution of meat follows a particular ceremony, the basis of which is “honor”.

This tradition is still strong today among the Kirghiz people as it was shown by S. M.

Abramzon.115 In Kirghiz food culture, the most honorable part of the animal is head. On

the other hand, kidneys, which are not honored, are considered equivalent to other tasty

parts of the animal. The degree of “honor” of one or another part of the meat depends on

whether it is mutton or horsemeat. In addition, the pieces considered honorable for men,

114 ibid. 115 S.M. Abramzon, “Kırgızlar’da Yemek Kültürü,” Türk Mutfak Kültürü Üzerine Araştırmalar (Ankara: THKATV Yayınları, 1997), p. 22.

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are not given to women.116 In Kirghiz culinary culture, horse meat is held in high esteem

and is very common. Boiled mutton is the most popular of the meat dishes. Sheep lungs

boiled in water, milk and butter, is known as kuygan, öpkö or olobo. Horse meat sausage

or cucuk made with meat and caul fat, is considered to be one of the most delicious

dishes.117

Bahaddin Ögel, the author of Türk Kültür Tarihine Giriş (Introduction to Turkish

Cultural History), gives detailed information about the use of offal in ancient Turkic

cuisine.118 According to him, there were several kinds of stuffed intestine dishes

(bağırsak dolması) in Central Asian Turkish cuisine in the 11th century. The main one

was soktu, which is stuffed large intestine. Its name comes from the verb “sokmak”,

which means “putting in, stuffing”. Also there is another bağırsak dolması named sogut,

this one has rice in addition to other ingredients. It should be mentioned this is the first

written information about Turkish bumbar with rice (sogut). This kind of dolma in

today’s Central Asia is called sokta. According to Ögel yörgemeç was not a kind of

dolma (stuffed), but it was a dolama (rolled). According to this, it can be argued that

Uighurs used the term yörgemek for both wrapping and covering. Brockelmann, who

wrote an important book in 1928 by referring to the Divan-ü Lügati’t Türk, says that

yörgemeç is a kind of dolma made from the intestine of the animal.119 Göden bumbarı,

which means “large intestine” is a saying more likely encountered in old Anatolian

books. Those facts show us that Turks were very informed about stuffed intestine dishes

(bağırsak dolması and bumbarı). Plus, there were a lot of sausage types with different

names.120 While Altay Turks had a blood filled sausage named sokta, Kirghiz Turks had

a sausage called bıcı, but there was another version of it that is differentiated with its

116 Kâmil Toygar, Nimet Berkok Toygar,“Notes on Kazakh Culinary Culture”. http://www.turkish-cuisine.org/english/pages.php?ParentID=3&FirstLevel=19 117 Kâmil Toygar, Nimet Berkok Toygar, “Food Culture Among the Kırghız,”Türk Mutfak Kültürü Üzerine Araştırmalar (Ankara: THKATV Yayınları, 1997), p.21. 118 Bahaeddin Ögel, Türklerde Yemek ve Beslenme Kültürü (Türk Kültür Tarihine Giriş), IV.Cilt,(Ankara: Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları/638, Kültür Eserleri Dizisi/46, 1991). 119 Cited by, ibid. p. 328. 120 ibid.

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preparation method. While one of them used to be made by blending meat, rice and

flour; the other one would be prepared by filling the intestine with brain, tail fat and

blood. We do not know whether these sausages were eaten cooked or dried. On the other

hand, horse sausage has an important place among Ancient Turks. Horse sausage was

being consumed with boiled foodstuff, for it was too fatty. This fat in question used to

be called kelde or kelle. We also know that the Kirghiz makes a sausage called tay

cucugu (colt sausage). Again, Ögel states that sausage was called irişki or ilişki in

Anatolia.121

Brain was one of the most valuable foodstuffs in Central Asia, just as it is today. When

Kaşgarlı says Er Mengiledi while talking about the brain, he meant “the man ate the

brain”. He explains liver with the word öpke, of which the root is öfke as he claimed,

meaning rage. When people said öpke tangızdı, it meant “liver is cooked”. Tangızmak

also meant “getting angry with someone”. For example; er öpkesinden tangızdımeant

“he is bursting with anger”. Braised liver dish also existed in ancient Turkic cuisine. The

idioms “braising of liver”, “braising of heart”122 were the ways of both expressing

sadness and referring to kebab back then, just like today.123

The word işkembe (tripe) is derived from the Persian words şikanbe/işkanbe.124 In

Anatolia, tripe has different names such as avluk, gözlüce, kırkbayır, kibe, öden, tumbuş

and karın in Central Asia.125 Actually, it is not a food name in other Turkish cultures.

According to Ögel, tripe soup is an Istanbul originated dish; however we do not come

across this information in any other source. The word paça (trotter) also comes from

Persian just like işkembe.126 Ögel emphasizes that Turks were making trotter since old

121 ibid. p. 395. 122 Ciğer ve yüreğin kavrulması. 123 B.Ögel, op.cit. p. 333. 124 Sevan Nişanyan, “Nişanyan Dictionary”. http://www.nisanyansozluk.com/?k=i%C5%9Fkembe 125 B.Ögel, op.cit. p. 344. 126 ibid. p.343.

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times. Even though he does not give many details, he mentions Kaşgarlı’s explanationof

topuk sünğük; that it was a dish made of trotter.127

Culinary habits of Central Asian Turks were mostly transferred to Anatolia too; such as

consuming pastırma, sucuk (spiced sausage), yufka (phyllo dough), meat and offal.

Among these examples, cured meat such as pastırma and sucuk are also Turkish foods,

which were created as a necessity of nomadic lifestyle. As these foods were kept for an

extremely long time, they were exceptionally well fitted to nomadic lifestyle. Today,

when slaughtering a sheep, all parts of the animal are cooked, such as head, feet and

even stomach. In addition to sheep head, the Oghuz tribes also cooked horse heads.

Popular Turkish dishes such as tripe soup, feet, and head are also ancient dishes

originated from Central Asian Turkic culinary culture. As these nomadic tribes survived

with animal husbandry, they became experts in using every part of the animal.128

In Kazakh Cuisine, the most important dish, which reflects their hospitality, was

konakaşı, in other words “guest food”. The custom of accepting a guest who has come

for any reason, seating them at place of honor at home and serving konakaşı dates back

to the 7th - 10th centuries. The tradition is mentioned in several Kazakh stories and

legends.129 According to the tradition, the konakaşı dish that contains animal’s head and

thigh bone, its ribs and a marrow bone, used to be served to guests. This tradition has

continued uninterrupted, and is being practiced in the same way at feasts today. Even

today, the most valuable animals for Kazakhs, who have adopted a semi-nomadic

lifestyle, are horses, sheep and camels. However, the most valued one is the horse.

Like other Turkish tribes in Central Asia, the main element behind the Turkmen culinary

habits is the centuries-old nomadic steppe culture. Ceremonial dishes hold an important

127 ibid. pp. 377-379. 128 Orhan Şaik Gökyay, Dedem Korkudun Kitabı, (İstanbul: Milli Eğitim Basımevi, 1973). 129 KâmilToygar, Nimet Berkok Toygar, “Notes on Kazakh Culinary Culture”. http://www.turkishcusine.org/pages.php?ParentID=3&FirstLevel=19&SecondLevel=121

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place within Turkmen cooking. The main celebrations are for births, the baby’s first

haircut, bridal ceremonies and weddings.130

Katıklaş, or simmered meat, is the main dish among the dishes prepared for the

celebration. The dish contains a small amount of rice. For braised meat (kurma or

kavurma), meat is cubed and cooked in its own fat and eaten with bread. The cooked

kurma is stored either in a clay vessel or in a sheep’s stomach (karın). When kavurma is

placed inside karın, it can be kept without getting spoiled for long periods of time.131

There is also a well-known dish, which is called Kelleba Şayak Gaynatması, it is a soup,

and contains head and feet of a sheep with cow’s head and tripe. It is recommended to

eat this soup once per month to keep one’s bones strong. This dish is still available in

Turkmen cuisine.

According to a current research, the offal consumption still holds an important place in

the cuisine of Central Asian Turks. A master thesis written about the culinary

consumption patterns of the students originated from Turkic Republican States, gives us

the opportunity to understand the food culture of today’s Turkic Republics.132 In this

study, eating habits of the students and their families that come from five different

countries (Azerbaijan, Kazakhistan, Kirghizistan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan) were

examined and it is determined that offal is being consumed very often and in various

styles. When compared to each other; while the consumption differences of liver, lungs,

heart, spleen, head, brain and trotter among the five countries have been considered

significant; kidneys’ consumption rate difference has been found irrelevant. None of the

130 ibid. 131 ibid. 132 Dilek Kaplan, “Ankara Üniversitesi’ne Türk Cumhuriyetlerinden Gelen Öğrencilerin Ülkelerine Ait Mutfak Kültürü Değerlendirmeleri”, Unpublished Master Thesis. http://acikarsiv.ankara.edu.tr/browse/2693/

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participating Uzbek families consume tripe or brain.133 This study further illustrates that

traditions have lived on in Central Asia.

When one talks about Central Asia; Seljuks, who literally opened the gates of Anatolia

to Turks, should not be forgotten. Seljuks carried the habits of Central Asian Turks to

Anatolia left their legacy in Anatolia. Seljuk period is a turning point in terms of Turkish

and Islamic history.134 Haşim Şahin, in his article named Cuisine During Turkish Seljuks

and Principalities Eras classifies Seljuk cuisine under two main sections; animal

products such as meat and milk that came from the nomadic tradition and agricultural

products, which were the result of sedentary lifestyle. Almost every household had

horses. Flocks of sheep were kept for sustaining the palace kitchen. Sheep, goats, cattle

as well as horses were the basic parts of their dietary traditions. Meat was a food

consumed almost every day. Kebab is the most common way to cook. Also there are

some shops that serve specific dishes such as the soup shop that serves only the head and

foot.135

The culinary culture of Seljuk era can also be studied over literary sources. Mevlana

Celaleddin Rumi’s Mesnevi and Yunus Emre’s Divan offer valuable information about

the kinds of food consumed in Seljuk period. Offal was mentioned in Mevlana’s

Mesnevi and Divan-ı Kebir as Müjgan Cunbur points out. The head cooked with liver

kebab and liver kalye are the other kinds of offal dishes mentioned in the sources.

Müjgan Cunbur says that today’s kalye made with minced meat is the same meal as liver

kalye only with different ingredients.136 Another important work about Mevlevi cuisine

133 ibid.p.116. 134 M. Zeki Oral, “Foods and Breads of the Seljuk Period” Yemek Kitabı,(İstanbul: Kitabevi Yayınları, 2002), p.18. 135 H.Şahin, op.cit. pp. 39-55. 136 Müjgan Cunbur, “Mevlana’nın Mesnevi’sinde ve Divan’da Yemekler”, Türk Mutfağı Sempozyumu Bildirileri, (Ankara: Ankara Üniversitesi Basımevi, 1982), pp. 69-81.

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by Nevin Halıcı, gives detailed recipes of the offal such as head kebab, tripe soup, trotter

and liver kalye.137

Mevlana describes it as follows: “Buram Buram tüten, burcu burcu aşk kokan ciğer

kanlarından lutfet de gönül ehline bir kalye ihsan et”.138 Head and feet of the butchered

animal were especially used in the preparation of soups. Eflaki wrote that Şemsi Tebrizi,

a close friend of Mevlana, went most frequently to the head and trotter soup shop.

Mevlana also ate sheep head and trotter soup, preferred not to believe it would cause

him any harm. Another offal dish consumed in the Seljuk period was tirit. It was

prepared by adding bread chunks to the trotter soup; it was fairly popular in this

period.139

“Pişmiş baş satanların dükkanlarında olduğu gibi sayısız başlarla

yürekler, önünde onun; o başların içinde bir baş buldum ben.”140

We understand that cooked head was a dish that used to be sold in shops by these verses.

Offal in Ottoman Culinary Culture

The meat based culinary culture that has been developed in the steppes of Central Asia,

naturally continued after Turks migrated to Anatolia during the Seljuk era and also in the

Ottoman period. The Ottoman era represents a period of time, during which the culinary

137 Nevin Halıcı, Mevlevi Mutfağı, (İstanbul: Metro Kültür Yayınları, 2007). 138 “Bestow this connoisseur of soul a kalye made of relishing liver bloods”(Divan-ı Kebir C.I, 2823 Beyit). 139 N. Halıcı, op.cit. p.112. 140 “Infinite heads and hearts before him as at the shops in which cooked heads are sold; I have found a head in those heads.” (Divan-ı Kebir C.IV, 186 Beyit).

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culture has reached a high level of sophistication. The fact that the Ottoman Empire

spread over three continents and hosted people with vastly different traditions naturally

resulted in intense cultural exchange.141 Habits inherited from Central Asia, the

influence of medieval Arabic and Persian cuisine and acquaintance with Anatolian

staples were seen as main factors contributing to the formation of the Ottoman cuisine.

We should note that defining Ottoman cuisine is difficult, because it is hard to talk about

one cuisine embracing all territories of the empire. However, it is possible to define the

Ottoman Palace cuisine, which reflects the culinary habits of the Ottoman elite and

Istanbul.

According to Olcay Cengiz, who explored the Divan poetry in order to study the

Ottoman culinary culture during the 14th and 15th centuries, it can be concluded that the

consumption of offal existed since the early days of the Ottoman Empire. When we look

at the thesis of Cengiz, the kinds of offal cited in 14th-15th centuries Divan literature

were liver buryan, liver, tripe soup, trotter and tripe stew.142 When the early period of

the Ottoman culinary culture is in question, we should also mention a 13th century

Medieval Arab cooking manuscript called Kitabü’t-Tabih that was translated into

Turkish in the 15th century by Ottoman physician Şirvânî who added some new

recipes.143 This manuscript reflects both medieval Arab-Persian cuisine and the classical

Ottoman cuisine as it was cited by the historian Stéphanos Yerasimos.144 The recipe of

sühtur145 or keybâ mentioned in the original volume is a dish prepared with sheep

intestines. In order to prepare this dish:

141 Deniz Gürsoy, Turkish Cuisine in Historical Perspective,(İstanbul: Kitabevi Yayınları, 2004), p. 94. 142 Olcay Cengiz, 14 ve 15. Yüzyıllarda Divan’da Mutfak Kültürü, Unpublished Master Thesis, Sakarya Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, 2010. 143Muhammed Bin Mahmûd S ̧irvânî, 15.Yüzyıl Osmanlı Mutfag ̆ı, Haz. Mustafa Argunşah, Müjgan Çakır,(İstanbul: Gökkubbe Yayınları, 2005). 144 Stefanos Yerasimos, Sultan Sofraları (15. ve 16. Yüzyılda Osmanlı Saray Mutfağı), (İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları, 2002). 145 Muhammed b. El-Kerim, Kitabü’t - Tabih (Abbasi Bağdatından Yemekler, Tatlılar, Çeşniler), trans. Nazlı Pişkin. (İstanbul: Kitap Yayınevi, 2009) pp:109-110. (Sühtur: It was derived from two Persian words, which are suhtû and gîpâ. Suhtûmeans intestine; gîpâ means sausage.)

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“Small intestines of sheep have to be washed with soapy hot water and

then with salty water. Inner parts of the intestines should be colored with

saffron rose water, and then they should be cut in regular pieces in order

to be filled with minced spicy meat. It is sewn up with a linen yarn after

joining the parts together, and closed with a needle of dry wood. It is put

into an earthenware pot together with water, meat and spices. Then it is

put in the tandoor where it is cooked until morning.”146

Another offal recipe called ekari, which means trotter in Arabic, is described also in the

manuscript. Trotters should be cooked for long hours with cumin, coriander, salt, mastic,

cinnamon and chickpeas. Ekari is prepared almost in the same way as it was in today’s

Istanbul cuisine. Another important piece of information in the recipe is that the best

trotter is of lamb or kid. In this book, as discussed in the previous chapters, there were

offal dishes like trotter and stuffed intestine.147

We may be able to have detailed information about the culinary practices of the Ottoman

and especially the elite circles from the imperial kitchens’ registers, book of festivals

(surname) and the traveler’s accounts studied by Ottoman historians. For the classical

period of Ottoman cuisine (15th-17th centuries) we can make some generalizations about

palace dishes in terms of content and taste. They were very different from today’s food

and even from the food of the 19th century.148 As Arif Bilgin states, offal was one of the

favorite food itemsof Central Asian Turks and a distinctive feature of the Ottoman

Palace cuisine up until the last days of the empire. The imperial kitchen registers reveal

the consumption of boiled sheep heads, calves feet, liver, intestines, şirden and tripe in

146 ibid. 147 ibid. 148 Arif Bilgin, “Ottoman Palace Cuisine in the Classical Period,”Turkish Cuisine ed. Arif Bilgin, Özge Samancı, trans. ed. Cumhur Orancı (Ankara: Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2008), p. 86.

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the Ottoman palace.149 Another characteristic of the palace culinary culture was that it

was based on the theory of a close relationship between nutrition and health. A Topkapı

Palace dish list prepared according to the Ottoman medicine inform us that offal dishes

should be eaten in winter time such as trotter and sheep’s head and especially on

Mondays and Wednesdays.150 These dishes that are listed according to the season reflect

the humoral theory that forms the basis of classical Ottoman medicine. It is known that

after the connection between disease and diet was discovered, sick people were

recommended to consume specific foods and drinks in addition to taking medicine since

the ancient times. We can learn the soups, main dishes and desserts that were

recommended to the patients, from Nuran Yıldırım’s work, in which she focused on the

14th and 15th century Turkish medicinal manuscripts. According to those manuscripts,

lamb or yearling trotter helps weak ears; cow trotter cures nose bleeding and trotter

biryan with rice and sumac heals diarrhea.151 These details show that the habit of

consuming the trotter soup (paça çorbası) and offal dishes during illnesses comes from

these ancient times.

We come across offal in sickness and in health. Celebration rituals and feasting tradition

go back to Central Asian era. Since Oghuz Khan, the Seljuk Sultans continued to hold

great feasts. The feast tradition in Central Asian Turkic tribes has remained the same in

the Ottoman period. Big festivities have been arranged for the birth and circumcisions of

Sultans’ children and weddings of Sultans’ daughters and sisters. Fatih the Conqueror’s

sons Bayezid and Sultan Mustafa’s circumcision can be given as the first example. We

can gather information about what were eaten at this circumcision ceremony from the

written sources. The offal dish zırva that took place in that source, made by adding

149 ibid. 150 Nil Sarı, “Osmanlı Sarayında Yemeklerin Mevsimlere Göre Düzenlenmesi ve Devrin Tababetiyle İlişkisi,” Türk Mutfağı Sempozyumu Bildirileri, (Ankara: Ankara Üniversitesi Basımevi, 1982), pp. 243-253. 151 Nuran Yıldırım, “Soups, Main Dishes and Desserts Recommended to Sick People (As represented in 14thand 15th century Turkish Medicinal Manuscripts),” Turkish Cuisine ed. Arif Bilgin, Özge Samancı, trans. ed. Cumhur Orancı (Ankara: Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2008), pp.153-163.

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saffron to sheep feet, was possibly a kind of a stew with cumin.152 However, zırva is also

listed as a stew with cumin under the title of zîrebâ in Tercüme-I Kenzü’l-İştiha153,

which isa dictionary of the culinary terms included in the poem named Kenzü’l İştiba

(Treasure of Appetite) by Iranian poet Şirazi.Even though it is mentioned that the dish is

prepared with lamb meat, in another line it is stated that it is made with pure shank

meat.154 Consequently, it is not certain whether the dish is made with sheep trotter or

shank. It may be assumed that trotter became sheep or lamb feet during the translation.

Another source that we learn what kind of food ingredients were used in the imperial

kitchen between the years of 1464 and 1474 is Turgut and Günay Kut’s article about the

cuisine of Sultan Mehmet II. Some offal such as baş, paça (sheep’s head and trotter),

işkembe-i gav (veal tripe), paça-ı ganem (sheep trotter), revgan-ı paça (trotter fat),

şikembe-i gav (veal tripe) and şirden (the fourth stomach of sheep) were among the offal

purchased for the palace kitchen.155 Şirden dolma was one of the offal dishes consumed

in the palace.156 In terms of the period, another work whichgives information about the

culinary habits during the reign of Fatih, Conqueror, is a medicinal manuscript, Nazm-

üt-tabayi written by Şeyhi. This work dedicated to Murad II, was supposedly translated

from Persian and the offal types mentioned in it are sheep head, sheep brain, sheep

trotter, eye and spleen.157 Probably it is the first time we come across the consumption of

eye and spleen in the Ottoman sources.

During the reign of Sultan Mehmet II, the kitchen accounting books did not only include

the list of ingredients, but also the name of the dishes served to the Sultan. We

152 Günay Kut, “Osmanlı Saray Düğünlerinin Ziyafet Sofraları”, Yemek ve Kültür,19, (2010): 76. 153 Ahmet Cavid, Tercüme-i Kenzü’l-İştihâ, (15.yy’dan Bir Mutfak Sözlüğü) Haz. P. Mary Işın, S. A.Kahraman, (İstanbul: Kitap Yayınevi, 2006). 154 ibid. p.118. 155 Turgut Kut, Günay Kut, “1464- 1474 Saray Muhasebe Defterlerine Göre: Fatih Sultan Mehmet Dönemindeki Yiyecek ve İçecekler”, Yemek ve Kültür, 27, (2012): 49-66. 156 A.Süheyl Ünver, İstanbul Risaleleri, 3.Cilt (İstanbul: İstanbul Büyükşehir Belediyesi Kültür İşleri Daire Başkanlığı, 1995), pp. 90-132. 157 Hasan Ali Yücel, Bir Türk Hekiminin Tıbba Dair Manzum Bir Eseri (Nazm-üt-tabayi), (İstanbul: İstanbul Devlet Basımevi, 1937), pp.16-17.

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understand that a sheep trotter meal was served to the Sultan on the 4th and 5th of June

and July of the year 1469. Most probably because of the two separate cooking styles,

there are two versions for this meal, landuy and zerenduli.158According to Stefanos

Yerasimos, the second of these dishes (zerenduli) is probably the dish that Şirvani calls

zeryudel. Zeryudel is prepared by putting pre-cooked sheep trotter, sheep or chicken

meat, rice, chickpea, almond, apricot and spices inside the sheep tripe. Tripe gets to be

sewn tightly and then boiled in the water.159

The same dish zerenduli appears again at the circumcision ceremonies of Suleiman the

Magnificent’s sons Cihangir and Bayezid in 1539.160 The recipe is explained as “pre-

cooked sheep meat or trotter, onion, coriander, spice and dry zerdali (a kind of apricot)

are filled into sheep tripe, sewn and then boiled in the water” in a manuscript that

describes the feasts given for this occasion.161 It seems that, even seventy years later, the

taste and the cuisine has not changed and the amount of registered offal is undeniably

high. For this reason, it would not be a mistake to call the offal as one of the favorite

dish types of the Sultan during the classical period of the Ottoman palace cuisine.

Evliya Çelebi’s traveler accounts give detailed information about the 17th century’s

Ottoman culinary traditions. Evliya notes that there were 300 trotter shops and 800

workers; and 90 head shops and 500 workers in Istanbul.162 Besides, these are not the

only information we have about the tripe shops in Istanbul, he also tells about Rum shop

owners, regular customers and even the donkeys that carry the tripe. He describes the

regular customers as poor and drunk, and states that they ate tripe and trotter in the early

morning in order to sober up. Offal’s preparation details are also mentioned in his book:

kırkbayır, şirden, döşbaşları and yutak partsremoved from the tripe are cooked in a

158 S.Yerasimos, op.cit. p.28. 159 S.Yerasimos, op.cit. p.28. 160 Semih Tezcan, Bir Ziyafet Defteri, (İstanbul: Simurg, 1998). 161 S.Yerasimos, op.cit. p.36. 162 Marianna Yerasimos, Evliya Çelebi Seyahatnamesinde Yemek Kültürü (Yorumlar ve Sistematik Dizin), (İstanbul: Kitap Yayınevi, 2011), p.113.

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cauldron with a hook and chopped with a knife in order to be served in a bowl. Parsley,

pepper, cinnamon and cloves are sprinkled on it.163

Evliya also tells about the head vendors, which is a separate tradesman type and defines

head trotter as an old dish (ta’am-ı atik). We learn that it was also a dish served to

Prophet Mohammed. Evliya also praises Kütahya’s and Ankara’s trotter.164 He says that

even though tripe and trotter were mentioned as fukara ta’amı (the poor’s dishes) they

were indispensable for all the Ottomans including the dynasty and the palace residents.

According to Marianna Yerasimos, who studied Evliya Çelebi’s Seyahatname with a

systematic index, these soups still exist in the 21st century. This situation can be

explained with the resistance of common sense of taste against changing eating habits.165

Marianna Yerasimos adds as follows:

“There was not any slaughterhouse in the Ottoman Palace, so animals

like lamb, cattle and sheep were sent away for slaughter. In 1674, in that

one year, 3,965,760 sheep, 2,877,400 lambs and 199.900 cattle were sent

for slaughter. The good cuts of the meat would be reserved for the palace,

the Janissary and the wealthy of the city, while the rest such as heads,

trotters, livers and other offal would be sold either raw or cooked at

affordable prices in shops or by the street vendors.”166

We can verify this piece of information with the multitude of head shops. However, we

should not tag them as the unwanted parts. Stefanos Yerasimos has the same assertion

that offal was seen as a nomadic food, ignored in the Ottoman Palace and consumed by

163 ibid. 164 ibid. 165 ibid. 166 Marianna Yerasimos, 500 Years of Ottoman Cuisine, (İstanbul: Boyut Yayınevi, 2007), p. 76.

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common people.167 As Arif Bilgin mentions, offal obtained from animals that were

previously slaughtered by butchers, has been bought to the palace and it has not been

recorded. Therefore, it can be assumed that offal consumption in the palace has been

more than we thought, contrary to the records.168 As a matter of fact, obtaining the offal

such as liver, bumbar and tripe for the palace was the responsibility of Kasabbaşı (head

butcher) who was known to sign the bills for the offal purchasing.169

An Ottoman journal written in the 17th century, by Seyyid Hasan Efendi, known as

Sohbetname170 is a valuable source that informs us about the dishes served to the

members of a religious order of the time. We learn that six to twenty four dishes were

served to the guests. The offal dishes mentioned in the source are: bumbar and

işkembe.171 According to another study made about the 17th century Ottoman elite

culinary practices, head and trotter were listed among the Divan meals served in the

palace. Other kinds of offal such as tripe and kidneys were also served during the feasts.

According to the author, the viziers were not served any special food such as börek with

dil (probably meaning pastry with dil -string- cheese), head, sausage and kidneys.

However, the author did not suggest any proof to validate her claim. During the feast

given ten days before the Feast of Sacrifice, the guests primarily enjoyed trotter with

vinegar, then head and tripe and ended the feast with kidneys and lapa-i paça (pilaf with

trotter). The author suggests that lapa-i paça is a trotter stew. Şirden was served at the

167 ibid. 168 Arif Bilgin, “Refined Tastes in a Refined Place: Eating Habits and the Ottoman Palace During the 15th -17th Centuries,” Turkish Cuisine ed. Arif Bilgin, Özge Samancı, trans. ed. Cumhur Orancı, (Ankara: Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2008), p. 52. 169 Özge Samancı “19. Yüzyılın İkinci Yarısında Osmanlı Elitinin Yeme İçme Alışkanlıkları” (Soframız Nur Hanemiz Mamur, Osmanlı Maddi Kültüründe Yemek ve Barınak) eds.Suraiya Faroqhi, Christoph K.Neumann. (İstanbul: Kitap Yayınevi, 2006), p.185. 170 Orhan Şaik Gökyay, “Sohbetname”, Tarih ve Toplum, (İstanbul: Sayı:14, Cilt3, Şubat 1985), pp. 56-64. 171 A.Ünsal, op.cit. p. 37.

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feast of the palace residents.172 It is understood that offal was still being served in the

17th century feasts and it used to enrich the tables with its variety.

A Persian culinary dictionary, Tercüme-i Kenzü’l-İştiha173 which was translated and

updated by Ahmed Cavid into Turkish in the 18th century, is another source that is useful

in searching offal culture in the Ottoman cuisine. The dictionary provides information

about the dishes mentioned in 15th century poetry, moreover the meals, vendors and

foodstuffs of 18th century Istanbul by the help of Ahmed Cavid. Hence, it involves

information that belongs to both periods. The offal types cited in the dictionary are given

as a table in the appendix.174 The frequency of the use of intestine, and variety of dolma

made with intestine are remarkable. Plus, tripe and liver are mentioned more than once.

According to Orhan Şaik Gökyay, dish names and kitchen terms mentioned in these

poems cannot to be translated into today’s Iranian language, but some of these terms are

still alive in Central Asia. Ayla Algar underlines the Central Asian effect by

emphasizing the large number of pastry and offal meals.175

Parallel to the development and growth of the Ottoman Empire, the palace cuisine also

showed great improvement, and the gathering of the high-ranking palace residents

became one of the most important social activities. The cuisine of the Ottoman Palace,

Istanbul in particular, became richer in the 18th and the 19th centuries.176

According to the kitchen account registers of the Ottoman palace, as well as cookbooks,

the consumption of offal continued in the 19th century Istanbul cuisine. As Samancı,

points out, offal such as head, trotter, liver, tripe, bumbar and şirden were mentioned in

the imperial kitchen registers of the time. For example, 42.364 kg sheep meat, 290 sheep

172 Hedda Reindl-Kiel, “Cennet Taamları 17. Yüzyıl Ortalarında Osmanlı Sarayında Resmi Ziyafetler” (Soframız Nur Hanemiz Mamur, Osmanlı Maddi Kültüründe Yemek ve Barınak) ed. Suraiya Faroqhi, Christoph K. Neumann. (İstanbul: Kitap Yayınevi, 2006), p. 68. 173 A.Cavid, op.cit. 174 See Appendix, Table 1. 175 A.Cavid, op.cit. p.viii (8). 176 Metin Saip Sürücüoğlu, “Kitchen Organization, Ceremonial and Celebratory Meals in the Ottoman Empire”. http://www.turkish-cuisine.org/article_details.php?p_id=19&Pages=Articles

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head, 18,790 trotter, 160 pairs of livers, 74 tripe and 150 bumbar were given to the

Çırağan and Galata palace kitchens in 1832 in two months (from March 4 to the May

1).177 Another offal supply, of which the type and number information was kept, was in

1831. According to that, 675 head, 290 liver, 26 sheep tripe, 600 sheep trotter were

provided and given to the head butcher in exchange for signing the bill papers, in order

him to deliver them to the palace kitchen.178

Offal dishes were mentioned also in the price list (narh) of goods of Istanbul in the 19th

century. “Narh” was a system managed by the authorities, which has regulated the prices

of food and other goods during the Ottoman period. Narh system left its place to İhtisap

Nezareti in 1845.179 For example, in 1835, a pair of water cooked (suda pişmiş) sheep

and goat head costs 28 para, a pair of fire-roasted (ütülenmiş) sheep and goat head costs

4 para, a pair of raw sheep and goat head costs 24 para and a pair of water cooked sheep

and goat trotter costs 6 para.180 We can say that offal demand was so high that it was

mentioned even in the Ottoman price lists. Thus, it can easily be assumed that offal was

consumed often by both the public and the palace in the 19th century.

As Samancı points out during the 19th century, even though new consumption patterns as

well as new eating manners started to be adapted by the Ottoman elite, traditional

culinary practices were continued to be persist. Among the novelties, adoption of new

cooking techniques, use of new kitchen tools and new table manners inspired from

European culinary culture can be enumerated. The American native vegetables such as

tomato, fresh and dried beans and corn were also incorporated in the Ottoman palace

177 Özge Samancı,“19. Yüzyılın İkinci Yarısında Osmanlı Elitinin Yeme İçme Alışkanlıkları”, (Soframız Nur Hanemiz Mamur, Osmanlı Maddi Kültüründe Yemek ve Barınak) eds. Suraiya Faroqhi, Christoph K. Neumann. (İstanbul: Kitap Yayınevi, 2006), p. 185. 178 Özge Samancı, “19. Yüzyıl Osmanlı Saray ve İstanbul Mutfağında Et Tüketimi”, Yemek ve Kültür, 28, (2012): 88-94. 179 M.Zeki, Pakalın,“Osmanlı Tarih Deyimleri ve Terimleri Sözlüğü”, (İstanbul: Milli Eğitim Basımevi, 1983), C.II. 180 Özge Samancı, “1835 Yılına Ait Bir Narh Defterine Göre İstanbul'da Bazı Gıdaların Fiyatları” Yemek ve Kültür, 17, (2009): 56-60.

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cuisine in that time.181 Since the second half of the 19th century, French cuisine is

preferred especially when certain foreign guests were accepted in the palace. Further,

offal dishes prepared in European style were also served to the foreign guests.182

According to the official banquet records in the late Ottoman palace, the dishes

presented on the menus of the banquets arranged between 1914 and 1918, reflect

classical French cuisine of the time. Offal, such as sweetbreads, rooster and goose liver,

were served as entrées to the guests. Another noteworthy piece of information among

the reports about the Ottoman feasts held in French style is the oxtail served inside börek

with the name “Beurek a la financiere” as a (hors d'oeuvre.) This is where we first meet

uykuluk (sweetbreads) in the Ottoman palace kitchen records.183

After the declaration of the second Constitution, the parliament members were invited to

the banquet given by Sultan Abdulhamit II, on December 31, 1908. This feast was

organized at Yıldız Palace and the dinner menu included also an offal dish: “cold hors

d'oeuvre of veal liver paste” (soğuk dana ciğeri ezmesi).184 On May 7, 1911 the menu of

the feast organized for the deputies consisted of fish with mayonnaise, stuffed artichoke

in olive oil (zeytinyağlı enginar dolması), turkey and chicken galantine. Among these

European style dishes; brain soup stands out as the entrée.185 According to another menu

of a banquet given by Sultan Reşat in 1915, tripe soup and egg with tongue were two

kinds of offal dishes presented on the menu.186 We may conclude that, traditional

Ottoman dishes like tripe persisted at the palace official banquets, even though the

European style cuisine became fashionable in the late Ottoman period.

181 Özge Samancı, “The Culinary Culture of the Ottoman Palace & Istanbul During the Last Period of the Empire,” Turkish Cuisine ed. Arif Bilgin Özge Samancı, trans. eds. Cumhur Orancı, (Ankara: Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2008), pp. 199-218. 182 Özge Samancı, “Fransız Üslûbunda Osmanlı Ziyafetleri”, Yemek ve Kültür, 8, (2007): 48-62. 183 ibid. 184 İlhan Eksen, İstanbul’un Tadı Tuzu, Saray Sofralarından Sokak Yemeklerine, (İstanbul: Everest Yayınları, 2008), p. 53. 185 Özge Samancı “19. yy İstanbul Mutfağında Yeni Lezzetler”, Yemek ve Kültür, 6, (2006): 86-96. 186 See Appendix. Figure 3.

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Consequently, offal consumption was supported both by the public and the palace,

especially in Istanbul, the capital city of the empire. We repeatedly come across offal in

the kitchen records of the palace and circumcision ceremony catering lists of sultans’

sons. Tripe diners, head shops and liver shops are the examples to the places in which

people eat when they go out, during the Ottoman period and even today. Foreign

cuisines and various cooking techniques becoming a part of the elite’s culinary did not

cause offal to vanish; but on the contrary we see it on the reception menus fused with

various techniques. Based on these facts, offal has an important place in the cuisine of

the Ottoman Empire that was built over the cultural heritage of the Anatolian

civilizations, Central Asian traditions and Seljuk Empire; and enriched its cultural

treasure by including various cultures to its lands during the expansion period.

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CHAPTER IV

The Consumption of Offal inIstanbul Cuisine

Eating Out: Street Vendors and Restaurants

Eating out, especially out in the street, is a part of our culinary culture since old

times. There are a lot of reasons and styles of eating out and it varies through time.

İlhan Eksen explained why we eat out in his book as follows:

“When one eats out, either he/she does not have a home, or has a place

but no one to cook, or else does not know how to cook. Even if that

person has food at home, it may be difficult for him/her to go home every

time he/she feels hungry or sometimes one can just simply desire a meal

that is not home cooked.”187

Nonetheless, regardless of the reasons above, everyone eats out. This culture has been a

part of our daily lives for thousands of years. Street vendors have existed since the

Byzantine period in Istanbul.188 When we look at the recent past, eating out or having

take-out was an important part of Istanbul’s culinary culture, especially in the 19th

century. Almost every kind of foodstuff, various clothing and narrow goods (tuhafiye)

used to be sold in the street. Water-cooked, singed sheep and goat parts and heads were

among the basic foodstuff that were listed showing the prices determined by Narh and

İhtisap Nezareti as we mentioned before in the first half of the 19th century, in

187 İlhan Eksen, İstanbul’un Tadı Tuzu (Saray Sofralarından Sokak Yemeklerine), (İstanbul: Everest Yayınları, 2008), p. 71. 188 Sula Bozis, İstanbul Lezzeti: İstanbullu Rumların Mutfak Kültürü, (İstanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları, 2000), p. 27.

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Istanbul.189This piece of information is an important clue that offal was very popular in

the 19th century. Reşat Ekrem Koçu portrays the street vendors under the title of ayak

esnafı (street vendors) in İstanbul Ansiklopedisi (the Encyclopaedia of Istanbul) which is

written between the years 1944 – 1971.190 Also, sources related to street foods in late

19th century period are compiled by Özge Samancı.191 According to Koçu, street vendors

are bachelors who came to Istanbul from Anatolia or the other parts of the empire in

order to earn money. British globetrotter Adelaide, who visited Istanbul at the end of the

19th century, states the number of these bachelors as 60.000 – 70.000.192

Kokoreç, head pilaf, liver, söğüş and trotter were the offal types sold in the street in old

Istanbul. The people who sold pilaf cooked with head stock were usually from Karaman

and they were out selling in Galata, Perşembe Pazarı, Yeni Camii and Unkapanı,

especially at night. Those pilaf sellers decorated their containers by sorting heads and

brains and they would draw the customer’s attention by hitting the container’s side with

a spoon.193

The people who sell liver kebab are usually from Albania, Safranbolu or Karaman. They

chop liver and lungs together, spice them with lots of salt and red pepper, and pan fry

them after smearing in flour. They make garnish out of onions and parsley and serve it

on top of the liver. The sellers, who do not mind the challenge, cook the liver after

soaking it in carbonated water. Koçu emphasizes the abundance as such: “I have never

seen anyone with healthy teeth and not eating liver kebab”.194 It became famous as

Arnavut Ciğeri (Albanian Liver), as the sellers’ were originally from Albania. Also,

İlhan Eksen mentions those liver sellers in his book, in which he tells about his Istanbul

memoirs:

189 Özge,Samancı. “1835 Yılına Ait Bir Narh Defterine Göre İstanbul'da Bazı Gıdaların Fiyatları”, Yemek ve Kültür, 17, (2009): 56-60. 190 R.E.Koçu, op.cit. 191 Özge,Samancı. “19. Yüzyıl Sonlarında İstanbul Sokak Lezzetleri” Yemek ve Kültür, 21, (2010): 66-74. 192 Quoted in Marie Adelaide Walker, “Seyahatnamelerden seçmeler 3: Pera’da Sokak Satıcıları”,(trans). Aslı Kutay, Yemek ve Kültür, 11, (2008): 139. 193 R.E.Koçu, op.cit. p.1414. 194 ibid.

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“While hundreds of street kebab sellers are walking in the districts and

spreading the smell of burned oil, meat and chicken; liver kebab seller is

coming up from the other corner with his glass container that looks like a

lantern loaded with chopped liver pieces and potato chips.”195

Another source, in which Istanbul tradesmen were told, is İstanbul’un 100 Esnafı (100

Tradesmen of Istanbul). It is mentioned that families of Albanian origin continue to

practice liver selling as a profession. This tradition continues in families from fathers to

their sons. There are still some people who sell ekmek arası ciğer (liver sandwich) in

some neighborhoods and coffeehouses in Istanbul.196

Kokoreç or söğüş kuzu kelle sellers are the other options for the food that can be

obtained from the street vendors. The name kokoreç etymologically comes from

kokorótsi,197 which means corncob in Greek and Albanian dialects; and it must have

been given that name due to its wrapping shape. The word kokoreç is also mentioned in

Turkish Literature is when Ömer Seyfettin wrote the story Lokanta Esrarı; kokoreç is on

the menu of a diner owned by a Rum. Ironically, today it is the most well-known offal

sold in the street, there are not any information proving that kokoreç was sold in the

street in the Ottoman period. However without being able to tell the date, it is possible to

say that it came from Greece and became a part of culinary cultures of the cities like

Istanbul and Izmir. Additionally, there is a kebab type called pencevüş and Stéphanos

Yerasimos confirms that pencevüş kebab, which is in the narh books of the 17th century,

can be considered as the ancestor of today’s lamb intestine wrap (kokoreç). It was yarım

zira long (it means half market ell - yarım çarşı arşını, about 32-33 cm) and weighs 3

skewers much. Ciğer kebap (liver kebab) consisting of 40 small pieces, was sold at the

price of 1 akçe, as pencevüş kebab, the ancestor of today’s kokoreç, was sold at the price

195 İ.Eksen, op.cit, p.121. 196 Uğur Aktaş, İstanbul’un 100 Esnafı (İstanbul: Kültür A.Ş.,2010), p. 54. 197 Sevan Nişanyan, “Nişanyan Dictionary” http://nisanyansozluk.com/?k=kokoreç

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of 1 akçe as well.198 However, when I deeply searched the word pencevüş, penceviş,

there appeared to be various meanings, such as liver, intestine of sheep or goat, a type of

bumbar dolması and the fats around the intestine. We do not have definite information to

determine the connection between kokoreç and pencevüş kebabı, so it probably would

not be appropriate to claim that pencevüş kebab is the ancestor of kokoreç.199

Kokoreç sold in the street, is cooked in specially made barbecue counters with coal fire.

It is usually consumed as ekmek arası (in a bun), because it is eaten as fast food.

Skewers are horizontally positioned hanging over the barbecue and grilled by rotating on

the spit. After grilling, they are taken in slices, spiced up and chopped medium sized. It

is served by diced tomato with long green pepper, cumin, thyme and chili red pepper

flakes. True enthusiasts do not want to change its taste and texture with tomato and

pepper; they just sprinkle some cumin over cleaver minced kokoreç and enjoy

themselves. In the last ten years, due to the increase in demand, kokoreç market has

occurred. You may struggle finding appropriate intestines for kokoreç if you want to

make it yourself or serve it at your restaurant. As it will be covered in the “restaurants”

section, restaurants that have branches like Şampiyon and Mercan are monopolizing the

market. Wrapped in roll shape, frozen and ready to be cooked, kokoreç can be obtained

from liver shops that sell offal. Mobile kokoreç sellers usually prefer those kinds of

frozen kokoreç.

Last but not least, mobile söğüş kelle sellers must be mentioned as street vendors. As far

as I have viewed, there are two söğüş places, one in Dolapdere and one in Ömer

Hayyam hill. They separate boiled lamb and sheep heads from their brains, tongues and

meats and present them in the window display accompanied by spices and pide (pitta) or

bread hot from the oven. It is usually served as pide arası (pitta sandwich) or just plain

198 S.Yerasimos, opc.cit. p.49. 199 Türkiye Halk Ağzından Derleme Sözlüğü. http://www.tdk.gov.tr/index.php?option=com_ttas&view=ttas&kategori1=derlay&kelime1=pençeviş

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head meat without the brain, adding cumin and thyme if requested and sometimes with

chili red pepper flakes.

Today, mobile food sellers (street vendors) are still a part of Istanbul culture. Even

though a lot of tradesmen branches that Reşat Ekrem Koçu stated do not exist anymore,

they somehow survive; such as selling kokoreç, chestnut, simit (Turkish bagel), pilaf

with chickpeas and stuffed mussels.

Apart from the street vendors, offal was very popular at soup kitchens that later became

tradesman diners like soup diners and kebab places. In old Istanbul, other than the kebab

places that served every kind of kebab; head, trotter and tripe shops tried to resist against

time and survive, but only tripe and some trotter places managed that; however only to

struggle with the fast food mania.

Trotter is a well-respected meal in Istanbul cuisine. This is why a gate of Mısır Çarşısı

(Egyptian Bazaar or Spice Bazaar) is called Paçacılar Kapısı (Trotterers Gate).200 Evliya

notes that there were 300 trotter shops and 800 workers; and 90 head shops and 500

workers in the 17th century, as mentioned before.201 Trotter shops are also known as

head trotter shops today. Those shabby diners used to exist in every neighborhood and

students and local tradesmen were the regulars. Apart from those, usuallysick people

preferred to eat them for quick recovery. Today, those still exist, maybe not in every

corner, but in the busiest central districts. Generally speaking, we can also find other

meals in head-trotter places as in tripe restaurants. Except the soup version, lamb or

sheep heads are usually boiled until the meat comes off the bones. This type of head is

called kelle söğüş. Roasted ones are served as pişmiş kelle (cooked head). It can also be

sold as just head meat, kelle eti. When cooked head is ordered, usually eyes, brain,

tongue and somak (face) comes with, so even if they are just samples, tasting them is

satisfying and eating with hands is appropriate. Moreover, there is a well-known proverb

200 Nilgün Tatlu, İstanbul’un 100 Lezzeti, (İstanbul: Kültür A.Ş.,2010), p.32. 201 Marianna Yerasimos, Evliya Çelebi Seyahatnamesinde Yemek Kültürü (Yorumlar ve Sistematik Dizin), (İstanbul: Kitap Yayınevi, 2011) p.113.

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about it: “Tavuk, balık, kelle; bunlar yenir elle!” It means “Chicken, fish, heads; eat

them with your hands!” At these restaurants, it is possible to eat brain salad, liver or

zerde as dessert beside head trotter. Today, you can find tripe at the trotter places that

could survive most likely due to demand. However, it is a possibility that you will get

bizarre looks if you ask for tripe soup when in a trotter place.

Even thoughtripe and head-trotter shop owners seem like they are in the same field of

profession, hostile manners can be viewed from time to time and for this reason

requesting tripe soup at a trotter place might not be well-received; though this situation

cannot be generalized. Trotter soup (some categorize it as a stew meal not soup) is

known as patik in the tradesmen jargon. Especially regulars order the trotter soup calling

it patik. It can both be served with head or as just plain trotter soup. In the mixed version

(with head) all parts of the head (brain, tongue and cheeks) are served shredded inside

the soup unless demanded otherwise. Plus, there is another version called Beykoz Paçası

that we often come across in cookbooks. Beykoz style paça, introduced by a Greek chef

Eftim Usta, became popular in the 1900’s.202 The owner of Tolon İşkembe, who took

over the restaurant from Eftim Usta tells about him and the Beykoz trotter in a

newspaper as follows:

“Eftim Usta (the master) had lived in the early 1900s and his reputation

had reached everywhere, even to the palace. Abdülhamit would bring the

trotter especially from Beykoz and he would want it to be made by Eftim

Usta. In that period, trotter soup would be cooked using the feet of goats

that feed on Beykoz meadows. The soup was more delicious, because the

goats were raised in their natural habitat. Eftim Usta had to leave Turkey

202 İ.Eksen, op.cit, p. 96.

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in 1933 and left his meatball place to my grandfather.”203

When soup is mentioned in Istanbul, İşkembeciler204 comes to mind. İşkembe shops have

always been affordable options. İşkembe soup was very popular among Istanbulites, who

were fasting throughout Ramadan month in old times. Moreover, people used to go to

İşkembeci (tripe diners) with their own bowls and spend a lot of time waiting for this

soup.205

Evliya Çelebi tells the preparation of tripe soup in the 17th century Istanbul in a detailed

manner:

“Kırkbayır, şirden, döşbaşları and yutak parts removed from the tripe

were cooked in a cauldron with a hook and then chopped with a knife

before putting in a bowl. Parsley, pepper, cinnamon and cloves are

sprinkled on it before it is served.”206

Obviously, nothing has changed since that time. In Istanbul, it is really great to find an

işkembeci in the middle of the night for the people coming from work or a night out, for

it is a city that never sleeps. Also, it is considered a great final to the night and it is a part

of our food culture.

Now at these restaurants, pilaf, lamb head, brain salad and kokoreç are being served as

well; and zerde is the dessert choice. Trotter soup is not found in every işkembe shop.

Tripe places are shabby as other tradesmen shops or restaurants. Some perceive them as

203 Hürriyet Newspaper Article, Kırığa Çıkığa Paça, (1999)http://arama.hurriyet.com.tr/arsivnews.aspx?id=-73800 204 Places where you can eat tripe soup. 205 İ.Eksen, op.cit, p. 95. 206 Marianna Yerasimos, Evliya Çelebi Seyahatnamesinde Yemek Kültürü (Yorumlar ve Sistematik Dizin), (İstanbul: Kitap Yayınevi, 2011) p.133.

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in men’s world due to its being tradesmen places. One of the first restaurants that

cracked this prejudice is Lale İşkembecisi, which is also the first restaurant that comes to

mind when tripe soup is the case. For the first time in 1960, a modern tripe restaurant

Lale İşkembecisi was opened; totally contrast to the smelly and ordinary places, where

tripe soup and offal were served in old times. Lale Restaurant has become popular,

located near Club Reşat, the most well-known night club of that period. Elite people

coming from night clubs were eating tripe soup at nights.207

Old and smelly işkembeciler have their specific rituals and special characteristics. The

cooks were chopping cooked intestines into small and big pieces at the entrance of the

shop. While chopping the intestines with a rhythmic music, waiters were in harmony

with them in shouting the orders. They use a special jargon. For kokoreç order, they say

“kes biiiiir” (cut one!), for a lamb head “yarım ayıkla” (bone a half!), and for tripe soup

“şirdenden bir tuzlama çek, sarımsağı sirkesi bol olsun” (fetch one tuzlama from şirden

with lots of garlic and vinegar!).

Georgi P. Kostandov, who maintained the tripe business, the legacy of his family, at

Mahmutpaşa hill between the years 1951 – 1964, collected his memoirs in a book. He

tells about the tripe places in detail as follows:

“Today’s ovens and equipment are safe, but it was not easy to control the

flames, the smoke and the potential risks they could cause with the

circumstances in the 1950’s. For those reasons, işkembecilik was a hard

profession at that time. Difficulty aside, it was a profession that could not

excuse distraction. Every tripe place used to have a staff called kalfa and

they would obtain the needed offal from the slaughterhouse and make the

tripe processed in hot water cauldrons and get them to the shop. The offal

207 İ.Eksen, op.cit, p. 95.

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used to be transported with carriages before pick-up trucks.The tripe

would be kept in 70-75 Celsius degree cauldrons; its outer fats would be

peeled off and put into clean water pool. When making the soup, the

fourth section of the animal’s stomach, şirden and wrapped intestines

would be cooked in the cauldron too, alongside the tripe. Ten veal tripe

and eighty koyun takımı (sheep set) can be cooked in 150 liters of water

at once. Tripe soup only could be served after the fats and foams were

taken and cooked in three steps. Vinegar with garlic or just lemon would

add taste to it. Our shop, which served kelle tandır (head tandoori)

alongside with the tripe soup, would finish up the work at 4:30pm and

start the preparation for the next day. This was our routine until my father

passed away in 1964.”208

Tripe soup has its own jargon and types. Tuzlama means minced in big chunks.

Damardan or Damar tuzlama specifies supposedly the best part of the tripe, which is

thick. Other than that, there are middle and slim chunk options that are minced with

cleaver. The fourth section (şirden) of the stomach is used to make the soup. Sometimes

just saying “şirden” is enough to tell that you want şirden tripe soup. Some regulars

praise being mysterious and just say “ondan”, meaning “that one” as a code and order

the soup like that.

Nowadays, the number of traditional işkembe, paça restaurants are decreasing and the

rest is changing their styles. Today, cauldrons are not placed in the entrance anymore;

they are taken inside. Therefore the smelly atmosphere is gone. In addition, since the

profit of işkembe, kelle and paça is not enough, it is possible to see kebab and grilled

dished on the menus. Due to the increasing population of Istanbul as a result of

migration, the food demands are changing according to the regional habits. On the other

208 G.P.Kostandov, op.cit, p.267

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hand, the offal fans do not give up and they go to Dolapdere, Şehremini, Balat or Fatih

regions to find traditional işkembe soup.

Beside işkembeci places, there are also well-known kokoreç restaurants like Şampiyon

and Mercan. These restaurants started to be popular with the 1990’s. When preparing

kokoreç, lamb intestines are the main ingredients and often it is made by wrapping

seasoned offal including sweetbreads and other fatty parts. There are several ways of

serving it. It is usually served as a sandwich in form of yarım ekmek kokoreç (half-

bread) or çeyrek ekmek kokoreç (quarter-bread). It may also be served without bread, on

a plate, as a normal dish.

Before the kokoreç chains like Şampiyon and Mercan, kokoreç was a specialty of tripe

diners. A Bulgarian of Macedonian origin Georgi P. Kostandov not only tells us about

the tradesmen of Istanbul in the 1950’s, but also conveys the preparation methods of

other meals on their menus like head and kokoreç in his book, in which he tells about

tripe as a family business.

“First, all the fatty intestines that are chosen specially as slim and middle

types would be cut all the way down with a sharp and thin knife with a

little cotton wrapped around on the tip and then washed in a water pool.

Afterwards, sweetbreads would be attached all the way down to the wide

tipped slim skewer with rings, which was used for kokoreç, and then 7-8

fatty intestines would be put into the rings in a position that would cover

the sweetbreads. Lastly, vertically positioned skewer is turned around

itself, so the material around with the skewer would be wrapped with the

small intestine. The wrapping action would continue until the skewer

reached the ideal thickness. Raw kokoreç’s ideal thickness is of 11-12 cm

maximum caliber. Kokoreç used to be cooked in tandoori and the

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sweetbreads and fatty intestines that were placed in the middle section

would prevent kokoreç to dry up and give extra taste to it.”209

As Kostandov tells us, unfortunately kokoreç is not being prepared as it used to be. It too

became a victim of consumption society, surrendered to cheap ingredients and started to

be wrapped with tripe’s leftover fats when intestines are not fatty enough. In

sweetbreads’ case, they are not even used anymore in kokoreç.

Even though it is not as common as kokoreç, some say its taste resembles kokoreç and it

is one of meals that come to mind when offal is the case. Moreover, Sütlüce is the first

thing that comes to mind when the subject is sweetbreads. It is a district still famous

with its shops that sell sweetbreads. Even if it is not like its glorious days back then,

sweetbreads enthusiasts still go there. The reason sweetbreads exist in Sütlüce is that the

slaughterhouse was located there back then. The offal of slaughtered animal used to be

transported freshly by small boats through Haliç, so Sütlüce district became a little trade

center. In time, mobile tradesmen occurred and the slaughterhouse was not only a place

that animals were slaughtered anymore, it became a place that tradesmen earned their

lives. Sweetbreads places’ fame continued until Sütlüce Slaughterhouse was closed.

Restaurants have been struggling. Today, almost 30 sweetbreads diners and rather rarely

mobile sweetbreads sellers exist at the district. Spring time is the busiest thanks to the

lamb season. In these restaurants, sweetbread is primarily boiled, put into cold water and

then its membrane is peeled off; finally it is cooked on barbecue and served after being

spiced up. You cannot get over 100 grams of sweetbreads from one lamb, so it is said

that some tradesmen choose to do some tricks. Most of the time it is not sweetbreads but

udder that we eat, because it is very difficult to differentiate the taste with all the spices.

I think that this suggestion must not be ignored, because sweetbreads are not available in

209 Georgi P. Kostandov,“Baba Mesleği İşkembeciliğin İncelikleri”, Yemek ve Kültür,26, (2011): 15-25

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every season, a little amount comes out of each animal and it resembles “fat” in terms of

its texture.

Eating at Home

Today’s rhythm suggests a lifestyle, which is almost full of work and does not allow

spare time with the family other than special days. However, home-cooked meal is still a

must for Turkish people. Although this newly introduced way of life pushes the new

generation to eat out, people still generally prefer to eat at home.

In today’s Istanbul cuisine, it is possible to say that domestic offal cooking becomes

forgotten. We can explain this with Istanbul’s changed population structure as a result of

high immigration rate. Additionally, it has been stated that offal is unhygienic by the

authorities. We can validate this piece of information with the interviews made with

offal sellers. Especially Cevdet Sertbakan expressed that they have been having hard

time selling offal because of the idea that offal causes high cholesterol.210Even though

the frequency of domestic offal cooking has been decreasing in Istanbul, we must

remember that it maintains its presence in old districts of the city such as Pangaltı,

Kurtuluş and Balık Pazarı, where mostly Rum and Armenian people reside. We can also

explain this with the fact that liver shops, in which offal is sold, exist more around this

area.

Offal was a foodstuff used in our family kitchen. For this reason, I want to describe the

kitchen of an Istanbul family based on my family story. I grew up in a family where my

great grandfathers were drovers and butchers originated from Çorum, Selanik, Susurluk

and Erzincan. Unfortunately, we do not have detailed information about my drover great

grandfather’s professional experience and his story. However, I consider myself lucky as

our heritage helped us constitute a tradition of having an eye for good meat and having a

210 Interview with Cevdet Sertbakan.

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kitchen where meat and offal are often cooked. I can describe our family as middle class

and also a family that had its share of privation in the past. If we are to portray the dishes

at home; a regular meal starts with soup, continues with a main course with meat chunks

or minced meat, and pilaf or pasta and salad. By meat, I mean sheep, veal, offal or

chicken. Dessert is not always on the table, if someone has a craving for it, we

immediately go into the kitchen and make one quickly. If there is not any ingredient at

home, fried egg comes to the scene, and if there is tarhana soup on the side, then it

means that this meal became a feast. My mother learned these customs from herfamily

elders and she made an effort to pass them on to us by feeding us the same way.

However, when I became old enough to remember what I eat, my grandmother had

diabetes and my grandfather had high cholesterol, so our diet was slightly changed. The

authorities claimed that offal caused cholesterol; following that, offal soups, liver dishes,

pan - fried heartsand brain salads left their places to simpler dishes. Our palatal delight

started to change at that time. However, offal continued to appear on bayrams and

special dayswhen whole family is together and at those times everyone’s favorite dish

must be cooked. For this reason, every bayram, my grandfather happily goes to the

market to buy some tripe and my grandmother makes a delicious tripe soup. I hardly see

it in my friends’ families; they do not cook offal at home anymore. The most important

reason that cooking tripe is not preferred at home is the unhygienic appearance and

perception of it. As it takes time to wash and clean it completely, it is considered as

troublesome.

I wonder that if we had not cooked offal in our house, if the vinegar-garlic sauce of tripe

soup had not been so much on demand, would I still be eating it. I am not sure, but in my

opinion, situations that will set an example, must be created for young people to

maintain this component of our culture. If not, I do not think that anyone will say: “I

heard something called tripe, let’s try it”. Family elders, who enjoy and need the taste of

offal, in other words enthusiasts, are decreasing and this situation is removing offal from

house kitchens. Another example to it is the trotter soup; even though it does not require

as much effort as tripe, it is not cooked at home either. Sadly, trotter soup has been

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disappearing, because the enthusiasts of this soup are decreasing. Trotter can be made at

home easily contrary to tripe, because it does not need to be cleaned or washed.

Although lamb trotter is the common one for a long time, goat trotter seems better than

lamb.211 The goat trotter was the most appreciated and supposedly the most delicious

one, but today it cannot be found, and the dishes that used to be specially made with goat

trotter like Beykoz paçası, are now made with lamb trotter; this is why the lamb trotter is

widely used.

It would be convenient to examine the cookbooks published in Istanbul in order to

understand the reflections of domestic offal consumption and cooking techniques of it.

In this part we aimed to understand and analyze the use of offal in Istanbul through

cookbooks. The various cooking techniques of offal, the change in preparation methods

are studied in a comparative manner through cookbooks published in Istanbul since the

19th century to contemporary days. While the aim of this thesis is telling the history of

offal since the Republican era in Istanbul, cookbooks written in the late Ottoman era are

also very important sources in order to explain the changes occurred in offal preparation

techniques and its consumption in the Republican era. Cookbooks written in Ottoman

Turkish started to be published in the 19th century. We can say that these books reflect

the culinary habits of the Ottoman elite circles living in the capital city.

Turgut Kut, who has completed an important bibliographical study on this subject,

generates the chronological list of old manuscripts and printed works.212 The first

Turkish cookbook Melceü't-Tabbâhîn (Aşçıların Sığınağı- Refuge of Cooks)213 was

printed by lithography in Istanbul in August 1844, five years after the Tanzimat

(political and administrative reforms of the Ottoman Empire) in 1839. This work of

Mehmed Kâmil, a lecturer at the medical school, was published nine times during the

211 Tuğrul Şavkay, “Medeniyet ve Coğrafya Değişmeleri Çerçevesinde Türk Mutfağı, ”Eskimeyen Tatlar (Türk Mutfak Kültürü), (İstanbul: Vehbi Koç Vakfı Yayınları, 1996), pp. 72-89. 212 Turgut, Kut, Açıklamalı Yemek Kitapları Bibliyografisi (Eski Harfli Yazma ve Basma Eserler), (Ankara: Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı,1985). 213 Mehmet Kamil, İlk Basılı Türkçe Yemek Kitabı: Melceü’t Tabbahin (Aşçıların Sığınağı), ed. Cüneyt Kut, (İstanbul: Unipro, 1997)

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years 1844-88. Türabi Efendi's book A Manual of Turkish Cookery is simply an English

translation of Melceü't-Tabbâhîn. Then in 1880-81 Yeni Yemek Kitabı214 (New

Cookbook) came out. This work was republished in 1924 and 1927 under the new title

Yeni Usül Yemek Kitabı (New Style Cookbook) by Muammer Mihrî, who tried to

appropriate it to his own authorship. In 1882, Ayşe Fahriye's book Ev Kadını

(Housewife)215 made some additions to Istanbul cuisine.216 While these two last books

reveal the European habits and innovations that were popular among the elite in the late

19th century; they also reflect Istanbul’s traditional cuisine. Mahmud Nedim’s book

Aşçıbaşı (The Head Chef)217 published in 1900 includes also regional recipes reflecting

the author’s military memories of some rural locations in Anatolia. This book does not

include many European recipes compared to “Housewife” and “New Cookbook”.218

Samancı’s article about the new culinary habits in the 19th century Istanbul cuisine is an

important study in order to understand the differences between cookbooks published in

the 19thcentury.219 The author compares all the cookbooks in order to reveal the

European styles dishes that were introduced to Istanbul cuisine. Then again, she also

gives the percentage of each basic dish category in cookbooks including the offal

dishes. According to this analysis, offal dishes constitute 2% of 267 recipes in Melceü't-

Tabbâhîn; 2% of 253 recipesin Manual of Turkish Cookery, 4% of 164 recipes in

YeniYemek Kitabı, 1,3% of 802 recipes in Ev Kadını and lastly 3% in 304 recipes in

Aşçıbaşı.220 I tried to portray the offal dishes, which are in the same sources, on a table,

based on the tables used in this article.221

Some of the offal types such as şirden mentioned in these recipes are not popular in

today’s Istanbul cuisine. We come across şirden in Melceü't-Tabbâhîn (1844) and Yeni

214 Yeni Yemek Kitabı, İstanbul: 1300 (1882-1883). 215 Ayşe Fahriye, Ev Kadını, (İstanbul: Mahmud Bey Matbaası, 1300 (1882-1883). 216 T. Kut, op.cit. 217 Mahmud Nedim bin Tosun, Aşçı Başı. İstanbul: 1318, (1900). 218 Yeni Yemek Kitabı, İstanbul: 1300 (1882-1883). 219 Özge Samancı “19. Yy İstanbul Mutfağında Yeni Lezzetler”, Yemek ve Kültür, 6, (2006): 86-96. 220 Mahmud Nedim, op.cit. 221 See Appendix. Table 2.

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Yemek Kitabı (1882-83). We can say that şirden is a zest almost forgotten in today’s

Istanbul cuisine. Istanbul inhabitants are not very familiar with şirden. Şirden is known

only in tripe restaurants and among the families originated from Adana. Compared to

şirden, tripe dishes stand out in terms of variety today. It is an important detail we learn

from the book Ev Kadını that there used to be different kinds of tripe dishes in 19th

century Istanbul cuisine. A tripe dish prepared with eggs, tripe soup and tripe stew, are

the kinds of dishes mentioned in the book. Ayşe Fahriye suggests that there should be

three different chopping boards in the kitchen; one for the meat, one for the vegetables

and the last one is for chopping up the tripe. At the end of the book she gives a list of

kitchen utensils that should be present in a proper kitchen. It is stated that there should

be one funnel for bumbar dolması, and one for spiced sausage (sucuk). We understand

that tripe and intestines were used in cooking in Istanbul households.

We might call the cookbooks first-hand sources that give us the guidance to understand

home-cooked dishes. The recipes in these books aim to facilitate housewives’ daily

kitchen life by giving practical cooking clues. Among these clues it is easy to find

recipes with offal in many parts that show they are still preferable items at home and in

food culture.

We expressed that many cultures had influence on Istanbul cuisine throughout the

history. Every culture’s offal repertory contributed much to Istanbul cuisine. We should

express that offal generally takes place in Muslim, Rum, Armenian and Jewish cuisines

in Istanbul and every community maintains it with unique interpretation. For example,

when Sephardim Jews came to the Ottoman Empire, they carried their culinary culture

along with them. Meat has an important place in their cuisine as well as vegetables.

They have consumed offal widely. Most common dishes are brains with parsley and

tomatoes, and roasted tongue.222

222 Viki, Koronya., Sima, Ovadya, Sefarad Yemekleri, (İstanbul: İhtiyarlara Yardım Derneği, 1990).

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If we define Istanbul cuisine as a cuisine formed by intertwined cultures such as Rum,

Armenian, Jewish and Muslim, we must also acknowledge that every culture’s own

characteristics stand out within the limits of their religious rituals and traditions. For

example the Christian communities improved the olive oil recipes and fish recipes

during the feasting period where they cannot eat animal products. When we look

atRums, offal has been traditionally consumed at Easter. Offal was a special and

important foodstuff for Istanbul Rum society too. It was being consumed abundantly and

in various ways throughout the Easter time, especially after the fasting periods during

which the meat and dairy products were not consumed. There is a special Easter meal,

which is an offal soup called “magiritsa” that consists of lungs, liver, heart, kidneys and

intestines with a lamb head,223 but this dish is only consumed by the Greeks who live in

Greece. Sula Bozis mentions five types of offal dishes when she describes Christmas

and New Year’s arrangements in Istanbul cuisine. Smoked tongue (füme dil), spleen

dolma, brain salad, Albanian liver, and trotter soup, are the indispensable dishes in

religious feasts.224 Kuzu gömleği dolması (caul fat dolma) made with lamb liver and rice

soup with marrow, are among the home-cooked dishes made by Rums of Istanbul.225

According to the Sarkis Seropyan, the Armenians in Istanbul eat goat trotter. He also

mentions a dish like lamb tripe, but this dish is not the one that we eat in Istanbul

İşkembe Restaurants. It’s a light dish contrary to traditional tripe; he says that it could be

a Roman habit.226 Another special offal dish, which is made with spleen called dalak

dolması. This dolma that is very popular among the Rums was also a very well-known

dish among the Armenians.

223 İlhan Eksen, Çokkültürlü İstanbul Mutfağı, (İstanbul: Everest Yayınları, 2009), p.53. 224 S.Bozis, op.cit. pp. 39-40. 225 Sula Bozis, İstanbul Rumlarından Yemek Tarifleri (Masal Yıllarımın Mutfağı), (İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları, 2012). 226 Cited by İlhan Eksen, op.cit. p.53.

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Cookbooks published in Armenian alphabet in Istanbul also include offal recipes. For

example, among the 637 recipes of the book Mükemmel Yemek Kitabı227 (The Exquisite

Cookbook) published in 1926, there are thirty-four offal recipes. Some offal dishes are

categorized as “alafranga” (European) in this book. Brain pasta, Beykoz soup, potato

balls (croquette) with brain and kuzu sarması made of lamb intestine are the recipes that

we meet for the first time in this book. Another cookbook published in Armenian

alphabet in 1914 also includes offal dishes. This book entitled as Aşçının Kitabı228 (The

Cook’s Book) includes 8 offal dishes among 243 recipes. Even though it includes less

offal recipes compared to Mükemmel Yemek Kitabı, some offal dishes such as spleen

dolma and ram’s testicles are the examples of recipes mentioned primarily in cookbooks.

Spleen dolma and fume tongue are examples of dishes that did not exist in the 19th

century cookbooks published in Ottoman Turkish. Turkish cookbooks written with the

Armenian alphabetare important for they do not mention pork or pork offal as well as for

giving information about offal recipes of their time. The book’s not mentioning pork or

pork offal, also answers why veal, cattle, sheep and goat offals of ovine and bovine

animals, are rather emphasized. Even though it is a known fact that pork has been

prepared and eaten by Armenians, this point is not mentioned in these cookbooks at all,

which is interesting.

After proclamation of Turkish Republic in 1923, the cookbooks started to be published

in Latin alphabet in 1928. These cookbooks help us to enlighten the changes that took

place in offal preparation techniques in Istanbul cuisine over the last ninety years. In this

context, we selected one cookbook for each decade from 1923 to 2012 among the most

printed and well-known cookbooks. The bibliographical study about the traditional

Turkish cuisine helps us in this perspective.229

227 Vağinag Pürad, Mükemmel Yemek Kitabı(1926), (İstanbul: Aras Yayınları, 2010) 228 Boğos Piranyan, Aşçının Kitabı Merzifon Amerikan Koleji Aşçısı (1914), trans. Takuhi Tovmasyan (İstanbul: Aras Yayınları, 2008) 229 Selma Biber., Zümrüt Nahya, “Geleneksel Türk Mutfağı Bibliyografyası Üzerine Bir Deneme”, (Ankara: Kültür Bakanlığı, Halk Kültürünü Araştırma Dairesi Yayınları,1990)

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It would be appropriate to start the discussion of offal recipes given in these cookbooks,

with the cookbook published by Fahriye Nedim, firstin 1933.230 We should mention that

the publication of this book continued until today. This book is reprinted over hundred

times and Fahriye Nedim was the leading culinary author for a very long period of time.

In this book, there are fifty offal recipes among 935 recipes. The purpose of the book is

to present traditional (alaturka) and European (alafranga) style recipes to housewives.

At the preface of her book, Fahriye Nedim claims that she aimed to help the housewives

who want to make their family and friends happy. She proposes a list of dishes suitable

for every season. According to this list we see that offal is usually suggested for winter.

Those fifty offal recipes are given under several categories such as cattle meat, veal

meat, sheep meat, tirit, pilaf and pasta. The absence of a separate category named offal

does not give the impression that these dishes are classified independently. Offal dishes

given with meat dishes make us believe that offal had the same value as meat. Tirits231

with marrow, trotter, liver, tripe and various tongue recipes are the remarkable ones

among those recipes. The use of intestine in bağırsak sarması (intestine wrap) and

fırında bumbar (bumbar in oven) recipes, börek içi (pastry stuffing) from paça böreği

and Edirne dili (Edirne style tongue) recipes that became famous with the city of Edirne,

stand out among the recipes of former and following cookbooks.

Another cookbook is of Ekrem Muhittin Yeğen.232 This cookbook entitled as Alaturka

and Alafranga Yemek Öğretimi (Turkish and European Style Culinary Education) was

published primarily in 1945 and it continued to be published until today. This is the

second cookbook that is reprinted over hundred times after Fahriye Nedim’s, and it was

just as popular. It is another bestseller Turkish cookbook, which was often included in

the hope chests of girls to be married, in the 1950’s and 60’s. I used the printed version

230 Fahriye Nedim, Alaturka ve Alafranga Mükemmel Yemek ve Tatlı Kitabı, (İstanbul: İnkılap Kitabevi, 1933) 231Tirit is a dish, which is prepared with bread chunks soaked in gravy. It has different versions either with or without offal such as tripe, trotter, minced meat and chicken. 232 Ekrem Muhittin Yeğen, Alaturka ve Alaranga Yemek Öğretimi, (İstanbul: Güler Basımevi, 1946)

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of 1946 edition. Yeğen who was a teacher at girls schools (Akşam Kız Sanat Okulu),

intended to help the people, who do not know how to cook. The recipes are given in a

detailed manner. The book is also a textbook used in girls’ schools. It has many editions

and is still popular today. Before the recipes, general kitchen information is given in the

book, such as measurements, pots and pans and oils. There are 27 offal recipes in the

book. Among them, traditional offal recipes such as tripe soup, çarşı usulü tripe soup (as

served in the diners around the market), tripe with chickpea, Beykoz trotter; and

alafranga style recipes such as suckling lamb head cooked in parchment paper, Venice

style tripe, Milan style pan-fried brain, and omelet with kidneys are remarkable. Offal

recipes in the book are usually given under the sheep and veal meat categories. In the

following years, offal will be categorized separately, however we see by the help of this

edition that the usual perception was kept even in the 1940’s.

Bahri Özdeniz’s Yemek ve Tatlı Reçeteleri233 (Main Course and Dessert Recipes), which

was written in 1943 and reprinted in the 1950’, 60’s and 70’s, provides important

information about offal. It was printed 14 times until the year 1975.This book also

contains both kinds of recipes, in alafranga and alaturka styles like the former two books

that we examined. After a brief mention about Turkish culinary culture the book

includes a philosophical article about appetite in the preface written by Özdeniz, who

was a French teacher. Following that, European and Turkish culinary cultures were

compared to each other and some examples of fusion recipes were given in the book. As

shown in the table, there are 24 offal recipes in this book. Tirit, which is an ancient dish

since Seljukid era, reappears also in this book. Recipes such as trotter tirit, trotter pelte

(gel) and fried sheep bumbar stand out among the other offal recipes. This book does not

involve an offal category either; the recipes are categorized in terms of the animal type

and the cooking technique; such as boiled sheep innards and sautéed sheep innards.

Another outstanding recipe is trotter dolma. The muscled parts of the boiled trotter are

cut out, the remaining soft meat parts are chopped up, cooked with onions and spices,

233 Bahri Özdeniz, Alaturka Alafranga 500 Yemek ve Tatlı Reçeteleri, (İstanbul: İkbal Yayıncılık:1961).

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and then stuffed into trotter meat; this dish used to exist in the Ottoman period too.

Trotter dolma recipe is the same one mentioned in Ev Kadını, published in 1881. The

reappearance of the recipe after seven decades shows that old recipes continued to

persist in Istanbul’s culinary culture.

Famous Turkish chef NecipUsta published a book about Turkish cuisine in 1970. The

book entitled as Türk Mutfak Sanatı234 (The Art of Turkish Cuisine) filled an important

gap in professional cookbook writing in Turkey. This cookbook reflects the author’s

experiences he had abroad in five stars hotel as a chef and his deep knowledge about

Turkish cuisine. The book has a significant value for it is written in the development

period of tourism and hotel business sectors in Turkey at that time. It was printed 18

times until the year 1987. Necip Usta primarily provided information about the

fundamentals, mainly meat and fish, starting with the animal species in Turkey. The

book has a rich content about offal. There are 34 offal recipes in the book. Alafranga

style dishes are dominant in the book; however offal recipes are locally structured and it

can be said that they represent Turkish culture. Antakya style cartlak kebap (throat

kebab), sautéed Trakya sweetbread, seasoned (terbiyeli) Beykoz trotter are some of

them. Especially, kuzu sarma recipe is very detailed when compared to former versions;

there is even a detailed picture of it. Twenty-five of those 35 offal recipes are given

under the offal category. Furthermore, some recipes such as flame veal kidneys (alevli

dana böbreği) and garnished whole tongue (süslenmiş bütün dil) stand out in the

categories named flaming dishes and cold kitchen.

Even though there is not any direct reference to alafranga at the title, the book actually

offers samples from American, Italian and French hotel kitchen menus. Especially

canapé recipes, alafranga sauces, buffet ornaments, various seafood recipes including

lobster and shrimp and game animals are remarkable. Besides, Necip Usta brought a

new perspective to the cuisine by combining alafranga technique with Turkish cuisine.

234 Necip Usta (Ertürk), Türk Mutfak Sanatı, (İstanbul: Kıral Matbaası, 1978).

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The titles including the expressions “alaturka and alafranga recipes” give us the biggest

clue about the change in Istanbul’s cuisine. As a matter of fact, this expression was used

in many cookbooks until the 1980’s. We encounter both solely alafranga recipes and a

synthesis of alafranga and alaturka recipes in the books of the period. Brain with

Morney sauce235, cattle tongue roast236, Italian style mushroom liver on skewers237,

Italian style tripe soup238 are some examples of alafranga style dishes.

The book Türk Sofrası, Alaturka ve Alafranga Yemekler – Tatlılar (Turkish Dining

Table, Turkish and European Style Dishes - Desserts)239, prepared by İlyas İmer, was

first published in 1976. It was printed 20 times until the year 1985. The title and the

subtitle of the book imply that alafranga and alaturka styles culinary techniques

continued to be present in Istanbul’s cuisine at that time. As a matter of fact, sautéed

cattle tongue and cattle tongue with tomato paste are new recipes in this book in addition

to the usual recipes of cattle tongue, which are boiled or fumed. The book includes new

offal recipes that reflect European culinary techniques such as kidneys with wine, liver

with pastrami, liver with grapes, and brain with bread. All these recipes are examples of

a “fusion cuisine” made of European and Turkish culinary techniques.

Considering all these examples, one might think that almost all of the recipes in the book

are alafranga style dishes. However, many traditional recipes that are part of Ottoman-

Turkish cuisine such as, çılbır (poached egg), eggs with onions; vegetable dishes such as

musakka, silkme; savory pastry dishes such as börek; or sweet pastry dishes such as

baklava or güllaç (rose pudding) also exist in the book. Another quality of this book is

that it is enriched by the details covering the following subjects; kitchen, service,

manners, alcoholic cocktails, table layout, diet menus, animal types, and the qualities of

the ingredients. The dishes prepared with offal were categorized as offal. However, after

235 E.M.Yeğen. op.cit. 236 ibid. 237 İlyas İmer, Tatlıdan Tuzluya Türk Sofrası Alaturka – Alafranga Yemekler ve Tatlılar, (İstanbul: Geçit Kitabevi: 1979). 238 Sevim Tanör, Ağız Tadı, (İstanbul: Sistem Yayıncılık, 1985). 239 İ.İmer, op.cit.

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the 1980’s, this situation changed, the numbers of offal recipes started to decrease in the

1990’s and category names changed as well.

For instance, in the cookbook Ağız Tadı (Palate)240 published in 1985, offal recipes are

not over 20 among total of 442. The author of the book Sevim Tanör is also a teacher of

nutrition and home economicsasEkrem Muhittin Yeğen. There are more than 400

recipes in her book. The author has chosen many eminent and various recipes of foreign

cuisines as well as of Turkish cuisine. The target group consisted of her students,

culinary enthusiasts and young housewives. For this reason, offal’s presence in a

cookbook written for the readers after the 1980’s with eminent and various contents

(with the author’s own words) including twenty offal recipes is very important. It would

give us the idea that offal still preserves its importance in various dishes such as soup

and pilaf and in main course dishes. While lamb liver soup and tripe soup are the

representatives of alaturka recipes in the book; Italian style tripe soup is an example for

alafranga recipes. Another outstanding recipe we come across for the first time in

cookbooks is brain soup. It seems as if it was derived from the synthesis of both Turkish

and European cuisines, but when we search the foreign sources we see that there are

dishes like pork brain soup, so this dish may have a European origin. When we look at

the cooking technique, it is made with adding gravy and chopped brain after the

membrane was taken out, in addition to classic soup base formed by flour and butter.

Finally, adding scrambled egg yolk and lemon for the extra taste units and thickening,

makes us think that this recipe might be coming from Istanbul tradition.

Brain recipes do not consist of only soups. Brain with spinach and purée, soufflé with

brain, pan-fried brain, brain au gratin, beyin lokmasi (fried brain dumplings prepared

with yeasty batter); potato balls with brain and brain salad with purée are other examples

to it. It is interesting that 8 out of 20 offal recipes are made with brain. It is obvious that

techniques such as soufflé and gratin come from alafranga cooking style; and the

240 S.Tanör, op.cit.

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remaining recipes with brain seem to be the examples of traditional style. Besides brain

dishes, this book has two other alafranga recipes; liver roast and liver pudding, which

were featured for the first time in a Turkish cookbook.

The source that we chose for the 1990’s is Kolay ve Ekonomik Yemekler241 (Easy and

Affordable Dishes) which was first published in 1992 and reprinted in 2011 for the 13th

time. This book reflects the decrease of offal recipes in cookbooks published since the

1990’s. In fact, offal is completely out of the soup category and reintroduced as yalancı

işkembe (faux tripe). In this recipe, tripe soup is prepared using chicken skin and named

as tripe soup from chicken skin (tavuk derisinden işkembe çorbası). Cooking real tripe

soup at home is difficult and I think this is why this recipe was created. In fact, I assume

that cholesterol and other health issues, which my family had its share from, caused offal

to be preferred less, starting with the 1990’s, but it is bizarre that greasy chicken skin

was used instead of tripe. Six offal recipes out of 406 are Albanian liver (somehow

surviving), grilled kidney, boiled brain, pan-fried brain and some trotter dishes. There

are no new offal recipes since the 1990’s and traditional offal recipes are diminishing as

we come closer to today.

When we come to the 2000’s, it was a challenge for me to find a cookbook that includes

traditional recipes. Since the 2000’s, as a result of globalization, international cuisines

became desirable among the society, and cookbooks published in Turkey also reflected

this fact. Traditional Turkish cuisine started to be mentioned in folkloric cookbooks, and

flavors peculiar to Istanbul cuisine also shared this situation. The cookbook named

İşyerimiz Mutfak, Mesleğimiz Aşçılık, Sanatımız Pişirmek242 (Our Office is the Kitchen,

Our Profession is Cookery, Our Art is to Cook) written by Aydın Yılmaz, who was a

cook from famous Bolu, is the book that I choose for the 2000’s. Aydın Yılmaz’scareer

begins with dishwashing, but his desire made him an executive chef. He worked in many

241 Leman Cılızoğlu Eryılmaz, Kolay ve Ekonomik Yemekler, (İstanbul: Remzi Kitabevi, 2011). 242 Aydın Yılmaz, Aşçının El Kitabıİşyerimiz Mutfak, Mesleğimiz Aşçılık, Sanatımız Pişirmek, (İstanbul: Öztiryakiler Endüstriyel Mutfak Kültürü Yayınları, 2000).

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hotels and devoted himself to the art of culinary. He even initiated the foundation of

many culinary associations and also Bolu Mengen Culinary Vocational High School. He

passed away in 2004, after writing an extensive cookbook by collecting his studies into

one, for the students who want to pursue a career in gastronomy as a chef. Although the

book was published in 2000, I think it is actually a product of what he has been learning

since the 1950’s. For this reason, it would be more appropriate to consider this book as a

product of last fifty years. Even though Aydın Yılmaz gave 11 offal recipes in his book,

his knowledge about offal is beyond that. Three pages are devoted separately to the

information about offal and its recipes.243As an outcome of working at hotels both in

Turkey and abroad for a long time, there are recipes from several cultures.

When we come to today (the 2010’s), I observe that cookbooks are more concept

oriented. We can describe them as locally adapted versions of the popular books that

were written abroad, rather than written directly for Istanbul cuisine or Turkish taste.

Under these circumstances, I had a big challenge choosing a book. I tended to Oktay

(Usta) Aymelek’s books, a cook who has television shows and many followers.

Unfortunately, I could not come across any offal recipe in the book published in 2012.244

We know that Oktay Usta had offal recipes in his television show and website; however

he did not use these recipes in the cookbooks he wrote in the 2010’s. We can relate this

to the reasons above, as there are no demands to offal recipes in cookbooks anymore.

However, the growth in food sector, new developments in gastronomy, and a newfound

interest in food in the year 2013, in which I am writing this thesis study, I assume that

offal will find its place in cookbooks again and even new recipes will be created with the

contribution of fusion cuisine.

Although cookbooks play an important role for us to understand the trend of the period

they were written in, we have to be aware of the fact that they are didactic sources. This

243 ibid. p.275. 244 Oktay Aymelek, Oktay Usta ile Mutfak Keyfi, (İstanbul: Yakamoz Yayıncılık, 2012).

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means that what is written in the cookbooks might not necessarily be applied. Yet, we

should mention that they still constitute important sources that can be used in food

studies realized with a historical and cultural approach. When we look at the cookbooks

published in Istanbul since the Republican era, we see that offal culture inherited from

Central Asian and Ottoman culinary traditions, still survive in recipes. Offal continued

to have a significant place among the main course dishes, from 1923 to 1950. However,

after the 1950’s, offal variety decreased in cookbooks. For instance, while pilafs were

made with lots of different offal parts at that time, as from the 1980’s we see only one

kind of offal pilaf, which is pilaf with liver. Moreover, again after the 1980’s, offal

recipes in cookbooks started to be decreased, as a matter of fact greasy and heavier

dishes left their places to simpler dishes. Thus, it is possible to say that offal was no

longer considered as a main course foodstuff, but instead it became to be served like an

appetizer or just as a soup. It is clear that alafranga cooking techniques enriched

Istanbul cuisine, yet it also caused some flavors to be lost. Tirit is the best example at

this point. When Fahriye Nedim’s book includes this recipe prepared with bread chunks

soaked in gravy with liver, tripe or trotter versions; today these recipes are completely

forgotten. Another important point that was spotted by the examination of cookbooks is

the presence of the recipes that were first appeared centuries ago, in today’s Istanbul

cuisine, such as Albanian liver, trotter soup and tripe soup. These recipes survived until

today and achieved to be a part of Istanbul’s taste.

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CONCLUSION

Since ancient times, where people began to hunt animals, offal has been a part of eating

habits for Turks and other inhabitants living in the same geography. Offal, which was

both a delicious food and useful daily material, has an old history in Anatolia and is an

important part of the culinary culture of Istanbul.

Istanbul cuisine has been regularly renewing itself and it was developed by the cultural

treasures of the civilizations that reigned in Istanbul and around. The location, it was

formed in is positioned near both trade roads, and fertile soils of animal husbandry and

farming. When we look at the historical process in terms of the wide cultural structure of

Istanbul cuisine, we must highlight the fact that this cuisine has the footprints of

Byzantium, Ottoman Empire; the Anatolian civilizations such as Hittites and Seljuks;

traditions of Central Asian Turks; three major religions and Anatolian traditions starting

from the primeval days. Offal is a foodstuff that has been affected by all of the above.

We do not know exactly how it was consumed by ancient humans, but we do know that

it was used as a container in later years, and through this it led people to discoveries

such as cheese and haggis. Offal, which has an important place in sacrifice rituals of

Anatolian traditions, was both a sacrificial material, and the leading component of feasts

according to the studies.

In Central Asian culture, head was the most valued food at the table, and it was served as

the honorable part. Kaşgarlı Mahmud stated that brain was a much appreciated material

and it was used in many offal dishes such as yörgemeç, soktu and sımsımrak. These

cooking techniques were not only maintained during the Ottoman period, but became

even richer. During the four centuries between the 15th and the 19th, offal was a popular

foodstuff consumed by both the palace and the public. When we scan different Ottoman

sources, we come across offal in a very large scale from soups made for healing

purposes to wedding receptions. Especially, being preferred during the feasts of

98

circumcision ceremonies of Ottoman Sultan’s sons (şehzadeler) and listed among the

foodstuff provided for the Ottoman palace kitchens as witnessed by the imperial kitchen

account records, are enough for offal to be described as a highly valued food item and

one of the sultans’ favorite.

Offal was a regular food in the diet of the public as well as the military and palace

circles. Besides the street vendors, who used to sell liver and head, the presence of tripe

and trotter shops in Istanbul and the narh lists which determine the offal prices are

important indicators of the popularity of these foodstuffs.

When production is in question, we can say that offal had its own path in

slaughterhouses due to the high demand. Sakatatçılar, who have been responsible for the

process of taking the organs out of an animal, or bağırsakçılar, who have beenthe ones

that clean and wash intestines, appeared. Moreover, offal was sold in offal shops

separately, instead of butcher shops.

In the 19th century, developing culinary culture and cooking techniques in Europe,

especially in France, were also appreciated in the Ottoman Empire, so offal became a

part of the innovation and adapted itself to the new cooking techniques. We can

exemplify the new versions of offal by the cookbooks written in the 19th and the 20th

centuries. This alafranga effect shows itself with the recipes in the cookbooks of the 20th

century, such as suckling lamb head cooked in parchment paper, Venice style tripe,

Milan style pan-fried brain, and omelet with kidneys. However, there are many

traditional dishes that translated themselves into today, such as trotter tirit; çarşı usulü

tripe soup (as served in the diners around the market); kuzu sarması made of lamb

intestine; tripe with chickpea and Albanian liver.

Cookbooks are the didactic sources which may lead people to cook at home. Thus, we

can obtain the hints of consumption patterns. We see that offal has a decreasing trend in

terms of both variety and recipe quantity in the cookbooks, starting from foundation of

99

Republic to today. I remembered some almost forgotten materials, such as şirden, lungs,

sweetbreads and ox tail, when comparing these cookbooks.

I can easily say while I am writing this thesis in my early twenties that my entourage is

completely indifferent to offal, so it is not surprising that offal is in the way of being

forgotten. Moreover, it is not only being forgotten, but presented in a bad form as poorly

cooked and recklessly prepared. There are almost no places left that cook offal in a

traditional way and serve it as it is supposed to be served. Today, neither the cleanness

of the tripe nor the taste of sweetbreads is being considered. I regretfully learned from

the depth interviews I made with offal shop owners that sweetbreads in Sütlüce are in

fact udders. Additionally, there used to be a beautiful tradition; offal sellers used to

prepare the offal on a counter positioned at the entrance of the shop as a display cabinet.

It is sad for me to say that it is no longer possible to hear the harmonic melody that

comes from the cleaver chopping the tripe in Istanbul, though I have never even heard it

myself. It was such a thriller for me to hear the stories of that sound being described, but

I did not have the chance to experience it.

Another aspect of offal consumption is the seasonal issues. The desire to achieve

anything anytime makes tomato appear in winter; nowadays the same thing happens for

offal. This must be the main reason that it is not as delicious as it was before. Normally,

sweetbreads are only available in March, April and May, but now you can find it

anytime; I assume it can only be explained by the desire to consume. Unfortunately,

consumption outshined taste.

My interviews with offal seller validate these issues. As family business fades out day

by day, every kind of forgery related to meat business were translated into offal

business. Selling udder instead of sweetbreads, mixing spleen into minced meat for the

color red, cleaning the tripe with bleach’s raw material instead of naturally cleansing it,

making it wait in the freezer when it has to be sold fresh; these are some examples to it.

100

Kokoreç business had its share of consumption frenzy. There are frozen kokoreç stocks

even in liver shops, where its main material intestines are supposed to be sold. This is

the most important discovery I made during the research of this thesis.

Yet, in spite of all the obstacles, there always have been a group of people, who are fond

of offal. Thanks to those offal fans, işkembeciler, kelle paçacılar and söğüşçüler still

stand a chance of survival, relying on the trend carried on by the enthusiasts. On the

other hand, it is seen as low quality food or food for the poor by some people. In other

words, people either love it or hate it, and some does not even know its taste.

Offal is a protein-rich food item; especially kidneys and liver are very nutritious. It is

appreciated in that way in many parts of the world, particularly in the underdeveloped

countries, which is somehow ironic. However, food ways change. We all know this, yet

we sometimes talk as if food ways are conservative or even changeless. All things

change, though some things change too slowly. This is where food studies are of service

to us; searching about the origin, process and alteration of the food by comparing

different cultures’ eating habits. Despite the fact that this thesis concentrates on offal

culture in Istanbul cuisine, we can say that offal was derived from the same point all

over the world and has been a part of various cultures’ food repertory for a long time

now. Certainly, the offal preference of each culture depends on the animal choices when

it comes to food, and belief systems have an important impact on these customs. These

habits started to change with the industrial age and the animal parts that used to be

utilized lost their former importance and value. Some parts became more popular, and

some offal parts became less important. This is because everything became too

available, and offal’s appearance did not help either; so the squeamish attitude we are all

familiar with towards offal, was born and it still continues. The book Unmentionable

Cuisine245 is the consequence of this approach. The low demand in offal not only comes

from the usual squeamish attitude,but also from its appearance. The perceptual

245 Calvin W Schwabe, Unmentionable Cuisine, (U.S.A: The University Press of Virginia, 1979).

101

connection people have with what they eat is one of the main factors that affect food

preferences directly. Jonathan Safran Foeremphasizesthis issue in his book named

Eating Animals. Meat comes in various forms, such as minced meat; but it is obvious

that offal evokes the idea of actually eating an animal.246

I would like to say that I have been attentive to handle the subject in terms of socio-

cultural status and consumption styles as well as cooking techniques, when analyzing

offal culture of Istanbul cuisine. In this context, when we look at the word meaning of

offal and the perception of the word itself in several cultures, both etymological and

perceptual resemblance is surprising.

It is apparent that the meanings and applications of some words are global. It do not

think that it is a coincidence that butchers used to be called çeyrekçi (quarterer) and

offal is called the fifth quarter in Italy and France, where it is highly consumed.

Furthermore, organ meat and other parts also known as offal are named the same. It is

obvious that they are named after human organs, and it is important that they have not

changed in time and they had not have names with different meanings as other major

cuts have, such as are pirzola (ribs), antrikot (entrecote) and incik (shank). Another

appealing example is that a part of tripe is called kırkbayır (forty hills) due to its

overlapping layers, and the British associate it with the pages of a book for the same

reason and they call it “forty leaves, thousand layers”. Evidently, same perception and

metaphors are applied for offal even in different cultures.

Therefore, depending on the cultural context, offal may be considered as waste material

or as delicacies that command a high price. Although it has a negative meaning in

Turkish dictionaries, it is certain that it has been one of the most preferable food items in

Istanbul cuisine for centuries.

246 Jonathan Safran Foer. Eating Animals, (U.S.A: Little, Brown and Company, 2009).

102

APPENDIX A TABLES Table 1 The list of the offal dishes in the glossary “Tercüme-i Kenzü’l-İştihâ”

ENGLISH EXPLANATION 15TH

CENTURY TURKISH

Some kind of liver dish

Ciğer dolması ve ciğer kavurması ki kalye-pûtî de derler. Ciğer ve yüreği kıyıp kendi yağıyla

kavururlar, bir yemektir. Ulbâ

Trotter Paça Bâtûme

Intestine

Mutlak bağırsaktır, hayvanda olan bağırsaktan mumbar pişirirler. Ancak Asitâne’de keçi

bağırsağından olan gevrek mumbar olur. Büyük küçük herkes için Ramazan’a mahsus gibi bir nefis

yemektir.

Burendâf

Sheep liver and the name of liver dish

Koyun ciğerine ve ciğer kavurmasına kalye-i pûtî derler ve yemek manasına gelir ki her türlü yiyecek

ve içeceği içine alır. Pût

A kind of poultry offal

Tavuk ve kuş kursağıdır. Türkçe taşlık derler. Pencviş yemeğinin malzemesinden biri de budur. Câğır

Instestine Mumbardır. Ciğerekenende

Lamb intestine, favourite dish of

Arabs

Arapların çok sevdikleridir. Kuzu bağırsağını birer karış uzunluğunda doğrayıp, beşer beşer birbirine sarıp yoğurt çorbasının içinde pişirirler. Karılar

birbirine hediye ederler.

Hasîbek

Tripe İşkembeye derler. Derre

A kind of dolma made of intestine Mumbar dolmasına denir. Arapça’da asib derler. Zünnâc

A kind of dolma made of intestine

Mumbar dolmasına denir. Sucuk denilen şeklini baharat ile doldurup kuruturlar, bilinir. Zevnec

A kind of dolma made of intestine Mumbar dolmasına denir. Suhtû

A kind of intestine that mostly

consumed in Kurban Bayramı among

poors.

Şirden manasınadır ki hayvan sakatatından mumbar gibi doldurup yerler. İstanbul’da yoksullar kurban

bayramında yerler. Mentû

103

Table 2 The list of the offal dishes in the cookbooks from 1844 to 1900

Melceu-t Tabbahin (1844)

A Manual of Turkish Cookery (1864)

Ev kadını (1882-83) Yeni Yemek Kitabı (1882-83)

Aşçıbaşı (1900)

Soups Terbiyeli ciğer çorbası

İşkembe çorbası, Terbiyeli ciğer

çorbası

Ciğer çorbası, İşkembe çorbası

İşkembe çorbası

İşkembe çorbası,

Ciğer çorbası

Meat Dishes

Paça, Kuzu ciğeri

Pan fries Ciğer tavası Ciğer tavası Karaciğer tavası Beyin tavası Beyin tavası

Kebaps Ciğer kebabı Kokoreç Ciğer kebabı

Börek Paça Paça Paça, kuzu ciğerli Paça Paça

Egg İşkembeli yumurta

Stuffed dishes

Bumbar ve şirden Bumbar ve şirden Paça dolması

Bumbar ve şirden

dolması

Salty and Soury Dishes

Ciğerlisi, Ciğer kavurması, terbiyeli paçalar, terbiyesiz

paçalar, paça terbiyesi, donma

paça

Pilafs Baş pilavı Baş pilavı Baş pilavı Kuzu içi pilavı

Stews Paça yahnisi, İşkembe yahnisi

İşkembe yahnisi, Böbrek yahnisi,

Other Bumbar ve şirdenin envai, yalancı ilik

Külbastı Karaciğer, Yürek, Böbrek

Pilaki Paça pilakisi

104

Table 3 Number of the offal recipes in the cookbooks from 1923 to 2000

Name of the book, Print year

Ev Kadınının Yemek Kitabı, Alaturka ve Alafranga Mükemmel Yemek, Tatlı ve Pastalar Kitabı, 1939

Alaturka ve Alafranga Yemek Öğretimi, 1946

500 Yemek ve Tatlı Reçeteleri, 1961

Türk Mutfak Sanatı, 1978

Tatlıdan Tuzluya Türk Sofrası Alaturka ve Alafranga Yemekler ve Tatlılar, 1979

Ağız Tadı, 1985

Kolay ve Ekonomik Yemekler, 1992

İşyerimiz Mutfak, Mesleğimiz Aşçılık, Sanatımız Pişirmek, 2000

Number of the recipes with offal 52 27 26 33 33 20 7 12 İşkembeli / tripe 6 4 1 5 4 3 3 Beyinli / brain 7 6 3 5 7 9 2 3 Paçalı / trotter 7 6 7 2 1 2 2 2 Ciğerli / liver 13 4 6 7 7 6 1 2 Böbrekli / kidney 3 3 2 6 5 2 1 Dilli / tongue 3 2 1 2 5 Başlı (kelle) / head 6 1 2 1 1 Yürekli / heart 1 2 Bumbar (Kalın bağırsak) / intestine 3 1 1 1 2 İlik / marrow bone 2

Koçyumurtası/ ram's testicles 1 1 1 Uykuluk / sweetbread 4 Gömlekli / caulfat 1

105

Table 4 Offal dishes in Ev Kadınının Yemek Kitabı, Alaturka ve Alafranga Mükemmel Yemek, Tatlı ve Pastalar, 1939

Kitap adı, Yazarı, Basım yılı / Name of the Book, Author, Year of Publication

Ev Kadınının Yemek Kitabı, Alaturka ve Alafranga Mükemmel Yemek, Tatlı ve Pastalar Kitabı,

Fahriye Nedim, 1939

Toplam Reçete Sayısı / Number of the Total Recipes 935 Sakatatlı Reçete Sayısı / Number of the Offal Recipes 52

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Çorbalar / Soups işkembe çorbası, ciğer çorbası, baş çorbası, çarşı

işkembe çorbası

Tiritler / Dishes That Prepared with Bread Chunks Soaked in Gravy Method

terbiyeli paça tiridi, ciğerli tirit, işkembeli tirit

Garnitürler / Garnishes beyin garnitürü

Sığır Eti / Beef Dishes

soğanlı sığır dili yahnisi, sığır dili sote, sığır beyni yahnisi, sığır beyni tavası, sığır başı yahnisi, sığır

böbreği sotesi, sığır karaciğer tavası, sığır karaciğer ızgarası, sığır işkembe yahnisi

Dana Eti / Veal Dishes ilik tavası, ilik yahnisi, terbiyeli dana paça yahnisi, nohutlu dana paça yahnisi, dana beyin haşlaması

Koyun Eti / Mutton Dishes

paça yahnisi, işkembe yahnisi, ciğer yahnisi, ciğer yahnisi, baş yahnisi, terbiyeli paça, sirkeli sarımsaklı

paça, paça dondurması, böbrek ızgarası, yürek ızgarası, taşak (koç yumurtası) ızgarası, böbrek sote, ciğer sote, diğer ciğer sote, ciğer tavası, diğer ciğer tavası, beyin

haşlaması, beyin tavası, bumbar, bumbar fırında, bağırsak sarması, kuzu ciğer tavası

Kebaplar / Kebabs baş kebabı

Pilav ve Makarnalar / Rice and Pastas

beyinli pilav, başlı pilav, kuzu başlı pilav, ciğerli pilav

Mezeler / Mezes Edirne dili

Yumurta Yemekleri / Egg Dishes

işkembeli yumurta

Börekler / Böreks paça böreği

106

Table 5 Offal dishes in Alaturka ve Alafranga Yemek Öğretimi, 1946

Kitap adı, Yazarı, Basım yılı / Name of the Book, Author, Year of Publication

Alaturka ve Alafranga Yemek Öğretimi, Ekrem Muhittin Yeğen, 1946

Toplam Reçete Sayısı / Number of the Total Recipes 339

Sakatatlı Reçete Sayısı / Number of the Offal Recipes 27

Kita

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Çorbalar / Soups işkenbe çorbası, işkenbe çorbası (çarşı usulü)

Sığır Eti / Beef Dishes beyin haşlaması, beyin tavası, beyin tavası milano usulü, sığır dili haşlaması, sığır dili

rostosu, böbrek sotesi

Koyun Eti / Mutton Dishes

kuzu sarması, kağıtta süt kuzusu başı, beyin haşlaması (koyun), beyin tavası (koyun),

beyin morney salçalı, böbrek ızgarası, ciğer tavası, kuzu ciğer ızgarası (özkam usulü), Arnavut ciğeri, Akciğer yahnisi, Nohutlu

işkenbe, Venedik Usulü İşkenbe, Paça haşlaması, Yoğurtlu Paça, Terbiyeli Paça

(Beykoz Paçası), Nohutlu Paça, Paça donması, Paça donması (köseoğlu usulü)

Yumurta Yemekleri / Egg Dishes böbrekli omlet

107

Table 6 Offal dishes in 500 Yemek ve Tatlı Reçeteleri, 1961

Kitap adı, Yazarı, Basım yılı / Name of the Book, Author, Year of Publication

500 Yemek ve Tatlı Reçeteleri, Bahri Özdeniz, 1961

Toplam Reçete Sayısı / Number of the Total Recipes 500

Sakatatlı Reçete Sayısı / Number of the Offal Recipes 24

Kita

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Çorbalar / Soups işkembe çorbası, ciğer çorbası, baş çorbası,

Salata ve Mezeler / Salads and Mezes baş pilavı ve beyinli pilav

Hamur İşleri ve Börekler / Pastries and Böreks sığır dili

Et Yemekleri / Meat Dishes kuzu ciğer tavası

Koyun Aksamı Soteleri / Sauteed Mutton

beyin tavası, böbrek ve yürek ızgaraları, yürek ızgarası, koyun ciğer tavası, husiye ızgaraları (koç yumurtası), böbrek sotesi, ciğer sotesi,

muhtelif ciğer sotesi

Koyun Aksamı Haşlamaları / Boiled and Stewed Mutton

beyin haşlaması, sade paça, paça tiridi, hafif terbiyeli paça, tam tertip paça, paça peltesi

Koyun Etiyle Dolmalar / Stuffed Dishes Made with Mutton paça dolması

Yahniler / Stews ciğer yahnisi, paça yahnisi,

Tencere Kebapları / Pot Stews koyun bumbar kızartması

108

Table 7 Offal dishes in Türk Mutfak Sanatı, 1978

Kitap adı, Yazarı, Basım yılı / Name of the Book, Author, Year of Publication

Türk Mutfak Sanatı, Necip Usta (Ertürk), 1978

Toplam Reçete Sayısı / Number of the Total Recipes

1034

Sakatatlı Reçete Sayısı / Number of the Offal Recipes

34

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Çorbalar / Soups işkembe çorbası, terbiyeli (yumurtalı) işkembe çorbası

Sakatat Yemekleri / Offal Dishes

bumbar dolması, kuzu sarması, kuzu ciğer yahnisi, kuzu ciğer dilimi tava, kuzu ciğer dilimi ızgara, kuzu ciğeri cartlak kebabı (Antakya usulü), beyin haşlaması, uykuluk tava, beyin tavası, uykuluk domates ve mantarlı, uykuluk sotesi trakya, çilavlı

uykuluk sarması, paça haşlama, terbiyeli beykoz paçası, işkembe haşlama, sebzeli işkembe yahnisi, nohutlu işkembe yahnisi, dana

ciğeri sote güzel bahçe, dana ciğeri meyhane sotesi, kuzu başı tandır, kuzu böbreği şişte, kuzu böbreği küçük şeytan, dana

böbreği sote dağ kraliçesi

Salata ve Mezeler / Salads and Mezes Arnavut ciğer, beyin salatası

Hamur İşleri ve Börekler / Pastries and Böreks

beyinli börek içi

Fümeler / Smoked Dishes beyinli Beykoz kebabı, çilavlı ve gömlekli kavurma

Alevli Yemekler / Flambes dil füme

Soğuk Mutfak/ Cold Dishes alevli dana böbreği

Sote Yemekler / Sauteed Dishes süslenmiş bütün dil

Kanapeler / Canapes dana böbreği sote

109

Table 8 Offal dishes in Tatlıdan Tuzluya Türk Sofrası Alaturka ve Alafranga Yemekler ve Tatlılar, 1979

Kitap adı, Yazarı, Basım yılı / Name of the Book, Author, Year

of Publication

Tatlıdan Tuzluya Türk Sofrası Alaturka ve Alafranga Yemekler ve Tatlılar, İlyas İmer, 1979

Toplam Reçete Sayısı / Number of the Total Recipes 650

Sakatatlı Reçete Sayısı / Number of the Offal Recipes 32

Kita

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Çorbalar / Soups işkembe çorbası, imer usulü işkembe çorbası

Kebaplar / Kebabs gömlek kebabı (koyun eti)

Sakatat Yemekleri / Offal Dishes

sığır dili panesi, sığır dili fırında, sığır dili sote, sığır dili salçalı, sebzeli böbrek, şaraplı böbrek, böbrek sote, sığır beyin tavası, beyin yahnisi, salçalı sığır

beyni, ekmekli beyin, beyin haşlaması, ciğer tavası, ciğer yahnisi, ciğer sotesi, İtalyan usulü şişte mantarlı

ciğer, üzümlü ciğer, pastırmalı dana ciğeri, nohutlu paça, nohutlu işkembe, bumbar, bumbar fırında, koç

yumurtası

Yumurta Yemekleri / Egg Dishes işkembeli yumurta,

Pilav ve Makarnalar / Rice and Pastas böbrekli makarna

Salata ve Mezeler / Salads and Mezes beyin salatası, ciğerli yumurta

Hamur İşleri ve Börekler / Pastries and Böreks beyinli-tavuklu börek

Kanapeler / Canapes dilli kanape

110

Table 9 Offal dishes in Ağız Tadı, 1985

Kitap adı, Yazarı, Basım yılı / Name of the Book, Author, Year of Publication Ağız Tadı, Sevim Tanör, 1985

Toplam Reçete Sayısı / Number of the Total Recipes 442

Sakatatlı Reçete Sayısı / Number of the Offal Recipes 20

Kita

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en K

ateg

ori /

Cat

egor

y N

ame Çorbalar / Soups kuzu ciğeri çorbası, beyin çorbası, işkembe çorbası,

İtalyan usulü işkembe çorbası

Garnitürler / Garnishes püreli beyin salatası

Pilav ve Makarnalar / Rice and Pastas iç pilav, ciğerli pilav

Et Yemekleri / Meat Dishes

beyin tavası, beyin graten, ıspanaklı püreli beyin, beyin lokması, beyinli sufle, ciğer tava, ciğer sarması,

ciğer rostosu, ciğer pudingi, terbiyeli paça, paça dondurması, nohutlu işkembe yahnisi, beyinli patates

köftesi

111

Table 10 Offal dishes in Kolay ve Ekonomik Yemekler, 1992

Kitap adı, Yazarı, Basım yılı / Name of the Book, Author, Year of Publication

Kolay ve Ekonomik Yemekler, Leman Cılızoğlu Eryılmaz, 1992

Toplam Reçete Sayısı / Number of the Total Recipes 406

Sakatatlı Reçete Sayısı / Number of the Offal Recipes 6

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Çorbalar / Soups

Tavuk Derisinden İşkembe Çorbası

(Although the title of the recipe is işkembe (tripe), the dish does not have any offal in it.)

Sakatat Yemekleri / Offal Dishes

karaciğer tavası (Arnavut ciğeri), böbrek ızgarası, böbrek sotesi, beyin haşlama, beyin tavası, paça, terbiyeli paça (Beykoz paçası)

112

Table 11 Offal dishes in İşyerimiz Mutfak, Mesleğimiz Aşçılık, Sanatımız Pişirmek, 2000

Kitap adı, Yazarı, Basım yılı / Name of the Book, Author, Year of Publication

İşyerimiz Mutfak, Mesleğimiz Aşçılık, Sanatımız Pişirmek, Aydın Yılmaz, 2000

Toplam Reçete Sayısı / Number of the Total Recipes 415

Sakatatlı Reçete Sayısı / Number of the Offal Recipes 11

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Cat

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ame Çorbalar / Soups taze baharatlı işkembe çorbası, kuzu başı paça

çorbası

Sakatat Yemekleri / Offal Dishes

Arnavut ciğeri, dondurulmuş paça (jelatinli paça), böbrekli, mantar sote, beyin ezmesi, beyin tavası,

soğanlı dana işkembesi

Et Yemekleri / Meat Dishes ciğer sarma, beyinli Beykoz kebabı

Yahniler / Stews nohutlu işkembe yahnisi

113

B FIGURES

Figure 1 Albanian Liver Seller (Ciğerci) The Ottoman World, Şefik E. Atabey

Koleksiyonu, Cilt 1, S.230, 1998, İstanbul

114

Figure 2 Ciğerci (Unknown Source)

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Figure 2 The Menu of Sultan Reşat Reception, 1915 (Muhtar Katırcıoğlu Menu Collection)  

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C PHOTOGRAPHS

Figure 3 Display Window of a Ciğerci in Fatih

Figure 4 Head of a Lamb (Ütülenmiş Kelle)

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Figure 5 Recep Ciğercisi, Balık Pazarı, Beyoğlu

Figure 6 Lamb's Trotter

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D INTERVIEWS

1. Depth Interview with Cevdet Sertbakan (Third-generation owner of Recep

Ciğercisi)

Date: 07.04.2010

Location: Recep Ciğercisi / Beyoğlu Balık Pazarı (located under Cumhuriyet

Meyhane)

Pelin DUMANLI: Sohbetlerimiz sırasında her şeyden konuştuk ama aileniz hakkında

hiç konuşmadık, kendinizden başlayarak biraz onlardan bahseder misiniz?

Cevdet SERTBAKAN: 1960 İstanbul doğumluyum ben, Fatih’te büyüdüm, babamın

ismi Recep, dedemin ismi Hamit soy ismimiz, Sertbakan. Dedem Hamit Sertbakan,

Balkan Harbi muhaciri olarak Yugoslavya’nın Manastır kasabasından İstanbul’a

göçmüş. Arnavutluk var yani. Bu dükkanı dedem 1925’te açıyor. Aslında tam karşıdaki

dükkanmış, ama bir zaman sonra bu dükkana geçmiş. Ben babamın adını anı olarak

saklıyorum.

P.D.: Dedeniz bu dükkanı açmadan önce ne yapıyordu?

C.S.: Babaannemin anlattıkları... siyah bir atı var ve at sırtında kafesler içinde sakatat

satarmış. Siyah bir beygiri varmış, oturdukları evin altında ahır varmış, orada yaşarmış,

öyle güzelmiş ki herkes nazara gelmesinden korkuyormuş, nitekim 20’li yıllarda bir

sabah ahırda ayaklarını havaya dikerek ölü olarak bulmuşlar. Dedem beygiri öldükten

sonra 1925’te burayı açıyor.

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P.D.: Burasının, yani Balık Pazarı’nın konumunun özel bir yeri mi var, demek istediğim

bu bölgede şu an 5’den fazla ciğerci var, bunun sebebi nedir?

C.S.: Ekariyeti çok olduğu için, talep çok olduğu için balık pazarında ciğercilik mesleği

oturmuş, insanlar da ciğeri buradan alır olmuşlar.

P.D.: Siz bu mesleğe ne zaman başladınız?

C.S.: Ben de babam sayesinde başladım. Babamlar 6 kardeşler, 3 erkek 3 kız. Dedem

ilkokuldan sonra bu mesleğe en yakın babamı görmüş ve 1946’da buraya yanına almış.

1974 yılında dedem vefat ediyor, ben o zaman 10 yaşlarındaydım. Benim buraya

girmem de, 89-90’lı yıllar. Babam da beni dedemin kendisini aldığı gibi yanına aldı. Hiç

unutmadığım bir sözle işe başladım ben: "Tencerede pişireceksiniz kapağında

yiyeceksiniz’’; sen tencerede pişirip tabakta yersen lüks olur ama kapağında yersen

mütevazı olursun. Bu da meslekte çok önemlidir.

P.D.: Ciğercilik mesleğini babadan oğula bu yıllara kadar taşımışsınız. Siz de oğlunuzun

bu mesleği devam ettirmesini istiyor musunuz?

C.S.: Tabii ki. Oğlum şu an liseye gidiyor, benim temennim önce okuması. Okumuş

insan olmasını, terbiyeli, eğitimli biri olmasını istiyorum. Ve tabii ki hep mesleği devam

ettirmesinden yana gönlüm ama tercih etmez ise de, onun kararı. Gerçi ilgisi çok, yaz

tatillerinde dükkana getiriyorum bazen onu. Hoşuna gidiyor.

P.D.: Biraz da teknik kısımlara girelim, sakatatı nereden temin ediyorsunuz? Tuzla

mezbahasından mı?

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C.S.: Hayır. Ben Susurluk’taki dört mevsim et entegre tesisleri ile çalışıyorum. Eskiden

sütlüce mezbahasından gelirdi ama Sütlüce kapandıktan sonra Susurluk’la çalışmaya

başladım. Dedemin zamanında et Tophane’de gelirmiş. Sonra mrzbaha Sütlüce’de

açılıyor, Sütlüce’den de Tuzla’ya gidiyor.Ama Sütlüce’nin kapanması, birçok kişinin

ekmek kapısının da kapanması anlamına geldi. Et için iyi olmuş olabilir ama sakatat için

öyle değil. Sütlüce’de taze taze uykuluk satan seyyarlar, ciğerciler hepsi kayboldu.

P.D.: Uykuluğun Sütlüce’de meşhur olmasının sebebi, bu anlattığınız sebepten ötürü

olsa gerek.

C.S.: Tabii, Pelin Hanım. Uykuluk her mevsim bulunan bir şey değil, süt kuzusu

mevsimi geçince uykuluk da Allah tarafından kaybolur hayvanda. Fındık, gerdan ve

uykuluk diye 3’e ayrılıyor

P.D.: Peki uykuluk sadece süt kuzularında olursa 4 mevsim Sütlüce’de nasıl temin

ediliyor?

C.S.: Açıkçası bu işte de her işte olduğu gibi ahlak kalmadı maalesef. Şimdi dilim

varmıyor söylemeye ama birçoğu uykuluk değil zaten...

İnek memesi yediriyorlar. Doku olarak benzediği için, baharatı da basınca, ne yediğini

kimse anlamıyor, yoksa o kadar ucuz nasıl satsınlar. Tabii bu söylediğim bütün Sütlüce

esnafı için geçerli değil, ancak birçoğu böyle yapıyor diyebilirim.

P.D.: Anladım. Peki, bu kelleler kuzu kellesi sanıyorum.Dana kellesi de satıyor

musunuz?

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C.S.: Büyükbaş hayvanda kelle o vaziyette satılamaz çok büyük ve ağırdır, 9-12 kilo

arasında değişir, mezbahada kelleler ayrılıyor ve baş eti çıkartılıyor, dana dilini biz

satıyoruz ama baş eti bize ait olmasına rağmen köfteciler genelde alıyorlar lezzet

arttırmak için.

P.D.: Sakatat hep ucuz olarak düşünülür. Fiyatlar nasıl?

C.S.: Ciğer, bonfileyle yarışıyor, fiyatlar çok pahalı. Kuzu ciğerinin kilosu 24 TL, dana

ciğeri, 22 TL, kuzu paçasını tanesi 1,5 TL ye satıyoruz. İşkembe kilosu 8 TL, kelle 8

lira tanesi, kuzu beyni tanesi 3 lira, uykuluğun kilosu 20 TL, gerdan ve fındık 15 TL,

dana kuyruğunun kilosu 10 TL, dana yürek kilosu 12 TL, kuzu yürek tane 2 TL, Koç

Yumurtası kilosu 6 TL, dil kilosu 18 TL, akciğerlerin de kilosu 1-1.5 TL’den veriyoruz.

P.D.: Biraz takım ciğer teriminden bahseder misiniz?

C.S.: Takım ciğer, biz sakatatçıların kullandığı bir terim. Mezbahada sakatatlar

çıkarıldıktan sonra takım ciğer olarak kancaya asılıyorlar, akciğer, yürek, karaciğer,

dalak ve bunları bir arada tutan kırıntı et dediğimiz et takım ciğeri oluşturuyor, bakın

burada vitrinde de asılı duruyorlar.

P.D.: Cevdet Bey sizi çok yormayayım, müşterileriniz geldi, isterseniz siz onlarla

ilgilenin. Ben de sizi bir köşeden izlerim. Benimle paylaştığınız bilgiler için teşekkür

ederim.

C.S.: Tabii, ne demek Pelin Hanım. Her zaman.

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2. Depth Interview with Georgi P. Kostandov Georgi P. Kostandov, (Author of the

book “İstanbullu Bulgarlar ve Eski İstanbul Geçmişten Günümüze Osmanlı Bakiyesi

Bulgarlar Üzerine Bir Araştırma 1800-2000” / Chemistry Teacher / I.M.I Liceo

Italiano Vice Principal)

Date: 18 January 2013

Location: House of Georgi P. Kostandov. Bomonti – Şişli

Pelin Dumanlı: Kitabınızı bir çırpıda ve heyecanla okudum, işkembecilik ve sakatat ile

ilgili birçok şeyi detaylarıyla yazmışsınız. Kitabınızda bahsetmediğiniz sakatatla ilintili

başka neler söyleyebilirsiniz?

Georgi P. Kostandov: Teşekkür ederim. Her şeyi yazmaya çalıştım. Detaylarıyla

aktarmaya gayret ettim.

P.D.: Mesela benim yaşım dolayısıyla bilemeyeceğim, tecrübe etmediğim bir bilgi var

mı?

G.P.K: Eskiden buzdolabı yoktu. En azından bizim dükkanda yoktu. Yaz aylarında,

araya bayram yada tatil girdiğinde, çorbayı, işkembeyi, bağırsağı kokutmadan muhafaza

etmek zordu.

P. D: Peki ne yapıyordunuz?

G.P.K: Kademeli olarak, parti parti sürekli kaynatıyorduk. Diyelim ki işkembenin 3 saat

mi kaynaması lazım; önce yarım saat, kırkbeş dakika kaynatıyorduk. Ertesi gün bir

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kırkbeş dakika daha kaynatılırdı ve bu böyle devam ederdi. Aslında bu yöntem eskiden

evlerde yemeğin ekşimemesi için kullanılırdı. Mutlaka yemeği kaynatmak lazım gelirdi.

Biz de bu usulü kullanırdık.

İşkembenin iç yağı ile ilgili de bir şey ekleyebilirim. İşkembe alırken dikkat edilen bir

husus vardı. O da işkembeyi alırken yağlı almak. Çünkü yağı ayrıca değerlendiriliyordu.

Özellikle sığır işkembesi çok büyük ve yağlı olurdu. Alınan işkembeler kazanlarda

kaynatılmaya başlanır. Daha sonra hangisi hangi kıvamda olacaksa işkembeler ona göre

çıkarılır ve sonra geriye kalan yağ yüzeyden toplanırdı. Ama yağ çok fazla miktar

olduğu için tavalara dökülürdü. Bahsettiğim tavalar çinkoydu ve en az 10 kg

ağırlığındaydı. Bayağı büyüklerdi yani. Bu yağ donduktan sonra, ters çevrilirdi. Dibinde

toplanan tortuyu sıyırıp, ortaya çıkan saf yağ kullanılırdı. Çok değerliydi ve yedek yağ

olarak biz işkembe dükkanımızda kullanırdık. Eğer çok fazla yağ çıkmışsa, tenekelere

basılırdı ve sabunculara satılırdı. İmkan olursa kuzu ve koyun ayrı, dana yağı ayrı olarak

biriktirilirdi. Kuzunun rengi hafif filizi yeşilimsi olur. Buna mukabil, dana işkembesi

bembeyazdır. Eskiden vita yağları ortaya çıkmadan önce 50’li yıllardan önce bu işkembe

yağları kullanılırdı. Tortusu sıyrılmış, halis yağ haline gelmiş malzeme tenekelere

doldurulurdu eve gelirdi. Bir kazana dökülürdü ve kaynatılarak tortusu tekrar toplanırdı.

Yemek yapmak için kullanılacaksa içine kabukları soyulmuş ve ikiye bölünmüş soğan

atılırdı.

P.D: Neden içine soğan atılıyor?

G.P.K: Bunun sebebi, tüm yemeklerin temelinde soğan olması. Hemde hoş ve lezzetli

bir tat katardı.

P.D: Peki yemeğe koymacaksak? Tatlı yapacaksak?

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G.P.K: Eğer bu yağı tatlı yapmak için kullanacaksak içine elma, karanfil atılırdı. Bu

şekilde beslenen insanlar, 80 yaşına kadar turp gibi yaşıyor... Benim dedem 90 küsür

yaşına kadar geldi.

P.D: Peki eskiden hakiki işkembe yağı bulamayanlar hangi yağlara rağbet ederlerdi?

G.P.K: Bu şekilde yağ yapma ve alma imkanı yoksa, kuyruk yağı veya iç yağı

kullanılırdı. Pazarlarda da Trabzon yağı satılırdı ki bu da tereyağı gibi bir yağdır. Vita

yağları da çok yaygındı.

P.D: İşkembe yağı çok ilginç bir bilgiymiş. Daha önce hiç duymamıştım. Teşekkürler.

Bir sorum daha olacak.İşkembeleri çamaşır suyu ya da sudkostik çözeltisi ile

yıkıyorlarmış. Bu doğru mu?

G.P.K: Doğrudur. Ama işkembeleri sudkostiğe batırdıktan sonra bıçak ile iyice kazımak

lazım gelir. Kazıdıkça o gider, zaten elinizle de anlarsınız, yağlı bir doku bırakır his

olarak.Sudkostik aslında organik dokuyu yakıp, sıvılaştırmaya yarar. Sağlığa zararı

vardır diyemem, sonuçta zarar alan dokuyu kazıdıktan sonra defalarca suya sokarak

yıkıyorlar ve sonuçta işkembe temizlenmiş oluyor. Zaten çorba yaparken kaynatırken de,

köpük oluşturur ve o köpüğü de alırsın.

P.D: Kitabınızda kuzuları iki dişli olarak tabir ettiğinizi okudum. Bu da çok ilgimi çekti.

Biraz daha açar mısınız?

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G.P.K: Evet, süt dişleri belirgin olur. Hayvan büyüdükçe diğer dişlerle arasındaki bu

belirgin fark kapanmaya başlar ve yüz de kurumaya başlar. Tıpkı insandaki gibi. Dişler

yaşlandıkça da tersine aşınmaya başlar.Artık o ihtiyar koyunun kellesinden hayır

gelmez.

(Gülüşmeler)

G.P.K: Bir diğer bilgi de koyunların dişleri ile ilgili. Mezbahadan gelen altın kaplamalı

dişli koyunlar vardı. İçtikleri sudan olduğunu söylediler. Ben kimyager olduğum halde

tam anlam veremedim ama gözümle altın dişli koyun gördüm. Neyle besleniyorsa, bu

altın ile dişleri kaplanmış.

P.D: Aaa çok ilginçmiş. Acaba geviş getiriyor diye mi?

G.P.K: Hayır, altının dişlerin üzerine tutunmasını sağlayacak bir madde olmalı. Ben tam

anlam veremedim. Nedenini bilemiyorum.

P.D: Peki, keçi ile koyun kellesini nasıl ayırabiliriz? Belirgin bir farklılık var mıdır?

G.P.K: Keçi etinin kokusu ve tadı daha ekşidir. Ayırca keçinin eti ve sütü de farklıdır.

Alışık değilseniz bağırsaklarınızı bozabilir. Kafataslarında da çok belirgin fark olur.

Koyunun alnı düzken, buna mukabil keçilerde alın yuvarlak oluyor ve tosladıkları için

kemikleri de kalın oluyor.

P.D: Beykoz paçası ya da kebabı hakkında sizin bir bilginiz var mı? Keçiden yapıldığı

söyleniyor...

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G.P.K: Eskiden Beykoz ve Riva doğa olarak fevkalade bir yerdi. Herhalde bundandır.

Tarifin özel olduğundan değil, hayvanın kaliteli yerde otlamasındandır.

P.D.: Paçaya patik dendiğini duydum. Özellikle eski usül paça çorbası yapan esnaf

lokantalarında patik çorbası diye geçiyormuş.Siz de bu tabiri kullanır mıydınız?

G.K: Tabii. Bir de topuk derdik. Bu arada aşık kemiğini bilir misiniz? Hani benimle aşık

atamazsın derler...

P.D.: Hayır? Bilmiyordum. Çok ilginç? Bu sözü hep duyarım, hep merak etmiştim ama

hiç araştırmamıştım.

G.P.K: Sen benimle aşık atamazsın derler. Hayvanın aşık kemiğinden bir de oyun

türetilmiştir. Karşılıklı oynanan bir oyun bu. Mesela kemiği havaya atıyorsun. Bu kemik

dikdörtgen prizması gibidir ama kenarları yuvarlaktır makara gibi bir nevi. Bunu havaya

atarsın, nasıl düşerse ona göre oyunda kazanır ya da kaybedersin. İşte aşık atmak

buradan türemiştir.

P.D.: Aşık atmanın buradan türediğini bilmiyordum. Çok ilginçmiş. Peki tekrar

işkembeye dönecek olursak işkembe çorbasının içeriğindeki pepsin denen bir madde

sayesinde mideyi rahatlattığı ve özellikle içkiden sonra iyi geldiği biliniyor. Siz bu

konuda ne düşünüyorsunuz?

G.P.K.: Yani doğru olabilir. Pepsin aslında proteinleri parçalayan bir yapıya sahiptir.

Eğer öğünden önce çok et tüketmişseniz, pepsinin etkisi de olabilir. Ama sıcak bir sıvı

her zaman mideye iyi gelir.

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P.D.: İşkembenin bölümlerinden birine kırkbayır diyorlar. Çok fazla katmanı

olduğundan ötürü. Çok katlı olduğu için de iyi temizlenemiyormuş ve hatta içinde pislik

kaldığı söyleniyor. Siz çorba yaparken bu kısmı kullanır mıydınız?

G.P.K.: Dana ve sığırlarda top denilen bir organ da vardır. Sindirim sisteminin bir

bölümü. Aslında içindeki pislik değil. Sizin dediğiniz gibi çok katmanlı sanki plise

elbise gibi üstüste katmanlardan oluşur. Hayvandan alındığında ters çevrildiği zaman

oksitlenme yapar ve renk değişikliği meydana gelir. Siyahlaşan tarafları kazımak,

girintili çıkıntılı yapıdan dolayı çok mümkün olmadığı için çok zahmetlidir. Ancak bu

parça çorbacılarda kullanılırdı. Satış olarak değersiz olsa da, özellikle çorbacılarda

kullanımı yaygındı. Biz de kullanırdık.

P.D.: Son bir sorum daha olacak. Kitabınızda en çok dikkat ettiğim ve bugün keşke

olsaydı diye düşündüğüm bir tarif var. İşkembeyi haşlayıp, söğüş niyetine meze

sofrasında yeşil biberle servis ettiğinizi yazmışsınız?Biraz daha detay verebilir misiniz?

G.P.K: Beğendiğinize sevindim. Gerçekten çok lezzetli bir yemekti yalnız kullanılan

işkembe mümkün olduğunca damar, yani kalın kısmından olacak. Üzerine sirke,

sarımsak, karabiber, tuz, kırmızı biber serpilip, yanında da yeşil sivri biber ve rakı ile

yenirdi. Hatta bir de peynir oldu mu gerçekten leziz olurdu. Kimileri üzerine biraz da

yağsız işkembe suyundan koydururdu. Eskide kaldı bu lezzetler.

P.D.: Kimbilir belki birgün yeme şansımız olur. Ben tatmak için sabırsızlanıyorum.

Benimle görüşme yapmayı kabul ettiğiniz için de ayrıca teşekkürler.

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3. Depth Interview with Hamit Vecdet Özkan (My Grandfather - Retired Military

Officer)

Date: 10.01.2013

Location: My Grandfather’s house.

Pelin Dumanlı: Dedeciğim sizinle tezimin konusu sakatat ile ilgili biraz sohbet edebilir

miyiz?

Hamit Vecdet Özkan: Tabii. Sorunuz efendim.

P.D.: O zaman şöyle başlayayım, sakatat deyince aklınıza ilk ne geliyor? Nedir sakatat?

H.V.Ö.: Hayvanın eti dışındaki yenilebilen şeyler.

P.D.: Peki ilk sakatat yediğiniz günü hatırlıyor musunuz?

H.V.Ö.: Yediğim ilk sakatat, öyle hatırlıyorum ki işkembe çorbasıydı. Bir de kelle.

Çocukluğumda da yemişimdir muhakkak ama 14 yaşından sonramı daha iyi

hatırlıyorum. 1938’lerde 14 yaşında olduğuma göre 75 yıldır yiyorum denebilir.

P.D.: Peki ilk evde mi yemiştiniz yoksa dışarıda mı?

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H.V.Ö.: Onu hatırlamıyorum tam. Ama evde de sıkça pişerdi. Arnavut ciğeri, işkembe

çorbası, paça ve beyin salatası bunları evde yapardık. Daha zahmetli olanları, tencereye

sığmayacak kadar büyük kelleleri dışarıda yerdik.

P.D.: Peki evlendikten sonra anneannem yapmaya devam etti mi? Sakatat evinizde pişti

mi?

H.V.Ö.: Evlendikten sonra sakatatçıdan ciğer, paça, uykuluk, işkembe ve beyin aldığım

oldu. Hala da alıyorum ama nadir artık.

P.D.: Benim gözlemlediğim kadarıyla ailemizde Arnavut ciğeri çok sık yapılan bir tarif.

Ama evde kedilere verilmesi haricinde hiç akciğer piştiğini görmedim. Eskiden akciğer

pişer miydi?

H.V.Ö.: Bizim çocukluğumuzda Arnavut ciğere, akciğer konurdu. Sonraları akciğer

konmamaya başladı. Bir de dediler ki kelebek hastalığı, akciğerden insana geçebilir.

Tüberküloz olmamak için akciğerin yenmemeye başladığını hatırlıyorum.

P.D.: Peki, bizim kültürümüzde yani İstanbul ve Türk mutfağında sakatatın sık sık

tüketilmesini, yaygın olmasını neye bağlıyorsunuz?

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H.V.Ö.: Biz yemek kültürü zengin bir milletiz. Doğal olarak ağız tadımız da var. Ama

onun da ötesinde hayvanın hiçbir şeyini atmıyoruz. Değerlendiriyoruz, bundan dolayı

olsa gerek.

P.D.: Son zamanlarda çok meşhur olan işkembe dükkanları var. Mesela Lale

İşkembecisi ya da Apik gibi...

H.V.Ö.: Eskiden hemen hemen her semtte işkembeciler vardı ve bu dükkanlarda daha

ziyade paça ve işkembe çorbası ile kelle satılırdı. Daha çok fakir halkın uğrak yeriydi.

İçine bol bol ekmek doğrayarak yerlerdi. Böylece karınlarını doyurmak ucuza gelirdi.

P.D.: Şu anda Apik İşkembecisi’nde 1 kase çorba 20-25 liradan satılıyor. Hiç de fakir

yemeği gibi değil.

H.V.Ö.: Evet. Şimdi bu yerler de yerine göre fiyat çekiyorlar.Mesela eskiden meşhur

Vangel vardı. İşkembe çorbası meşhurdu. Aksaray’da idi. Bir de Sirkeci’de çok büyük

bir yer vardı. Kapıda kuyruk olurdu.Bir kere hiç unutmuyorum, yanlarında yarım ekmek

getirdiklerini görmüştüm. Öyle sırada bekliyorlardı. Oranın verdiği ekmek dışında bir de

kendi ekmeklerini çorbaya doğrarlardı. Çok ucuza mideleri dolardı. Bende çok gidip

içerdim bu çorbacılarda. Ama şimdi, sosyete girdi bazı yerlere. Mesela Beyoğlu’nda

Küçükparmakkapı sokakta bir yer vardı. Eskiden çok mütevaziydi sonraları daha da

meşhur olmaya başladı sebebi de çevredeki eğlence yerlerinden çıkanların gece eve

gitmeden önce uğramasıydı. Özellikle fazla içki içenler, midelerini düzeltsin diye

sarımsaklı işkembe çorbası içerlerdi. Sonraları gece kulüpleri Beyoğlu civarında olduğu

131

için meyhane ve eğlence yerlerinin çevresinde çokça çorbacı açıldı. Müdavimleri de

genelde sosyeteydi, fiyatlarda buna oranla pahalandı.

P.D.: Peki dedeciğim, sizce sakatat mide bulandırıcı mı? Olumsuz ve kötü bir tarafı var

mı?

H.V.Ö.: Hayır, en kötü tarafı kolesterolü yükseltir diye biliniyor. O kadar.

P.D.: En son ne zaman yediniz?

H.V.Ö.: Bize dokunmasıyla beraber, senede 1-2 kere işkembe çorbası ve Arnavut ciğeri

olarak kaçamak yaparız. Anneannen güzel yapar. Herhalde 2-3 ay olmuştur. En son

ciğeri Beşiktaş’taki Akkoyunlular Ciğercisi’nden aldım. Oranın malı güzeldi. Artık çok

dışarıya çıkamıyorum. Bazen işte torunum, yani sen getiriyorsun, anneannen pişiriyor.

Geçenlerde teyzen bir uykuluk getirdi, anneannen yapamadı, çok kötü kokuyormuş,

tuhaf gelmiş gözüne, bu uykuluk değil dedi attı.

P.D.: Dedeciğim, bazı uykulukların, inek memesi olduğu söyleniyor, belki o denk

gelmiştir.

H.V.Ö.: Olabilir, zaten nerden aldığına da dikkat etmemiş. Sakatatı iyi yerden, bildiğin

bir yerden alacaksın.

132

P.D.: Ciğercilerde hep koyun, kuzu,dana ve sığır satılıyor. Hiç keçi sakatatı yediniz mi?

H.V.Ö.: Keçinin en makbul sakatatı paçasıdır. Tadına doyum olmazdı.Ama artık nerede

bulacaksın.Paça haricinde, hayır.Ama hatırlıyorum, biz askeriyede haftada 1 gün keçi eti

verirdik. Azaltmak için. Çünkü keçi aslında doğaya zarar veren yeni sürgünleri yiyen bir

hayvan. Bir ara çok çoğalmışlardı.

P.D.: Peki askeriyede yemek olarak sakatat çıkar mıydı?

H.V.Ö.: Ciğerin çıktığını ve yediğimizi hatırlıyorum.

P.D.: Peki dedeciğim, siz çorbacılar ya da lokantalar haricinde dışarıdaki, sokaktaki

seyyar satıcılardan hiç sakatat yediniz mi? Mesela ciğer ya da söğüş.

H.V.Ö.: Ciğer çok yedim. Söğüş ne ama onu bilmiyorum.

P.D.: En meşhurunun İzmir’de Kızlarağası Hamamı’nda olduğunu öğrenmiştim. Gidip

orada yeme fırsatım da oldu. Kelleyi haşlayıp, ayıklayıp söğüş olarak satıyorlar. Dil,

yanak, beyin ve kelle etini pidenin arasına koyup üzerine kimyonve soğan ekleyip

veriyorlar. Çok lezzetli idi. Bir de öğrendim ki söğüşçülerin hepsi Niğdeliymiş. Burada,

İstanbul’da da, Dolapdere’de bir söğüşçü duruyor, arabada satıyor.

133

H.V.Ö.: Bunların hepsi işkembe dükkanlarıydı. Çorbacılarda satılan işkembe çorbası

dışında, yarım baş, bütün kelle yenirdi. Beyinli mi olsun, beyinsiz mi olsun diye sorardı

garson. Mesela yarım baş için kafanın yarısını böler, gözü de gelir hatta yarısında, yarım

dil ve beyinle servis ederlerdi. Yanında kekik olurdu muhakkak. Onu yersin aşağı yukarı

doyarsın. Ben bunu biliyorum. Diğer söğüş arabasını duymadım. Ama lokantada verilen

söğüşlerin de devamlı hastaları vardır, yani müdavimleri. Çok lezzetlidir. Ben bile

fabrikadayken yani 1990 senesine kadar, haftada 1 canım çekerdi ve yediğim olurdu.

Çağlayan tarafındaydı dükkan.

P.D.: Bence biz çok şanslı bir aileyiz, anneannem evde çok sakatat pişirirdi, dolayısıyla

da annem de bize yedirdi. Ama bakıyorum da birçok arkadaşım arasında kimse sakatat

yemiyor.

H.V.Ö.: Herkesin, her ailenin bir yemek kültürü vardır. Ağız tadı vardır. Gurme mi

deniyor şimdi sen daha iyi biliyorsun. Bir kere yiyip de tiksinti duyan olursa, onun için

sakatat bir daha yenmez olur. Hele de evinde pişmiyorsa, dışarıda da aramaz. Ama evde

yapılan her şeyi, insan dışarıda da tatmayı ister.

P.D.: Sağolun Dedeciğim. Sizi yordum bugün.

H.V.Ö.: Olur mu hiç, bir sorun olursa gene emrindeyim. Ne zaman istersen, senden ücret

de almam.

(Gülüşmeler)

P.D.: Tamam, teşekkür ederim.

134

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http://vimeo.com/31435755

Metin Saip Sürücüoğlu, “Kitchen Organization, Ceremonial and Celebratory Meals in

the Ottoman Empire”,

http://www.turkishcuisine.org/article_details.php?p_id=19&Pages=Articles

145

Ntvmsnbc Article, ”İşkembe Çorbası Hayal Olabilir”

http://www.ntvmsnbc.com/id/25302293/

Prof. Dr. Mustafa Tayar, “Meat Consumption in Ottoman,”

http://www.dunyagida.com.tr/yazar.php?id=12&nid=2935

Smith, William D.C.L., LL.D.: A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, John

Murray, London, 1875.

http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Haruspices.

html

Online Ethymology Dictionary

http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=sacrifice&search

mode=none

Sevan Nişanyan, “Nişanyan Dictionary” http:/www.nisanyansozluk.com

The List of Interviewees

1. Cevdet Sertbakan, (Owner of the Recep Ciğercisi)

2. Georgi P. Kostandov, (Author of the book “İstanbullu Bulgarlar ve Eski İstanbul

Geçmişten Günümüze Osmanlı Bakiyesi Bulgarlar Üzerine Bir Araştırma 1800-

2000” / Chemistry Teacher / I.M.I Liceo Italiano Vice Principal)

3. Hamit Vecdet Özkan, (My Grandfather - Retired Military Officer)

4. Sinan Yalvaç, (Kokoreç Seller)

5. Veysel Direk, (Butcher)