Notes

Introduction

1. This type of paranoia has been the backdrop for political campaigns aroundthe globe:

Anti-immigration opinion, more often than not associated with anti-Muslim sentiment led to electoral success in Austria, the Netherlands,Denmark, Italy, Belgium and Switzerland for nationalist, anti-immigrant,or conservative parties that are routinely described by the media as“racist,” “xenophobic” and “right-wing.” Some of their platforms mightindeed be seen as based on irrational prejudice and false generalizations.But in most cases they were a natural reaction to the mainstream politi-cal parties’ refusal to even admit that there is a Muslim integration andimmigration problem, let alone to deal with it.

(Radu 75–6)

2. “I told those who were interviewing me [after the 7–7 bombing attacks] togo back and review the 1997 film of Hanif Kureishi’s brilliant short story‘My Son the Fanatic,’ and then to reread Monica Ali’s 2003 novel, BrickLane.” In a related piece, Hitchens makes the point that Muslim treatment ofwomen must be made a special concern: “if you look at any Muslim societyand you make a scale of how developed they are, and how successful theeconomy is, it’s a straight line. It depends on how much they emancipatetheir women. It’s as simple as that” (“Fanatics of London”).

3. Today, Islam is the second largest faith community in Britain. After adding aquestion about religious affiliation in the 2001 Census for the first time, theresponses revealed that there were 1.6 million Muslims living in England,mainly clustered around urban centres. Sixty-eight per cent of the popu-lation was South Asian in origin, and among them Pakistanis ranked as thelargest group. According to the 2001 Census, London has the largest numberof Muslims, totalling 607,000, followed by the West Midlands Metropoli-tan County (192,000), Greater Manchester (125,219) and West YorkshireMetropolitan County (150,000). For further reading, see Peach’s “Muslimsin the UK” (18–30).

4. In many of the interviews they conducted with British citizens of Arabdescent, Nagel and Staeheli record that the label “British Muslim” was seenas problematic; the interviewees reveal that they are much more interestedin an “effort to validate Arab cultural identities in Britain, rather than tocreate a public, Muslim identity” (100).

5. William Safran’s characterisation of diasporic communities is a useful one.His list includes several important features:

1) they, or their ancestors, have been dispersed from a specific original“centre” to two or more “peripheral” or foreign regions; 2) they retain

183

184 Notes

a collective memory, vision or myth about their original homeland—itsphysical location, history and achievements; 3) they believe that they arenot—and perhaps cannot be—fully accepted by their host society andtherefore feel partly alienated and insulated from it; 4) they regard theirancestral homeland as their true, ideal home and the place to whichthey or their descendents would (or should) eventually return—whenconditions are appropriate; 5) they believe they should collectively becommitted to the maintenance or restoration of their homeland andto its safety and prosperity; and 6) they continue to relate, personallyor vicariously, to that homeland one way or another, and their ethno-communal consciousness and solidarity are importantly defined by theexistence of such a relationship. (83–4)

6. Or ask “whether or not ‘Islam’ is compatible with cherished ‘Western’principles” (Gale and Hopkins 2).

7. As Rina Benmayor and Andor Skotnes explain, immigration impacts theidentity of the displaced subject as well as the host culture:

Being a “migrant” is often a negative identity imposed by the dom-inant culture on generations of descendants of those who made thetrip. Thus, in our usage, the experience and effects of migration are long-term and critical in shaping and reshaping both collective and individualidentities. (8)

8. Peach notes that “Although there is no necessary relationship between eth-nicity and religion, over the last fifty years British discourse on racialisedminorities has mutated from ‘color’ in the 1950s and 1960s to ‘race’ inthe 1960s–1980s, ‘ethnicity in the 1990s and ‘religion’ in the presentperiod” (18).

9. In 2004, the BBC reported that “religious hate crimes, mostly againstMuslims, have risen six-fold in London”—and it is likely that this repre-sents only a fraction of the actual crimes committed (“Hate crimes soar afterbombings”).

10. In a similar fashion, the European Monitoring Centre on Racism concludedthat “across the entire spectrum of the EU member states incidents wereidentified where a negative or a discriminatory act was perpetrated againstMuslims or an entity that was associated with Islam” (Allen 51).

11. To further clarify some of the complications associated with the term,Richardson borrows the provisional definition of Islamophobia as proposedby the OSCE: “The term intolerance and discrimination against Muslims refersto behaviour, discourse and actions which express, in OSCE states where peo-ple of Muslim heritage live as minorities, feelings towards them of hatred,hostility, fear or rejection” (4).

12. For more discussion, see Etienne Balibar, “Is there a ‘Neo-Racism’?” 17–28 inRace, Nation, Class: Ambiguous Identities, eds Etienne Balibar and ImmanuelWallerstein. London: Verso, 2002.

13. Chris Allen further addresses this void from a legal point, stating thatwhile “mono-ethnic faith communities benefited from protection againstdiscrimination, [ . . . ] multi-ethnic minority faith communities, like Muslims,benefited from neither protection nor the equality provision” (53).

Notes 185

14. Of course, as the next chapter will detail, the construction of the Muslim asthe Other dates back to the times of the crusades; as Amin Maalouf writes,the sacking of Jerusalem in 1099 was the “starting point of a millennial hos-tility between Islam and the West,” contributing to an ideological dividingbetween the East and the West (xvi).

15. Similarly, Haifa Zangana’s Women on a Journey: Between Baghdad and Londonends with the murder of a veiled woman.

16. Iqbal, an Iraqi refugee in Haifa Zangana’s Women on a Journey, feels con-stantly worried about her family back home once economic sanctions areput in place by the United Nations: “I think their plight is even worse now.In the past, they were fighting against a dictatorial regime; now they have tofight against the regime and hunger as well” (53). Iqbal’s worries are recip-rocated by the British school teacher who represents disillusioned liberals:“I read a long article in The Guardian about Saddam’s regime. The problemis that Blair’s government’s policy in Iraq is no different from that of theConservatives” (53).

17. British involvement also divided the literary world: on the one side wereauthors such as Julian Barnes, John le Carré, David Lodge and Harold Pinter,who saw the war as unjustified, and worried that it would sink Britain’s cred-ibility in the Muslim world; on the other side were writers such as SalmanRushdie, Christopher Hitchens, Ian McEwan and Martin Amis, who felt thatthe war was justified and that the removal of Saddam Hussein served thenational interest. Julian Barnes writes:

The reasons put forward by the British government to justify the Anglo-American invasion were at best flimsy, at worst mendacious. The British“dossier” was feeble and plagiaristic; the American presentation to the UNastonishingly thin. Finally, when these justifications seemed insufficient,the humanitarian argument was invoked, a sudden, hypocritical rush tocaring where little had previously been evidenced.

(Wilson and Woolf 28)

His views were disputed by the opposing camp; the most vocal among themwas Hitchens, who declared in his piece “A War to be Proud Of” (The WeeklyStandard) that

I am one of those who believe, uncynically, that Osama bin Laden didus all a service (and holy war a great disservice) by his mad decision toassault the American homeland four years ago. Had he not made thisworld-historical mistake, we would have been able to add a Talibanizedand nuclear-armed Pakistan to our list of the threats we failed to recognizein time. (This threat still exists, but it is no longer so casually overlooked.)

18. Abu Hamza’s aggressive rhetoric focused on recruiting Muslims as fightersagainst Western corruption. He often alluded to the suicide bomber as a mar-tyr working to avenge the enemies of Islam: “Killing a Kafir who is fightingyou is OK. Killing a Kafir for any reason, you can say it, it is OK—even ifthere is no reason for it” (“In quotes: Hamza’s preachings”).

19. On the desire of British Muslims “to write back,” see Yassin-Kassab’s “Am I aMuslim Writer?” Muslim Writers Awards 2009.

186 Notes

20. In Aboulela’s words: “Write in a Western language, publish in the westand you are constantly translating, back and forth” (“Moving Away fromAccuracy” 200).

21. In the light of the growing market demand for Muslim writers, ClaireChambers pinpoints an irony in the publishing industry: while “Muslimsas a demographic group have tended to be discouraged from entry intothe worlds of publishing or writing, [ . . . ] [they] are expected to be thefastest growing sector of the book-buying public over the coming years”(“Multi-Culti” 389).

22. See a discussion of the critical reception of Aboulela’s work in ClaireChambers’s “An Interview with Leila Aboulela” 91.

23. For a full discussion of these terms see Claire Chambers’s “Multi-Culti”389–404.

24. In a similar fashion, Kureishi describes London in The Buddha of Suburbia as acity with “Too many disoriented people” (127). However, his reference hereis spatial with cultural implications; my use of the term emphasises the ideaof identity-formation.

25. In Bhabha’s words, “Hybridity is the sign of productivity of colonial power,its shifting forces and fixities; it is the name for the strategic reversal of theprocess of domination through disavowal” (159).

26. In addition to Homi Bhabha’s formulation of Third Space, we see thistype of thirding in the works of Edward Soja, who presents a discussionof “Thirdspace Perspective” as a way of combining perceived space withconceived space in order to emphasise the dynamic between “things” and“thoughts.” Similarly, Ernest Gellner’s hypothetical “third man” is a spec-ulation about a moderate position between religious fundamentalism andrelativism.

27. The reactive identity is “formed through taking on dominant categories thatcirculate within hegemonic discourses” while the creative identity mate-rialises “through the fusion and cross-cutting of multiple identities andmaking new visions possible” (Birt 216).

28. Undeniably, the existence of Islamic states in the Middle East which are gov-erned by sharia (Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Yemen and the United ArabEmirates) affirm such views. Yet the presence of Islamic states in no way canbe seen as proof of Islam’s inability to reinvent itself within a secular con-text. Let us remember that there are indeed secular models (Turkey, Lebanon,Iraq, etc.) where there is a clear line between religion and politics despite theoverwhelmingly Muslim majority.

29. A thorough discussion of secularism first appears in George Holyoake’sEnglish Secularism published in 1851; secularism is defined here as a “codeof duty pertaining to this life, founded on considerations purely human,and intended mainly for those who find theology indefinite or inade-quate, unreliable or unbelievable” (35). By characterising secularism as acivic responsibility against religious imperatives, Holyoake advocates “openthought,” which he describes as “ ‘self-thought’ or ‘free-thought’ or ‘originalthought’—the opposite of conventional second-hand thought—whichis all that the custom-ridden mass of mankind is addicted to” (2).Holyoake’s provocative discussion later inspired the French, who adoptedsecular education as an individual right under the Jules Ferry Lawsin 1881.

Notes 187

30. Although secularism is associated with Western political thought, to accept itas an inherent value of the European modern state would be misleading. Firstof all, such a conception presupposes a historically inaccurate portrayal ofEuropean political thought. For centuries, Christianity had been a dominantforce in managing the political affairs of Europe. The influence of a highlycentralised Church was evident at state levels; not only in terms of personalmatters (arranging marriage, blessing birth, imposing diets, etc.) but alsopolitical ones (determining the legitimacy of heirs, organising crusades, etc.).Indeed, it would be naïve to ignore Christianity’s role in the nation-buildingprocess throughout Europe. By offering “a system of actions involving for-mal rituals and symbolic ceremonies to mark the major passages of birth,marriage and death, as well as the regular seasonal celebrations,” the churchmeddled with the affairs of the state, manipulating political outcome andthe future of Europe (Norris and Inglehart 9).

31. Because of this more radical approach, France does not include questionsabout religious affiliation in its census survey; consequently, while it iscommon knowledge that Islam is the second largest religion in Franceafter Catholicism, there are no hard numbers to substantiate this—it isbroadly estimated that there are 6–12 million Muslims who are Frenchcitizens.

32. Stephanie Giry takes issue with this misconception arguing that “one can belaique and Catholic—or Muslim—at the same time” (3).

33. Of course, the demarcation can be treacherous, especially because neithersphere can be understood as static; as Nagel and Staeheli argue, “the manydichotomies structuring the public—public and private, rational and irra-tional, national and foreign, among others—have been renegotiated and, tosome extent, reformulated through the political mobilisation of subordinategroups” (97).

34. A growing number of writers in the Middle East have been investigatingthe impact of Islamopolitics in Islamic states where modernity and traditionseem to be at odds with one another. In Alaa Al Aswany’s The YacoubianBuilding, one of the religious leaders, the sheikh starts his sermon by describ-ing the merits of an Islamic government to govern over Egypt: “We do notwant our Islamic Nation to be either socialist or democratic. We want itIslamic-Islamic, and we will struggle and give up our lives and all we holddear till Egypt is Islamic once more” (96). By repudiating the democraticgovernment in power, the sheikh’s speech mobilises the Muslim youth totake action against the national army’s propagation of secularism. A num-ber of critics have taken positions which are not entirely unlike the sheikh’santi-secularism.

1 Islam and British Literature

1. For “any one man” and “maker of literary men,” see Famous Urdu Poets 71.For the Literary Society speech, see Farquhar 74. Farquhar, George I. The Lifeand Work of Syed Ahmed Khan. Graham, 74.

2. As Dimmock rightly points out, “neither ‘Islam’ nor ‘Muslim’ would havemeant anything to most inhabitants of [ . . . ] England” (52).

3. Similarly, Mohammad was often labelled as “the Devil reincarnate, a falseprophet and a charlatan” (Bennett 7).

188 Notes

4. Robinson observes, for example, that “From the 1640s on, the royalistsimagined parliamentarians and defenders of regicide like Milton as fanaticalrevolutionaries on the model of Muhammad” (146).

5. The title of the translation was The Alcoran of Mahomet, Translated out ofArabique into French; By the Sieur Du Ryer, Lord of Malezair, and Resident for theKing of France, at Alexandria (1647). See Matar’s Islam in Britain 1558–1685.

6. Letter-writing was an informal way of communicating the peculiarities ofthe life in the colonies. According to Catherine Hall, these letters can be“put alongside the fiction and travel writings, the missionary reports andnew items” which were instrumental in creating long-lasting clichés aboutthe East (35).

7. Pardoe further goes on to argue that “The excessive exhaustion which itinduces, and the great quantity of time which it consumes, are the onlyobjections that can reasonably be advanced against the use of the Turkishbath” (137).

8. In a story from Plain Tales from the Hills (1888), titled “To be Filed for Ref-erence,” Kipling describes a “Mahommedan [sic] faquir” who after having“smoked several pounds of [the narrator’s] tobacco,” teaches him “severalounces of things worth knowing” (332–3). In this instance, we see theMuslim character elevated to the role of an enlightened philosopher, willingto share his wisdom with a Westerner.

9. Sharpe writes: “Like the men identified as the most savage of mutineers, theman who stands accused of rape [ . . . ] is a Muslim and one who indulges inOrientalist fantasies about his Mogul ancestors” (128).

10. Malak considers the publication of this novel as Ali’s early attempt to“project the other side of the story and to prove that spunky ‘subalterns’can speak for themselves” (27).

11. Novelists such as Waguih Ghali, an Egyptian writer whose only publishednovel, Beer in the Snooker Club (1964), gives an account of the main charac-ter’s impressions of Cairo and London in the 1950s with specific referencesto the Suez crisis in 1956 and his disillusionment with Nasser’s version ofArab nationalism. This writer was grouped with other Arab authors (includ-ing Jabra Ibrahim Jabra and Assab Y. Kayat), but Ghali’s work offers a uniqueand vivid manifestation of an identity crisis faced by the protagonist as hetravels between the East and the West. Described as “the first Arab Britishwriter,” Edward Selim Atiyah’s An Arab Tells His Story: A Study in Loyalties(1946) also points to an important development. Even though neither of theauthors are Muslims, their depiction of their Arab heritage clearly illustratesthe Arab as a cultural and racial Other to Britain. For more discussion, seeHassan’s Immigrant Narratives.

12. As Sayyid contends, “The contrast between modernity and non-modernityis also a description of the contrast between what constitutes the West(civilisation, democracy, rationality, freedom) and its ‘other’ (barbarism,irrationality, despotism, slavery). The difference between the modern andnon-modern constitutes a frontier between the West and the Rest” (102).

13. “Exilic memoirs,” in which displaced Iranians gave personal accounts of liv-ing in a post-revolutionary Islamic state gained popularity: The BlindfoldHorse: Memories of a Persian Childhood (1988) by Susha Guppy and Daugh-ter of Persia: A Woman’s Journey from Her Father’s Harem through the Islamic

Notes 189

Revolution (1992) by Sattareh Farman-Farmaian appealed especially, perhapsprimarily to Western audiences.

14. According to Nixon, the author completely ignores the economic exploita-tion of the East which contributed to its impoverishment, and ratheridentifies Islam as the raison d’être for this type of deprivation:

The focus of Naipaul’s dismissals and his rage is the bad faith exhibitedby his generalized Islam. Islamic societies, he argues, are guilty of “tech-nological parasitism”: they depend, in his eyes, on Western creativity andgenerosity while rejecting the Western ideologies that gave birth to thesequalities.

(“Among the Mimics and Parasites” 155)

15. According to Brennan, “Distanced from the sacrifices and organizationaldrudgery of actual resistance movements, and yet horrified by the oblivious-ness of the West toward their own cultures, writers like Rushdie [ . . . ] havebeen well-poised to thematize the centrality of nation-forming while at thesame time demythifying it from a European perch” (28).

16. It is also possible to read Chamcha’s yearning for acceptance as a critiqueof hybridity gone wrong. His marriage with Pamela Lovelace, for example,indicates his desire to integrate to his host culture through the institutionof marriage as a legal union. For Chamcha, Pamela (canonical with herRichardsonian name) represents Britishness.

17. Aldama argues that “Rushdie’s magicorealism narrative remaps such ‘inter-penetrations’ and celebrates the cultural birth of the heteroglossic novel inits deliberate participation in a mimesis-as-play story-telling tradition” (102).

18. In Amirthanayagam’s words, “This is clearly not a statement about culturalclash or collision: it is a new syndrome of aspirations and fantasies of theresident alien who wants to supplant his host culture with his culture oforigin” (297).

19. “When the news got around Jahilia that the whores of The Curtain had eachassumed the identity of one of Mahound’s wives, the clandestine excitementof the city’s males was intense; yet, so afraid were they of discovery, bothbecause they would surely lose their lives if Mahound or his lieutenants everfound out that had been involved in such irreverences, and because of theirdesire that the new service at The Curtain be maintained, that the secret waskept from the authorities” (The Satanic Verses 393).

20. Sura an-Najm (“Star”) in the Qur’an makes references to three other femaledeities (namely Al-Lat, Al-Uzza and Manat), thus jeopardising the monothe-istic integrity of the religion. Muhammed later recants his recognition ofthese deities, but keeps the verses in the Qur’an (known as the Satanic Verses)to remind himself and others that people can easily be tempted by Satan.

21. James Harrison explains Rushdie’s motive as an exploration of the idea that“all sacred texts are a joint product of divine revelation and imperfect humanreception of that revelation” (117).

22. In a radio broadcast, Khomeini declared: “In the name of Him, the High-est. There is only one God, to whom we shall return. I inform all zealousMuslims of the world that the author of the book entitled The Satanic Verses—which has been compiled, printed, and published in opposition to Islam,the Prophet, and the Qur’an—and all those involved in its publication who

190 Notes

were aware of its content, are sentenced to death” (Pipes 27). Even afterthe author’s public apology and his conversion to Islam, the imam refusedto retract and continued his insistence on rebuking the blasphemer, statingthat “Even if Salman Rushdie repents and become the most pious man of[our] time, it is incumbent on every Muslim to employ everything he has,his life and his wealth, to send him to hell” (30).

23. We can also add Kureishi’s The Buddha of Suburbia to this list; both Haroonand Anwar use religion as a way to escape from the type of alienationinflicted upon them as immigrants: “Now, as they aged and seemed settledhere, Anwar and Dad appeared to be returning internally to India, or at leastto be resisting the English here. It was puzzling: neither of them expressedany desire actually to see their origins again. ‘India’s a rotten place’ ” (64).In time, Anwar’s stubborn attachment to Islam to exert his patriarchal powerturns him into a caricature of the Muslim immigrant, unable to adapt tomodernity.

24. Sara Upstone writes:

Against the critical analysis of Kureishi’s character development . . . thelimitations in his representation of women and the working-class . . . I found myself in the wake of July 7th instead drawn to thecontent of Kureishi’s novel with an altered perspective. What had oncebeen perhaps, in both my eyes and those of others, the largest flawin Kureishi’s novel, I now read as its most significant feature. Theflaw referred to in this instance is the bombastic style which Kureishiemploys—a heavy-handed points scoring which pursues its social visionwithout subtly or complication. (2)

25. Mark Greer reports in The Guardian that based on the findings of the Demos’sreport “83% of Muslims said they were proud to be a British citizen, com-pared with the national average of 79%”. For more information, see thepamphlet, “A Place For Pride,” prepared by Max Wind-Cowie and TomGregory in 2011.

26. Zeina, for example, serves to show the harsh realities that await youngwomen whose virginal qualities are strongly tied to family honour (a themeI will consider more closely in Chapter 4). Her account of the weddingnight as well as her schemes to get rid of her husband’s second wife vividlydemonstrate the abuse such women can suffer. Yet Zeina also proves to becunning, able to use certain codes and taboos to her advantage. When Zeinaexpresses her distaste for the younger wife, she does not find much initialsympathy. To get rid of her, she devises a plan to smear her name: onenight, she visits the younger wife in her bed, seduces her and leaves bitemarks on her body only to suggest to her husband in the morning thatthe younger wife had taken a lover. When the husband discovers a bitemark on her thigh, he divorces her on the spot (by repeating the phrase“I divorce you”) and sends her back to her family as “damaged goods.”Zeina’s calculated reaction reveals her sense of triumph: “Zeina took hertime, lining her eyes with kohl and rubbing scent between her breasts. Shewalked out of her room, slowly, hips swaying” (Soueif 112). In the end, shegets her way.

Notes 191

27. If this is indeed the case being made, then novelists such as Kureishiand Smith are guilty of adding to the “post-imperial residue of dysfunc-tional ignorances.” Ranasinha is concerned that these novels “crudely anduncritically reflect and embody rather than question predominant fears,prejudices, and perceptions of practicing British Muslims as ‘fundamental-ists’ ” (239).

28. Bhabha defines Third Space as a position which “though unrepresentable initself, [ . . . ] constitutes the discursive conditions of enunciation that ensurethat the meaning and symbols of culture have no primordial unity or fixity;that even the same signs can be appropriated, translated, rehistoricized andread anew” (37).

2 Rethinking Hybridity in Monica Ali’s Brick Lane

1. Henri Lefebvre, the French sociologist whose work focuses on the organisa-tion and the conceptualisation of cities in the 1960s, argues for the necessityof paying more attention to space, writing that “Space is nothing but theinscription of time in the world, spaces are the realizations, inscriptions inthe simultaneity of the external world of a series of times, the rhythms ofthe city” (16). Expanding on Lefebvre’s arguments, Edward Soja argues forthe necessity to utilise space in discussions about human agency. In Soja’sview, the former scholars’ partiality towards time is a consequence of “thepowers of historical imagination and the traditions of critical historiogra-phy” that tend to “silence and subsume the potentially equivalent powers ofcritical spatial thought” (Thirdspace 15).

2. For further discussion of Brick Lane’s ethnic and economic profile, seeGeorge Mavrommatis’s “The New ‘Creative’ Brick Lane” 498–517.

3. It is important for the purposes of this chapter (as well as the rest ofthe book) to limit my discussion of Islam to the way it is representedin the novels. My references to Islam in this chapter will strictly be lim-ited to the way it is interpreted by the Bengali community within thenovel.

4. As Maurice Merleau-Ponty points out, “the body [ . . . ] is not itself a thing, aninterstitial matter, a connective tissue, but [rather] sensible for itself” (“TheIntertwining” 397).

5. Ali’s illustration of the grim conditions in the East End has received criticalpraise; Sukhdev Sandhu, for example, commends the novel for “articu-lat[ing] [Bangladeshis’] fears and desires, and offer[ing] a rich and finelytextured corrective to those accounts which portray them as elective mutes,unthinking purveyors of Third World tradition” (10). Brick Lane certainlycreates a narrative voice that gives life to the inner tensions of a communitythat is often viewed in stereotypical ways.

6. Yunas Samad explains that village-kin networks are crucial in establishing“alliances consisting of extended families,” contributing to the “process ofchain migration,” especially through arranged marriages (91).

7. The Sylhet population (originally from north-eastern Bangladesh) viewedChanu’s statement as a “shameful” representation of immigrants. In “BrickLane: Gender and Migration,” Hussain discusses that after the publication

192 Notes

of the novel, The Greater Sylhet Development and Welfare Council wroteto Random House to express their frustration with the biased depiction ofBangladeshis (92).

8. Many immigrants experience racism in their work environment as theyinteract with the white British: “It is the white underclass, like Wilkie, whoare most afraid of people like me,” protests Chanu, and continues:

As long as we are below them, then they are above something. If they seeus rise then they are resentful because we have left our proper place. Thatis why you get the phenomenon of the National Front. They can play onthose fears to create racial tensions, and give these people a superioritycomplex. (21)

The poor treatment the immigrant receives in the workforce triggers disil-lusionment with the host country. His exclusion from the centre suggestsa symbolic act of silencing, an idea that is closely related to the rhetoricalemasculation of the male subject in the colonial order. And this symboliceffeminisation has ramifications for the immigrant women at home: theemasculated male immigrant returns from work to perform his masculin-ity overtly within the secure borders of the domestic space. In other words,the men compensate for their disenfranchisement from the British publicsphere by upholding the patriarchal order of the immigrant community.

9. Hussain expresses her discomfort with the monolithic depiction of theimmigrant life, the “textbook definition” of Otherness based on the cari-caturisation of Eastern subjects. She contends that the novel “provides anoutsider’s view of the Bangladeshi community” and “is not written from‘within’ the community it explores” (92). Jane Hiddleston’s observationsresonate with the former critic; she contends that the text is “split” dueto its ambiguous participation in and opposition to stereotypical culturalrepresentations (59).

10. Ziegler writes, for example, that “Mrs Azad represents a version, if asomewhat piquant one, of the woman Nazneen wants to become” (157).

11. Nazneen gradually understands that the reason Dr Azad accepts Chanu’sinvitations is to compare his misery with theirs: “He came as a man ofscience, to observe a rare specimen: unhappiness greater than his own” (90).

12. The portrayal of Mrs Azad can, in fact, be seen as a response to the way someof the dominant discussions of gender within postcolonial studies tend tojuxtapose tradition with modernity. Ali’s strength in this novel comes fromher ability to demonstrate that the Muslim woman’s disorientation cannotbe boiled down to a mere clash between the Enlightenment values of theWest and Islamic traditions embedded in her native culture; rather, a com-plex network of subject positions determine the extent in which the Muslimwoman experiences the pressures of being a Muslim and a woman in heradopted country.

13. The same observation holds true for other male characters, such as Razia’shusband, who “appear[s] to Nazneen to be perpetually angry,” working at afactory (54). Despite Razia’s protestations, he is determined to show his pietyby sending money “back home” to contribute to the building of a mosquewhen he barely makes ends meet at home.

Notes 193

14. Nazneen’s acceptance of fate can be contrasted with her sister’s obstinatedetermination to assert her own agency. When Hasina defies her father’sauthority by eloping with the son of a sawmill owner at the age of 16, Hamidwaits for her disgraceful return, planning to punish his “whore-pig daughter”by “severing her head” (5). Hasina never comes home, but after the failureof her marriage she faces an even more severe castigation imposed by thelarger society. Writing about patriarchal culture generally, Gloria Anzaldúaexplains:

The culture expects women to show greater acceptance of, and commit-ment to, the value system than men [ . . . ] If a women rebels she is a mujermala [ . . . ] For a woman of my culture there used to be only three direc-tions she could turn: to the Church as a nun, to the street as a prostitute,or to the home as a mother. (39)

In a Muslim society, the possibilities are even more limited: Hasina can eitherbecome a wife or a prostitute, a protector of culture or a corruptor. Victimisedin a hypocritical society, a society which keeps the appearance of abiding toIslamic rules but does not hesitate to violate the very foundation of Islamicprinciples of compassion and charity, Hasina faces rejection. She discoversthat there is little respect for women who stand on their own feet; withoutthe figure of the husband or the father, there is no place for them in thesociety. She is automatically marginalised as immoral and corrupt—and hersocial position makes her a target.

15. Wallace describes the mazeway as “the mental pattern” or “the cognitivemap” which is “the ever-changing product of many days’ experiences” (18).

16. Nazneen understands that her own image of Karim was also false; asCormack explains, “Karim has been a catalyst, forcing her into an existen-tialist realization of her bad faith, but he offers her no space for her ownidentity. To fall in love with him would be to reject one form of pedagogyand to accept another” (706).

17. As she begins to grapple with this somewhat dizzying process, Nazneen alsoreflects on the way Karim weaves a more public and politicised type of reli-gion into the fabric of their relationship, altering her perception of religionas a private experience. This opens up for her an entirely new view of theinteraction between the religious, public and domestic spheres. It becomesapparent to her that religion in Britain is often a mask for politics: theconservative Muslims politicise Islam while the conservative British viewmulticulturalism as the Islamisation of Britain. Soon, pamphlet wars ensuebetween The Lion Hearts, a group of extreme nationalists and Bengal Tigers,the Muslim League in which Karim serves as the chair. These pamphletssummarise the anti-Islam sentiment:

In our schools, it is multicultural murder. Do you know what they areteaching your children today? In domestic science your daughter willlearn how to make a kebab, or fry a bhaji. For his history lesson yourson will be studying Africa or India or some other dark and distant land.English people, he will learn, are Wicked Colonialists. (205)

The Lion Hearts not only repudiate cultural diversity, but see Islam as a reli-gion of “hate and intolerance” and extremist Muslims as the root cause of

194 Notes

Britain’s decline towards an “Islamic Republic.” While for many Muslimsimmigrants this type of anti-pluralist rhetoric inspires defensive reactions orfurther retreat from the British sphere, Nazneen responds in a political way,becoming one of the few female members of the Bengal Tigers. But unlikeKarim, who gradually embraces radicalism as a replacement for true religiousfaith, Nazneen resists the substitution of politics for religion. She needs toretain her independent, private faith, as opposed to Karim who maintains apublic facade based on his religious identity.

18. The sense of a split, which resonates with Merleau-Ponty’s discussion of theself: “It is true that often knowledge of other people lights up the way toself-knowledge: the spectacle outside him reveals to the child the mean-ing of its own impulses, by providing them with an aim” (Phenomenologyof Perception 215).

19. Mandaville offers a fair warning about critical Islam, arguing that it shouldnot be confused with “a postmodern orientation towards Islam” (132). Heexplains:

A postmodern Islam would embrace what Jean-Francois Lyotard termed“a skepticism towards metanarratives.” That is, it would mean the rejec-tion of any grounds upon which to found something like a pure andauthentic Islam. [ . . . ] Critical Islam, however, does not go this far.It believes that there is such a thing as an eternal core to the religion,albeit one that Muslims have lost over time. (132)

20. While watching these programmes broadcasted on TV, Nazneen develops agreat admiration for the women on skates:

The woman raised one leg and rested her boot on the other thigh, mak-ing a triangular flag of her legs, and spun around until she would surelyfall but didn’t. She did not slow down. She stopped dead and flung herarms above her head with a look so triumphant that you knew she hadconquered everything: her body, the laws of nature, and the heart of thetight-suited man who slid over on his knees, vowing to lay down his lifefor her. (20)

The assertiveness and the confidence of the skater bewitch Nazneen andeventually inspire her. Like the skater, Nazneen wants to take command ofher life and control its direction.

3 Subaltern Desire in Leila Aboulela’s Minaret

1. For further reading, see Leila Ahmed’s Women and Gender in Islam, Ahmed,Leila. Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots of a Modern Debate. NewHaven: Yale UP, c1992. Fatima Mernissi’s Beyond the Veil, and Yvonne YazbeckHaddad and John L. Esposito’s Islam, Gender, and Social Change. YazbeckHadda, Yvonne and John L. Esposito. Islam, Gender, and Social Change.New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.

2. According to Hassan, Aboulela’s work “represents two historical develop-ments since the 1970s: the Islamic resurgence that has attempted to fillthe void left by the failure of Arab secular ideologies of modernity and the

Notes 195

growth of immigrant Muslim minorities in Europe and the United States”(“Leila Aboulela” 298).

3. Najwa expresses her confusion in the following manner: “We didn’t knowthat we were being exiled, we didn’t know we were seeking asylum” (239).

4. Transnationalism can produce detachment as well. Later in the novel, Tamer,Lamya’s younger brother, demonstrates that being constantly on the move asan immigrant generates a sense of homelessness. For Tamer, Islam is the mostimportant part of his identity, something that his secular family would trivi-alise and mock: “I guess being a Muslim is my identity” (110). He regrets thathe has very little memory of his homeland of Sudan since his parents movedaround in other Muslim countries. Tamer becomes critical of his Westerneducation, which further alienates him from his culture of origin: “My Arabicis stronger than my English” (110). The type of transnational mobility hecondemns is the very means through which Najwa comes to Islam: whileTamer finds his transnational experiences disruptive of his efforts to becomea committed Muslim, Najwa initially owes her spiritual transformation toher participation in the transnational community of the mosque.

5. In analysing Jane Eyre, Spivak focuses her attention on interior spaces to dis-cuss the types of confinement they impose on characters; she writes that “thefamily at the center withdraws into the sanctioned architectural space of thewithdrawal room or drawing room; Jane inserts herself—‘I slipped in’—intothe margin . . . ” (A Critique of Postcolonial Reason 119).

6. Christine Sizemore observes that in Aboulela’s novel “national identity is notonly flawed and gender specific but unavailable and meaningless” (73).

7. Even those who study her writing, tend to focus their energies on theauthor’s reconstruction of the romance tradition (Wail Hassan) or theintertextuality displayed in her work (Stephan Guth).

8. The Translator, Aboulela’s first novel, is about a Sudanese widow living inScotland. After losing her husband in a car accident, Sammar, the protago-nist, takes a job as a translator at the university and meets Rae, an Islamicscholar. As their relationship develops, Rae’s inability to commit to religionbecomes an impediment.

9. Najwa continues to daydream in increasingly sexual terms: “I would like tobe his family’s concubine, like something out of the Arabian Nights, with alife-long security and sense of belonging. But I must settle for freedom inthis modern time” (215).

10. I borrow the term “space of erasure” from Penelope Ingram; however my usehere is quite different from the implications of her argument as articulatedin “Can the Settler Speak? Appropriating Subaltern Silence in Janet Frame’s‘The Carpathians.’ ” Ingram employs this term to address the silencing of thenative voice (generated by the inability to recover “lost roots”) as a way ofenabling “the production of a ‘indigenous’ voice for the settler, a voice thatis unsignifiable and untranslatable, one that would seem to emerge from thevery place of unpredictability where the ‘real’ subaltern’s silence is lodged”(80). I, on the other hand, use this term to refer to self-silencing, an inten-tional act of relinquishing agency for the sake of attaining a desired subjectposition resting on powerlessness.

11. The term “subaltern” was coined by Antonio Gramsci in his Prison Note-books to designate a rural populace who are politically and economically

196 Notes

disenfranchised, specifically designating peasants and military personnel insubordinate positions. This idea, of course, has been furthered by a group ofscholars, including Ranajit Guha and Gayatri Spivak, who look at the powerdynamics in decolonised India to argue that the peasants have been excludedfrom social reform and have become invisible agents in the national sphere.The subalterns, doomed to occupy subordinate positions, cannot be accu-rately represented since they lack voice and must always remain at themargins of the society. Najwa, of course, is not an Indian peasant, yet shecertainly embraces a subaltern-like identity.

12. We should also be cautious about using “subaltern” as a term to refer to theexperiences of immigrants who are traditionally excluded from the nationalcentre and are often considered as political outsiders for lacking representa-tion. As Spivak reminds us, “Simply by being postcolonial or the memberof an ethnic minority, we are not subaltern” (“Can the Subaltern Speak?”65). Subalternity requires a lack of consciousness, disorganised resistance andsilence that is “inherently untranslatable” (Ingram 87).

13. To elaborate on the idea of symbolic identification, Žižek gives a clear exam-ple: “as a father, I know I am an unprincipled weakling; but, at the sametime, I do not want to disappoint my son, who sees in me what I am not: aperson of dignity and strong principles, ready to take risks for a just cause—so I identify with this misperception of me, and truly ‘become myself’ when I,in effect, start to act according to this misperception” (49).

14. Some critics would disagree with this interpretation; Christine Sizemore, forone, writes that Najwa “reluctantly takes the money and leaves” (79).

4 Mimicry in Fadia Faqir’s The Cry of the Dove

1. In Britain, the book was released under the title, My Name Is Salma.2. It is also used to describe rhetorical and structural choices on the part of

the literary author: a “postcolonial novel,” in this view, is itself a form ofmimicry.

3. Naipaul’s critics are many: Rob Nixon finds fault with Naipaul’s inabilityto recognise neocolonialism as a legitimate impediment to progress andautonomy in the formerly colonised societies. In addition, he argues thatNaipaul “establishes ‘colonial mimicry’ as a function of place, not a functionof power” (London Calling 133). Selwyn Reginald Cudjoe takes a differentstance, contesting that Naipaul’s “derisive and derogatory portrayal of thecolonized person” obstructs his larger arguments about “the condition ofmimicry as an important moment in the transformation from colonialismto independence” (139).

4. I employ the term “tactic” in the manner of Michel de Certeau, whowrites that there is a significant difference between “tactic” and “strategy.”According to de Certeau, specific places utilise strategies, which he definesas “the calculation (or manipulation) of power relationships that becomespossible as soon as a subject with will and power (a business, an army, acity, a scientific institution) can be isolated” (35–36). Tactic, on the otherhand, refers to “a calculus which cannot count on a ‘proper’ (a spatial or

Notes 197

institutional localization), nor thus on a border-line distinguishing the otheras a visible totality. The place of a tactic belongs to the other” (xix).

5. Still others have faulted Bhabha’s dense and obscure language as an obstacleto his ideas and generating a “terminologically opaque, conceptually impre-cise and empirically lax” narrative (Hogan 25). I find Hogan’s critique ofBhabha’s essay compelling as he studies the relevance of the epigraphs usedat the beginning of the essay and problematises the author’s focus on “thecolonizer’s thought and action” rather than the colonised people whichseems to take away from his later discussion of subversion. Robert Youngmakes a similar point in White Mythologies: Writing, History and the West,stating that Bhabha’s discussion of Richard Burton acting as native cannotbe equated with the type of mimicry conducted by the colonised since “suchan analysis cannot be equally applicable to colonized as the colonizer” (145).Dimple Godiwala has related objections: “the subject-positions of the colo-nizer and the colonized are radically different, employed for very differentreasons, and on the part of the colonized subject, quite unconsciously as sheinternalizes and repeats implicitly the values she regards as superior” (61).

6. As Shalini Puri observes, “in Bhabha’s work, the unpredictable acts of agencythat elude will and conscious intent tend to stand in for all forms ofmimicry” (128).

7. A similar point is made by Kamboureli, who studies diasporic communitiesin Canada, concluding that “mockery is not a trope employed in diasporicmimicry; instead the operative trope there is a discourse of authenticity, adiscourse intended to project ethnicity as what defines a sovereign identity”(110). Defining diasporic mimicry as a simulation of “an ethnic community’sown image,” Kamboureli re-introduces the concept based on a performanceof ethnicity in diasporic communities. She further contends: “The agencylost here belongs to the domain of the ethnic subject, not that of mainstreamculture. Mimicry performed by ‘preservation’, ‘enhancement’, and ‘sharing’of ethnic traditions is of the kind that, more often than not, maintains thedominant society’s disciplinary gaze intact” (110). Whereas Kamboureli iso-lates “ethnicity” as the focus of her discussion by analysing the way mimicryfunctions within an ethnic group, my attention will zero in on religion toanalyse the type of mimicry at play between the Muslim subject and thenon-Muslim centre.

8. The version of Islam Faqir engages with is one that is adopted by rural pop-ulace of Bedouin tribes, following very strict codes that regulate behaviour(women in particular). One extreme measure used to enforce Islamic moralsis “honour killing,” a technically legitimate form of punishment whichabsolves the avenger from guilt. Salma never questions the logic. She acceptsher culpability and tries to learn to live with her remorse. This particu-lar novel draws attention to the elaborate relationship between habit andhabitat; Islam, the author seems to argue, is not only a spiritual philoso-phy transmitted in a vacuum, but a cultural practice determined equallyby the collective unconscious, shaping the very structure of the religiouspractice.

9. Both home and religion are presented as “judgmental and cruel, simultane-ously the sites of public shame and individual guilt” (Nash, “Review” 92).This is why Salma’s recollections of home are not always based on instances

198 Notes

of domestic bliss, but are rather tainted by the vengeful men who havediscarded her without hesitation.

10. What Abdo says about Faqir’s earlier novel is also valid here: “althoughFaqir’s [Pillars of Salt] both implicitly and explicitly attacks Islam, the text’slinguistic strategy of (dis)placement fights against a westernized cooptationof her struggle as a Muslim and Arab woman by conducting its own attackon the English reader and on orientalist Western appropriations of the imageand the role of the Arab and Muslim woman” (242–243).

11. Hogan further explains that practical identity “includes knowledge abouthow to greet and address different people, knowledge of how one is to takepart in religious activities or work, and so forth” (9). Practical identity isclosely related to the “reflective identity” which is the more vital componentof identity that influences one’s self-articulation: “Much of one’s practicalidentity is based on one’s sex, which is correlatively central to one’s reflectiveidentity” (9).

12. Such restrictions are instrumental in “shap[ing] discourses of male domi-nance and superiority and to preserve cultural and ethnic integrity” (Josephand Najmabadi 64).

13. It is important to point out that Islam is not only a set of rituals, but also thevery basis of a meaningful life, which haj Ibrahim regularly communicatesto his daughter as he expresses his affection for her: “You are lucky to beborn Muslim [ . . . ] because your final abode is paradise. You will sit there ina cloud of perfume drinking milk and honey” (11).

14. In her community, such secrecy is essential for maintaining her good name:“Ignorance about the body and its functions in girls and women is consid-ered a sign or purity, honor and good morals and if, in contrast, a girl doesknow anything about sex and about her body, it is considered somethingundesirable and even shameful” (Saadawi 67).

15. In many ways, Salma is a victim of the male gaze and male authority; unableto resist Hamdan’s charm, she gives in to his desire, enjoying his affectionsuntil he abandons her once he finds out about the pregnancy: “You areresponsible. You have seduced me with the yearning tunes of your pipe andswaying hips” (171). In similar fashion, Salma’s older brother, Mahmoud,who often watches Salma “with a mixture of love and disgust,” acts like “thedesert police on patrol,” ready to defend the honour of the family at anyhint of transgression (205). Some have explained Mahmoud’s obsession withmurder as a sign of his psychopathic behaviour; however, it is important topoint out that his actions are motivated not by an individual yearning tobutcher his sister; rather, he sees it as his responsibility to execute justice.

16. In her severe depression, Salma finds a support mechanism among the groupof “alcoholic women, prostitutes and killers of husbands” which becomesher surrogate family (44). Over the years, she continues to write to themimaginary letters, in which she lies about her well-being.

17. Faqir draws attention to the concept of untranslatability as an inherent con-dition of the immigrant experience. At the border, Salma is questioned by anofficer and their inability to understand one another results in miscommu-nication: when he asks her what her “Christian name” is, Salma responds:“Muslim no Christian” (34). On the one hand, this brief exchange can beviewed as “border humour,” where translation between the two cultures fails

Notes 199

miserably. On the other hand, the moment reveals a grim picture of Salma’sfuture, foreshowing the untranslatability of her subjectivity as a Muslim, andthe West’s effort to inscribe a recognisable “alien” identity on her.

18. This split is also enhanced stylistically as the narrative switches abruptlybetween the past and the present, disrupting the linear progression of thestory and confusing reality with memory. The “breakdown of temporality”coupled with sporadic delusions help the author explore the “fragmentedselves, languages and loyalties” traditionally identified as conditions ofpostcolonial identity (Abdo 240). In addition, the disjuncture of narrativetemporality creates another type of mimicry, this time experienced by thereader. This type of mimicry allows the reader to experience first-hand thetype of disorientation Salma goes through. The reader’s inability to locatetime and space in the narrative echoes Salma’s confusion. Faqir’s fiction hasbeen recognised by critics as being both postmodern and postcolonial; herworks often engage with postcolonial themes, but at the same time, “com-bine [ . . . ] Arabic traditional storytelling with postmodern narrative modes”(Suyoufie and Hammad 282).

19. Miss Asher continually questions the motivations behind the Islamic veil:“Do you have to wear this veil? God has made you perfect and he lovesevery part of you, including your hair” (159). Salma explains that withoutthe veil she feels naked. For her, it is a part of her clothes that make hercomplete.

20. Salma exclaims: “I am a British subject,’ I repeated like a mantra, ‘I am aBritish citizen.’ I swore allegiance to the Queen and her descendents” (81).

21. For Bhabha, such ambivalence is necessary for the “production of hybridiza-tion” (112). According to Robert Young, however, Bhabha’s statement con-tains a contradiction: “while there is always an ambivalence at work withinthe discourse of colonial instruction, that ambivalence is at the same timethe effect of its hybridization in the colonial context. Thus [Bhabha’s] owntheorizations hover ambiguously on the borders of the divisions that hedescribes” (150).

22. Salma suspects that Max is a member of the National Front; therefore, shekeeps her appearance and comments in check, making sure she does notsay anything that might threaten British conservative values. On more thanone occasion, Salma finds racist leaflets in Max’s office: “He believed that allforeigners must be loaded in ships and dumped ‘like the bananas they are’on the shores of Africa” (237). Whether Max is really xenophobic or not haslittle relevance; what is important is that Salma constantly feels vulnerableto anti-Muslim, anti-immigration sentiments and she therefore learns to relyon mimicry also as a defence mechanism.

23. Graham Huggan argues that “while exoticism describes the systematic assim-ilation of cultural difference, ascribing familiar meanings and associationsto unfamiliar things, it also denotes an expanded, if inevitably distorted,comprehension of diversity which effectively limits assimilation” (14).

24. In addition to being one of the rudiments of praying, washing is also remi-niscent of her giving birth. After her daughter is born, Salma almost slips intounconsciousness; the women around her pray and wash her: “They rubbedmy hair, my shoulders, my arms, my back, my legs with soap until I wascovered with white lather” (126).

200 Notes

25. This sentiment is also echoed by Parvin: “At first everything seemed possiblein this country, but the fucking orgasm does not last long” (145).

26. In The Buddha of Suburbia, Haroon, a first-generation immigrant, experiencesthe same type of disappointment with Britain:

“I thought it would be roast beef and Yorkshire pudding all the way.” [ . . . ]Dad was amazed and heartened by the sight of the British in England.He’d never seen the English in poverty, as roadsweepers, dustmen, shop-keepers and barmen. He’d never seen an Englishmen stuffing bread intohis mouth with his fingers, and no one had told him that the Englishdidn’t wash regularly because the water was so cold—if they had waterat all. And when tried to discuss Byron in local pubs no one warned himthat not every Englishman could read or that they didn’t necessarily wanttutoring by an Indian on the poetry of a pervert and a madman. (24–25)

27. As Anne Anlin Cheng explains, “Melancholia alludes not to loss per se butto the entangled relationship with loss. We might then say melancholia doesnot simply denote a condition of grief but is, rather, a legislation of grief” (8).

28. Cheng argues: “the melancholic ego as formed and fortified by a spectraldrama, whereby the subject sustains itself through the ghostly emptiness ofa lost other” (10).

5 Transnationalism in Camilla Gibb’s Sweetnessin the Belly

1. Mišcevic explains that this sort of multiculturalism “insists on the opencharacter of particular cultures and actively promulgates interaction betweenthem, as opposed to a closed, nationalist multiculturalism” (285). Similarly,in New World Order, Caryl Phillips contends that multiculturalism must tran-scend the idea of “a society that is composed of many different cultures allliving side by side,” and represent a mixing of cultures (279).

2. In Cosmopolitanism: Ethics in a World of Strangers, Appiah identifies cos-mopolitanism as the basis for civic harmony: “Our political coexistence, assubjects or citizens, depends on being able to agree about practices whiledisagreeing about their justification” (70). He explains that even thoughindividuals “can fail to share a vocabulary of evaluation” which causes themto form various estimations of the situation based on their personal inter-pretation, they may still agree on the course of action that is necessary topreserve respect and justice and to prevent harm. With that in mind, hedefines a cosmopolitan as someone who expresses dedication to pluralism(recognition of and respect towards the “stranger”), fallibilism (acceptingknowledge as imperfect) and conversation (interaction with difference).

3. Euben sketches out the various connotations of cosmopolitanism: “cos-mopolitanism has been construed quite differently in different epochs,serving at one moment to valorise the aspiration to love strangers as one’sown, at another to vilify various undesirables as deracinated parasites, andat yet another to cloak in politically palatable garb a universalism tainted byassociation with Western imperialist ventures” (175–176).

Notes 201

4. I borrow from Anthony Smith, who defines nationalism as “an ideologicalmovement for the attainment and maintenance of autonomy, unity andidentity of a human population” (2).

5. It is important to distinguish what I precisely mean by “transnationalism”since this term is often used ambiguously and even interchangeably withother terms such as “internationalism,” “globalisation” and “postnational-ism.” Akira Iriye defines internationalism as a “reformulation [ . . . ] of foreignand domestic policies in such a way as to overcome excessive parochialism,with its suspicion and hatred of ‘the other,’ and to establish a more inter-dependent, cooperative and mutually tolerant international community”(202). Unlike internationalism, which focuses on economic activities withinthe global order, transnationalism addresses communities that remain aboveor outside the nation through their connections with other categories ofidentity (such as race, gender, religion, etc.).

6. Some scholars, concerned with the failure of the nation-state to implementfreedom, equality and justice, have been quick to endorse this new vocabu-lary. Taking their cue from globalisation theory, this group of scholars focusestheir energies in foregrounding alternative communities that span borders inorder to recognise unconventional subject positions that remain outside thenational discourse—as seen in the case of diasporic communities, nomadictribes and political refugees as well as religious groups.

7. Paul Ricoeur’s description of dawning global consciousness is relevant toLily’s psychology:

When we discover that there are several cultures instead of just one andconsequently at the time when we acknowledge the end of a sort of cul-tural monopoly, be it illusory or real, we are threatened with destructionby our own discovery. Suddenly in becomes possible that there are justothers, that we ourselves are an “other” among others. (278)

8. Michael D. Levin notes that “once an autonomous city-state dominating itsagricultural hinterland, [Harar] today is the urban centre of a region withsome political autonomy within the Ethiopian state” (7).

9. Lily notes, “The Hararis thrived under feudalism; it was the basis of theireconomy, although for them to admit this would be to indict themselves asbeneficiaries of the emperor’s corrupt system” (Sweetness in the Belly 299).

10. Whereas Hararis are viewed as the sophisticated elite (“to be Harari is to becultured and rich” [Sweetness in the Belly 23]), the Oromos are labelled asGalla, the uncivilised. While the racial boundaries remain as strict barriers,an upward movement of class is possible; indeed, in many instances Harariculture welcomes inter-racial relations. Gishta is a perfect example of gentri-fication: originally an Oromo, she becomes a servant in a Harari householdand acquires the regional language, manners and style of dress, reinventingherself as a Harari. Eventually, she gains access “not only through educationbut also by virtue of being left a small inheritance by her employer,” whichallows her to become a desirable bachelor to attract a Sheikh Jami, who takesher as one of the co-wives (100). Similarly, Aziz, despite his biracial heritagewith a Sudanese father and a Harari mother, finds acceptance in the Harariculture by becoming an educated doctor. His education in Addis Ababa earns

202 Notes

him a position as a doctor at the local hospital and also gives him an urbansophistication and confidence which attracts Lily.

11. Serge Santelli writes that the Italians were instrumental in enhancing thedominance of Harari culture in the region since they saw them as a bufferagainst the resistance led by Christian Amhara: “[Italians] built mosqueseverywhere, named qadis in the centres, and encouraged the teaching ofArabic, which was declared as the official language in Harar. The policyfavoured the Ethiopian Muslim community, which was not, in the past, keptat the periphery of political life” (629).

12. Fanon argues that the absence of a colonial state often delays the formationof national consciousness:

Decolonization never goes unnoticed, for it focuses on and fundamen-tally alters being, and transforms the spectator crushed to a nonessentialstate into a privileged actor, captured in a virtually grandiose fashion bythe spotlight of History, It infuses a new rhythm, specific to a new gener-ation of men, with a new language and a new humanity. Decolonizationis truly the creation of new men. But such a creation cannot be attributedto a supernatural power. The “thing” colonized becomes a man throughthe very process of liberation.

(The Wretched of the Earth 2)

13. Dhikr, or zikr, means “remembrance” or “recollection.” Biegman explainsthat zikr “consists essentially of repeating with sincerity and concentrationsome of God’s ninety-nine ‘Most Beautiful Names’ and related declarationslike, ‘La ilaha illa Allah,’ There is no God but God” (11).

14. This type of cohesion makes Harar a popular destination for other Muslimswho value the walled city as a historic site, a religious centre, and a vibrantcrossroads. On her way to the square, Lily observes the animated trafficheading to the market:

I passed Oromo girls carrying more than their body weight in firewood,lepers on street corners waving their begging stumps, and Harari menwith white knit skullcaps making their way to work in the shops liningthe one paved road through the center of town. These merchants soldcheap imported goods from China and India—textiles, electronics anddinnerware—and dry goods, medicines and tobacco. The main street wasa symphony of screeching metal doors and boisterous greetings shoutedover tins of vegetable oil and bolts of cloth.

(Sweetness in the Belly 154–5)

Levin points out that the “boundary—literally concretized by the city wall—marked a discrete culture, [but] it never enclosed an isolated population” (8).

15. When a traveller named Muhammed Bruce Mahmoud (coincidentally afriend of Lily’s parents and her legal guardian) comes to Harar, claiming to bea Pakistani albino from a poor family in Lahore, the sheikh gives him shelteronly to discover that his guest is actually a Western informant. When histrue identity is exposed as “Bruce Mac-something of the United Kingdom,”the white traveller is banished. The sheikh burns all his belongings—exceptfor a “farenji book of lies about Harar” written by Sir Richard Burton, himself

Notes 203

famously a traveller whose ability to “go native” did not prevent him fromdismissing the local populations. Lily records that

Burton called this place “a paradise inhabited by asses.” He denouncedthe people as “religious fanatics,” “bigoted,” “barbarous,” “coarse anddebauched,” “disfigured by disease,” with ugly voices: “the men’s loudand rude,” “the women’s harsh and screaming.” (170)

16. James Mayall argues that regionalism “is even more incoherent than nation-alism” as a project (171). He further explains that the confusion rises fromthe lack of consensus surrounding the use of specific terms: “those who advo-cate regional solutions to political and economic problems do not merelydiffer on the meaning and implications of the concept, but are frequentlypursuing contradictory projects” (171).

17. John Clement Ball observes that London is both a representation of thenation and is outside of it; in his words, the cultural and racial diversity ofthe capital “makes the center’s center especially detached from a traditionalBritish ethnic-national space” (19).

18. Yasmin Alibhai-Brown reflects on Thatcher’s appearance in World in Actionin 1978: “she understood the British people’s fear ‘that this country mightbe rather swamped by people with a different culture’. In this statement liethe roots of what was to come later: her own white and nationalistic versionof Britishness and her rejection of the ideology of multiculturalism” (78).

19. This is also true for Islam; in the early days of the religion, military conquestshelped Islam spread rapidly from Arabia to Moorish Spain, from Singaporeto Africa, creating a network based on “trade, language, [ . . . ] scholarship” aswell as “moral ideals and social codes” (Cooke and Lawrence 5).

20. The connectedness of the members of religious communities has strength-ened recently; as Dale F. Eickelman writes, “Modern forms of travel andcommunication have accelerated religious transnationalism—the flow ofideologies, access to information on organizational forms and tactics, andthe transformation of formerly elite movements to mass movements—rendering obsolete earlier notions of frontier as defined primarily by geo-graphical boundaries” (27).

21. As Hannah Arendt writes “whether a nation consists of equals and non-equals is of no great importance [ . . . ], for society always demands that itsmembers act as though they were members of one enormous family whichhas only one opinion and one interest” (192).

22. In mainstream Islam, Sufism is viewed as a deviation from the central doc-trines; as Biegman explains: “Rather than clinging to the letter, [Sufis] believein an inner meaning of texts and rituals” (7).

23. Bilal al Habash is one of the early converts to Islam. Originally a slave to anArabian family, Bilal becomes a defender of Muhammed, and one of the firstmuezzins, calling people in Mecca for prayer.

24. She remembers being more dogmatic once, seeing the world in black andwhite. But she attributes that naïveté to her immaturity, and is grateful forhaving Aziz as her role model who taught her to enjoy life as a Muslimrather than denying life for the sake of an after-life. With Aziz, she learns thatshe does not need “protection” under the guise of rules, restricting women’schoices. He is able to show Lily that it is possible to maintain spiritual ethics

204 Notes

while participating fully in the secular world. Lily gradually learns to main-tain more balance in her life: neither to disavow worldly love as a distractionas her companion Hussein does, nor to neglect religious duties for the sakeof worldly pleasure.

25. Mandaville argues that “The way forward, according to critical Islam, would[ . . . ] be to reinterpret and reformulate the central precepts of the religionsuch that they speak directly to the contingencies of today rather than byreceiving them through the distorting filters of history” (131). Mandavillealso warns his readers that such conceptualisation of Islam should not beconfused with a postmodern understanding of religion:

[C]ritical Islam is not to be mistaken for a postmodern orientationtowards Islam. A postmodern Islam would embrace what Jean-FrancoisLyotard termed a “skepticism towards metanarratives.” That is, it wouldmean the rejection of any grounds upon which to found something likea pure and authentic Islam. [ . . . ] Critical Islam, however, does not gothis far. It believes that there is such a thing as an eternal core to thereligion. (132)

26. For Jonathan Smith, uniformity is precisely the predicament of diasporicreligion:

To the new immigrant in the diaspora, nostalgia for homeplace andcultic substitutes for the old, scared center were central religious val-ues. [ . . . ] Diasporic religion, in contrast to native, locative religion, wasutopian in the strictest sense of the word, a religion of “nowhere,” oftranscendence. (xiv)

27. “The global and the local do not exist as cultural polarities but as combinedand mutually implicating principles” (Beck 17).

6 Resisting Disorientation

1. Traditionally, young-adult literature is defined as “anything that readersbetween the approximate ages of twelve and twenty choose to read” (Nilsenand Donelson 6). Of course, young-adult literature reaches a wider audiencethan its immediate intended audience.

2. Roxburgh discusses the typical forms of crisis presented in young adultliterature:

The “ideal type” of contemporary adolescent fiction focuses on two kindsof crisis, although many related crisis are tied to those. The recognition byyouth of the breakdown of the traditional values and institutions of theadult world, be it the family, marriage, or parenthood, translates itselfinto novels of divorce, runaways and unwanted pregnancy. Related tothis, but distinct from it, are novels that deal with growth and burgeoningself-awareness, specifically, consciousness of sexuality. (142)

3. To give the most prominent recent example: the Twilight series capitalizeson the idea of teenage angst in unusually baroque ways.

Notes 205

4. In that regard, what Ken Gelder observes holds true for the popularity ofthese two novels: “popular fiction has less to do with discourses of cre-ativity and originality, and more to do with production and sheer hardwork. The key paradigm for identifying popular fiction is not creativity, butindustry” (15).

5. Abdullah, for example, contributes to The Guardian’s “Comment is Free”series. In similar fashion, Khan has a blog in which she discusses not onlyher public engagements but also shares her perspectives on a wide range ofissues.

6. Both Dilly and Kieran regularly experience racist abuse. Dilly is constantlybullied by a white boy at school who keeps calling her a “Paki,” while Kieranstruggles to deal with the Islamophobia after 9–11.

Was I, as a Muslim woman, responsible for the attacks on the twin towers?No, I was not. So how come I was harassed on the bus [ . . . ] How comeI was asked the classic question, “Why don’t you go back to where youcome from?” How come my best friend was called “Osama Bin Laden’sdaughter” just because she expressed her right to wear a headscarf? Howcome my father had to endure a tirade from a white man at a bus stop?

(Abdullah 54)

Kieran’s narrative demonstrates the vicious circle associated with the immi-grant experience: in the face of racial and religious attacks, the Muslimpopulace sticks together even harder and, as the immigrant communityforms a “cocoon” around it, it becomes less likely that they will integrateinto the national community.

7. Dilly recalls: “My father was a very religious man. He prayed five times a day,and every evening he’d line all the kids in the back room and make us readverses from the Koran” (Khan 8).

8. In a similar manner, when Kieran observes the civilised manners of a whiteman at Jasmine’s work, she sighs that Bengali men will never be as thought-ful or kind as the white: “we could never be like them [whites]. I supposeit’s true what they say: good breeding always shows” (Abdullah 81). Suchcultural bias was not present in the earlier narratives of disoriented women:they felt that they were anchored in one nation and culture while livingin another one and they never thought about simple Westernisation as anappropriate response to their situation.

9. According to Rhoda Maxwell, some mother figures tend to present a contraryimage to what traditional motherhood entails:

They relate with difficulty to their children, forgetting what it was likewhen they themselves were teenagers. Their personal interests and valuestake precedence over, and are usually in conflict with, those of their chil-dren. [ . . . ] They attempt to control their children’s lives and fit theminto a preconceived idea of how children should behave. [ . . . ] They havedifficulty empathizing with their children. (79)

10. Kieran similarly admits to “crav[ing] freedom” while living at home with herparents (Abdullah 148).

11. When her only son marries a feisty Pakistani cousin, the women in the com-munity warn Dilly’s mother: “If she was my daughter-in-law, I’d make sure

206 Notes

my son gave her a damn good beating. If you let her get away with that sortof behaviour, you’ll regret it later” (Khan 231).

12. In that regard, Ingram’s study of Victorian gender ideology holds true alsofor the Islamic community as presented in these two novels, as she examines“the destructive and infantilising effects of Victorian ideals of self-sacrificingwomanhood and the part mother play in transmitting those ideals to theirdaughters” (2).

13. Finding husbands for daughters is the main driving force in the two novels.In Life, Love and Assimilation, when it is announced that a prospective candi-date is to visit the family, Kieran cannot help but feel dejected. When Sarfrazintroduces himself to Kieran as a young professional with good manners anda sense of humour, she feels torn between two allegiances: although she is inlove with Zahid, she cannot bring herself to oppose her father and “lose hisrespect” over a boyfriend (95). Resolving to end her relationship with Zahid,she decides to go along with the marriage plans, hoping that married life willgive her more freedom. Instead, she realises that she is stuck with “a farce ofa marriage and a cheat for a husband” (Abdullah 135).

14. Dilly’s mother, for example, understands that a woman’s life is simply a cyclein which mistakes are repeated from one generation to the next. She herselfmarries at the age of 13 to escape from poverty: “I didn’t have a choice.I lived in a Chowki and Shah used to ride his bike over to see me on hisway home from college” (Khan 28). In the end, she realises, though, thatmarriage was not an answer to her troubles: “All I did when I got marriedwas trade one set of problems for another” (27).

15. In that regard, I agree with Ranasinha’s comments that “Aslam’s rich por-trayal of Kaukab contrasts with the flat depictions of mothers in [ . . . ]immigrant families” (“Racialized Masculinities” 305).

16. It is not surprising to hear Kamila Shamsie praise the author’s ingenuity andaccuracy in this representation or admire Kaukab as “the most extraordinary[ . . . ] character” in the text: “A woman brought up to believe in an unfor-giving, narrow-minded version of Islam, she could, in the hands of a lessernovelist, have become a monster.” Shamsie further comments that

in Aslam’s hands [Kaukab] is transformed into a woman entirely human,entirely heartbreaking. She is the devoted mother behind the headlinesabout the parent who sends her British-born-and-raised child back toPakistan into an arranged marriage; she is the young bride who used tostep out of the bath and wake up her husband by twisting her hair intoa yard-long rope and letting beads of water fall over him, but then grewinto a woman who equates sex with shame and sin; she is the voice ofcondemnation raised against all transgressions from orthodoxy and alsothe voice telling us: ‘Islam said that in order not to be unworthy of being,only one thing was required: love.’

17. Nadia Butt, for example, argues that “the novel is not only a critique ofinsular ways of keeping Islamic customs alive in some pockets of the AsianIslamic minorities in multi-ethnic Britain, but also a vehement vituperationof corruption and chaos in practicing orthodox religion” (165).

18. This is a point raised by Dave Gunning as well. He writes: “[Kaukab’s] diffi-culties arise from the ways in which both this divine love and that she feels

Notes 207

for those around her are curtailed by strict laws by which she feels she mustguide her actions” (92).

19. “I know Chanda’s brothers are innocent because those who commit crimesof honor give themselves up proudly, their duty done” (42).

20. “He began to wash obsessively concerned he would be accused of smelling,and each morning he scrubbed off the thick milky scent of sleep, the barn-yard smell that wreathed him when he woke and impregnated the fabric ofhis pajamas” (Desai 45).

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Index

Abbas, Tahir, 11Abdo, Diya M., 114, 198 n.10, 199

n.18Abdullah, Kia

Life, Love and Assimilation, 159–60,161, 163–74

Aboulela, Leila, 114Minaret, 11–12, 83–106The Translator, 98, 102

acculturation, 109Afghanistan, 12, 44Ahmad, Fawzia, 93Ahmed, Leila, 4Al-Ani, Jananne, 95Al-Aswany, Alaa, 187, n.34Aldama, Frederick Luis, 189 n.17Allen, Chris, 11, 184 n.13Ali, Ahmed, 28–9

Twilight in Delhi, 37Ali, Monica, 2

Brick Lane, 60–82, 104, 107, 135Ali, Rushnara, 182Alibhai-Brown, Yasmin, 7, 203 n.18al-Shaykh, Hanan, 22Amirthanayagam, Guy, 189 n.18Appiah, Kwame Anthony, 134, 200

n.5Arendt, Hannah, 203 n.21Aslam, Nadeem

Maps for Lost Lovers, 174–80Anzaldúa, Gloria, 193 n.14

Balibar, Etienne, 11Baldwin, James, 14Ball, John Clement, 203 n.17Barnes, Julian, 185 n.17Beck, Ulrich, 204 n.27Benmayor, Rina, 184 n.7Bhabha, Homi, 17, 55, 57–8, 109–11,

124, 130, 191 n.28, 199 n.21Bilimoria, Purushottama, 5Brathwaite, Kamau, 109

Brennan, Timothy, 189 n.15Brown, Wendy, 21Buckingham, James Silk, 34–5burka, see “veiling”Butler, Judith, 65, 124–5Butt, Nadia, 207 n.18Byron, George Gordon Lord, 32–3

Calhoun, Craig, 153Cariello, Marta, 95, 97Chambers, Claire, 10, 162, 186 n.21Cheng, Anne Anlin, 200 n.27Cole, Susan G., 137Cooke, Miriam, 83–4, 86, 105Cormack, Alistair, 81, 193 n.16cosmopolitanism, 68, 83, 85, 133–56Cudjoe, Selwyn Reginald, 196 n.3

de Certeau, Michel, 63, 120, 124, 196n.4

Desai, Kiran, 181Descartes, René, 136D’haen, Theo, 5diasporas

and Islam, 4–6, 22and postcolonial theory, 3–6, 16, 58,

112in London, 144–8

Dimmock, Matthew, 188 n.2disorientation

definition of, 14and homelessness, 15–16and hybridity, 16–20and male authors, 174–80and postcolonial identity, 18–20and second generation immigrants,

163–74unproductive, 19, 177

domestic sphere, 5, 23, 37–8, 65–6, 72,76, 89, 108, 114–15, 128, 164–5,168–9

Doyle, Laura, 63

220

Index 221

Du Bois, W. E. B., 7Duara, Prasenjit, 136

Eickelman, Dale F., 203, n.20Emecheta, Buchi, 15, 135Ethiopia, 138–44, 146, 151, 154Euben, Roxanne L., 134, 201 n.3exile, 38, 66, 85–90, 107, 114, 116,

127, 146–8

Fanon, Frantz, 7, 122, 202 n.12Faqir, Fadia

The Cry of the Dove, 107–31feminism, 24–5, 69, 83–5, 90, 92, 98,

103–5, 124Fernández, Irene Pérez, 62Fetzer, Joel S., 21Forster, Charles, 34Forster, E. M., 29, 36

Gale, Richard, 9Gandhi, Leela, 108, 111Gelder, Ken, 205 n.5Gellner, Ernest, 55gender, 49, 65–72, 83–6, 124–5, 158–9,

see also “Islam, women and”Gibb Camilla

“Religious Identification inTransnational Contexts,” 151

Sweetness in the Belly, 132–56Giddens, Anthony, 75Giry, Stephanie, 187 n.32glocal, 152–3Godzich, Wlad, 136Gramsci, Antonio, 196 n.11Greer, Mark, 190 n.25Gunning, Dave, 207 n.19Guth, Stephan, 103

“halal fiction,” 14, 29, 114Hall, Catherine, 30Hall, Stuart, 3, 16Hannerz, Ulf, 155Harar, 138–56Harrison, James, 190 n.21Harvey, David, 59Hassan, Waïl S., 86, 91, 102,

195 n.2Hewett, Heather, 98

Hiddleston, Jane, 73, 80, 192 n.9Hijab, see “veiling”Hitchens, Christopher, 1–3, 5, 8, 10,

185 n.17Hogan, Patrick Colm, 18, 120, 197

n.5, 198 n.11Holyoake, George, 186 n.29homelessness, 15–16, 54, 156, 181–2honour killing, 16, 113, 115, 129,

176Hopkins, Peter, 9Huggan, Graham, 13, 199, n.23Huntington, Samuel, 10Hussain, Yasmin, 65, 80–1, 192 n.9hybridity, 16–20, 57–82, 85–6, 102,

112, 113, 130, 135, 142, 181

immigration, 1–6, 41, 145, 177, 182India, 17, 28–9, 34–7, 132–3Inglehart, Ronald, 187 n.30Ingram, Penelope, 195 n. 10, 196

n.12, 206 n. 13Iraq, 12Irigaray, Luce, 124–5Iriye, Akira, 201 n.5Islam

and British literature, 28–56heterogeneity of, 13, 84hostility towards, see

“Islamophobia”women and, 2, 31, 54, 83–96, 158

Islamophobia, 2, 6, 10–11, 46, 59–60,157

JanMohamed, Abdul, 181Jones, J. P., 132Jordan, 13, 128–9Joseph, Suad, 198 n.12

Kamboureli, Smaro, 197 n.7Kant, Immanuel, 134, 136Khan, Almas

Poppadom Preach, 159–60, 162,163–74

Khan, Sir Syed Ahmed, 28–9Kipling, Rudyard, 35–6

222 Index

Kureishi, Hanif, 2, 8, 9, 11, 16, 17, 53,128

The Black Album, 43–7“My Son the Fanatic,” 181

Kymlocka, Will, 134

Lacan, Jacques, 122, 127Lamia, Hammad, 13Lefebvre, Henri, 191 n.1Lenz, Millicent, 160Levin, Michael D., 154, 202 n.14Levy, Andrea, 135London, 1–2, 13, 28–9, 57–8, 67,

132–3, 144–7, 154–5Loomba, Ania, 155

Maalouf, Amin, 180, 185 n.14Mahfouz, Naguib, 38Mahmood, Shabana, 182Mahood, Ramona, 160Majid, Anouar, 61, 84, 96, 105Malak, Amin, 35, 105–6, 188 n.10Matar, Nabil, 29Mandaville, Peter, 79, 152, 194 n.19,

204 n.25Maxwell, Rhoda, 205 n.10Mayo, Katherine, 34mazeway, 74–5Merleau-Ponty, Maurice, 191 n.4, 194

n.18Mimicry, 16, 107–31Mišcevic, Nenad, 134, 200, n.1McEwan, Ian, 12Moallem, Minoo, 13Modood, Tariq, 8, 13Mohanty, Chandra Talpade, 72Montagu, Lady Mary Wortley, 30–1mosque (as symbolic space), 89,

148–52, 168Mudimbe, V. Y., 34multiculturalism, 1, 6, 9–10, 13, 20–1,

43, 52–4, 60, 62, 78, 109, 133,145, 152, 164–5

Nagel, Caroline, 5Najmabadi, Afsaneh, 198 n.12Naipaul, V. S., 38–9, 41, 108–10, 117Nash, Geoffrey, 37, 116, 162, 198 n.9nationalism, 88, 139, 144–8, 154–5

Nieuwenhuijze, Christoffel, 1499/11, 9–10Nixon, Rob, 189, n.14, 196 n.3Norris, Pippa, 187 n.30Nyman, Jopi, 16

Padamsee, Alex, 34Pardoe, Julia, 31, 188 n.7Patriarchy, 31, 49–53, 65, 76, 84,

105–6, 124–5, 158–9, 167–72, 179Peach, Ceri, 184 n.8Phillips, Caryl, 200 n.5Poon, Angelina, 60, 68, 70, 81postcolonial studies

and Islam, 3–6, 11–20, 41, 53–6,103, 112, 122, 181–2

Powell, Enoch, 1–3, 8public/private split, 21–2, 114, 130purdah, see “veiling”Puri, Shalini, 197 n.6

Qureshi, Yasmin, 182

Radhakrishnan, Rajagopalan, 101Radu, Michel, 183 n.1Rahman, Fazlur, 79–80Ranasinha, Ruvani, 191 n.27, 206 n.

16Richardson, Robin, 3, 11Ricoeur, Paul, 201 n. 7Rodríguez, Níestor, 137Roxburgh, Steve, 161, 204 n.2Rudolph, Susanne, 148Rushdie, Salman, 2, 14, 18–19, 22

The Satanic Verses, 40–3, 181

Safran, William, 72, 183 n.5Said, Edward, 34, 39Salih, Tayeb, 38Samad, Yunas, 192 n.6Sandhu, Sukhdev, 191 n.5Santelli, Serge, 202 n.11Secularism, 20–2, 44, 103, 112,

117–18, 151Selvon, Samuel, 7–8, 1357/7, 9Shamsie, Kamila, 206 n. 17Shari’a, 12, 49, 57, 99, 102–3Sharpe, Jenny, 36, 188 n.9

Index 223

Shelley, Mary, 32Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 31–2Shohat, Ella, 16Skotnes, Andor, 184 n.7Sizemore, Christine, 89, 95, 195 n.6,

196 n.14Smith, Anthony, 201 n.4Smith, Jonathan Z., 150, 204 n.26Smith, Zadie, 9

White Teeth, 47–9Soja, Edward, 55, 59, 191 n.1Sokefeld, Martin, 18Soper, Christopher, 21Soueif, Adhaf, 49–52, 158

In the Eye of the Sun, 51–2Spivak, Gayatri, 4, 5, 61, 88, 101,

152–3, 195 n.5, 196 n.12Staeheli, Lynn, 5Stahler, Axel, 75Stierstorfer, Klaus, 75subaltern, 91, 101–6Sudan, 13, 33, 38, 85–91, 95Sufi, 26, 137–43, 148–52Suyoufie, Fadia, 131

Thatcher, Margaret, 145Third Space (Bhabha), 17, 55

“Thirdspace” (Soja), 55Tower Hamlets, 57, 60, 65–6, 70, 133,

159, 182transnationalism, 132–56

Ummah, 3, 9, 86, 149–56, 164unheimlich, 58Upstone, Sara, 190 n.24

Valman, Nadia, 62veiling, 4, 11, 24–5, 51, 69, 83–4, 88,

92–101, 105, 115, 121–2, 149, 168Vertovec, Steven, 136

Walcott, Derek, 109–10Wallace, Anthony, 74–5, 193 n.15Woolf, Virginia, 28

young adult literature, 159–73Young, Robert, 5, 111, 197 n.5, 199,

n.21

Zagana, Haifa, 185 n. 16Ziegler, Garrett, 62, 69, 192 n.10Zine, Jasmin, 9, 20Žižek, Slavoj, 101–2, 196 n.13