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Epilogue

The Andes, a Precious Example of a Geographical Mountain Portrait

Bruno Messerli

1 Introduction

This is probably the first time that such a comprehensive book on the Andes appears in German. The content adheres to a truly geographical framework, in which the factors and spaces of the natural environment are portrayed and are pre-sented in their interactions with anthropogenic structures and processes. This gives the reader a genuine understand-ing of relationships and dependencies. It is my contention that there should also be a great interest to translate this book into Spanish.

I emphasize this because I became aware at the first Andean Conference in 1991 that the scientists of the Andean countries were more closely connected and had more research cooperations with European and North-American scholars than with those from their neighbour-ing countries. At that time, we looked in vain for a scientist from an Andean country who could deliver an opening address presenting a broad overview of the entire Andean realm. We realized that there existed few transnational projects and that there was a lack of financial resources for doing research in another country. In this situation we had to rely on Wilhelm Lauer from the Geography Department of the University of Bonn, an expert on the natural environ-ment of the entire Andean region.

This situation has fundamentally changed since 1991, as can be demonstrated by referring to the five international Andean Conferences until 2005. With our engagement for the Andes, we not only pursue scientific objectives but also the goal for an effective transnational cooperation and the promotion of a dialogue between science and politics.

2 Scientific Objectives

Immediately after my term of office as President of the University of Berne in 1988, I decided to pursue yet another research project to further investigate open questions ema-nating from my previous studies. This required intensive field investigations.

Being interested in the research on climate-related problems of Mediterranean mountain regions after the last Pleistocene glaciation period, the Free University of Berlin invited me to spend a semester in its Tibesti moun-tain research station to pursue my interest in this topic fur-ther. In the Tibesti Massif, we reached the highest summits in the northern and southern parts by a small camel caravan. Almost at the same time, a French research team investigated similar topics and came to comparable results in the Hoggar Mountains. Later we continued our studies in the mountains of eastern Africa: in 1974 in the 4,000 m high summit regions of Ethiopia; and in 1976 on Mt Kenia (5,195 m). Until today, research and development projects are carried out by the Geography Department of the University of Berne in this area.

In the research focus on the mountains from the Alps to the Equator, the arid belt of the Sahara posed some major open questions relating to the oscillations of the monsoon system and the related climatic changes. Intriguing evi-dences for this are the rock paintings in the Sahara and the former impressively large Lake Chad extending to the foot of the Tibesti Massif. The Emi Koussi Volcano (3,415 m) is the highest summit of Tibesti. An interesting question was for us whether this peak had been glaciated sometime in the past, or whether the aridity would have prevented this, even if the mountain would have been higher in the past.

In search for an answer to this intriguing question, I found by chance a publication of the French glaciologist Lliboutry (1956). Here I quote Lliboutry, freely translated: “From the glaciated Sajama in Bolivia (6,520 m; ca. 18°S) to the Llullaillaco, Chile (6,723 m; ca. 24°S), no peren-nial ice cover exists. But during the first ascent of the Lllullaillaco on December 1, 1952, Bion Gonzales and Juan Harseim observed an ice field on the western slope between 5,600 and 6,500 m,” (Lliboutry 1956: 305 f.). This rather casual observation triggered in me an urgent desire for more precise research on the glaciations of the Llullaillaco. As in the Sahara, the principal aim of the study was to make a contribution to the climate history of this exciting arid belt located between the regions affected by the tropical, monsoon-like rains to the northeast, and

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proposal to establish an African Mountain Association was unanimously supported by the participants. Its voluntary and unfunded Secretariat was established in Addis Ababa. Hans Hurni, the later Director of the North–South Centre of the Geography Department of the University of Berne, was at that time the Director of the Soil Conservation Research Projects of the Ethiopian Ministry of Agriculture between 1981 and 1987 (Messerli and Hurni 1990):

In the years that followed, further African Mountain Conferences were held in Morocco (1990), Kenya (1993), Madagascar (1996), Lesotho (2000) and Tanzania (2002). But then this activity weakened because of a lack of finan-cial resources to permanently support an efficient secretariat or centre. Notwithstanding these difficulties, the published conference proceedings furnished a most valuable informa-tion on African mountains. In March 2013, while writing this epilogue, I received the surprising good news from the Mountain Partnership Secretariat of the FAO in Rome that an African Mountain Partnership Champions Committee had been constituted in Kigali, Rwanda, on 20 February 2013, with the goal to enhance “the mountain partnership in Africa for sustainable development in African water tow-ers” (FAO 2013).

In South America we became active for the first time in 1988. Soon afterwards it was announced that in 1992 a major international event would take place in South America, the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, which required the preparation of Agenda 21 addressing the most pressing problems of the 21st century. One chapter of this Agenda was devoted to the mountains, their resources and their populations. Obviously the Andes were an important component here. The compilation of the mountain chap-ter was based on a recognition of the close interlinkages between science and politics, as well as by the fact that the Himalaya, the mountains of Africa and the Andes, were an important part of the developing realm. Therefore they were destined to assume a major political role.

This need to prepare a sound document for the Rio Conference meant that an international scientific congress hat to be organized before the end of 1991. Since my time as a student I had a close friendship with Wilhelm Egli, the later Vice-Director of the Swiss School in Santiago. He became instrumental in assisting us in the preparation for the Congress in Santiago. Another happy coincidence resulted from meeting Hugo Romero of the Geography Department of the Universidad de Chile during an excur-sion of the Commission on Mountain Geoecology of the International Geographical Union (IGU) Union in New Zealand in 1988. In a most competent way Hugo Romero supported us in the organization of the 1991 Andean Congress.

The President of the UNU, Hector Gurgulino de Souza of Brazil, sent us an opening address from Tokyo, the seat

the realm located to the southwest influenced by the win-ter precipitations of westerly winds. Furthermore, we pursued some comparable research questions we had left open during our investigations on the highest summits of the Sahara some twenty years before. Without mention-ing the details of the numerous expeditions and field stud-ies, we familiarized ourselves with the impressive high mountain landscapes of the Atacama region in many pro-files and transects. Supported by the experiences gained at various conferences and excursions in Peru, Bolivia, Argentina and in the northern and southern parts of Chile, we enlarged and deepened our knowledge base, and enticed the next generation of scientists of Berne, under the leadership of Martin Grosjean and Heinz Veit, after my retirement in 1996, to tackle new mountain research challenges.

Relating to this Geography of the Andes, published by the two competent authors, Axel Borsdorf and Christoph Stadel, we can ascertain that this book addresses topics for which we never before had the time nor this integrative expertise. I am therefore enthusiastic and grateful to be able to rely in future on this volume.

3 Political Objectives

In 1983 Jack Ives and I witnessed and participated in the foundation of the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) in Kathmandu. At that time, we directed a project of the United Nations University (UNU) on natural hazards in Nepal. The initia-tive for the creation of ICIMOD as a Center for research on the Hindukush and Himalaya, encompassing the states of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal and Pakistan, came from UNESCO and was finan-cially supported by Germany and Switzerland.

The guiding principle for ICIMOD was based on the themes of the 1975 UNESCO-MAB Conference in Kathmandu, in particular on the sixth programme, Man’s Impact on Mountain Ecosystems. The concepts for this pro-gramme were developed by a UNESCO group of experts in Salzburg; Jack Ives and I had the privilege to participate in this Salzburg meeting. Today ICIMOD counts a staff of 150 people, and has gradually achieved, after many years and numerous hurdles, an effective cross-border cooperation.

In 1986, after many years of scientific work in the moun-tains of North and East Africa, we organized an interna-tional conference on African mountains in Addis Ababa. In addition to prominent scholars from the University of Addis Ababa, 53 scientists from ten African and eleven non-African countries attended this conference. An excur-sion to the various well-equipped research stations of the country was enthusiastically acclaimed, and an African

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of the UNU, and he also assured us of financial support. For this first Andean Congress, we benefited from the coop-eration of the Chilean universities of Santiago, Tarapaca, Antofagasta and La Serena, as well as the University of Mendoza, Argentina. The conference proceedings were entitled: Primer Taller de Geoecología de Montaña y Desarrollo Sustentable de los Andes del Sur (Romero 1996). While the term geoecology, in accordance with the name of the IGU Commission, was initially emphasized, at the following Andean Conferences the cultural frame-works and economic processes received greater attention. The Andean Conference in Chile was the impetus for the foundation of the Andean Mountain Association (AMA) (Romero 1993). This strengthened our position at the last preparatory meeting for the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, and later at the Rio Congress in 1992. With the suc-cessful incorporation of a chapter on Mountains in Agenda 21, we had reached a major political goal.

4 Science and Politics in a Dialogue for a Future and Sustainable Development of Andean States

As indicated above, the first international Andean Conference on Mountain Geoecology—Ressource Management and Sustainable Development took place in Santiago de Chile from 21 October to 4 November 1991. Over 50 represen-tatives from institutions in Europe, North America and Latin America participated in this event. Even a delegate from Kenya was present, as the preparatory work for the 1993 Conference in Nairobi on the theme of Planning for Sustainable Use of Mountain Resources was already under way.

The excursion programme of the Santiago Conference was very ambitious and focused on the following destina-tions: (1) an Andean transect from Santiago to Mendoza; (2) Northern Chile and its investments in modern agricul-ture; (3) the arid region of the Salar de Atacama with the centre of San Pedro de Atacama; (4) a mountain profile from the desert coastal plain around Arica to the snow-covered volcanoes of the Peruvian, Bolivian and Chilean Altiplano. The ecological, economic and cultural diversity experienced during the excursions was impressive and stim-ulated the participants in formulating a so-called Atacama Accord. In an abbreviated form, the following five major parts shall be mentioned:1. Agreement for the foundation of the Andean Mountain

Association (AMA) for scientists and managers of resources, with the major objective of establishing foundations for a sustainable development;

2. Establishment of a World Mountain Newsletter in Spanish, with the participation of all Andean countries;

3. Organization of further Andean symposia every three years, the next one being planned in Bolivia;

4. Effective cooperation between the Andean countries in the areas of interdisciplinary research- and training projects;

5. Efforts to incorporate the scientific findings into politi-cal decision making processes.

Details about the Atacama Accord, ten scientific papers, and an introduction by Hugo Romero were published in a special volume of Mountain Research and Development (Romero 1993). It is astonishing how concisely the weak-nesses of a cross-border cooperation and of a dialogue between science and politics were also spelled out in this document. The plan to publish the World Mountain Newsletter in Spanish proved to be too ambitious and could not be realized without the establishment of a permanent well equipped secretariat. In this context, similar prob-lems and questions as in Africa emerged, in particular with respect to the continuity of Andean Conferences and to the reasons for their eventual demise.

The second international Andean Conference, entitled Sustainable Mountain Development—Managing Fragile Ecosystems in the Andes, took place from 2 to 11 April 1995 in Huarina on the shores of Lake Titicaca and in La Paz, followed by an extended excursion to the Sajama (6,542 m) National Park. At the conference, the progress made since 1991 was discussed in detail. Further topics addressed were the plans to establish Andean corridors of protection; research activities on biological, social and cultural aspects and problems, and on sensitive indica-tors for climate change and global transformations; as well as the exchange of relevant information. Also, for the first time, the various ecological, economic, social, and cul-tural conflicts were incorporated into the research agenda. The results of the Conference were formulated in the Proclamation of Lake Titicaca which also included a strong commitment to the Andean Mountain Association.

Once again, a special issue of Mountain Research and Development was devoted to the second Andean Conference. A note of thanks has to be expressed to the organizers of the conference and the editors of the Proceedings, Carlos Baied and Máximo Liberman, as well as to Jack and Pauline Ives for their editorial work on this special volume of Mountain Research and Development. The co-editor of this book on the Andes, Christoph Stadel, was present at this, and on the following two Andean Conferences. In the Report on the Bolivian Conference, he published the paper The Mobilization of Human Resources by non-governmental Organizations in the Bolivian Andes.

The third international Andean Conference was held in Quito from 9–14 December 1998 and was devoted to the general theme of Understanding Ecological Interfaces of Andean Cultural Landscapes for Management. Fausto

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Sarmiento of the University of Georgia, USA, was organiz-ing this conference. The wide range of participating schol-ars, sponsors and organizations can be seen as a sign for the growing interest in the work of AMA. Additional organi-zations represented at the meeting were the Pan American Centre for Geographical Studies and Research (CEPEIGE), the US Centre for Latin American and Caribbean Studies (CLACS), the UNU, UNESCO-MAB, and the World Commission on Protected Areas of the IUCN. Sponsoring agencies included the US National Science Foundation, the Andean Finance Corporation, the Government of the Netherlands, the Instituto Geográfico Militar and other local institutions. Looking at the theme of the conference and the individual contributions, it became evident that a modest but significant shift from mountain ecology to a new focus was taking place in which the cultural landscape, the human impact on the environment and the resources received greater attention (Sarmiento and Hidalgo 1999).

During an excursion after the conference, a group of participants, among them Christoph Stadel, went up to the upper mountain hut at the base of Chimborazo, at an ele-vation of some 5,000 m. In the presence of scholars, rep-resentatives of the provincial government, of a delegation of local and indigenous communities, and of national park personnel, a commemorative plaque for Alexander von Humboldt was solemnly unveiled at the Bolívar Monument. It reads: Alexander von Humboldt, June 1802, in Memory of his Contributions to Mountain Geoecology, December 15, 1998. The plaque further lists the names of repre-sentatives of organizations who were or still are closely connected with the work of Alexander von Humboldt: Indigenous Communities of Chimborazo; Jack Ives repre-senting the UNU and the International Mountain Society; Fausto Sarmiento as a representative for AMA; Lawrence Hamilton for the IUCN and the Commission for Protected Areas; Bruno Messerli for the International Geographical Union; Juan Hidalgo for CEPEIGE; and Patricio Hermida as the Manager of the Chimborazo Reserve (Sarmiento 1999). As a fascinating surprise, one month before this Inauguration Act at the Chimborazo, and 200 years after Alexander von Humboldt’s climb and research on the Chimborazo, we received the great news that the General Assembly of the United Nations had decided on 10 November 1998 that 2002 would be the International Year of Mountains.

The fourth international Andean Conference, with the general theme of Sustainable Development in the Andes, a Strategy for the 21st Century, was organized for 25 November to 2 December 2001 at the Universidad de los Andes in Mérida, Venezuela. Maximina Monasterio, presi-dent of AMA (2001–2004) and director of the Instituto de Ciencias Ecológicas y Ambientales, organized this meet-ing. It was attended by more than 250 persons from 21

countries, among them scholars from different disciplines, representatives of government agencies from the Andean countries, and of non-governmental organizations. The two plenary sessions, The Andes–Scenarios for Change at different Scales, and Management of Biodiversity: Protected Areas and Susceptible Areas, as well as five workshops formed the organizational framework of the conference. The following titles of the workshops attest to the wide range of themes that were discussed at the meet-ing: 1. Climate Change, Water Resources, and Natural Disasters; 2. Andean Cloud Forests; 3. Andean Páramos: Challenges for the 21st Century; 4. Fertility Regulations in Agroecosystems of the Tropical Andes: Effects of bio-logical, ecological and cultural diversity; 5. Information Networks for the Sustainable Development of Latin America. The conference also adopted a final declaration (Lambi and Monasterio 2002).

Of interest was the decision to form a Páramo Group with the objective to internationally exchange information and data, and to develop activities with the aim of protect-ing the fragile ecosystem of the páramos, or using it in a sustainable fashion (Hofstede 2002). The participants also reflected on the path of Andean research in the last ten years, on its challenges, advances and shortcomings.

The fifth international Andean Conference, with the theme Sustainable Development in the Andes, took place from 25 April to 1 May 2005 in Salvador de Jujuy, Argentina. As I have not attended this conference, I have to rely on information from Hugo Romero. The sponsor-ing agencies included the UNESCO MAB Programme; the French Embassy; the Agency for Research Support in Argentina; the Provincial Government of Jujuy; and the University of Jujuy. In the following, I have opted to out-line, in a selective and abbreviated way, the principal find-ings related to a sustainable development of the Andes:1. The landscapes of the Andes represent one of the most

important source regions of a biological, social and cul-tural diversity. Today they are subject to great pressures resulting from various forms of growth processes. This is a major challenge for science and political decision makers.

2. The entire population of the Andes depends on the hydrological, biological, and energy resources of the mountains; and this also impacts on the social and cul-tural structures. This fact entails a mutual responsibility of all stakeholders for a sustainable development.

3. The natural and cultural value systems of the Andes have to be incorporated into the Latin-American states in a peaceful fashion. This appears particularly impor-tant at this age of globalization.

4. The Andes and their populations adhere to a certain cosmological vision. This entails that the indigenous people, the urban populations and the peasant commu-nities from different regions and altitudinal zones have

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to live in close interaction of nature and society, and that they have to ensure the maintenance of a highly diversified resource basis.

5. In the Andes, marginal areas with difficult accessibility and deficient infrastructures persist, and this can result in a high ecological and human vulnerability.

6. Globalization processes which ignore local production conditions lead to economic, political and socio-cul-tural tensions at the local and regional levels.

7. The explosive growth of cities can have negative impacts on the hydrological and soil resources of neighbouring mountain areas. Quite often, this is rein-forced by unsettled jurisdictional conditions and inad-equate planning.

8. Political and economic interests, for example the devel-opment and utilization of natural resources, or the transformation of forests by the introduction of non-native species with a high market potential, can lead to a degradation of ecosystems and to natural hazards and disasters, especially in ecologically sensitive areas.

These points reveal and require new arenas for action, which we will have to address, based on the findings of the Andean Conferences. But what is the future of the Andean Conferences? I have heard from Hugo Romero that Peru was asked in 2008 to organize the next Andean Conference, but so far such a follow-up conference has not taken place. This puts us into a similar position as in Africa in 2002.

5 Summary and Outlook

At the Andean Conferences, in 1991, the papers on European and North-American projects presented in English prevailed; in 2001, in contrast, projects of Latin-American countries were predominantly presented in Spanish. Also international projects were more prominently developed, often financially supported by Europe or North America. Here are a few examples: protection and sustain-able use of páramos; management of mountain rain or cloud forests; fertility and management of Andean soils; land use and biodiversity; climate change; natural hazards and disas-ters; El Niño and La Niña; corridors of protected areas. Still, the conferences, especially those in Mérida and Jujuy, also revealed research gaps and deficits; for example: the mapping of natural hazards and risk management strategies; water resources and land use; impact of urban growth and urbanization on mountain environments; traditional knowl-edge and cultural diversity; positive and negative aspects of tourism, cross-border cooperation. Particularly interest-ing was the call for a more pronounced engagement of sci-entists in concrete development projects, for a closer and better cooperation with local populations, and for a more effective dialogue with political decision makers.

Common to all these ideas and projects is the recognition that sustainable development cannot be achieved without a solid knowledge base. Therefore science must find a new and enhanced status in society and politics. We can conclude that the scientific advancement which was achieved by the five international Andean Conferences between 1991 and 2005 is a success story. However, the important question today is what the path of scientific endeavors will be in the future.

In the Himalaya, ICIMOD in Kathmandu has excelled in various activities. While not all of the eight countries were participating to the same level in common projects, many open and fruitful exchanges took also place between the large states of China, India and Pakistan. Here, scientists from these three countries can be considered bridge build-ers; on the basis of their work, later discussions between scientists and government representatives could tackle cru-cial mutual issues. As an example for this, we might men-tion the pressing water problems. Rivers flow uncontrolled across international boundaries. During the monsoon peri-ods, the periodic flooding is often a serious threat to the environment and populations; at other times, shortages of water might have detrimental effects. Therefore, there is an urgent need for cross-border talks, information exchange, adaptive measures and warning systems.

In Africa the last international Conference of the African Mountain Association took place in 2002. After some years of interruption, the Mountain Partnership and the Mountain Research Initiative in Uganda organized another meeting; but a decisive new step was the initiative of the African Mountain Partnership, an organization of the FAO, to found the African Mountain Partnership Champions Committee on 20 February 2013. The major goal of this new institution is fostering sustainable development in the mountains of Africa, with a particular focus on climate change and water resources.

For the African mountains as water towers of the conti-nent, the following six priorities were established: research and knowledge; information sharing; advocacy/policy; community livelihoods and development; payment for ecosystem services; capacity building and private sector involvement. The African Mountain Partnership Champions Committee was given a mandate comprising nine princi-pal components, similar to those established by the Andean Mountain Association. In addition to representatives of African countries (except from those of North Africa), the FAO, UNEP, and the IUCN are members of the Committee. Major financial support for the activities is given by the McArthur Foundation. It is intriguing to see that although the theme of mountain issues and problems had disappeared from the major research and policy agenda in Africa for more than a decade, it has reappeared with renewed vigor in the scientific and political agendas from the local to the global levels. The details about the new Africa initiative

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There is the possibility that FAO will attempt to found a Mountain Partnership Committee in South America, similar to that in Africa. This would be in line with the role of FAO as the Lead Agency for the UN of the Mountain Chapter of the Agenda 21. In this respect, FAO was instrumental in lobbying the General Assembly of the UN between 1998 and 2012 to pass eight resolutions related to the Mountain Chapter of Agenda 21 Managing Fragile Ecosystems—Mountain Sustainable Development.

When I consider that in Andean research we find our-selves right now in a phase of rather slow international activities, and that we are not certain how promising the research future will look, the book by Axel Borsdorf and Christoph Stadel appears particularly timely. It gives the scientific community new insights into the interrelation-ships between nature and society, new overviews and intriguing stimulations for past and future perspectives, for retrospectives as well as outlooks. We therefore like to express to the two authors our deep gratitude for this Geographical Portrait of the Andes.

can be consulted in the documents of the FAO (2013). It will be interesting to see what the future path of mountains research and mountain development in Africa will entail.

Coming back to the Andes, one might add that at the Andean Conference in Mérida the list of participants included also representatives from Brazil, Guatemala and Cuba, which indicates that the Andean meetings had sub-stantially gained in prestige in the whole of Latin America. In Mérida it was also stated that the cooperation between the Andean Mountain Association and the Consorcio para el Desarrollo Sostenible de la Ecoregión Andina (CONDESAN) with its seat in Lima had demonstrated a successful begin-ning. This would indeed be an important link between sci-ence and concrete development programmes. I have been unable to monitor the further progress of these initial ini-tiatives over the past decade. It will be interesting to see whether CONDESAN, in partnership with UNEP-Vienna, will venture on a new programme for Latin America within the framework of a global mountain monitoring programme, as was suggested by the Mountain Forum in March 2013.

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Ablation Process by which snow or ice is melting or removed from a snowfield or glacier

Accretion Gradual increase or extension of land by natural forces over a long period of time

Acequia Irrigation canalA climates Tropical rainy climatesAcrisol Clay-rich soil associated with humid tropical

climatesAdobe Building material of sun-dried mud or mud bricksAf climate Equatorial, permanently humid climateAgroecología Sustainable agricultural practice with the aim

of preserving the ecological integrityAgrosilvicultura Combined agricultural and silvicultural

use of land resourcesAgrotourism (Agritourism) Agriculturally based form of

tourism bringing visitors in close touch with farmers and agricultural activities

ALADI (formerly LAFTA) Latin American Integration Association, created in 1980, currently 13 members

Alameda (Prado Paseo) Elegant urban boulevardAltiplano Andean high mountain plateau in southern Peru,

Bolivia, and northern ChileAlto Perú Part of the colonial Vice-Royalty of Peru (later

the vice-Royalty of Río de la Plata), located in the Andean regions of current Bolivia and northwestern Argentina

Amaranth (Kiwicha, amaranthus) Andean food and medicinal plant

Amenity migration Migration of people for perceived or actual environmental and/or cultural benefits

Andean Community of Nations (Comunidad Andina) Customs Union, including Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru as full members

Andean Pact Trade bloc of Andean countries, in existence between 1969 and 1996

Andenes Agricultural terraces on steep slopesAndinismo Andean variety of mountaineeringAndesite Dark-coloured extrusive rockAndosol Dark soil found in volcanic areasAntisuyu Eastern part of the Inca Empire

APEC Asia Pacific Economic CooperationApu High mountain peak, often glaciatedAracea Tuberous flowering plant of the tropicsArgillaceous soil Clay-rich soilAsiento (older meaning) Agreement between the Spanish

Crown and a sovereign power, in effect between the early 16th century and the mid-18th century, by which the latter power was granted a Monopoly to supply African slaves for the Spanish colonies in the Americas. (modern meaning, seat)

Atacameño civilization Pre-Hispanic civilization with its centre in current Chile, with its climax around 800 BCE

Audiencia Spanish colonial high court and the district under the court’s jurisdiction

Aw climate winter-dry equatorial climateAyllú Indigenous communityAymara Indigenous group of people and language, region-

ally concentrated on the Bolivian AltiplanoAyní Traditional form of mutual help practiced in indig-

enous communities of the AndesBabaco (carica x heilbornii) Mountain variety of papaya,

native to the tropical AndesBaharaque Building material of adobe intertwined with

sticks, canes or strawBarriada Shanty town in LimaBarrio de invasión (barrio informal, callampa) Illegally

erected settlement of invading migrantsBatholith Large, generally discordant plutonic rock massB climates Dry climatesBerkeley School of Cultural Ecology Founded by Carl O.

Sauer, emphasizing the strength of human capacity for adaptation to physical and social environments

B-horizon of soil Mineral horizon below the A-horizon, sometimes called the zone of accumulation

Biopiracy Situation where the indigenous knowledge of nature is used by external people or agencies for profit, without permission from local communities

Biosphere Reserve Special category of protected area, consisting of a strictly protected core zone, surrounded by a buffer zone of limited protection functionality, and

Glossary

A. Borsdorf and C. Stadel, The Andes, Springer Geography, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-03530-7 © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015

330 Glossary

an outer transition area or development zone, UNESCO label

Bodega Small shopBreccia Coarse-grained rock composed of large, angular

or broken rock fragments cemented together in a finer-grained rock matrix

Bromelia Genus of the family BromeliaceaeBS climate Semi-arid steppe climateBuen vivir (suma kawsay, suma qamaña) Alternative form

of development focused on a broad notion of well-being and quality of life, not solely defined in materialistic terms

BW climate Arid desert climateCabecera Chief town or village of a districtCabildo Town council in the Spanish colonies, today indig-

enous community in ColombiaCacique Local indigenous leaderCallejón (conventillo) Inner-city slumCampesino Andean peasantCampo de lluvia Rain-fed cultivation areaCampo de riego Irrigated cultivation areaCapacitación Development of abilities and capacities of

peopleCaral (Norte Chico) civilization Pre-Hispanic civili-

zation on the Pacific coast of current Peru, from about 3,000 BCE to 1,800 BCE

Carreras Streets in Bogotá running in a north–south directionCarretera Marginal de la Selva Partially completed inter-

national highway project following the eastern foothills of the Andes

Casa de Austria Spanish rule of Latin America by the Habsburg dynasty

Casco colonial Colonial centre of a Latin-American cityCastellanización Acculturation of indigenous people to

Spanish language and Hispanic cultureCaudillo Strong, often charismatic political leader in Latin

AmericaC climates Humid, mesothermal climatesCeja de la montaña Dense cloud forest (‘eyebrow of the

mountain’) at the transition zone between the eastern montane forests and the highlands of the Andes

Cf climate Permanently moist, moderately warm climateChacra Land of the indigenous population outside an ejido

of the colonial Latin-American cityChakana Ritual bridge in the Andean mythology and

philosophyChala Arid, desert-like coastal plain and adjoining cordil-

lera foothills in PeruChan Chan Capital city of the pre-Hispanic Chimú

civilizationChasqui Courier of the Inca communication systemChavín civilization Pre-Hispanic civilization with its centre in

the sierra of current Peru, from about 900 BCE to 200 BCE

Chemical weathering/physical weathering Destructive processes on rock material by chemical decomposition/by physical disintegration

Chibcha (Muisca) civilization Pre-Hispanic high civiliza-tion of the central highlands of current Colombia, from about 1,200 CE to 1,536 CE

Chicha Andean maize beerChimú civilization Pre-Hispanic high civilization with its

centre in the coastal Pacific lowlands of current Peru, from 1,250 CE to 1,476 CE

Chinchasuyu Northern part of the Inca EmpireChirimoya Tropical fruit of the species Annona cherimolaCholo(cholonization) Native who has given up his Indian

identityChuño Freeze-dried starchy potato product traditionally

made by highland Quechua and Aymara communitiesClimatic snowline Average altitude above which horizon-

tal surfaces are more than half snow-coveredCocalero Coca-growing farmerCocos Plate Oceanic plate of the eastern Pacific OceanCollasuyu Southern part of the Inca EmpireColono Worker on a haciendaCompany state Territories formerly controlled by mining

corporations (in Chile) as spatial-functional components of their mining activities

Compartimiento Division of territoryComplementarity (complementaridad) Andean concept of

exchanges between places or activitiesCONAIE Confederación de Nacionalidades Indígenas

del Ecuador, the largest and most powerful indigenous umbrella organization in Ecuador

Concientización Awareness raising of peopleCONDESAN Consortium for the Sustainable Development

of the Andean Ecoregion, linking nearly 100 institu-tions from 17 Latin-American countries, with a focus on applied research, information exchange and policy development

Conquista Spanish conquest of pre-Columbian civilizationsCordillera Mountain rangeCorrasion Process of erosion whereby rocks or soil are

mechanically worn away by the abrasive action of solid materials moved along, esp. by wind, in a wider sense also by waves, running water, glaciers or gravity

Cosmovisión andina Traditional vision, belief system and cultural concept based on harmony and close interrela-tion between nature and the cultural identity of Andean people

Counter-urbanization Demographic and social process whereby people move from urban to rural areas

Cretaceous Period Final period of the Mesozoic era and before the Tertiary period

Creole (Criollo) Person of Spanish descent

331Glossary

Cs climate (Mediterranean climate) Moderately warm climate with dry summers

Cuadra Block of buildings in a Latin-American cityCuenca (hoya) High mountain basin in the AndesCuesta (Escarpment) Asymmetric ridge with a gentle

slope (dip slope) on one side and a steep slope (scarp slope) on the other

Cultigen Plant that has been selected or modified by humans

Cultivar Cultivated plant selected for desirable characteristicsCuntisuyu Western part of the Inca EmpireCuraca Leader of a territory conquered by the IncaCw climate Moderately warm climate with dry wintersCyclogenesis Development or strengthening of cyclonic

circulation in the atmosphereD climates Cold, snowy climatesDemographic Transition Model Five-stage model por-

traying the development of birth rates, death rates and total population growth rates over time

Denudation Wearing away of the Earth’s surface by vari-ous natural processes, including, weathering, erosion, mass-wasting and transportation

Desarrollo con Identitad Sustainable development based on the local natural and human resources, cultures, needs and priorities

Desarrollo hacia adentro Development with an internal orientation based on a protection of national economies

Desarrollo hacia afuera Development with an export orientation

Desquamation Peeling off or detachment of scaly rock fragments

Diaguita civilization Pre-Hispanic civilization with its centre in the current Chico Norte of Chile, from 850 CE to 1,550 CE

E climates Polar (ice) climatesEcotourism Form of tourism that brings visitors in close

touch with relatively undisturbed natural areas and focuses on environmentally and socially responsible travel, personal education and sustainability

Ecumene The sphere settled and used by humansEdaphic differentiation Soil-related differentiationEje (Diagonal Transversal) Street not following the rectan-

gular urban planEjido Formerly communal land surrounding the Spanish

colonial cityEl Dorado Legendary region of fabulous gold treasuresEl Niño Periodically occurring warm Equatorial Current

diverting the cold Peruvian Current along the Pacific coast from central Ecuador to northern Chile

Encomienda Spanish colonization system to regulate indig-enous labour and to give land grants to the Spanish elite

ENSO El Niño Southern Oscillation

Epigenetic valley Gap valley whose direction is not related to the tectonic structure or composition of the rocks of the landforms traversed by the river

Epiphyte Plant that grows non-parasitically upon another plant and derives its moisture and nutrients from the air, rains and sometimes from debris accumulated around it

Espeletia (frailejón) Perennial shrub vegetation of the humid páramo ecosystem

Ethno-development Development concept based on respect for and a focus on the ethnic identity of local communities

Evapotranspiration Loss of water from a land area through the transpiration of plants and the evaporation from the soil

Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) Sea zone of 200 nauti-cal miles prescribed by the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, recognizing the special rights of a coastal state over the exploration and use of marine resources

Fault Line of rock fracture along which displacements have occurred

Feria Weekly market dayFerralsol Nutrient-poor yellowish or reddish tropical soilFestuca Tall tussock grass on the semi-arid Altiplano

(puna) of the AndesFinca Small farm or rural retreat for wealthy urbanitesFjord Long, narrow, U-shaped inlet of the sea with steep

slopes/walls on either sideFluvio-glacial deposits Accumulation of material by gla-

cial melt watersFoehn (föhn) Warm and dry downslope windFragmented development Uneven development between

rich and poor areas and segments of the populationFrontogenesis Meteorological process of tightening hori-

zontal temperature gradients to produce weather frontsFumaroles Emissions of vapour and gases from volcanic

ventsFundo Chilean term for farmGamma World City City that links smaller urban regions

with the world economyGarúa( llovizna, camanchacas) Sea mist or light drizzle on

the Pacific side of the Peruvian AndesGated community (barrio cerrado, barrio vallado) Secluded

and strictly controlled residential neighbourhoodGentrification Preservation and upgrading of older city

districtsGeo-determinism (environmental determinism) View

that the physical environment necessarily shapes human landscapes and guides social development

Geo-ecology Interdisciplinary science which studies inter-action and interrelations in the environment

Geoglyphes Large figures and symbols carved in to the Nazca Desert of Peru

332 Glossary

Global/globalized city Urban centre with a global func-tional orientation and/or importance

Global Competitive Index Index ranking the competitive-ness of global cities according to their ability to attract capital, business, qualified labour and visitors

Gondwana Old, contiguous proto-continent of the Southern Hemisphere

Graben Elongated crustal unit that is bounded by fault lines on its long sides

Green Revolution Development of new agricultural tech-nologies based on hybridized seeds, new irrigation tech-niques, synthetic fertilizers and pesticides

Grito ‘Shout of Independence’ from Spanish colonial ruleGuanaco Wild camelid animal of the Andes and PatagoniaGuano Excrements of seabirds used as manure and highly

effective fertilizerHacienda Large farmsteadHeliconia (strelitzia, ‘bird-of-paradise flower’) Attractive

flowering plant, native to the tropical Americas and the Pacific Ocean region

Hielero Harvester of glacier iceHighway of Volcanoes String of volcanoes in EcuadorHuaico Landslide or flash floodHuari (Wari) civilization Pre-Hispanic civilization on the

Pacific coast and sierra of current Peru, from about 700 CE to 1,000 CE

Huasipungo Plot of land lent to indigenous people in return for their services on a hacienda

Hydration Inorganic chemical reaction whereby water is added to the structure of minerals

Hygric differentiation Moisture-related differentiationHypsometric ecological zonation Zonation of climate and

vegetation by elevationInca High civilization of the Andes conquered and

destroyed by the Spanish in the early 16th centuryIndianidad Indian identityIndígena Indigenous personInformal sector of the economy Activities outside for-

mally registered and controlled sectors of the economyInquilinato Subtenant, or collective form of housing of

poor urban peopleIntermediarios Trading middlemenInti Sun God of the IncaInticancha (later called Coricancha) ‘Golden Enclosure’

of the Inca city of CuscoInti Raymi Festival in Cusco celebrating the God of the Sun

and commemorating the foundation of the Inca city of CuscoIntracratonic basin Large sedimentation basin within a

crustal massInvierno Rainy season in the tropical Andes, winter in the

extratropical AndesIsostasy Condition of equilibrium of the units above the

plastic mantle of the Earth’s surface

IUCN International Union for the Conservation of NatureJanca Altitudinal zone above the climatic snowline in PeruJunta Vecinal Neighbourhood alliance in El Alto, BoliviaJurassic Period Second period of the Mesozoic eraKarst phenomena Formation of features of the surface

and subsurface through the dissolution of soluble rocks in limestone regions

Killa Moon goddess of the IncaKichwa Indigenous, Quechua-speaking group in EcuadorKöppen-Geiger classification Classification of world

climates based on the climatic requirements of specific types of vegetation

LAFTA Latin American Free Trade Association, created in 1960 and effective from 1962. In 1980 it was reorga-nized into the Latin American Integration Association (ALADI)

Lahar Mudflow on the flanks of a volcano, often up to 100 °C hot, chiefly composed of volcaniclastic material

La Niña Periodically occurring drop in temperature of a normally warm ocean current affecting the Pacific coast from central Ecuador to northern Chile

Lapilli Small pyroclastic fragments ejected during a volca-nic eruption

Leaching Separation, selective removal or dissolution of soluble elements from a rock by the action of percolating water

Leptosol Shallow soil over hard rock or highly calcareous material, or deeper soil that is gravelly or stony

Lixisol Tropical soil with subsurface clays and high base saturation

Lo Andino Andean concept of traditional wisdom, knowl-edge, ethics, philosophy, as well as agrarian and commu-nity practices

Loma Periodically appearing grassland vegetation in the coastal fog zone on the lower western flanks of the west-ern cordillera of Peru

Loma Alto (Real Alto) Ceremonial centre of the Valdivia civilization

Manzana City block, or unit of measure for an agricultural plotMapuche (Araucanians) Indigenous ethnic group in

southern ChileMaria Lionza Religious cult with its roots in the native

Venezuelan queen Maria LionzaMAS Movimiento al Socialismo, political party in Bolivia,

headed by Evo MoralesMashua (tropaeolum tuberosum) High-yielding tuber crop

of the high Andes at elevations around 3,000 mMatorral Brushwood thicketMayordomo Steward of a large landholdingMayorista Powerful, large traderMaximón Folk saint venerated in parts of Latin AmericaMedellín Cartel Mafioso-type association specializing in

the illegal export of cocaine

333Glossary

Mediterranean climate Moderately warm and seasonally humid (winter months) climate

Mercantile system Economic system based on the objec-tive of increasing a nation’s wealth by government regu-lations favouring the nation’s commercial interests

MERCOSUR (Mercado Común del Sur) Free-trade zone, with Brazil, Argentina, Venezuela, Paraguay and Uruguay as full members

Mestizaje Amalgamation of Amerindian and European cul-tural heritages and formation of a new distinct culture

Mestizo Person of mixed Amerindian-White racial ancestryMinorista Small retailing traderMiocene Epoch of the upper Tertiary period and before the

PlioceneMinga (minka) Voluntary communal labour in indigenous

communitiesMingado Free labourer in a mine during Spanish colonial

ruleMinifundio/minifundista smallholding/smallholderMisiones Jesuit colonial territories in parts of Brazil and

ParaguayMita Forced indigenous labour or tributeMoche (Mochica) civilization Pre-Hispanic civilization,

with its centre in current northern Peru, from about the time of Christ to 800 CE

Model of Mobility Transition Five-stage model devel-oped by Zelinsky, focusing on population mobility and migration

Montaña Humid tropical montane forest on the eastern flanks of the sierra

Morro Distinct mountain peak in proximity to a cordilleraMulatto Person of mixed black-white racial ancestryNAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement. signed in

1992 by Canada, Mexico and the USNazca civilization Pre-Hispanic civilization on the Pacific

coast and western flanks of the sierra in current Peru, from about 370 BCE to 600 CE

Nazca Plate Oceanic plate off the Pacific coast of PeruNecropolis Large, ancient cemetery with important tomb

structuresNieves penitentes Jagged pinnacles of snow or firn result-

ing from differential ablation under conditions of strong insolation; especially occurring in high-altitude, low-lat-itude zones

Nitisol Deep, red, well-drained soil with a high clay con-tent, found in the tropics and subtropics

Nothofagus Southern beech of southern South America and Australasia

Nudo Mountain knot in the AndesObraje Workshop or manufacturing plant during the

Spanish colonial ruleOca (oxalis tuberosa) Hardy and frost-resistant high-alti-

tude tuber crop in the tierra helada

OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, founded in 1961 and including 34 coun-tries, with the objective of stimulating economic prog-ress and world trade

Ökosophie Estermann’s concept based on the links humans maintain with nature

Olluco (papalisa, melloco, chugua, ullucus tuberosus), Frost-resistant and moderately drought-resistant high-altitude root vegetable in the tierra helada of the Andes

Omagua (selva baja walla) Humid and hot ecosystem rain-forest level in Amazonian Peru

Oriente Amazon lowland region in EcuadorOrogeny Mountain formation processOxidation Interaction between oxygen molecules and

other substancesPachacamac Ancient city of the Paracas civilization,

located in the Pacific coastal lowlands of current PeruPachakutic–Nuevo País Movimiento de Unidad Plurinacional,

Political party in EcuadorPachamama Goddess of fertility and the earthPalaeozoic Geological era between the Precambrian and

the MesozoicPan-American Highway (CarreteraPanamericana) Highway

extending from Alaska to the southern tip of South AmericaParacas civilization Pre-Hispanic civilization on the

Pacific coast of current Peru, from about 1,100 BCE to 200 BCE

Paramito Cold fall wind affecting the foot of cordillerasPáramo Humid savannah-type grasslands in the Andean

highlands of the inner tropicsParcela de agrado Large and exclusive residential parcel of

landParticipatory GIS/Community Integrated GIS Geographical

Information System based on an active involvement and par-ticipation of local communities

Pediment Broad, flat, or gently sloping erosion surface in arid climates

Pegmatic Coarsely crystalline igneous rock materialPeninsulares Direct descendants of SpainPeon Agricultural workerPermian Last period of the PalaeozoicPeruvian Current (Humboldt Current) Cold ocean cur-

rent affecting the Pacific coast of Ecuador, Peru and northern Chile

Physiological population density Population density defined by the number of people per unit area of arable and settled land

Plan Colombia US support in Colombia to combat the drug cartels and leftist insurgents

Plaza Square or market locationPlaza Mayor (Plaza de Armas) Central square of a Latin-

American city

334 Glossary

Pleistocene glaciation Glacial epoch during the QuaternaryPlinthosol Soil formed under a variety of climatic and top-

ographic conditions, characterized by a subsurface layer containing an iron-rich mixture of clay minerals and sil-ica, often hardening into ironstone concretions

Pneumatolytic Produced by gaseous emanationsPodsol Soil that develops underneath coniferous vegetationPolycentric urban structure City consisting of several

urban nodesPolylepis (queñua) Shrub and tree species of high eleva-

tions in the tropical Andes, characterized by a gnarled shape and a multi-layered bark

Porphyric rock Igneous rock composed of large crystals embedded in a fine-grained groundmass

Pueblos jóvenes Shantytowns in LimaPuerto habilitado Port granted the privilege by the Spanish

Crown to participate in the transatlantic tradePuna Semi-arid steppe vegetation in the outer tropical

highlands (tierra helada)Puquio Underground tunnel of irrigation canalPuya raimondii Largest species of bromeliads (‘Queen of

the Andes’) endemic to the highlands of Peru and BoliviaPyroclastic material Material formed by volcanic explo-

sion or aerial expulsion from a volcanic ventQ’ollo Riti’i Festival (‘Star of the Snow Festival’) Pilgrimage

and traditional mountain rituals of the Q’ero people below Mt Ausangate in Peru

Quechua (1) Major indigenous and linguistic groupQuechua (2) Temperate to cool ecosystem level at the outer

flanks of the cordilleras (2,300–3,500 m) in PeruQ’ero Indigenous group in PeruQuimbaya civilization Pre-Hispanic civilization in the

northern Andes, from about 900 CE to 1,200 CEQuinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) High-altitude, protein-rich

grain crop of the AndesQuipu Inca counting system of knotsRaised fields (camellones, waru waru) Rows of heaped up

agricultural plots separated by small ditchesRamsar Convention Convention on the protection of

wetlands of international importance, signed in 1971 in Ramsar, Iran

Rancho Shantytown in CaracasRastafarianism Religious-cultural movement with roots in

the Old Testament and in the Coptic religionReciprocity (reciprocidad) Andean concept based on

an interchange of knowledge, labour and relationships between humans and nature

Reconquista Christian reconquest of Islamic territories on the Iberian Peninsula; in Chile and Argentina also wars in the 19th century against the Amerindians

Reducciones Amerindian villages established by the colo-nial authorities to Christianize, control and exploit the native population

Regosol Weakly developed mineral soil in unconsolidated material

Remittances (remesas) Money transfers from abroad, of migrants to families and relatives in their old homeland

Repartimiento Land grant awarded by the Spanish Crown to soldiers and other people, and to promote colonization

Rio Protocol Peace agreement signed in 1942 in Rio de Janeiro, with the intent of redrawing the border between Ecuador and Peru and to resolve their territorial conflict

Runa Quechua term for Andean personRupa-rupa (selva alta) Warm and very humid level of

montane and cloud forests at the eastern slopes of the sierra in Peru

Ruta de Azogue (mercury trade route) Colonial trade route linking Huancavelica, Peru, with Arica on the Pacific coast

Ruta de la Plata (silver trade route) Colonial trade route linking highland Potosí with Arica

Sabana de Bogotá Inter-montane plateau around Bogotá, Colombia, filled with a lake during the Pleistocene

Saber andino Traditional Andean wisdom and knowledgeSalar Salt pan in the semi-arid parts of the AltiplanoSan Agustín civilization Pre-Hispanic civilization with its

centre in the highlands of current southern Colombia, from about 600 BCE to 1,540 CE

Saraguros Indigenous group of people living on the high-lands of southern Ecuador

Saya Administrative subdivision of the Inca EmpireScree Material that makes up a sloping surface, also known

as talusSelva Tropical rainforestSendero Luminoso (Shining Path) Insurgent terrorist

movement in Peru in the 1980s and 1990sSérac Jagged, sharp-ridged block of glacier iceShuar Indigenous group of people living in the western

Amazon lowlands and adjacent foothills in EcuadorSierra Andean mountain regionSolfatara Emissions of sulphurous gases from volcanic

ventSoroche Altitude sickness triggered by a reduced supply of

oxygen to the human bodySpiritual Park Protected area with an emphasis on its spir-

itual heritageStratovolcano Volcano constructed by alternating layers of

lava and pyroclasticsSubduction Process of one crustal block descending

beneath another one, by faulting or folding processesSukacollo Raised field on the Bolivian AltiplanoSuni (jalca sallqa) Cold grassland and shrub ecological

zone (3,500–4,000 m) in the Peruvian highlandsSunken fields (qochas) Narrow strips of agricultural par-

cels and small irrigation ditches laid out in shallow, excavated hollows

335Glossary

Surazos (nortes) Cold Antarctic winds affecting PatagoniaSyncretism Blending of different religious beliefs and/or

philosophical viewsTafonization Process by which granitic rocks are hollowed

out by cavernous weatheringTahuantisuyu Inca EmpireTamarillo (solanum betaceum) Tree tomato, native to the

tropical AndesTambo House of supplies and rest of the IncaTarabucos Indigenous group of people in the Bolivian

highlands near SucreTarwi (lupinus mutabilis) Andean lupin plant cultivated for

its edible beansTectonics Branch of geology dealing with the broad archi-

tecture of the upper part of the Earth’s crustTephra General term for all pyroclastic featuresTertiary Period Geological period after the Cenozoic and

before the QuaternaryThermo-isopleth map Map depicting lines of equal value

where the coordinates are the time of the day and the day of the year

Tholeiite Group of basaltic rocksTiahuanaco civilization High civilization pre-dating the Inca

civilization, with its centre in the vicinity of the southern shores of Lake Titicaca, from about 330 CE to 1,000 CE

Tierra caliente Lowest, warm ecological zone in the tropi-cal Andes

Tierra templada Intermediate temperate ecological zoneTierra fria Upper, cool ecological zoneTierra helada High, frost-prone ecological ecological zoneTierra nevada (nival) Zone of permanent snow and iceTola Resinous shrubs characteristic of the semi-arid puna

vegetationTotora Reed subspecies of the giant bulrush sedge,

famously found on Lake TiticacaTriassic First period of the Mesozoic era and before the

JurassicTropic of Cancer Northernmost latitude (around 23°

26′N) north of the Equator at which the sun is directly overhead

Tropic of Capricorn Southernmost latitude (23° 26′S) south of the equator at which the sun is directly overhead

Trueque System of barter and exchangeTugurio Unplanned, marginal urban settlement in ColombiaTumba real Cave-like structure in Machu Picchu adjacent to

the Temple of the Sun, containing several ceremonial niches

Tussock Bunch grasses in the Poaceae family, occurring in many different habitats

Urban primacy Situation in which the largest city of a country or another administrative unit dominates the urban system, and the second- largest city has less than half the population of the largest city

Uros (Uru people) Group of indigenous people living in the Lake Titicaca/Lake Poopó region of Peru and Bolivia

Uti possidetis Legal principle recognizing an acquired ter-ritory, unless this is being changed by international law

Valdivia civilization Pre-Hispanic civilization, with its centre in the area of the Gulf of Guayas, from about 3,500 BCE to 1,500 BCE

Valle Central (Valle Longitudinal) Principal longitudinal valley between the coastal mountains and the high cor-dillera in Chile

Verano Dry season in the tropical Andes, summer in the extratropical Andes

Vertical control Complementary forms of land use and agricultural activities at different altitudinal levels

Vice-Royalty Large Spanish colonial administrative dis-trict in Latin America

Violencia Civil war in Colombia, 1948 - ca.1958War of the Pacific War between Chile and Bolivia,

1879–1883Woolsack weathering (spheroidal weathering) Peeling off

of concentric layers of rock material creating rounded boulders, especially of granitic rocks

WTO World Trade Organization, founded in 1995 with the intention to supervise and liberalize international trade

Xerophyte Species of plant that has adapted to dry environments

Yareta Evergreen pant adapted to the high insolation rates of the puna grasslands

Yuca (manioc cassava) Manihot esculenta, extensively culti-vated tuberous root crop in tropical and subtropical regions

Yungas Deeply entrenched, humid transverse valleys in eastern Bolivia

Yunga costal Semi-arid ecosystem level with sparse vegeta-tion on the Pacific flanks of the western cordillera in Peru

Yunga fluvial Humid, warm montane forest level at the eastern slopes of the cordillera in Peru

Zafra Seasonal harvesting workZambo Person of mixed Amerindian-black racial ancestryZona franca Duty-free zoneZonda Warm and dry downslope wind in Patagonia

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