Industrial Biocatalysis

Pan Stanford Series on Biocatalysis

Series EditorPeter Grunwald

Titles in the Series

Published

Vol. 1Industrial BiocatalysisPeter Grunwald, ed.2015978-981-4463-88-1 (Hardcover)978-981-4463-89-8 (eBook)

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Vol. 2Biocatalysis and NanotechnologyPeter Grunwald, ed.

Vol. 3Handbook of Carbohydrate-Modifying BiocatalystsPeter Grunwald, ed.

for the WorldWind PowerThe Rise of Modern Wind Energy

Preben MaegaardAnna KrenzWolfgang Palz

editors

Industrial Biocatalysis

edited by

Peter Grunwald

Pan Stanford Serieson Biocatalysis

Volume 1

CRC PressTaylor & Francis Group6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

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Contents

Preface xxxi

1. Biocatalysts: Global Market, Industrial Applications, Aspects of Biotransformation Design, and Societal Challenges 1

Peter Grunwald

1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 The Global Enzyme Market 3 1.3 Competitive Structures 4 1.4 Industrially Used Enzymes 6 1.5 Design of Biotransformations 11 1.5.1 Immobilization of Biocatalysts 12 1.5.2 Non-Conventional Reaction Media 14 1.5.2.1 Organic solvents 14 1.5.2.2 Ionic liquids 16 1.5.2.3 Supercritical fluids 17 1.6 Climate Changes and Sustainable Development

as Societal Challenges 19 1.7 Conclusions 24

2. Making Use of Newly Discovered Enzymes and Pathways: Reaction and Process Development Strategies for Synthetic Applications with Recombinant Whole-Cell Biocatalysts and Metabolically Engineered Production Strains 33

Daniel Meyer, Joerg Martin Buescher, and Juergen Eck

2.1 Introduction 33 2.2 Definition and Differentiation of Whole-Cell

Biocatalysts and Metabolically Engineered Production Strains 34

2.3 Bioreaction and Pathway Engineering 37

vi Contents

2.3.1 Cofactor Dependency 37 2.3.2 Model-Based Strain Design 39 2.4 Strain Engineering/Choice of Host Organism 41 2.4.1 Impact of Inherent Metabolism on Productivity 42 2.4.2 Availability and Regeneration of Cofactors 44 2.4.3 Genetic Accessibility and Control of Gene

Expression 50 2.5 Bioprocess Design and Development 53 2.5.1 Optimization of Bioprocess Development

Efficiency 54 2.5.2 Process Control for Cultivation and

Biotransformation 58 2.5.3 Bioreactor Equipment and Downstream

Processing 59 2.6 Conclusions and Future Prospects 61

3. Directed Evolution of Enzymes for Industrial Biocatalysis 73

Youyun Liang, Ee Lui Ang, and Huimin Zhao

3.1 Introduction 73 3.2 Directed Evolution of Industrial Enzymes 75 3.2.1 Steps Involved in Directed Evolution 75 3.2.2 Key Considerations for the Use of Directed

Evolution in Industrial Biocatalysis 83 3.2.3 Major Classes of Industrial Enzymes 89 3.2.3.1 EC 1 oxidoreductases 89 3.2.3.2 EC 2 transferases 93 3.2.3.3 EC 3 hydrolases 95 3.2.3.4 EC4 lyases 98 3.2.3.5 EC 5 isomerases 99 3.2.3.6 EC 6 ligases 99 3.2.4 Directed Evolution in Pathway Engineering 100 3.2.4.1 Engineering of pathway enzymes 100 3.2.4.2 Enabling tools for pathway

engineering 102 3.3 Conclusions 104

viiContents

4. Strategies to Overcome Stability Constraints in Enzyme Evolution and Facilitate Effective Enzyme Engineering 115

Stephane Emond, Raymond D. Socha, and Nobuhiko Tokuriki

4.1 Introduction 115 4.2 Protein Stability and the Evolution of Enzymes 117 4.2.1 Thermodynamic Versus Kinetic Stability 117 4.2.2 The Threshold Model 119 4.2.3 Trade-Offs between New Function and Protein

Stability 121 4.2.4 Stability-Meditated Epistasis Is a Bottleneck

of Enzyme Evolution 123 4.3 Strategies to Increase the Evolvability of Enzymes

by Modulating Stability 124 4.3.1 Increasing Protein Stability Using Permissive

and Compensatory Mutations 125 4.3.2 Lowering the Stability Threshold by Chaperone

Buffering 126 4.3.3 Combining Compensatory and Permissive

Mutations with Chaperone Buffering 127 4.4 Experimental Methodologies to Identify Stabilizing

Mutations 130 4.4.1 Experimental Approaches to Generate Genetic

Diversity 130 4.4.2 Computational Approaches for the Prediction

of Stabilizing Mutations 132 4.4.2.1 Sequence-based prediction 137 4.4.2.2 Structure-based prediction 139 4.4.2.3 Combined prediction strategies 140 4.4.3 Experimental Approaches for the Identification

of Stabilizing Mutations 141 4.4.3.1 Screening for native state stability 143 4.4.3.2 Screening for soluble expression

level 147 4.4.3.3 Screening for enzymatic cell lysate

activity 147

viii Contents

4.4.3.4 Screening from destabilized variants 148 4.4.3.5 Neutral drift 149 4.5 Experimental Methodologies for Buffering the

Stability Threshold 149 4.6 Concluding Remarks 150

5. Production of Functional Isoprenoids through Pathway Engineering 161

Jun-ichiro Hattan and Norihiko Misawa

5.1 Introduction 161 5.2 Physiological Functions of Isoprenoids Found in

Nature 163 5.3 Outline of Isoprenoid Biosynthetic Pathway 165 5.4 Cytochromes P450 as Isoprenoid-Modifying

Enzymes 166 5.5 Escherichia coli as the Host Microbe and Its

Intrinsic Isoprenoids 167 5.6 Pathway Engineering for Functional Isoprenoids 168 5.7 Application of Pathway Engineering to Functional

Analyses of TPSs and P450s 170 5.8 Developing a Catalog of Plant TpsGenes and Their

Products: An Outlook 173

6. Metabolic Engineering for the Biobased Conversion of CO2 to Biofuels 181

Jordan McEwen and Shota Atsumi

6.1 Introduction 181 6.2 Fermentative Alcohols 184 6.3 Non-Fermentative Alcohols 187 6.4 Fatty Acid Derivatives 190 6.5 Isoprenoid Derivatives 193 6.6 Direct CO2 Conversion 194 6.7 Formate Conversion 197 6.8 Conclusion 197

ixContents

7. Mixed Microbial Cultures for Industrial Biotechnology: Success, Chance, and Challenges 205

Wael Sabra and An-Ping Zeng

7.1 Introduction 205 7.2 Microbial Community and Biochemical Diversity 207 7.3 Advantages of Using Mixed Culture 208 7.3.1 The Existence of a Food Web for Improved

Performance 209 7.3.2 Stability and Robustness 210 7.3.3 Unsterile Open Fermentation Processes 211 7.3.4 Oxygen Removal for Anaerobes 212 7.3.5 Promoting Growth and Culturing

“Unculturable” Bacteria 212 7.3.6 Use of Complex Substrates 213 7.4 Established Industrial Bioprocesses 214 7.4.1 Microbial Consortia in Industrial Wastewater

Treatment 214 7.4.2 Bioethanol 216 7.5 Potential Use of Mixed Culture in Industrial

Biotechnology 218 7.5.1 Biofuel and Polymer Production 218 7.5.1.1 Bioelectricity 218 7.5.1.2 Biohydrogen 220 7.5.1.3 Butanol and 1,3 propanediol

production 223 7.5.1.4 Propionic acid 224 7.5.2 Antimicrobial Substances 226 7.6 Challenges Facing the Use of Mixed-Culture

Fermentations 227 7.6.1 Population Dynamic Determination 228 7.6.2 Analysis of the Interrelationships between

Members of Mixed Cultures 229 7.6.3 Engineering Synthetic Microbial Consortia 230 7.6.4 Contamination of Fermentations 230

x Contents

7.6.5 Consistency of Inoculums of Mixed Cultures 231 7.7 Concluding Remarks 232

8. Extremophiles and Their Use in Biofuel Synthesis 239

Eldie Berger, Eloy Ferreras, Mark P. Taylor, and Don A. Cowan

8.1 Introduction 239 8.2 First-Generation Biofuels 241 8.3 Second-Generation Biofuels 241 8.4 Extremophiles 242 8.4.1 Exploring Extreme Environments 243 8.4.2 Extremozymes as Biocatalysts 245 8.5 Lignocellulose 245 8.5.1 Pretreatment 246 8.5.2 Thermophilic Organisms for Lignocellulose

Deconstruction 247 8.5.3 Cellulose Hydrolysis 247 8.5.4 Hemicellulose Hydrolysis 248 8.5.5 Lignin Hydrolysis 250 8.5.6 Synergistic Degradation of Cellulose: The

Cellulosome 250 8.6 Biofuel Production 252 8.6.1 Biobutanol and Bioethanol 253 8.6.1.1 Geobacillus 255 8.6.1.2 Thermoanaerobacterium and

thermoanaerobacter 256 8.6.1.3 Clostridium 259 8.6.2 Consolidated Bioprocessing 260 8.6.3 Biogas 261 8.6.4 Hydrogen 263 8.6.5 Other Extremophiles 264 8.7 Biodiesel 265 8.7.1 Chemical versus Enzymatic

Transesterification 266 8.7.2 Raw Materials for Biodiesel Production 267

xiContents

8.7.3 Lipases (E.C. 3.1.1.3) 268 8.7.4 Lipases from Extremophiles 268 8.8 The Future 269

9. Industrial Applications of Halophilic Microorganisms 283

Aharon Oren

9.1 Introduction 283 9.2 The Contribution of Halophilic Microorganisms in

Ancient Technologies 285 9.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Halophiles

in Industry and Biotechnology 287 9.4 Success Story # 1: Production of β-Carotene by

Dunaliella 288 9.5 Success Story # 2: Production of Ectoine by

Halomonas 291 9.6 Bacteriorhodopsin of Halobacterium: A Versatile

Molecule with Many Possible Applications 295 9.7 Other Possible Applications of Halophilic

Microorganisms Not Yet Exploited in Industry 298 9.7.1 Halophilic Enzymes 298 9.7.2 Exopolysaccharides 301 9.7.3 Poly-β-Hydroxyalkanoate 303 9.7.4 Other Products from Halophiles:

Poly-(γ-D-Glutamic Acid), Glycerol and Biofuel 305

9.7.5 Halophiles as Heterologous Expression Vectors 306

9.7.6 Other “Potential” Applications of Halophiles 307

9.8 Final Comments 308

10. Non-Pathogenic Pseudomonas as Platform for Industrial Biocatalysis 323

Till Tiso, Nick Wierckx, and Lars M. Blank

10.1 Introduction 323 10.1.1 General Introduction 323

xii Contents

10.1.2 Taxonomy 324 10.1.3 Versatile Metabolism 325 10.1.4 Obligate Respiratory? 326 10.1.5 Redox Cofactor Metabolism 327 10.1.6 Solvent Tolerance 329 10.1.7 Pseudomonas beyond Industry 333

10.1.7.1 Plant protection/enhancement 333 10.1.7.2 Siderophore production 334 10.1.7.3 Bioremediation 336

10.2 Applications 337 10.2.1 Academic Examples 338

10.2.1.1 Biotransformation 338 10.2.1.2 Bioconversion 343

10.2.2 Industrial Examples 354 10.2.2.1 Vitamin B12 355 10.2.2.2 Acrylamide 358 10.2.2.3 5-Methylpyperazine-2-carboxylic

acid 358 10.2.2.4 D-p-hydroxyphenyl glycine 359

10.3 Conclusion 361

11. Use of Corynebacterium glutamicum for the Production of High-Value Chemicals from New Carbon Sources 373

Petra Peters-Wendisch and Volker F. Wendisch

11.1 Introduction 373 11.2 Carbon Source Utilization by C. glutamicum via

Endogenous and Engineered Metabolic Pathways 375 11.2.1 Starch, Molasses, Glucose, Fructose,

and Sucrose 376 11.2.1.1 Starch 376 11.2.1.2 Molasses 378 11.2.1.3 Glucose 378 11.2.1.4 Fructose 379 11.2.1.5 Sucrose 379

xiiiContents

11.2.2 Lignocellulosics, Cellulose, Xylose, Arabinose, Acetate, and Galactose 380

11.2.2.1 Lignocellulosic biomass 380 11.2.2.2 Cellulose and cellobiose 382 11.2.2.3 Xylose 382 11.2.2.4 Arabinose 383 11.2.2.5 Galactose 384 11.2.2.6 Acetate 385

11.2.3 Whey and Lactose 385 11.2.3.1 Whey 386 11.2.3.2 Lactose 386

11.2.4 Silage Juice and Lactic Acid 386 11.2.4.1 Silage juice 387 11.2.4.2 Lactic acid 387

11.2.5 Amino Sugars 387 11.2.5.1 Glucosamine 388 11.2.5.2 Sialic acid 388

11.2.6 Dicarboxylic Acids 389 11.2.7 Glycerol 389 11.3 Metabolic Engineering of C. glutamicum for New

Product Formation 390 11.3.1 Amino Acids 391

11.3.1.1 L-Glutamate, L-glutamine, and L-arginine 391

11.3.1.2 L-Lysine and L-threonine 392 11.3.1.3 L-Valine and L-isoleucine 393 11.3.1.4 L-Serine 394 11.3.1.5 Proline 395 11.3.1.6 Non-proteinogenic amino acids

and D-amino acids 396 11.3.2 Diamines 396

11.3.2.1 Putrescine 396 11.3.2.2 Cadaverine 397

11.3.3 Organic Acids 397

xiv Contents

11.3.3.1 Succinic acid 397 11.3.3.2 Pyruvic acid 398 11.3.3.3 Lactic acid 398 11.3.3.4 α-Ketoglutaric acid 399 11.3.3.5 2-Ketoisovaleric acid 399 11.3.3.6 D-Pantothenic acid 399

11.3.4 Alcohols 400 11.3.4.1 Ethanol, isobutanol, and

1,2-propanediol 400 11.3.4.2 Sugar alcohols (D-mannitol,

xylitol) 401 11.3.5 Carotenoids 402 11.3.6 PHA 402 11.3.7 Proteins 403 11.4 Summary 403

12. Applications of Enzymes in Industrial Biodiesel Production 417

Jesper Brask, David Cowan, and Per Munk Nielsen

12.1 Introduction 417 12.2 Biodiesel 418 12.2.1 Background 418 12.2.2 Feedstocks (Oils) 419 12.2.3 Alcohols 419 12.2.4 Catalysts 420 12.3 Oil Pretreatment 421 12.3.1 Phospholipids in Oil 422

12.3.1.1 Enzymatic degumming 423 12.3.1.2 Enzymatic degumming and

enzymatic biodiesel production 426 12.4 Enzymatic Biodiesel Production 427 12.4.1 Lipases 427

12.4.1.1 Immobilized enzymes 429 12.4.1.2 Free, liquid formulated enzymes 430

12.4.2 Factors That Influence Enzyme Performance 431

xvContents

12.4.2.1 Water content 431 12.4.2.2 Alcohols and temperature 433 12.4.2.3 pH 434 12.4.2.4 Solvents 435

12.4.3 Process Design Considerations 436 12.4.3.1 Stirred tank reactor, batch

process 436 12.4.3.2 Continuous stirred tank

process 437 12.4.4 Packed-Bed Reactors 438 12.5 Commercial or Near-Commercial Enzymatic

Biodiesel Solutions 438 12.5.1 The Novozymes BioFAME Process 438

12.5.1.1 Transesterification 438 12.5.1.2 Effect of minor components

in the feedstock 440 12.5.1.3 Enzyme and glycerol recovery 442 12.5.1.4 The caustic wash 443

12.6 Other Processes 443 12.6.1 Transbiodiesel 443 12.6.2 Piedmont Biofuels 444 12.6.3 Tsinghua University 444

13. Promiscuous Biocatalysts: Applications for Synthesis from Laboratory to Industrial Scale 449

Qi Wu and Xian-Fu Lin

13.1 Introduction 449 13.2 Classical Organic Reactions Catalyzed by

Promiscuous Enzymes 450 13.2.1 Enzymatic Aldol Reaction 450 13.2.2 Enzymatic Decarboxylative Aldol

Reaction 457 13.2.3 Enzymatic Knoevenagel Reaction 458 13.2.4 Decarboxylative Knoevenagel

Reaction 460

xvi Contents

13.2.5 Enzymatic Michael Addition Reactions 461 13.2.5.1 Lipase-catalyzed Michael

addition 462 13.2.5.2 Protease-catalyzed Michael

addition 466 13.2.5.3 Stereoselectivity of

hydrolase-catalyzed Michael addition 469

13.2.5.4 4-Oxalocrotonate tautomerase-catalyzed Michael addition 472

13.2.5.5 Phenolic acid decarboxylases-catalyzed Michael addition 473

13.2.6 Enzymatic Markovnikov Addition 473 13.2.7 Enzymatic Diels–Alder Reaction 478 13.2.8 Enzymatic Henry Reaction 479 13.2.9 Enzymatic Mannich Reaction 481

13.2.10 Enzymatic Hantzsch-Type Reaction 483

13.2.11 Enzymatic Ugi Reaction 484 13.2.12 Enzymatic Biginelli Reaction 484 13.2.13 Enzymatic Friedel–Crafts

Alkylation 481 13.2.14 Enzymatic Oxidation Reaction 489 13.2.15 Other Promiscuities 496

13.3 Multiple-Promiscuities of One Enzyme 497 13.4 Application of Enzymatic Promiscuity in

Multistep Organic Processes 500 13.4.1 Single Enzyme-Catalyzed Multistep

Organic Process 500 13.4.2 Multiple Enzyme-Catalyzed Multistep

Organic Processes 505 13.5 Industrial Application of Promiscuous Enzymes 502 13.6 Conclusions and Outlook 511

xviiContents

14. Micromagnetic Porous and Non-Porous Biocatalyst Carriers 521

Julia Stolarow, Berna Gerçe, Christoph Syldatk, Ivana Magario,

Christian Morhardt, Matthias Franzreb, and Rudolf Hausmann

14.1 Introduction 521 14.2 Theoretical Considerations of Mass Transfer

Phenomena 526 14.3 Experiment-Based Factors for Estimation

of Immobilization Quality 536 14.4 Selected Examples for Comparison of Porous

and Non-Porous Biocatalyst Carriers 537 14.4.1 Effects of the Substrate Properties on

the Effectiveness Factor of Porous and Non-Porous Biocatalyst Carriers 538

14.4.2 Effects of Protein Loading on Effectiveness Factor of Porous and Non-Porous Biocatalyst Carriers 542

14.4.3 Effects of Porous and Non-Porous Carriers on the Effectiveness Factor 545

14.4.4 Effects Not Covered by Mass Transfer Transport to the Carrier Model 547

14.5 Conclusion 549

15. Robust Enzyme Preparations for Industrial Application 553

Oliver Thum, Frank Hellmers, and Marion Ansorge-Schumacher

15.1 Introduction: Robustness—a Mandatory Feature of Industrial Enzymes 553

15.2 Immobilisation Strategies 557 15.2.1 Attachment to Carriers 558 15.2.2 Carrier-Less Cross-Linking 559 15.2.3 Entrapment in Polymeric Matrices 560 15.3 Synthetic Applications Using Robust Immobilised

Enzymes 561 15.3.1 Ester Synthesis and Cleavage 562 15.3.2 Modification of Sugars 566 15.3.3 Production of β-Lactam Antibiotics 573 15.4 Conclusion 577

xviii Contents

16. Hydrolases in Non-Conventional Media: Implications for Industrial Biocatalysis 583

Veronika Stepankova, Jiri Damborsky, and Radka Chaloupkova

16.1 Introduction 583 16.2 Biocatalysis in Organic Solvents 585 16.2.1 Nearly Anhydrous Organic Solvent Systems 585 16.2.2 Biphasic Systems 594 16.2.3 Organic Co-Solvent Systems 594 16.3 Biocatalysis in Ionic Liquids 596 16.3.1 Nearly Anhydrous IL Systems 603 16.3.2 IL-Based Biphasic Systems 604 16.3.3 IL Co-Solvent Systems 605 16.3.4 Ionic Liquids as Coating Agents 606 16.4 Biocatalysis in Deep Eutectic Solvents 606 16.5 Supercritical Fluids 610 16.6 Fluorous Solvents 614 16.7 Case Study: Haloalkane Dehalogenases in the

Presence of Organic Co-Solvents 615 16.8 Concluding Remarks 620

17. Ene-Reductases from Cyanobacteria for Industrial Biocatalysis 631

Yilei Fu, Kathrin Castiglione, and Dirk Weuster-Botz

17.1 Introduction 631 17.2 Asymmetric Reduction of Alkenes 632 17.3 Ene-Reductases from the Old Yellow Enzyme

Family 634 17.3.1 Structure and Classification of

Ene-Reductases 634 17.3.2 Reaction Types and Catalytic Mechanism 635 17.3.3 Substrate Spectrum and Stereoselectivities 639 17.4 Ene-Reductases from Cyanobacteria 642 17.4.1 Substrate Spectrum 643 17.4.2 Cofactor Specificity 645 17.4.3 Stereoselectivity 646

xixContents

17.5 Preparative Bioreduction of Alkenes 647 17.5.1 Baker’s Yeast Mediated Biotransformation 647 17.5.2 Biocatalysis Using Isolated Ene-Reductases 649 17.5.3 Whole-Cell Bioreduction by Recombinant

Escherichia Coli 651 17.6 Concluding Remarks 655

18. Cytochrome P450 Biocatalysts: Current Applications and Future Prospects 663

Santosh Kumar

18.1 Introduction 663 18.2 Cytochrome P450: General Background 664 18.3 Cytochrome P450-Mediated Drug Interactions 665 18.3.1 CYP Induction 666 18.3.2 CYP Inhibition 667 18.3.3 CYP Polymorphism 668 18.4 Cytochromes P450 as Potential Biocatalysts 669 18.4.1 Potential Applications 669 18.4.2 Limitations of Cytochromes P450 as

Biocatalysts and Their Possible Solutions 670 18.5 Application of Cytochrome P450 in

Biotechnology: Industrial Synthesis 671 18.5.1 Background 671 18.5.2 CYP Enzymes in the Synthesis of Drugs

and Drug Metabolites 672 18.5.3 Future Prospects of Engineered CYP

Enzymes in Industrial Synthesis 673 18.6 Application of Cytochrome P450 in Biosensors 676 18.6.1 Background 676 18.6.2 CYP Biosensors 677 18.6.3 Future Prospects of CYP Biosensors 679 18.7 Application of Cytochrome P450 in Gene-Directed

Enzyme Prodrug Therapy (GDEPT) 680 18.7.1 Background 680 18.7.2 CYP-Based GDEPT 681

xx Contents

18.7.3 Future Prospects of CYP-Based GDEPT 682 18.8 Application of Cytochrome P450 in

Phytoremediation 684 18.8.1 Background 684 18.8.2 CYP-Based Phytoremediation Using

Wild-Type Plants 685 18.8.3 CYP-Based Phytoremediation Using

Transgenic Plants 685 18.8.4 Future Prospects of CYP-Based

Phytoremediation 686 18.9 Conclusion 688

19. Laccases: Green Biocatalysts for Greener Applications 697

Susana Rodríguez-Couto

19.1 Introduction 697 19.2 Occurrence of Laccases 700 19.3 Mode of Action of Laccases 700 19.4 Biochemical Properties 701 19.5 Structure of Laccases 702 19.6 Heterologous Production of Laccases 704 19.7 Potential Industrial Applications of Laccase

Enzymes 705 19.7.1 Food Industry 706

19.7.1.1 Wine stabilization 706 19.7.1.2 Preventing taint in cork stoppers 706 19.7.1.3 Baking 707 19.7.1.4 Sugar beet pectin gelation 707 19.7.1.5 Treatment of wastewater from

the food industry 707 19.7.2 Pulp and Paper Industry 708

19.7.2.1 Pulp bleaching 708 19.7.2.2 Treatment of paper mill effluents 708 19.7.2.3 Other paper and pulp applications 709

19.7.3 Delignification of lignocellulosics 709 19.7.4 Textile Industry 710

xxiContents

19.7.4.1 Wastewater treatment 710 19.7.4.2 Textile bleaching 710 19.7.4.3 Other textile applications 711

19.7.5 Soil Bioremediation 711 19.7.6 Biosensors and Biofuel Cells 712 19.7.7 Synthetic Chemistry 712 19.7.8 Cosmetics and Personal Care Applications 713 19.7.9 Removal of Pharmaceutical Compounds 713 19.8 Outlook 714

20. Lipase-Catalyzed Epoxidation of Fatty Compounds and Alkenes 723

Fabian Haitz, Steffen Rupp, Thomas Hirth, and Susanne Zibek

20.1 Introduction 723 20.2 Lipase-Catalyzed Epoxidation of Fatty Compounds

and Alkenes 724 20.2.1 Epoxides: Oxirane Oxygen Compounds as

Functional Intermediates 725 20.2.2 Chemical Epoxidation 728 20.2.3 General Features of Triacylglycerol Lipases 731 20.2.4 Lipase-Catalyzed Epoxidation of Fatty

Compounds 734 20.2.4.1 Epoxidation of fatty acids 737 20.2.4.2 Epoxidation of fatty acid esters 743 20.2.4.3 Epoxidation of various plant oils 749

20.2.5 Lipase-Catalyzed Epoxidation of Alkenes 754 20.2.5.1 Linear and branched alkenes 755 20.2.5.2 Cyclic alkenes 762

20.2.6 Stability of Lipases 769 20.2.7 Application of Epoxidized Fatty Compounds 772 20.2.8 Conclusions 774

21. Synthetic Potential of Dihydroxyacetone-Utilizing Aldolases 783

Anne K. Samland and Georg A. Sprenger

21.1 Introduction 783 21.2 Enzymatic C–C Bond Formation Using Aldolases 784

xxii Contents

21.3 Classification of Aldolases by Donor Specificity 786 21.4 Preparative Syntheses Using Aldolases 786 21.5 Stereocomplementary DHAP-Dependent Aldolases 787 21.6 Limitations of DHAP-Dependent Aldolases 788 21.7 Dihydroxyacetone Utilizing Aldolases 790 21.8 FSA from Escherichia coli is a DHA-Utilizing Aldolase 790 21.9 Biological Function of FSA 791 21.10 Substrate Scope for Donor Substrates 792 21.11 Self- and Cross Aldolization of Glycolaldehyde 794 21.12 Synthetic Applications 795 21.13 Substrate Scope for Acceptor Aldehydes 795 21.14 Lack of Stereoselectivity of FSAA for the α-Position

of the Aldehyde 799 21.15 Chemo-Enzymatic Syntheses 800 21.16 Enzyme Cascade Reactions 802 21.17 Industrial Applications 803 21.18 Other DHA-Utilizing Aldolases 804 21.19 De novo Design of a Retro-Aldolase 810 21.20 Perspectives 810 21.21 Conclusions 811

22. The Hydantoinase Process: Recent Developments for the Production of Non-Canonical Amino Acids 817

Ulrike Engel, Jens Rudat, and Christoph Syldatk

22.1 Introduction 817 22.2 The Hydantoinase Process: Biocatalytic Production

of Chiral α-Amino Acids 818 22.3 Hydantoinase and Dihydropyrimidinase 819 22.3.1 Definition of Terms 819 22.3.2 Distribution of Hydantoinases and

Dihydropyrimidinases in Nature 820 22.3.3 Characteristics 821 22.3.4 Classification 822 22.4 N-carbamoyl Amino Acid Cleaving Enzymes 822 22.4.1 β-Ureidopropionases and L-Carbamoylases 822

xxiiiContents

22.4.2 D-Carbamoylases 823 22.5 Hydantoin Racemases 824 22.6 Chemoenzymatic Production of Amino Acids 827 22.6.1 D-α-Amino Acids 827 22.6.2 L-α-Amino Acids 842 22.6.3 β-Amino Acids 847 22.7 Conclusions and Future Prospects 851

23. Biotechnological Approaches to Dipeptide Production 863

Martin Krehenbrink, Ahmed Sallam, and Alexander Steinbüchel

23.1 Dipeptides: The Future of Amino Acids? 863 23.2 Dipeptide Production: State of the Art and

Alternative Technologies 866 23.2.1 Extraction from Natural Sources 867 23.2.2 Chemical Synthesis 867 23.2.3 Biotechnological Processes 868 23.2.4 Non-Ribosomal Peptide Synthetases 874 23.2.5 L-Amino Acid Ligase 876 23.3 Outlook 880

24. Synthetic Enzyme Cascades for Valuable Diols and Amino Alcohols: Smart Composition and Optimization Strategies 887

Torsten Sehl, Justyna Kulig, Robert Westphal, and Dörte Rother

24.1 Introduction 887 24.1.1 Asymmetric Synthesis of Chiral

α-Hydroxy Ketones, 1,2-Amino Alcohols and 1,2-Diols 887

24.1.2 Enzyme Toolboxes to Obtain High Product Diversity 892

24.1.3 Advantages and Challenges of Enzyme Cascades 893

24.1.4 Cascade Designs 894 24.1.5 Synthetic Enzyme Cascades for the

Production of Valuable 1,2-Amino Alcohols and 1,2-Diols 895

xxiv Contents

24.2 Toolbox of ThDP-Dependent Enzymes for C–C Coupling 896

24.2.1 Accessible Product Platform of α-Hydroxy Ketones 898

24.2.2 Integrated Engineering for Carboligase-Step Optimisation 900

24.2.2.1 Enzyme engineering 900 24.2.2.2 Substrate screening 902 24.2.2.3 Solvent screening 903 24.2.2.4 Reaction optimisation 904 24.2.2.5 Process design 905

24.3 Combining Enzymatic Carboligation and Reductive Amination for Production of Chiral 1,2-Amino Alcohols 906

24.3.1 Enzyme Screening of Reductive Aminase Activity towards α-Hydroxy Ketones 907

24.3.2 Two-Step Biocatalytic Synthesis of Norpseudoephedrine in Different Cascade Modes 910

24.3.3 Smart Composition of Linear Enzyme Cascades for the Synthesis of 1,2-Amino Alcohols 911

24.4 Combining Enzymatic Carboligation and Oxidoreduction for Production of Chiral 1,2-Diols 915

24.4.1 Enzyme Screening of Reductase Activity towards α-Hydroxy Ketones 916

24.4.2 Optimisation of Reductase Step 918 24.4.3 Two-Step Two-Pot Enzymatic Synthesis

of 1,2-Diols with Cofactor Regeneration System 919

24.4.4 Sustainability Improvement of the Production of 1,2-Diols 921

25. Metabolic Engineering for the Biosynthesis of Longevity Molecules Rapamycin and Resveratrol 931

Victor M. Ye and Sujata K. Bhatia

25.1 Introduction 931

xxvContents

25.2 Rapamycin and Its Analogs 932 25.2.1 Cinical Properties of Rapamycin and Mode

of Action 932 25.2.2 Biosynthesis of Rapamycin 934 25.2.3 Improvement of Rapamycin Production by

Traditional Mutagenesis and Precursor Metabolic Engineering 934

25.2.4 Generation of High Titer Rapamycin Production Strain by Mutagenesis, Rational Screening, and Bioprocess Optimization 936

25.2.5 Biosynthesis of Bioengineered Rapalogs 938 25.3 Resveratrol 939 25.3.1 Health Benefits of Resveratrol and

Mechanism of Action 939 25.3.2 Biosynthesis of Resveratrol 941 25.3.3 Engineering E. coli for Resveratrol

Production 942 25.3.4 Engineering Yeast for Resveratrol

Production 942 25.3.5 Engineering Plants for Resveratrol

Production 943 25.4 Conclusion 944

26. Detergent Proteases 949

Karl-Heinz Maurer

26.1 Introduction 949 26.2 Market 951 26.3 Protease Products and Molecules 952 26.4 Performance 957 26.5 Enzyme Screening and Development 959 26.6 Production Organisms and Production 963 26.6.1 Production of Enzymes 963 26.6.2 Bacillus Fermentation Process 964 26.6.3 Fungal Fermentation Process 966 26.6.4 Downstream Processing 966

xxvi Contents

26.7 Product Formulation (Confectioning) 967 26.7.1 Confectioning: Granulation for Powder

Products and Tablets 968 26.7.2 Confectioning: Liquid enzyme products 969 26.7.3 Detergent Formulation 970

26.7.3.1 Detergent powder products 971 26.7.3.2 Detergent tablet products 971 26.7.3.3 Liquid detergent products 972

26.8 Safety Aspects 973 26.8.1 Human Risk Assessment

(Consumer Safety, Worker Safety) 973 26.8.2 Environmental Risk Assessment 975 26.8.3 Enzyme Analysis 976 26.8.4 Enzyme Product Level 976 26.8.5 Detergent Product Level 977 26.8.6 Dust or Aerosol Level 977 26.9 Sustainability Aspects 978 26.10 Regulatory and Legal Aspects 978 26.11 Outlook 979

27. Industrial Starch Processing 985

Józef Synowiecki, Anna Panek, and Olga Pietrow

27.1 Introduction 985 27.2 Starch Isolation 986 27.3 Modified Starches 988 27.4 Enzymes Used in Starch Processing 991 27.4.1 α-Amylases 991 27.4.2 Debranching Enzymes 986 27.4.3 Exoamylases 993 27.5 Amylolytic Enzymes in Food Processing 994 27.6 The Use of Amylases in Production of Starch

Syrups 995 27.7 Other Starch Derivatives 997 27.8 Production and Applications of Cyclodextrins 998 27.9 Biodegradable Packaging Material 1000

xxviiContents

27.10 Production of Biofuel 1002 27.11 Conclusions 1002

28. Algae: A Rich Source of Energy and High-Value Products 1007

Peter Grunwald

28.1 Introduction 1007 28.2 Algae: General Characteristics 1009 28.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Algae as

Biomass Feedstock 1012 28.4 Conversion of Algal Biomass 1015 28.4.1 Algae-Based Biofuels 1015

28.4.1.1 Biodiesel from algae 1015 28.4.1.2 Re-utilization of glycerol 1020

28.5 Alcohols from Second-Generation Feedstocks: General Aspects 1029

28.5.1 Bioethanol from Algae 1031 28.6 High-Value Products from Algae 1034 28.6.1 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids 1035 28.6.2 Carotenoids 1038 28.6.3 Phycobilins 1043 28.6.4 Transgenic Microalgae as Cell Factories 1044 28.6.5 Utilization of Protein Waste 1047 28.7 Conclusions 1051

29. Enzyme-Catalysed Processes in a Potential Algal Biorefinery 1065

Bhavish Patel, Pongsathorn Dechatiwongse, and Klaus Hellgardt

29.1 Introduction 1065 29.2 Direct Synthesis and Excretion 1068 29.2.1 Oxygenic Photosynthesis: Solar Energy

Storage Mechanism 1068 29.2.1.1 Light reaction 1069 29.2.1.2 Dark reaction 1070

29.2.2 Excretion of Hydrogen 1071 29.2.2.1 Hydrogen biosynthesis pathway 1071

xxviii Contents

29.2.2.2 Green algae 1072 29.2.2.3 Cyanobacteria 1074

29.2.3 Excretion of Isoprene 1076 29.2.3.1 Isoprene biosynthesis

pathway 1077 29.2.3.2 Isoprenoids biosynthesis

pathway 1078 29.2.3.3 MVA pathway 1078 29.2.3.4 MEP pathway 1079

29.2.4 Excretion of Long-Chain Hydrocarbons 1079 29.3 Biocatalytic Release and Transformation 1081 29.3.1 Biocatalysed Lysis 1082 29.3.2 Bioalcohol (Ethanol/Butanol) Synthesis 1084 29.4 Biodiesel Synthesis 1086 29.5 Conclusion 1090

30. Biocatalytic Synthesis of Polymers: A Contribution to Green Chemistry 1101

Karla A. Barrera-Rivera and Antonio Martinez-Richa

30.1 Introduction 1101 30.2 Enzymatic Polymerizations 1102 30.2.1 Lipase for Polymer Synthesis 1103 30.3 Polyester Synthesis 1104 30.3.1 Enzyme-Catalyzed Polycondensations 1106 30.3.2 Enzyme-Catalyzed Ring-Opening

Polymerizations of Cyclic Esters 1107 30.3.3 AA-BB Type Enzymatic Polyesterification 1109 30.3.4 Enzyme-Catalyzed Ring-Opening

Polymerizations of Cyclic Esters 1110 30.3.5 Mechanism of Lipase-Catalyzed

Ring-Opening Polymerization of Cyclic Esters 1117

30.4 Poly(Carbonates) Synthesis 1118 30.5 Polyamides Synthesis 1120 30.6 Outlook 1121

xxixContents

31. Bio-Based Chemicals and Materials 1127

Peter Grunwald

31.1 Introduction 1127 31.2 General Aspects 1130 31.3 Identification of Platform Chemicals 1133 31.4 Bio-Based C2–C6 Platform Chemicals 1138 31.5 Other Platform Chemicals 1148 31.6 Polymers: Bio-based and Biodegradable 1150 31.6.1 Some Industrial Applications 1152 31.6.2 Microbial Production of Renewable

Building Blocks for Biopolymers 1153 31.7 Conclusion 1155

Index 1165

Preface

Biocatalysis has meanwhile become an essential tool in the chemical industry and is the central part of biotechnology, defined by the European Federation of Biotechnology already in 1988 as “the integration of natural sciences and organisms, cells, parts thereof, and molecular analogues for products and services.” As to the industrial application, biocatalysis is the core of industrial biotechnology, also known as white biotechnology; “white” stands for the positive impact on the environment associated with the use of biocatalysts as enzymes or whole cells in chemical processes as an alternative to chemical catalysts. Drivers of this development are the big challenges resulting from concerns about global climate change and the need for an assured energy supply. These aspects are discussed in Chapter 1 together with an overview of the many areas of daily life where biocatalysts are already employed. Modern biocatalysis relies to a large extent on the tremendous advances in the so-called “omics techniques” and the structural elucidation of biomolecules, which have led to synthetic biology and metabolic engineering as new research fields with high application potential for the rational design of enzymes and microbial production strains. In Chapter 2, Daniel Meyer and colleagues from the Biotechnology Research and Information Network introduce the reader to strategies for synthetic applications with recombinant whole-cell biocatalysts and metabolically engineered production strains. They see a convergence of both toward an engineering biology that will penetrate all sectors of the chemical industry and forecast the marked launch of a variety of products with properties that outperform their counterparts produced from crude oil with respect to quality and diversity. This is followed by a detailed overview of methods employed for directed evolution of industrial enzymes (creation of libraries and screening) with many examples from all six enzyme classes, written by Youyun Liang, Ee Lui Ang, and Huimin Zhao; Chapter 3 includes directed

xxxii Preface

evolution in pathway engineering and combinatorial strategies to optimize the expression of pathway genes. The generation of new enzyme functions by mutations is accompanied in many cases by a decrease in thermodynamic stability. In Chapter 4, Nobuhico Tokuriki and colleagues discuss the fundamentals of the underlying processes together with the state of the art concerning methods to overcome such limitations to enable effective enzyme engineering. Jun-ichiro Hattan and Norihiko Misawa report in Chapter 5 about tailored production strains for the synthesis of functional isoprenoids and the cataloguing of novel terpene synthase genes isolated from edible plants. The contribution by Jordan McEwen and Shota Atsumi (Chapter 6) deals with metabolic engineering applied to the bio-based conversion of CO2 for the synthesis of new fuel-like molecules as petroleum replacements in the fuel industry. Subsequently, Wael Sabra and An-Ping Zeng address the importance of microbial consortia in industrial biotechnology. In Chapter 7, the authors illustrate how these mixed bacterial cultures can act together to generate bioelectricity (microbial fuel cells), or in the production of hydrogen, methane, and other chemicals. Eldie Berger, Eloy Ferreras, Mark P. Taylor, and Don A. Cowan critically examine the use of extremophiles in biofuel synthesis; Chapter 8 includes a discussion of major microbial strains and enzymes involved in different production steps, new developments in strain engineering, and pre-treatment procedures for lignocellulosic biomass. In Chapter 9, Aharon Oren describes the potential industrial utilization of halophilic microorganisms and enzymes. Famous examples are the green algae Dunaliella salina for producing β-carotene, and Halomonas elongata as a source of ectoine that has been reported to act as a “molecular chaperone”, and meanwhile found a variety of applications in biotechnology as well as in cosmetic products and in the biomedical area. Till Tiso, Nick Wierckx, and Lars M. Blank review in Chapter 10 the importance and potential of non-pathogenic Pseudomonas with a focus on P. putida as platform for industrial biocatalysis; the chapter summarizes compounds produced in industry with these microorganisms as well as industrially used enzymes from Pseudomonas strains. The chapter contributed by Petra Peters-Wendisch and Volker F. Wendisch (Chapter 11) describes in detail

xxxiii

the use of Corynebacterium glutamicum strains for the sustainable production of a variety of compounds such as organic acids, alcohols, diamines, polyhydroxyalkanoates, and proteins from alternative carbon sources, enabled by metabolic engineering. Chapter 12, contributed by Jesper Brask, David Cowan, and Per Munk Nielsen (Novozymes), deals with the application of industrial enzymes in biodiesel production; the emphasis is on phospholipases used for the removal of phospholipids, and lipases as an alternative to chemical catalysts in the transesterification process. Enzymes being promiscuous with respect to the substrates accepted or to the catalyzed reaction type are very interesting biocatalysts due to their capability of converting a wide range of substrates. In Chapter 13, Qi Wu and Xian-Fu Lin highlight their (industrial) application in non-conventional organic reactions, including tandem synthetic processes. Chapters 14 and 15 deal with the immobilization of enzymes, which has a variety of advantages (stabilization, reuse of the catalyst, simplified product recovery, etc.) over the employment of dissolved ones. Julia Stolarow, Berna Gerçe, Christoph Syldatk, Ivana Magario, Christian Morhardt, Matthias Franzreb, and Rudolf Hausmann discuss micro-magnetic non-porous carriers in comparison to porous supports with a focus on theoretical considerations concerning mass transfer phenomena. Oliver Thum, Frank Hellmers (Evonic Industries), and Marion Ansorge- Schumacher provide an overview on the various immobilization strategies together with selected examples of uses of robust immobilized enzymes for large-scale applications under individual process conditions. In Chapter 16, Veronica Stepankova, Jiri Damborsky, and Radka Chaloupkova then treat the behavior of hydrolases in non-conventional media (organic solvents, ionic liquids, deep eutectic solvents, supercritical fluids, and fluorous solvents). By a case study with haloalkane dehalogenases in the presence of organic co-solvents, the authors demonstrate how the effect of solvents on enzyme structure and function can be mechanistically explained at the molecular level and mathematically modeled. Three contributions deal with members of the enzyme class 1, the oxidoreductases. In Chapter 17, Yilei Fu, Kathrin Castiglione, and Dirk Weuster-Botz report about ene-reductases

Preface

xxxiv

from cyanobacteria for industrial biocatalysis. These enzymes are capable of generating chiral molecules by the asymmetric reduction of C=C bonds and are hence of much interest in connection with the synthesis of enantiopure molecules for application in the pharmaceutical and chemical industries. The chapter includes whole-cell bioreductions using engineered E. coli overexpressing an ene-reductase. The contribution by Santosh Kumar (Chapter 18) about cytochrome P450 biocatalysts—apart from providing general information about these enzymes—introduces the readers to many applications, including their use for industrial synthesis of drugs, drug metabolites, and other chemicals, for biosensor design to monitor drug levels in the plasma, for gene-directed enzyme prodrug therapy applicable to targeted cancer treatment, and finally for phytoremediation of soil and water contaminants. In Chapter 19, Susana Rodríguez- Couto finally discusses laccases—copper-containing polyphenol oxidases—under the topic “Green Biocatalysts for Greener Applications,” which comprises, among others, pulp bleaching, denim finishing, wastewater treatment, delignification of lignocellulosics, and their use for the fabrication of biosensors and biofuel cells. Chapter 20, by Fabian Haitz, Steffen Rupp, Thomas Hirth, and Susanne Zibek, deals with the lipase- catalyzed epoxidation of unsaturated fatty compounds from renewable raw materials, and mineral oil–based linear, branched, or cyclic alkenes as an alternative to chemical procedures. The resulting epoxides are important intermediates in the industrial chemical industry. The synthetic potential of dihydroxyacetone-utilizing aldolases is the topic of Chapter 21, contributed by Anne K. Samland and Georg A. Sprenger. This rather new group of aldolases catalyzing stereoselective carbon–carbon bond formation is characterized by an unprecedented donor tolerance, a wide acceptor scope, strict stereoselectivity even with unnatural substrates, and temperature and solvent tolerance. Examples of industrial applications are included. Ulrike Engel, Jens Rudat, and Christoph Syldatk (Chapter 22) discuss the “hydantoinase process” with respect to recent developments for the production of non-canonical optically pure amino acids. The isolation of novel strains, optimization by genetic modification, heterogeneous expression and the composition of “designer bugs,” and improvement of

Preface

xxxv

space-time yields by process engineering measures like enzyme immobilization have led to a considerable enhancement of the product range. Dipeptides play a pivotal role in nutrition and fulfill very specific roles within the body. In Chapter 23, Martin Krehenbrink, Ahmed Sallam, and Alexander Steinbüchel discuss possible biotechnological approaches (chemoenzymatic routes, cell-based production methods, etc.) to the production of these compounds with their enormous application potential. The contribution by Torsten Sehl, Justyna Kulig, Robert Westphal, and Dörte Rother deals with synthetic enzyme cascades for the production of valuable 1,2-amino alcohols and 1,2-diols from cheap achiral precursors (Chapter 24) with a focus on stereoselective synthesis of α-hydroxy ketones, vicinal amino alcohols, and diols as versatile building blocks for the pharmaceutical and chemical industries. Rapamycin is known as a compound with a variety of clinically useful characteristics. Some of these properties have been shown to be potentiated by resveratrol. Both compounds are available from natural sources in only low amounts. In Chapter 25, Victor M. Ye and Sujata K. Bhatia discuss how to increase the availability of these compounds for clinical or nutraceutical applications through the combination of traditional mutagenesis and metabolic engineering. The subject “Detergent Proteases” (Chapter 26), the use of technical enzymes in the detergent industry, has been covered by Karl-Heinz Maurer (AB Enzymes). The chapter contains all important aspects of this topic, including the market situation, the performance of different proteases, production organisms and processes, product formulations, safety aspects, and environmental risk assessment. Starch is the main carbohydrate component of many agricultural products. Enzymes used in industrial processing of starch, valuable products derived from starch, and its use for the manufacture of biodegradable plastics or for the production of bioethanol are treated in an overview by Józef Synowiecki and coworkers Anna Panek and Olga Pietrow in Chapter 27. Algae biotechnology belongs to the hot topics in this area: After an introduction to algae as a rich source of energy and high-value products (Chapter 28), Bhavish Patel, Pongsathorn Dechatiwongse and Klaus Hellgardt summarize enzyme-catalyzed

Preface

xxxvi

processes in a potential algal biorefinery. The authors describe in Chapter 29 among others key biocatalytic processes leading to the direct excretion of drop-in fuels, ranging from hydrogen and isoprene to long chain hydrocarbons and develop a complete picture of an algae-based biorefinery concept In Chapter 30, about the biocatalytic synthesis of polymers, Karla A. Barrera-Rivera and Antonio Martinez-Richa introduce the reader to a field of industrial biocatalysis with a promising future because the multitude of different monomers provided by Nature enables in principle the production of polymers with precisely tuned properties. The final chapter provides a brief overview on the development toward an increasing production of bio-based chemicals and materials (commodity chemicals, fine chemicals, polymers), also forecasted by recent market analyses. One of its main drivers is a profound understanding of metabolic pathways, enabling their modification and reconstruction, and the generation of robust “microbial chemical factories.” The contributions compiled in this book underline the highly interdisciplinary character of industrial biocatalysis. Furthermore, they mirror the gradual shift from a primarily petro-based to a more and more bio-based economy—a development where industrial biocatalysis/biotechnology plays a key role in meeting the challenges resulting from the increasing demand of the still continuously growing world population for energy, food and raw materials. The editor is indebted to the staff at Pan Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd. for their invaluable support during the publication of this book.

Peter Grunwald

Preface

Chapter 1

Industrial BiocatalysisEdited by Peter GrunwaldCopyright © 2015 Pan Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd.ISBN 978-981-4463-88-1 (Hardcover), 978-981-4463-89-8 (eBook) www.panstanford.com

Biocatalysts: Global Market, Industrial Applications, Aspects of Biotransformation Design, and Societal Challenges

1.1 Introduction

Different research institutes prognosticate an annual growth rate of the global market for industrial enzymes of about 5% for the next years. Drivers for this continuous rise are innovations in various areas of biotechnology, together with the ever-increasing demand for environment-friendly, sustainable solutions for industrial pro-duction processes by replacing conventional chemical catalysts with biocatalysts.

Enzymes that efficiently catalyze the manifold reactions in living organisms are isolated from higher eukaryotes, such as plants and animals (Liu et al., 2004), and in the recent past to an

Peter GrunwaldDepartment of Physical Chemistry, University of Hamburg, Grindelallee 117, D-20146 Hamburg, Germany

grunwald@chemie.uni-hamburg.de

� Biocatalysts

increasing extent from microbial cells, which are also a source of new industrially important biocatalysts (Steele et al., 2009) identified by high-throughput screening and metagenome analysis enabling the assessment of uncultured microbial communities in complex ecosystems from different environments (Simon and Daniel, 2011; see also Chapter 7). These biocatalysts have evolved to work under physiological conditions for millenniums. Their application as catalysts has a long tradition in the food and detergent industry. For application in connection with the production of bulk and fine chemicals, including pharmaceuticals and nutraceuticals, or the production of biofuels from lignocellulosic materials (e.g., Baek et al., 2012), their properties have to be improved to meet the requirements of the respective industrial processes. The methods mostly employed for this purpose are directed evolution and rational protein design—alone or combined (Illanes et al., 2012)—supported among others by computational approaches to predict protein functions from sequence and structure (Lee et al., 2007). Recently published introductions into these fields with respect to biocatalyst engineering came, for example, from Quin and Schmidt-Dannert (2011) and Bommarius et al. (2011). Concerning whole cells employed as chemical factories, significant progress has been achieved during the recent decade in engineering pathways of bacteria (Escherichia coli, Corynebacterium glutamicum, Bacillus subtilis), fungi (Aspergillus niger, A. oryzae, Penicillium chrysogenum) and yeasts (e.g. Saccharomyces cerevisiae) as discussed by Chen and Nielsen (2013) with the bio-based production of the building block chemicals adipic acid, succinic acid and 3-hydroxypropionic acid. Reports about advanced biofuels produced by means of engineering the metabolic pathway of microorganisms (Peralta-Yahya et al., 2012; see also Chapter 6) or the synthesis of short-chain alkanes for direct use as petrol as possible alternative to fossil fuel by introducing new pathways into engineered E. coli (Choi and Lee, 2013) prove the high potential of these new molecular tools (for a comprehensive overview including results of improved pathway productivity in a variety of host cells see Galanie et al., 2013) for a successful future development of industrial biotechnology. Further progress is to be expected from strain development by targeted metabolic engineering based on systems biology. Systems metabolic engineering considers the entire metabolic pathway fluxes and regulatory networks of a cell, as discussed by Lee and Park (2010)

�The Global Enzyme Market

with the L-threonine production in E. coli, or by Wittmann (2010) in connection with the optimization of C. glutamicum for industrial applications (see also Chapter 11). The application of such approaches to natural and synthetic microbial ecosystems has been reviewed by Mee and Wang (2012). Several aspects of these topics are also treated in Chapters 2 to 6.

Finally, synthetic biology makes use of advanced technologies to synthesize DNA which theoretically enables to construct the sequence of a genome thereby generating an artificial organism. Synthetic biology—a kind of genetic manipulation—may find application in connection with the design of industrial strains (Chen et al., 2010), for example, via synthesis of new gene clusters by refactoring of native gene clusters for generating new (non-natural) products of pharmaceutical and other interest; the current state in this field has been reviewed among others by Bornscheuer et al. (2012), Hranueli et al. (2013), and Frasch et al. (2013).

1.� The Global Enzyme Market

According to a recent report by BCC (Business Communications Company) Research about Enzymes in Industrial Applications (2011) the global enzyme market is estimated at US$ 3.3 billion in 2010 and forecasted to reach US$ 4.4 billion by 2015, which means a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of about 6%. The respective numbers for so-called technical enzymes that in contrast to speciality enzymes are normally used as bulk enzymes are US$ 1 billion for 2010 and 1.5 billion (2015) with the principal customer being the leather industry, followed by companies engaged in bioethanol production. The market for enzymes employed in the food and beverage industry is expected to increase within this 5 years period from US$ 975 million to US$ 1.3 billion (CAGR ~5%); in 2009 nearly 50% of these enzyme sales were allotted to processing of milk and dairy products. Figure 1.1, adapted from statistics provided by Novozymes (2011) in connection with comparing the global enzyme market with that in China, gives a rough estimate of how the enzyme market is divided into the different industrial segments. In addition to the use of enzymes, a variety of biotransformations is carried out with whole cells (including microbial consortia; Chapter 7), among which the prokaryotic microorganism Escherichia coli and the eukaryotic cells

� Biocatalysts

Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and Zymomonas mobilis are important representatives. As metabolizing cells regenerate cofactors whole cells are often employed for redox biotransformation; independent of that, they make enzyme isolation and purification dispensable. Examples of whole cells-mediated biotransformations with more details are given among others in Chapters 9 to 11.

Figure 1.1 The division of industrially employed enzymes into four main application areas (after Novozymes: Selling Enzymes in China, 2011).

1.� Competitive Structures

Although there are several hundred manufacturers of enzymes worldwide, the production of enzymes is concentrated in only a few countries. As shown in Fig. 1.2, Novozymes (Denmark) is the largest player in this industry. Together with Danisco-Genencor they satisfy more than two third of the global market, followed by DSM (The Netherlands). Further 20% are supplied by Roche (Switzerland), Amano and Shin-Nihon (Japan), AB Enzymes and BASF (Germany), and Christian Hansen (Denmark). Another 5% of this market is shared by ADM (USA), KAO (Japan), and BioZyme (USA). The other larger companies with a market share of together about 5% are located in Japan (Meiji, Nagase), the USA (Verenium, Dyadic) as well as in Mexico (Enmex) and Canada (Iogen). The food enzyme business (including oil seed processing) of Verenium/San Diego, among others active with its enzyme products in animal health and nutrition, grain processing, and oil field services, has been recently

�Competitive Structures

Figure 1.� The producers of industrial enzymes with the largest estimated share in the global market reside in European countries.

(2012) acquired by DSM. Dyadic International, Florida, produces enzymes for use in the segments biofuel, animal health, pulp and paper, textile, food and beverage, and has been recently (Nov. 2012) issued its 12th US Patent, describing “methods to increase the yield of fermentative sugars from fermentation of Distillers Dried Grains using mixtures comprising glucoamylase, β-glucosidase, and α-arabinofuranidase.” Iogen (Ottawa, Canada) provides enzymes for use in the pulp and paper, grain processing, brewing, textile, animal feed, and biofuel industries. Furthermore, Iogen owns the world’s longest running cellulosic ethanol facility; in October 2012, Iogen together with the Brasilian Raízen Group, the world’s largest producer of sugarcane ethanol, announced a cooperation for designing a biomass-to-ethanol plant in Piracicaba, a city in the state of Sao Paulo, based on technologies developed by Iogen researchers. The Mexican Enmex, S.A. DE C.V. in Tlalnepantla de Baz (State of México) originally started the production of enzymes with bacterial α-amylase, amyloglucosidase (glucoamylase) and microbial rennet (dairy industry); meanwhile, the company manufactures biocatalysts for application in the segments textile, bakery, and detergents and produces enzymes for nutraceutical formulas. Meiji Seika Pharma Co., Ltd. and Nagase & Co, Ltd. are the leading domestic enzyme producers in Japan for use in the fields of food, household, textiles, and the production of pharmaceuticals; the latter also holds for

� Biocatalysts

Roche (Switzerland), among others a producer of therapeutic proteins—enzymes and antibodies. The largest enzyme manufacturer of the Indian subcontinent is Advanced Enzymes Technologies Inc., founded already in 1957. The company is active in human and animal nutrition, food processing, and industrial processing. The amount of enzymes produced by Chinese companies was about 700,000 metric tons in 2010, which covers less than 1% of the world market. Some of these enzymes such as thermostable α-amylase or phytase are successfully exported, mainly to the United States, Japan, India, and Korea meanwhile resulting in a trade surplus in this area (Li et al., 2012). Furthermore, several overseas-based companies founded production facilities in China; for example, Novozymes has a R&D Center in the Zhonguancun Science Park of Beijing and operates several production facilities in other parts of the country. Similarly Danisco Genencor started in 2007 with the production of industrial enzymes in the eastern Chinese city of Wuxi.

1.� Industrially Used Enzymes

Most of all enzymes employed for production on industrial scale are hydrolases (EC class 3; Chapters 16, 20) which, however, may change because enzymes belonging to other classes such as lyases—e.g., aldolases (Chapter 21), hydroxynitril lyases—or oxidoreductases (Chapters 17 to 19) are meanwhile successfully used for various processes. Of the applied hydrolases, esterases, lipases (EC 3.1.-.-), glycoside hydrolases (EC 3.2.-.-) and peptidases (EC 3.4.-.-, acting on peptide bonds) make up about 70%. Table 1.1 provides an impression about the importance industrial biotechnology has already gained today. The selection of products given in this table shows that they range from comparatively inexpensive bulk products to highly expensive fine chemicals such as vitamins or antibiotics. It should be mentioned that the numbers given for production and prices are associated with a relatively high degree of uncertainty among others due to an increasing demand of some of these products. For example, the production of itaconic acid was 15.000 t/a in 2001 (Wilke and Vorlop, 2001) but already 80.000 t/a in 2009 (Okabe et al., 2009). According to a recent publication, the global amino acid market is estimated to reach US$ 11.6 billion by the year 2015 (Public Relations, 2012).

�

Table 1.1 The world production (in tons per year) and the world market price in € per kilogram (€/US$ ~1.30) of several compounds resulting from fermentative processes

Product

World production

(t×a–1))

World market

Price (€/kg)

Bioethanol1

Biodiesel (FAME)1

L-Glutamic acidCitric acidItaconic acidL-LysineD,L-MethionineL-ThreonineL-TryptophaneLactic acidVitamin CGluconic acidAntibiotics (bulk products)Antibiotics (specialities)XanthanL-HydroxyphenylalanineDextranVitamin B12

70,000,000 13,000,000

1,500,0001,800,000

80,0001,500,000

40030,000

1,200250,000

80,00050,00030,000

5,00020,00010,000

2003

0.40—

1.500.80

22

206

2028

1.50150

15008

1080

25,000Note: After Soetart et al., 2006; Novalin-Canoy, 2009, and literature cited therein. Some of these compounds cannot be synthesized by chemical means.1Carriquiry et al., 2010.

Regarding industrial application of microbial enzymes under the aspect of the catalyzed reaction type (see also Chapter 3), the situation is characterized by the data compiled in Table 1.2.

If applied as “processing aid,” these enzymes must match the specific conditions of the respective process, such as enhanced temperatures, pH stability, or tolerance to organic solvents. Methods to improve the properties of enzymes with respect to process parameters are, for example, recombinant DNA-technology and pathway engineering (Chapters 2, 3, 4). Such technologies allow for the manipulation of the genetic material of microorganisms used in fermentation processes or to insert genes from higher organisms

Industrially Used Enzymes

� Biocatalysts

such as plants or animals into industrial micro-organisms in order to generate the desired function by expression. It has to be ensured that such genetically modified microorganisms are not released from the fermenter or bioreactor into the environment to avoid ecological problems, and a further deterioration of the acceptance of such methods by the general public—a problem still unsolved.

Table 1.� Large-scale applications of microbial enzymes in industrial biochemistry, arranged according to the type of catalyzed reaction together with the resulting products and their annual global production in tons

Reaction type

Microbial enzyme Product

Production(t×a–1)

Hydrolysis Nitrile hydratase Acrylamide 100,000Penicillin amidase 6-Aminopenicillanic acid 35,000

Resolution D-Hydantoinase 4-Hydroxy-D-phenylglycine

1,200

Pseudomonas enzymes

L-Cystein 5,000

Dehalogenase (S)-2-Chloropropionate 2,000Oxidation D-Sorbitol

dehydrogenaseL-Sorbose 80,000

Hydroxylation Niacin hydroxylase 6-Hydroxynicotinic acid 20Reduction β-Ketoreductase (R)-Carnitin 2,500C-C-synthesis Pyruvate

decarboxylase(R)-Phenylacetyl carbinol

500

L-Tyrosin-phenol-lyase

3,4-L-Dihydroxy-phenyl-alanine (L-DOPA)

300

Conversion of achiral precursors

Fumarase L-Malate 500L-Aspartate ammonia lyase

L-Aspartate 400

Peptide synthesis

Thermolysine α-Aspartame 14,000

Glycosyl transfer

Cyclodextrin glucano-transferase (CGT-ase)

β-Cyclodextrin 10,000

Note: After Vandamme et al., 2006, and Internet searches.

�Industrially Used Enzymes

In Table 1.3, some industrial applications of enzymes—partially already with rather long tradition—are compiled. To the largest industrial segments within the different application areas (see also Fig. 1.1) belong the detergent (Chapter 26), starch (Chapter 27), textile, fuel alcohol, leather, and pulp and paper industry (including paper recycling; Leduc et al., 2011).

Table 1.� Enzymes used in industry, together with applications

Industry Enzyme Application

Detergent Protease Protein stain removalAmylase Removal of starch residuesLipase Degradation of fatty pollutionsCellulase Modification of cellulose fiber

structure with a positive effect on color brightness,

Mannanase Mannan stain removal, anti-redeposi-tion, prevents graying

Starch and fuel

α-amylase Starch liquefaction & saccharification (cleavage of α-1,4-glycosidic bonds)

β-amylase Cleavage of α-1,4-glycosidic bonds from the non-reducing end (starch, glycogen); production of e.g. maltose

γ-amylase Saccharification; additional cleavage of α-1,6-glycosidic bonds (amylopectin/amylose)

Pullulanase – type I Saccharification; attack of α-1,6-glyco-sidic bonds, formation of oligosaccha-rides (debranching enzyme)

Pullulanase – type II Cleavage of α-1,4-/α-1,6- glycosidic bonds

Glucose isomerase Isomerization of glucose fructoseGlycosyltransferases Changing the functional properties of

starch e.g. by creating new branching points

CGT-ase Cyclodextrin productionXylanase Viscosity reduction (fuel, starch)Protease Yeast nutrition; ethanol fermentation

(Continued)

10 Biocatalysts

Industry Enzyme Application

Food/dairy Protease Milk clotting, infant formulas, flavor

Lipase Cheese flavor

Lactase Lactose removal

Pectin methylesterase

Firming fruit-based products

Pectinase Fruit-based products

Transglutaminase Visco-elastic properties

Baking Amylase Bread softness and volume, flour adjustment

Xylanase Dough conditioning

LipasePhospholipase

Dough stability (in situ emulsifier)Dough stability (in situ emulsifier)

Glucose oxidase Dough strengthening

Lipoxygenase Dough strengthening, bread whitening

Protease Biscuits, cookies

Transglutaminase Laminated dough strength

Animal feed

Phytase Phytate digestion

Xylanase Digestibility

β-glucanase Digestibility

Beverage Pectinase De-pectinization, mashing

Amylase Juice teatment, low calorie bear

β-glucanase Mashing

Acetolactate decarboxylase

Maturation (beer)

Laccase Clarification, flavor (beer)

Textile Cellulase Denim finishing, cotton softening

Amylase De-sizing

Pectate lyase Scouring

Catalase Bleach termination

Laccase Bleaching

Peroxidase Excess dye removal

Table 1.� (Continued)

11

Industry Enzyme Application

Pulp & paper

Lipases Pitch & contaminant control

Protease Biofilm removal

Amylase Starch coating etc.

Xylanase Bleach boosting

Cellulase De-inking, drainage improvement

Fats and oils

Lipase Transesterification

Phospholipase De-gumming, lysolecithin

Leather Proteases Unhairing, bating

Lipases De-pickling

Personal care

Amyloglucosidase Antimicrobial

Glucose oxidase Antimicrobial, bleaching

Peroxidase antimicrobialBiofuels (2nd gen-eration), chemicals

EndoglucanasesCellobiohydrolasesβ-GlucosidasesEndo-1,4-β-xyla-nasesα-Glucuronidasesα-Arabinofurano-sid-asesLignolytic peroxidasesPeroxide generating oxidasesLaccases & rela-ted multi-copper oxidases

Cellulose degradation

Hemicellulose degradation

Lignin degradation

Note: After Kirk et al., 2002; Li et al., 2012; Sarrough et al., 2012, with modifications.

1.� Design of Biotransformations

Aspects treated briefly in the following subsections are the immobilization of biocatalysts together with the application of unconventional reaction media. Questions concerning the different types of bioreactors or the choice of biocatalysts and their use as isolated enzymes or in the form of whole cells (advantageous

Design of Biotransformations

1� Biocatalysts

among others for biotransformations that require cofactors), are not discussed here (see, however, Chapter 2). With regard to the application potential of promiscuous enzymes, see Chapter 13, and for the above-mentioned methods available to improve the performance of biocatalysts, the reader is referred to Chapters 2 to 4. The development of industrial processes based on microbial consortia is discussed in Chapter 7.

1.�.1 Immobilization of Biocatalysts

Both enzymes and whole cells are used either as dissolved, and suspended catalysts, respectively, or are transferred into an immobilized—water insoluble—state through attachment to the surfaces of a water-insoluble carrier of organic or inorganic origin or by entrapment within the porous matrix of such materials. The attachment of a biocatalyst by a covalent linkage, an adsorptive or ionic binding, etc., may require the decoration of the carrier’s surface with suited spacers containing terminal functional groups such as –SH, –NH2, aldehyde, epoxide, N-hydroxysuccinimide esters and others for interaction with exposed functional groups of the biocatalyst (e.g., –NH2 of Lys), leading in the case of covalent attachment to its chemoligation in a non-specific way. Chemically inert polymers (polyethylene, polystyrene, etc.) can be treated by means of various plasma technologies (Siow et al., 2006) resulting in carboxylated (CO2-plasma), hydroxylated (O2-plasma) or aminated (H2/N2-plasma) polymer surfaces with enhanced hydrophilic character; for successful application examples see Ghasemi et al. (2011) or Vorhaben et al. (2010). The advantages of immobilization are an easy separation of the catalyst from the reaction mixture, the possibility to reuse the catalysts several times, e.g., in a batch or fed-batch reactor, and an often higher stability, which may enable to carry out the reaction at higher temperatures. To the possible disadvantages of immobilization belong a sometimes lower activity of the biocatalyst compared to its free counterpart, mainly due to mass transfer limitations (discussed in detail in Chapter 14) and/or the chemistry used for immobilization, loss of the biocatalyst through leakage, and additional costs for the carrier material. Diffusion limitations may be reduced by the shape of the carriers (e.g., the lens-shaped Lenticat® beads prepared from polyvinyl alcohol;

1�

Vorlop and Jekel, 1998) and/or the choice of the material employed (Schoenfeld et al., 2013). Carrier-free immobilization is achieved by cross-linking enzyme molecules—mostly glutaraldehyde is used as bifunctional reagent—either in their crystalline state (cross-linked enzyme crystals, CLECs) or based on precipitated enzyme aggregates (cross-linked enzyme aggregates, CLEAs; Sheldon, 2011). The catalysts obtained by both these procedures are characterized by a largely preserved native structure, higher stability toward organic solvents and heat, and an often high storage and operational stability. Because the production of CLECs requires purified enzymes and their laborious crystallization, the CLEA® technology (also in the form of Combi-CLEAs where different enzymes are co-precipitated and co-cross-linked; Mateo et al., 2006) is preferred for industrial applications, among others due to the fact that they may be prepared from crude enzyme preparations (Sheldon and van Pelt, 2013, and literature cited therein). Immobilization procedures should be thoroughly documented according to the guidelines published by the Working Party on Immobilized Biocatalysts within the European Federation of Biotechnology (1983), illustrated in more detail with the immobilization of Nitrosomonas europaea by entrapment through ionotropic gelation within calcium alginate (van Ginkel et al., 1983). Compared to enzymes, immobilization is less common in cases where cells are utilized as catalysts. However, an approach of some biotechnological relevance is an immobilization of whole cells via cell surface expression of carbohydrate-binding modules such as the cellulose-binding domain (Wang et al., 2001), or the chitin-binding domain for the stable immobilization of cells onto the surface of chitin beads (Wang and Chao, 2006). The different immobilization methods and kinds of carrier materials with their pros and cons have been described by Cantone et al. (2013), Liese and Hilterhaus (2013), Datta et al., (2013), DiCosimo et al., (2013), Buchholz et al., (2012), Grunwald (2009), Spahn and Minteer (2008), Blickerstaff (1997), and others. Franssen et al. (2013) in a comprehensive review treated the topic of enzyme immobilization in connection with the production of biorenewables. Examples of immobilized biocatalysts employed for industrial large-scale productions are described in Chapter 15.

Finally, an immobilization with a focus on the selective covalent attachment of proteins onto solid supports also plays an important

Design of Biotransformations

1� Biocatalysts

role in the fabrication of biosensors, or protein microarrays in connection with high-throughput methods for studying protein–protein or protein–small molecule and other interactions, a topic excellently reviewed by Wong et al. (2009) and by Jonkheijm et al. (2008).

1.�.� Non-Conventional Reaction Media

Most biotransformations are carried out in aqueous solutions; however, non-conventional media such as organic solvents may also be employed, and, in principle, ionic liquids, or supercritical solvents, looked at as “green answers” to organic solvents (Anastas and Eghbali, 2010), too. A substitution of water by unconventional solvents is in many cases associated with a variety of advantages with the main one being the possibility to use substrates insoluble in water. Compared with water as reaction medium, enhanced stability and catalytic activity of biocatalysts together with a change of properties, including an inversion of the enantioselectivity, have been reported. However, whether or not such advantages apply to a given biotransformation system cannot be predicted and non-conventional reaction media still represent an active field of research. In any case at least a small amount of residual water is indispensable for biocatalytic activity. The brief introduction to the application of non-conventional solvents as reaction media, given in the following three sections, is discussed comprehensively with many examples by Damborsky and colleagues in Chapter 16.

1.�.�.1 Organic solvents

The use of organic solvents as reaction medium for enzyme-catalyzed reactions has been known for many decades (Sym, 1930; 1936; 1936a), but the findings published obviously went unnoticed by the scientific community. About 30 years ago, Zaks and Klibanov (1984) reported that porcine pancreatic lipase catalyzes the transesterification reaction between tributyrin and various alcohols in quasi water-free organic media at temperatures above 100°C, and already some years earlier Klibanov et al. (1977) proposed “a new approach to preparative organic synthesis” where the enzymatic process is performed in a system containing water together with a water-immiscible organic solvent as a second phase.

1�

Since then, enzymatic catalysis in presence of organic solvents has greatly broadened the application of biocatalysis. Organic solvents without a separate water phase are used in (trans)esterification and amidation reactions. Alternatively, the organic solvent is added to the aqueous reaction mixture, leading to either a monophasic or a biphasic system. The organic phase in a biphasic system often serves as a product and/or substrate reservoir, or simply represents the liquid substrate or product (Straathof et al., 2002). Biocompatible organic solvents, apart from enhancing the biocatalyst’s thermal stability have several advantages. They offer the possibility to enzymatically convert nonpolar substrates and to increase the solubility of substrates and products with a positive effect on space/time yield and volumetric productivity. Furthermore, the outcome of the reaction in question is changed to synthesis instead of hydrolysis. In addition, a solvent may change the catalyst’s properties—sometimes termed “solvent mediated enzyme engineering”—such as its enantioselectivity (Tawaki and Klibanov, 1992; see also Chen and Sih, 1989). However, the presence of an organic solvent is also often associated with a significant reduction of catalytic activity (Zaks and Klibanov, 1988). Nonpolar solvents (log P > 2), although often contributing to significantly increased temperature stability (Grunwald et al., 1988, 1993), may impair the hydrophobic core of the enzyme molecules; more hydrophilic solvents, on the other hand, remove essential water molecules from the enzyme surface and its active site, or disrupt hydrogen bond interactions between subunits, hence affecting the kinetic values (Vmax, KM). As a consequence, the polarity of the reaction medium is a crucial parameter that has to be thoroughly balanced with respect to enzyme stabilization and inactivation (Karan et al., 2012; and literature cited therein). Investigations into the so-called “water activity, aW” by Halling (1984) and Goderis et al. (1987) led to new insights concerning the relation between the amount of water in a non-aqueous reaction medium and the activity of enzymes. For a recent systematic study on the activity and enantioselectivity of a (S-) selective hydroxynitrile lyase in organic solvents (MTBE, toluene, octane) as a function of the water concentration, see Paravidino et al. (2010). Reviews about biocatalysis in organic solvents have been published, for instance, by Carrea and Riva (2000), van Rantwijk and Sheldon (2007),

Design of Biotransformations

1� Biocatalysts

Lozano (2010), and Moniruzzaman et al. (2010), and for examples of industrial biotransformations in organic solvents or biphasic systems, see Liese et al. (2006), Krishna (2002), and Milner and Maguire (2012).

1.�.�.� Ionic liquids

Organic solvents represent a high amount of hazardous industrial wastes with the well-known negative effects concerning air and soil pollution, climate change, etc. An alternative is the use of ionic liquids (ILs) with a melting point below 100°C. Their polarity can be tailored by appropriate combination of anions and cations (Chapter 16). They are normally of high thermal and storage stability and able to dissolve a large variety of inorganic, organic, and polymeric compounds including cellulosic material (e.g., Abdulkhani et al., 2013); the ability of ILs to solubilize sugars has been discussed in connection with the enzymatic synthesis of various glycoconjugates by Galonde et al. (2012). IL’s have a negligible vapor pressure, are inert, and due to their pronounced biocompatibility do not inactivate enzymes as polar organic solvents often do. Typical “first generation” ILs were prepared from, for example, 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium (BMIM) as cation with tetrafluoroborate or hexafluorophosphate as anion and exert polarities similar to methanol; the first reports about successful (two-phase) biotransformations in such solvents date back to the year 2000 (Cull et al.; Lau et al.). These ILs are rather expensive, which in part is due to the fact that they have to be purified as a requirement for successful application (Park and Kazlauskas, 2003), and their “greenness” is limited due to their high stability, partial water-solubility and low biodegradability; for a review on the environmental fate and toxicity of ILs see Thi et al. (2010). Several examples of alternative easy-to-prepare and biodegradable ILs, so-called advanced ILs, have been reported during the recent years, among them protic ionic liquids (PILs) of the type [R1R2R3NH+][X−], simply synthesized by mixing tertiary amines with carboxylic acids, so that X− is, for example, an acetate, propionate, hexanoate anion. They were successfully tested by de los Rios et al. (2012) with the kinetic resolution of 1-phenyl ethanol by Candida antarctica lipase (not soluble in the PILs). Other examples of comparatively easy to synthesize ILs with improved biodegradability contain

1�

choline as cation combined with anions derived from amino acids, sugars, or alkylsulfates; they may be used as cosolvents with water to support the solubility of hydrophobic substrates. Furthermore, the rather new in most cases water-soluble and very promising deep eutectic solvents are among the advanced ILs; they consist of a salt such as choline chloride mixed with an uncharged hydrogen bond donor, e.g., glycerol or urea, and the eutectics are liquid at room temperature.

One of the most advantageous properties of ILs—apart from being more or less green—is that they can replace polar organic solvents without destroying the enzyme’s catalytic activity and hence extend biotransformations to a polarity range that was inaccessible before the advent of ILs (Park and Kazlauskas, 2003). Disadvantages are apart from being expensive problems related to the separation of products from ILs and their recovery and reuse. Reviews about ionic liquids in biocatalysis have been published, for example, by Kragl et al. (2002), Park and Kazlauskas (2001, 2003), Yang and Pan (2005), van Rantwijk and Sheldon (2007), Cantone et al. (2007), Gorke et al. (2010), Habulin et al. (2011), and Tavares et al. (2013). For a new class of deep eutectic solvents derived from natural products see Dai et al. (2013), and for reports focusing on properties and applications of different kinds of deep eutectic solvents Zhang et al. (2012), Hayyan et al. (2013), and Guo et al. (2013).

1.�.�.� Supercritical fluids

Supercritical fluids (SCFs) are used as solvents as well as extraction media, e.g., in combination with ionic liquids (see below). They are generated from compounds heated and compressed above their critical point as described in Chapter 16. The critical volume Vc of CO2 is distinctly lower than the one of normal gases, indicating that gases in the critical state are considerably denser, and explaining the designation “supercritical fluid.” Hence, SCFs can be used as reaction media with a variety of advantages: the diffusivity of dissolved molecules is higher than in real solvents which means that mass transfer limitations are low, as is the viscosity of SCFs. Apart from CO2, water, methanol, ethane, ethylene, SF6 (nearly as non-polar as xenon) acetone, and others have been used as SCFs. The reason why

Design of Biotransformations

1� Biocatalysts

scCO2 is often given preference over other SCFs is that it lacks all the hazardous properties organic solvents may have (it is neither mutagenic nor cancer-causing, or flammable), and upon degassing the reaction system, the solvent vanishes completely (e.g., Anastas and Eghbali, 2010). In addition, the Tc-value is rather low so that temperature-labile compounds are less impaired. On the other hand, there are a variety of reports according to which scCO2 may show inhibitory effects. For example, Kamat et al. (1992, 1993, 1995) found fluoroform instead of scCO2 to be an ideal solvent for the transesterification of methylmethacrylate with 2-ethylhexanol catalyzed by Candida cylindracea lipase. Problems arising from the use of scCO2 come from the possible formation of carbamates from CO2 and basic amino acid side chains and the formation of carbonic acid, lowering the pH value of the enzyme’s microenvironment. A further disadvantage of SCFs in general is that their application—although a mature technique—requires a rather sophisticated apparatus equipment (Chapter 16).

The influence of pressure on the reactions in SCFs is governed by two effects, that of pressure on the reaction rate itself, and changes in the reaction behavior by pressure dependent parameters such as solvating properties, partitioning coefficient, and the dielectric constant; an increase of the latter with increasing pressure means that the solvent becomes more hydrophilic and may, for instance, lead to a change in enantioselectivity as observed by Kamat et al. (1993) for proteases from B. licheniformis and Aspergillus in HCF3. For a lipase-catalyzed transesterification reaction in scCO2 Matsuda et al. (2001) reported E-values between 10 (high T and p) and 65 (lower T and p values). The water activity is a key parameter of enzyme kinetics in organic solvents or ILs, which also holds for SCFs; for example, the activity of cholesterol oxidase increased by a factor of 10 in presence of low amounts of water compared to the activity in dry scCO2, and the reduction in activity turned out to be fully reversible after addition of 1% (v/v) water (Randolph et al., 1985, 1988). The solubility of H2O in the rather nonpolar CO2 is low but may be adjusted to some extent by the reaction temperature (Jackson et al., 1995). The low polarity of scCO2 is also the reason why this dense gas is preferentially employed for biotransformations with hydrophobic compounds. Kasche et al. (1988) reported that α-chymotrypsin,

1�

trypsin, and penicillin acylase partially unfold in scCO2 during the depressurization step, particularly in humid scCO2. A review about supercritical fluid technologies as an alternative to conventional processes for preparing biodiesel has been provided by Bernal et al. (2012).

Several instances of the combined use of ILs and SCFs have meanwhile been described, among them the Candida antarctica lipase B (CAL-B) catalyzed acylation of octan-1-ol (Reetz et al., 2002; see also Lozano et al. (2002) for a similar approach). In this continuously working process, the substrates were introduced into the CO2 stream, and after passing the reactor containing the IL/CAL-B suspension, the scCO2 was depressurized, followed by product collection and analysis. In such reaction systems with scCO2 as mobile (and extractive) phase the employed ILs may also serve to protect the enzyme against the sometimes deleterious effect of CO2 (Garcia et al., 2004).

1.� Climate Changes and Sustainable Development as Societal Challenges

Industrial biocatalysis—or more general Industrial/White Biotechnology—is based on biological principles and the advancement of life (and material) sciences with the aim to convert renewable biomass into energy (see Huber and Corma, 2007, for a review about synergies between bio- and oil refineries as to biomass-derived fuels), chemical compounds, and bio-based materials. The biorefinery concept combines energy supply, e.g., in the form of second-generation biofuels with the production of useful chemicals in order to improve the “Energy Return on Investment” (EROI) defined by the ratio of energy output to (fossil) energy input. Petrochemical refineries gain between 25% and 35% of their profits from using just about 8% of crude oil for the production of chemicals; similarly, chemicals recovered from biomass are thought to become the economic drivers for profitable biorefineries (OECD, 2011). The development of the traditional chemical industry toward one becoming less dependent on fossil resources will contribute to sustainability through saving energy, water, raw materials combined with a reduction of waste generation, thereby

Climate Changes and Sustainable Development as Societal Challenges

�0 Biocatalysts

mitigating the consequences of global climate changes which are closely related to the current energy situation.

According to the IEA report (IEA 2012)—see also the essay of Keinan, 2013, and literature cited therein, about the “Unpredict-ability of Science” in connection with the main six problems mankind is faced with, as defined by the EuCheMS, 2011, and the central part, chemistry will play to solve them—the global energy demand will grow by more than 30% until 2035 (and is assumed to double until 2050), of which 60% are allotted to China, India, and the Middle East. At present, more than 80% of the primary energy consumption is covered by fossil fuels. The situation of the global energy market will be coined by a reconstitution of the oil and gas production in the USA and other countries due to the temporary additional exploitation of light tight oil and gas from huge shale reservoirs by hydraulic fracturing techniques (Kerr, 2010; Cohen, 2013), often discussed rather controversial due to possible unacceptable environmental damages that may not be ruled out. Osborn et al. reported about methane contaminations of drinking water as a consequence of drilling and hydraulic fracturing activities in the United States (New York, Pennsylvania). In active gas extraction areas, the methane concentration increased with decreasing distance from the gas wells up to 64 mg/L with an average concentration of 19 mg/L, which is about 17 times higher than the methane concentration found in non-extraction sites, and 13C-NMR studies confirmed these contaminations to stem from deeper rock layers and not from biogenic near-surface sources; however, the researchers did not find constituents of the fracturing fluid (<1% chemical additives, among them biocides required to minimize the corrosive action of bacteria; see DOE, 2009, for details) in the drinking water (Osborn et al., 2011; see also Osterath, 2012). On the other hand, the prize for gas in the United States declined to one-third compared with 2008, and GHG savings due to using more gas instead of other fossil fuels are distinctly higher than those achieved by enhanced application of wind mills, etc., in other countries, and reduce the cost of meeting government-issued emission goals (Kerr, 2010).

Further important aspects that will impact the global energy situation are the retreat of several states from nuclear energy, and the possible (but currently unlikely) recovery of the Iraqi oil

�1

economy. Alternatives to fossil energy sources such as water power and sun (photovoltaic) and wind energy, already realized in the form of large land- and sea-based wind mill parks, and biomass (that in addition can be used for the fabrication of carbon-based products) will strengthen their position as indispensable parts of a global energy mix. The International Energy Agency (IEA) in its world energy outlook (2012) estimates the share of renewable energies in global electricity production to be about one third in 2035, and the consumption of biomass for electricity and biofuels is expected to expand by a factor of 4. This development is promoted among others by governmental subsidies assumed to increase world-wide from $88 billion (2011) to $240 billion in 2035, which, on the other hand, means a high burden on national budgets and with this for the private households (IEA, World Energy Outlook, 2012).

Energy conversion by utilizing renewable resources is linked with the term “biofuel” and as the name suggests, biofuels—including biogases, liquid fuels and solid biomass—are derived from biomass, with their energy content originating from CO2 fixation. The production of biofuels—although technically known since the 18th century (first transesterification of a vegetable oil reported by E. Duffy and J. Patrick in 1853, which is 40 years before the first Diesel engine became functional; Kalyani et al., 2012)—gained sharply increased interest since the oil crisis in the early 1970s. Important further factors (see also Soetaert and Vandamme, 2009, 2009a)—apart from the expected shortage of fossil fuel—are • the high and presumably further increasing oil price together

with the growing energy demand, particularly of countries with rapidly growing population and industry,

• the dependence on petroleum imports from politically unstable regions, and

• the awareness of global climate changes requiring a reduction of anthropogenic greenhouse gas (e.g., CO2, CH4, N2O) emission (see Meinshausen et al., 2009, for GHG emission scenarios and consequences for global warming).

In principle, the CO2 released into the atmosphere through conversion of biomass into energy is part of a closed CO2 cycle because it has been taken up from the atmosphere during growth so that the use of biofuels is regarded as environment friendly. Aside from energy conversion, biofuel production helps to avoid

Climate Changes and Sustainable Development as Societal Challenges

�� Biocatalysts

land filling and reduces the pollution of soil and water. There are, however, additional aspects to be considered in connection with the assessment of the ecobalance related to the terms Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), mostly used for this purpose, or its derivative, the Product Carbon Footprint (PCF) standards (Biobased Products Working Group, 2010). Several reports have been published in the recent past with the example of different scenarios about the sustainability of bioenergy, and as expected they come to different results. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Special Report 2012 on Renewable Energy (SRREN) draws a predominantly positive picture concerning greenhouse gas reduction potential of bioenergy (IPCC SRREN, 2012). The Leopoldina position paper (2012) about “Bioenergy: Chances and Limits,” written by reckoned scientists, provides in this regard a more sophisticated and less optimistic analysis for Germany and also for the other EU countries. For example, they do not recommend the production of bioethanol from starch and sugars, due to the inefficient use of cropland, high energy demand and only low— if any—CO2 saving potential (see also Michel, 2012), but see the combination of bioethanol and biogas production under certain criteria to be an option. The production of bioethanol from lignocellulosic material is recommended, presupposed that the entire process—“from the cradle to the grave”—leads to GHG emissions, distinctly lower than those of an energy-equivalent amount of fossil fuel.

The above-mentioned lifecycle assessment is a tool to support the development toward a bioeconomy and defines sustainability as resulting from the sum of environmental impacts of biobased products—e.g., the various biofuels—with GHG mitigation as just one yet important aspect of many others. These include apart from global warming—conflicting with existing climate models its increase slowed down significantly since about 15 years for reasons that have not been elucidated so far (Fyfe et al., 2013; Guemas et al., 2013)—eleven additional environmental performance scores that are human health, fossil fuel depletion, air pollutants, water use, ecological toxicity, eutrophication, habitat alteration, smog formation, indoor air quality, acidification, and ozone depletion, weighted between 29% for global warming and 2% for ozone depletion, as proposed by Duncan et al. (2008) in

��

“Metrics to support informed decision-making for consumers of bio-based products.” LCA is described by the international standards ISO 14040 (2006)/14044 (2006) in the form of the framework depicted in Fig. 1.3. As is to be seen from this LCA framework it is characterized by four stages that in practice are handled in an iterative process. The clear goal and scope definition is an indispensable prerequisite for being able to compare different products, processes, and services. Lifecycle inventory describes energy and material flows into and out of the respective system. Lifecycle impact assessment deals with the comprehensive analysis of environmental impacts related, for example, to a given emission from its emergence to the point of fate and behavior in the environment. Finally, the “interpretation” serves to translate the often very complex outcome of the different stages of lifecycle assessment into a readily understandable message based on quality-assured lifecycle data and studies that are—apart from direct applications, e.g., in connection with product development—also of use for ecolabeling, ecodisign, or carbon foot-printing (OECD, 2011; ILCD, 2010). The topic has been excellently reviewed

Figure 1.� The framework for lifecycle assessment used to measure sustainability.

Climate Changes and Sustainable Development as Societal Challenges

�� Biocatalysts

by Schebek (2011). A recent example of applying the LCA approach is the investigation by Cherubini and Jungmeier (2010) into a biorefinery concept producing bioenergy, bioethanol, and chemicals from switchgrass. They demonstrated that the use of switchgrass as feedstock results in enhanced carbon sequestration in soils, thereby contributing considerably to GHG emission savings (79% during the first 20 years compared to a fossil reference system), reinforced by high biomass yields, which, on the other hand, may be reduced to some extend by the need of fertilizers to enhance plant growth; the biorefinery has lower impacts in all categories with the exception of acidification and particularly eutrophication. Perimenis et al. (2011) developed a decision support tool for the evaluation of different biofuel production pathways on the basis of the entire value chain from biomass production to biofuel end-use, considering technical, environmental, economic, and social aspects. It should not be left unmentioned that the existence of different standards and models require an improvement of harmonization in order to further reduce uncertainties and discrepancies.

1.� Conclusions

The global enzyme market will grow steadily, a development driven by the demand for sustainable production processes of fine and bulk chemicals, pharmaceuticals, bioplastics, energy, etc., from renewable feedstock as an alternative to petroleum-based chemical and technical processes. Further development of advanced biotechnological tools such as industrial systems biology combined with high-throughput (microfluidic) screening, cell-free protein expression, etc., will not only lead to enzymes with an improved adaption to the respective process requirements but may also pave the way for the discovery of so far unknown enzymes, including plant-derived biocatalysts, with novel properties for new applications in industrial biotechnology. Furthermore, enzymes emerging from the drawing board probably gain increasing importance although the field of computational enzyme design is still in its infancy.

The application of immobilized biocatalysts is meanwhile firmly established in the large-scale production of a variety of

��

compounds. Examples include the synthesis of enantiopure amino acids for the food and pharmaceutical market, the acrylamide production, and the synthesis of β-lactam antibiotics, to name only some few. Research in the field of immobilization with the aim to generate robust biocatalysts optimized with respect to high, activity, selectivity, stability, and cost effectiveness will contribute significantly to the development of greener industrial processes through substituting chemical production routes.

Unconventional solvents broaden the applicability of biocatalysis considerably. Their advantages are based on the solvent properties (partitioning coefficient, polarity, dielectric constant, etc.) determining the activity and operational stability of the catalysts as well as their specificity and enantioselectivity. Whereas organic solvents—neat or in combination with water—are used in a variety of industrial biotransformations, a broader application of ionic liquids or supercritical fluids, despite their obvious advantages has not yet been reported. However, the combination of SCFs with ILs, particularly the scCO2/IL system, allowing a combination of product extraction with the biocatalytic step should have a promising future as it represents a genuine green procedure. Furthermore, this scope of application will benefit from the development of advanced ILs including deep eutectic solvents.

It is well known that the rapid industrial development with the chemical industry being predominantly based on the exploitation of fossil resources, despite of many obvious advantages goes along with a variety of negative environmental impacts. Industrial biotechnology is based on the exploitation of renewable resources and contributes significantly to what is termed Green Chemistry. Unlike traditional chemical technology, biotechnology makes use of enzymes and whole cells as catalysts for producing fuels, bulk and fine chemicals and other materials. Biocatalysts work under mild reaction conditions with often high efficiency and selectivity to yield pure products. These properties enable production processes characterized by lower energy consumption and less waste generation as compared to their chemical counterparts, and are prerequisites for making the different areas of the chemical industry increasingly more sustainable, resulting among others in reduced greenhouse gas emissions and in overcoming problems associated with the depletion of fossil resources.

Conclusions

�� Biocatalysts

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24 Chapter 24: Synthetic Enzyme Cascadesfor Valuable Diols and Amino Alcohols:Smart Composition and OptimizationStrategies

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25 Chapter 25: Metabolic Engineering forthe Biosynthesis of Longevity MoleculesRapamycin and Resveratrol

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