canal water management: case study of upper chenab canal in pakistan

IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE

Irrig. and Drain. 59: 76–91 (2010)

Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com) DOI: 10.1002/ird.556

CANAL WATER MANAGEMENT: CASE STUDY OF UPPER CHENAB CANALIN PAKISTANy

A. S. SHAKIR*, N. M. KHAN AND M. M. QURESHI

Department of Civil Engineering, University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan

ABSTRACT

Increasing world population requires that crop production from irrigated areas needs to be enhanced by as much as

40% by the year 2025. This necessitates that the canal water management system be revisited and possible

improvements suggested and implemented. The daily reference evapotranspiration for the Upper Chenab Canal

(UCC) is estimated using the Penmann–Monteith equation 2000. Meteorological data of Sialkot station has been

employed on a daily basis for a period of 8 years (1999–2006). The crop water requirements have been estimated

using reference evapotranspiration, crop coefficients and cropping periods for different crops cultivated according

to existing cropping pattern. Crop staggering has also been incorporated into the study. The comparison of actual

canal water supplies and crop water requirements indicated an annual shortage of more than 40%, which may

reduce slightly if allocated water supplies according to the Water Apportionment Accord 1991 can be ensured. The

maximum deficit is 320 m3 s�1 and occurs in the month of August. This shortfall is normally met by pumping low-

quality groundwater, which is increasing secondary salinity in the area. Possible options for better water

management in the UCC command area to optimize crop yields are presented, and it is recommended to look

into demand side management including canal lining and on-farm water management practices. Copyright # 2010

John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

key words: reference evapotranspiration; gross irrigation water requirements; canal water management; Upper Chenab Canal

Received 31 January 2009; Revised 17 September 2009; Accepted 17 September 2009

RESUME

L’accroissement de la population mondiale exige que la production des cultures irriguees augmente de 40% d’ici

l’an 2025. Cela necessite que la gestion des eaux des canaux soit revue et que les ameliorations possibles soient

proposees et mises en œuvre. L’evapotranspiration de reference quotidienne pour Canal Haut Chenab (UCC) est

estimee en utilisant l’equation Penmann–Monteith 2000. Les donnees meteorologiques sur la base quotidienne de

la station de Sialkot pour une periode de huit ans (1999 a 2006) ont ete employees. Les besoins en eau des cultures

ont ete estimes en utilisant l’evapotranspiration de reference (ETsz), les coefficients de culture et les periodes

vegetatives des differentes cultures selon l’assolement existant. L’echelonnement des cultures a aussi ete incorpore

dans l’etude. La comparaison de l’alimentation reelle du canal avec les besoins en eau des cultures a indique une

penurie annuelle de plus de 40%. Cet ecart est legerement reduit en considerant une allocation selon l’Accord de

1991. Le deficit maximal est de 320 m3/s, et se produit au cours du mois d’aout. Ce deficit est normalement

compense par un pompage d’eau souterraine de mauvaise qualite, ce qui augmente la salinite secondaire dans la

region. Les options possibles sont presentees visant a meilleure gestion des eaux dans la zone du canal UCC pour

optimiser le rendement des cultures; il est recommande de developper la gestion a la demande, le revetement du

* Correspondence to: A. S. Shakir, Chairman and Professor of Civil Engineering Department, University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore54890, Pakistan. E-mail: [email protected] des eaux d’un canal: etude de cas du canal Haut-Chenab au Pakistan

Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

CANAL WATER MANAGEMENT: CASE STUDY OF UPPER CHENAB CANAL 77

canal et les bonnes pratiques agricoles de gestion des eaux sur l’exploitation. Copyright # 2010 John Wiley &

Sons, Ltd.

mots cles: evapotranspiration de reference; besoins en eau d’irrigation; gestion des eaux de canal; Upper Chenab Canal

INTRODUCTION

Water is under stress with an ever-growing population, particularly in developing countries with high population

growth rates. Recent estimates of the world’s hungry population are 923 million in the year 2007 (Food and

Agriculture Organization (FAO), 2008). It is expected to be further aggravated as there will be an additional

2 billion people by the year 2030 (Gany, 2006). The increased population will increase the global demand for food

accordingly, necessitating efficient management of irrigated agriculture. To cater for food for the population in

2025, it is estimated that water diversions for irrigation need to be enhanced by 14–17% and that food production

from irrigated land needs to be enhanced by 40% (Bos et al., 2005).

Despite the facts that Pakistan has the largest contiguous irrigation system in the world, and that the country has

predominantly an agrarian-based economy, the conditions in Pakistan are not very promising in terms of meeting

the food and fiber demands of its 160 million population. About 20–34% of its population are still suffering from

malnutrition (Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 2008). Major causes of lack of food are water shortages

due to limited water availability in the system and inefficient use of the available water (Laghari et al., 2008).

Recent years have witnessed shortages of irrigation water of up to 40% of canal withdrawals. The situation is even

worsened due to stalled development of large reservoirs since 1976 (the year of completion of the Tarbela dam).

System managers are aware of the situation and have started to modernize the century-old irrigation system. The

basic motivation of the modernization is to rehabilitate the old infrastructure and to enhance efficiencies to the

levels being achieved in other parts of the world. Upper Chenab Canal (UCC) is one of the major canal irrigation

systems in Pakistan, facing similar problems of low water application efficiencies, low crop yields and deteriorating

irrigation infrastructure. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (2002) defines modernization as ‘‘a process

of rehabilitation of irrigation systems during which substantial modifications of the concept and design are made to

take into consideration the changes in techniques and technology and to adapt the irrigation systems to the future

requirements of operation and maintenance’’. It also requires that the delivery of water should be made as flexible

as possible with ‘‘demand irrigation being the ideal solution’’. The first step in this modernization is an in-depth

diagnosis of the present performance of the system (Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 2002) and to

understand the agricultural water demands in temporal and spatial domains (Yoo et al., 2008). The present study

will complement the modernization drive in the country.

Historically irrigation water has been applied based on water availability (usually in flood seasons) rather than on

crop requirement. The design concept of the canal system under study is also the same as above. Developments of

new scientific techniques have enabled irrigation demands to be related to physical parameters such as temperature

and evaporation. Several methods can be cited in the literature ranging from temperature-based methods (such as

the Blaney–Criddle formula), pan evaporation-based methods (Hargreaves Class A pan evaporation method) to

more complex methods such as radiation resistance-based methods. Allen (1986) has compared radiation-based

methods with lysimeter readings and found that the Penman–Monteith resistance-based model provided the most

reliable and consistent daily estimates.

Presently the state of the art methods for estimation of reference evapotranspiration and crop evapotranspiration

are the radiation-cum-resistance-based methods and have been recommended by Food and Agriculture

Organization (FAO, 1998) and by the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) Task Committee on

Standardization of Reference Evapotranspiration (ASCE-ET) (Allen et al., 2005). Both FAO and ASCE-ET utilized

the Penman–Monteith equation but with different reference crops. FAO favors a standardized grass of 12 cm height

and ASCE has recommended one short crop (grass) and a tall crop (alfalfa) as the reference crops. Although use of

the above two methods in various parts of the world is cited (Allen et al., 2005), only a couple of studies (Ullah

et al., 2001; Laghari et al., 2008) are found for the Pakistan region employing this scientific method for estimating

evapotranspiration and thus crop water requirement. Laghari et al.’s (2008) study does not cover a whole canal

system but rather is limited to a few wheat fields, while Ullah et al. (2001) estimated crop water requirements for the

Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Irrig. and Drain. 59: 76–91 (2010)

DOI: 10.1002/ird

78 A. S. SHAKIR ET AL.

whole of the Indus Basin irrigation system. Ullah et al. (2001), however, fell short of estimating the irrigation

demands and comparing the estimated irrigation demands with the actual supplies. The present study will fill this

gap of estimating the crop water requirement based on the ASCE standardized Penman–Monteith (2000) equation,

converting it to irrigation demands and then comparing it with the actual water supply to obtain an insight into

possible improvement of a canal irrigation system in Pakistan.

STUDY AREA

The Upper Chenab Canal (UCC) is one of the important canal systems of Pakistan, with wheat and rice as the major

crops of the two growing seasons: Rabi (winter) and Kharif (summer), respectively. Both of these crops help to meet

the increasing food demand in the country. Being one of the major canal command systems in Pakistan and having

exceptional characteristics of a link canal as well as an irrigation canal, UCC has been the subject of attention for

researchers. It was remodeled in 1955 and another remodeling is currently under consideration. Because of its

importance for Pakistan, the present study selected the irrigation command area of UCC in Rechna Doab for in-

depth study with a goal to further improve irrigation water management. ‘‘Doab’’ is a local term used for the area

lying between two rivers. Rechana Doab is the area between Ravi River and Chenab River.

UCC was part of the Triple Canal Project, off-taking from the left bank of the River Chenab at Marala barrage in

Sialkot District. It trifurcates at its tail into three channels – Banbanwala Ravi Bedian Depalpur (BRBD) Canal,

Main Line Lower (MLL) and Nokhar Branch (NB) – to supply irrigation water to the districts of Sialkot,

Gujranwala, Sheikhopura, Lahore, Kasur and, in part, Hafizabad and Okara. In addition, it also serves as a link

canal to transfer balance water supplies from the River Chenab to the River Ravi for supplementing off-taking

channels at Balloki Headworks. Command areas of Main Line Lower (MLL) and Nokhar Branch (NB) form the

study area in this research. MLL has a design capacity of 322 m3 s�1, of which up to 150 m3 s�1 is used for irrigation

in the command area, while up to 212 m3 s�1 is transferred to the Ravi River through the Deg Diversion Channel.

NB has a design flow capacity of 20 m3 s�1.

The canal was originally constructed during 1905–1912 with a design capacity of 340 m3 s�1. Subsequently the

capacity of the UCC had to be revised to 478 m3 s�1 due to construction of the BRBD Canal, which had to supply

water to those areas initially irrigated by the Upper Bari Doab Canal (UBDC), coming from the part now governed

by India. It has a gross command area of 0.62 Mha, of which more than 90% is cultivable. The UCC command area

is arid to semi-arid and irrigation is essential to sustain agriculture, owing to insufficient and scanty rainfall. This

irrigation system consists of a main canal, branch canals, distributaries, minors and watercourses. More than half of

the command area is non-perennial (57%), served in Kharif only. The layout of UCC and its branches, including the

command area under study, is shown in Figure 1.

The original design philosophy was to have protective irrigation over a large area without consideration of crop

water requirements. The present strategy of the UCC system is to grow more crops, the resulting gap between canal

water supply and crop demands to be met through groundwater abstraction. Groundwater abstraction in saline

groundwater zones is, however, causing secondary salinization, which is a threat to long-term sustainability. The

UCC system was also expected to be effective and equitable, but studies have shown that there is great inequity in

actual withdrawals between head and tail watercourses (Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 2002).

DATA UTILIZED

Climatic data

Sialkot station is located at latitude 328 300 000 N and longitude 748 310 000 E. It is the only station measuring

meteorological parameters in this canal command. Other neighboring stations such as Lahore and Faisalabad are

also considered but, owing to the proximity of the Sialkot station to the study area, Sialkot station data are used in

this study. Daily values for maximum and minimum temperature, wind speed, humidity, daily sunshine hours etc.

from 1999 to 2006 were collected from the Pakistan Meteorological Department (PMD) (Regional Meteorological


DOI: 10.1002/ird

Figure 1. Layout of UCC command area. This figure is available in colour online at www.interscience.wiley.com/journal/ird


Centre (RMC), 1999–2006, unpublished data). Descriptive statistics of the data collected was carried out and the

missing values were filled. Mean monthly values of wind speed, maximum temperature, minimum temperature,

sunshine hours and rainfall are given in Table I. The monthly data show that the temperature varies in a large range

in a year, approximately from as low as freezing point (58C) to as high as 398C. Average wind speed varies between

0.1 to 0.9 m s�1 in a year. The command area is located in a semi-arid region with an annual rainfall of 887 mm, of

which more than 55% occurs in 2 months, i.e. July and August.

Cropping pattern

Data regarding various crops cultivated in the UCC command were obtained from the Punjab Irrigation and

Power Department (PID) for the period 1999–2006 (unpublished data). The reported data indicate that average

cropping intensity for Rabi and Kharif seasons is 38% and 43%, respectively, with an average annual cropping

intensity of 81%. The cropping pattern for Rabi and Kharif crops in the UCC system considered in this study is

shown in Figures 2 and Figure 3, respectively. The Rabi minor crops (Figure 2) include barley, mixed grains, grams,

garden plants and vegetables, while the Kharif minor crops (Figure 3) include chari, bajra, gardens, fodder and

vegetables.


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Table I. Wind speed, maximum temperatures, minimum temperatures, sunshine hours, and rainfall at Sialkot MeteorologicalStation, Pakistan

Month Mean monthlywind speed (m s�1)

Mean monthlyTmax (8C)

Mean monthlyTmin (8C)

Mean monthlyrelative humidity (%)

Total monthlysunshine hours (h)

Total monthlyrainfall (mm)

Jan. 0.4 16.7 5.6 79.3 151.0 49.7Feb. 0.6 21.9 7.9 71.3 253.3 39.4Mar. 0.7 27.4 13.0 61.7 322.3 32.2Apr. 0.7 34.7 18.7 43.3 213.5 11.5May 0.9 39.4 23.6 39.8 322.3 28.7June 0.8 38.0 25.2 49.7 272.8 101.6July 0.7 35.0 25.5 62.8 273.7 292.5Aug. 0.5 33.8 25.5 66.7 228.2 199.6Sep. 0.4 33.2 23.2 66.5 248.5 87.7Oct. 0.2 31.2 17.5 64.0 239.3 23.6Nov. 0.1 26.2 11.0 67.8 222.4 12.5Dec. 0.1 21.3 6.4 74.1 187.7 8.5


Cultivation/harvesting in command areas like UCC cannot be carried out at a fixed time and date because of

agricultural equipment/labor and water availability constraints. This period of cultivation/harvesting has to be

staggered generally on several weeks. In some of the previous studies in Pakistan (e.g. Shakir and Qureshi, 2007;

Ullah et al., 2001), the effect of staggering of crops in cultivation/harvesting is not considered. An attempt is made

to include the effect of staggering in crop cultivation/harvesting to estimate precisely the actual crop water

requirements.

Crop coefficient curves (Kc) for various crops have been developed for crops of this region by the Lower Indus

Project (LIP) (1966), Revised Action Program (RAP) (1979), Pakistan Agricultural Research Council (PARC)

(1982) and Ullah et al. (2001). However, crop coefficients curves developed by Ullah et al. (2001) are developed

according to the procedure proposed in FAO Irrigation and Drainage paper No. 56 (Food and Agriculture

Organization (FAO), 1998), and are therefore used in the current study too. Kc curves for two of the major crops in

the study area (wheat and rice) are shown in Figure 4.

Figure 2. Cropping pattern for Rabi (winter) season. This figure is available in colour online at www.interscience.wiley.com/journal/ird


DOI: 10.1002/ird

Figure 3. Cropping pattern for Kharif (summer) season. This figure is available in colour online at www.interscience.wiley.com/journal/ird


Effective rainfall

An attempt was made to analyze the daily rainfall data for the period 1999–2006 in this canal command area. The

information obtained from the Meteorological Department indicated that annual rainfall in this area varies from

514 mm to 1642 mm in various years during the period of this analysis (Regional Meteorological Centre (RMC),

1999–2006, unpublished data). The analysis indicated that rainfall patterns do not seem to be reliable for estimating

irrigation water requirements due to its larger variability in time and space.

Therefore, the impact of rainfall was not finally included in the analysis for the estimation of crop water

requirements. However, it is understandable that rainfall at desired time can help to reduce the gap between demand

and supply.

Figure 4. Kc curves for wheat and rice crops for UCC command area. This figure is available in colour online at www.interscience.wiley.com/journal/ird


DOI: 10.1002/ird


Canal discharges

The actual average 10 daily discharges for the years 1999–2006, at the head of the MLL and NB, after

compensating for transfer to the Deg Diversion channel, have been collected (Punjab Irrigation and Power

Department (PID), 1999–2006, unpublished data). Ten daily actual discharges (average of 1999–2006) and the

allocated discharges for the system are shown in Figure 8.

Crop yields

Wheat and rice are two major crops of the UCC command area (wheat is 50% and rice is 60% of the Culturable

Commanded Area (CCA) in the respective seasons). Statistics show that the overall productivity of wheat crop is

2.9 tons ha�1 in the districts of UCC command area (Jahangir et al., 2002), while other developed countries such as

China, Germany, France and the UK have wheat productivity of 4.78, 7.1, 6.2 and 7.3 tons ha�1, respectively (World

Trade Review, 2009).

Similarly, in the case of rice the productivity is 1.4–1.8 tons ha�1 (Jahangir et al., 2002), while other countries

such as China and Australia have rice productivity of 6.34 and 8.1 tons ha�1 respectively (World Trade Review,

2009). These statistics reveal that the UCC command area has much less productivity compared to other developed

countries.

Groundwater abstractions

Studies conducted to estimate the groundwater contribution in irrigated areas (Punjab Private Sector

Groundwater Development Project Consultants (PPSGDP), 1998) show that in the UCC command area the annual

groundwater abstraction is estimated as 6.23 billion cubic meters (BCM) in the year 1997. Current estimate of the

number of tubewells in the command area is 190 500 (Punjab Bureau of Statistics (PBS), 2007). Discounting for

water losses of about 20% in field ditches (Ali et al., 2004) and 25% within the fields, the net groundwater available

to crops is estimated to be about 3.32 BCM.

Groundwater quality

Groundwater quality is continuously monitored under various Salinity Control and Reclamation Projects

(SCARPS). Shallow groundwater quality in selected watercourses of SCARP areas is given in Table II. Electrical

conductivity (EC, mS cm�1) values show that the UCC command area is underlain by fresh (EC� 1500) to

marginal (EC� 1500–2700) quality groundwater. But at the tail ends, where surface water is generally reduced, the

tubewells are pumping usually marginal-quality groundwater. Although the additional groundwater supply is

Table II. Shallow groundwater quality in selected watercourse commands of SCARP areas in the Upper Chenab Canal (UCC)(Punjab Private Sector Groundwater Development Project Consultants (PPSGDP), 1998)

SCARP division/subdivision Number of private TW EC (mS cm�1)

Range Mean

Gujranwala Division 63 521–2230 1,204Shahdara Subdivision 38 521–2020 1,158Muridke Subdivision 25 778–2230 1,275Sheikhupura Division 160 282–1808 933Sikhanwala Subdivision 45 282–1327 771Mangtanwala Subdivision 115 430–1808 997UCC Circle 223 282–2230 1010

EC, electrical conductivity; TW, tubewells.


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fulfilling the gap between demand and surface water supplies, at the same time it is also a cause of secondary

salinization.

Irrigation efficiency (E)

Much surface water is lost in the water delivery system and should be incorporated into the analysis. A number of

studies have been carried out in the basin to estimate the irrigation losses, both in the conveyance system and at the

field level. Basin-level studies such as the Federal Flood Commission (FFC) (2002) estimated overall water

efficiency as 40% in the Indus Basin. Ali et al. (2004) assumed 20% water loss in watercourses, 25% field losses and

16.8% losses in main canals for the use of departmental analysis in the Irrigation and Power Department, Punjab.

This estimate also sums to an overall efficiency of about 40%. Therefore this study also adopted an overall

efficiency of 40% from canal head to the field level.

METHODOLOGY

The study is divided into four steps, namely data collection, estimation of irrigation water requirements, and

comparison with the actual irrigation diversions and prospective solutions, as depicted in the flow chart (Figure 5).

Estimation of irrigation water requirements is further elaborated in the following paragraphs.

Standardized reference crop evapotranspiration (ETsz) is required for estimating crop evapotranspiration. ETsz is

computed using the ASCE standardized Penman–Monteith 2000 equation (1). ETsz is defined as ‘‘the ET rate from

a uniform surface of dense, actively growing vegetation having specific height and surface resistance, not short of

soil water, and representing an expense of 100 m of same or similar vegetation’’ (Allen et al., 2005). The uniform

surface of dense, actively growing vegetation is either a short crop with approximate height of 0.12 m or a tall crop

with an approximate height of 0.5 m. In this study a short crop of 0.12 m is taken as a reference surface to remain

comparable with the FAO-56 Penman–Monteith equation (Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 1998).

Copyri

ETSZ ¼0:408DðRn � GÞ þ g Cn

Tþ273U2ðes � eaÞ

Dþ gð1 þ CdU2Þ(1)

where ETsz is standardized reference crop evapotranspiration for short or tall surfaces (mm d�1), Rn is calculated

net radiation at the crop surface (MJ m�2 d�1), G is soil heat flux density at the soil surface (MJ m�2 d�1), T is mean

daily air temperature at 1.5–2.5 m height (8C), U2 is mean daily wind speed at 2 m height (m s�1), es is saturation

vapor pressure at 1.5–2.5 m height (kPa), calculated for daily time steps, ea is mean actual vapor pressure at 1.5–

2.5 m height (kPa), D is the slope of the saturation vapor pressure–temperature curve (kPa 8C�1), g is the

psychometric constant (kPa 8C�1), Cn is the numerator constant, which changes with reference type and calculation

time step (K mm s3 Mg�1 d�1) and Cd is the denominator constant, which changes with reference type and

calculation time step (s m�1).

All the parameters in equation (1) are estimated through a purpose-built spreadsheet program employing

equations recommended by Allen et al. (2005) for these parameters. ETsz is calculated for daily time steps;

however, the daily values are converted to 10 daily bases for comparison with 10 daily water diversions (supplies).

Crop evapotranspiration under standard conditions (ETc) is the evapotranspiration from disease-free, well-

fertilized crops grown in large fields, under optimum soil water conditions and achieving full production under the

given climatic conditions. The estimation of ETc is determined by the product of the crop coefficient (Kc) and the

ETsz as in equation (2):

ETc ¼ Kc � ETsz (2)

Net irrigation water requirement (NIWR) is the ‘‘quantity of water necessary for crop growth’’ (Food and

Agriculture Organization (FAO), 1997). It depends on the cropping pattern and the effective rainfall. Information

on irrigation efficiency is essential for transforming NIWR into gross irrigation water requirement (GIWR), which

ght # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Irrig. and Drain. 59: 76–91 (2010)

DOI: 10.1002/ird

Figure 5. Flow chart of the study


is the ‘‘quantity of water to be applied in reality, taking into account water losses’’. Multiplying GIWR by the area

under cultivation gives the total water requirement for the area.

Crop water requirements (CWR) for a given crop i is computed as shown in equation (3):

Copyri

CWRi ¼ ETc;i � Peff (3)

where ETc,i is crop evapotranspiration (mm) of a certain crop i, and Peff is the effective rainfall (mm) during the

same time step.

Each crop has its own water requirements. NIWR in a canal command for a time step is thus the weighted sum of

individual crop water requirements (CWRi) based on cultivated area of each crop i in the area. Multiple cropping

(several crops per year) and crop staggering are thus taken into account by separately computing crop water

requirements for each crop in a time step (10 daily time steps). Dividing by the cultivable command area of the

canal command (S in ha), a value for irrigation water requirements is obtained and can be expressed in mm:

NIWR ¼

Pn

i¼1

CWRiSi

S(4)


DOI: 10.1002/ird


where Si is the area cultivated with the crop i in ha and n is the total number of crops cultivated in the area.

Gross irrigation water requirement (GIWR) is the amount of water to be diverted to the canal head for application

to the field. It includes NIWR and the water losses in the system. Water losses are accounted for through the water

application efficiency from canal head to field:

Copyri

GIWR ¼ 1

E:NIWR (5)

where E is the overall efficiency of the irrigation system from canal head to field level.

GIWR (mm per time step) is then converted to discharge by multiplying by the cultivated area of that time step.

The resulting discharge (volume/time) is compared with the actual and designed canal diversion for that time step.

Shortages and excess supplies are identified and best-suited management options are recommended based on the

author’s experience of the system.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Calculated ETsz on a daily basis and 10 daily bases are shown in Table III. Ten-daily basis ETsz is plotted in Figure 6

to observe its variation in various seasons of a year. This standardized ETsz is employed to calculate

evapotranspiration for various crops (ETc) based on the respective crop coefficient (Kc) for a particular time step.

The resulting ETc for all the crops in the study area is detailed in Table III. Total ETc for all the crops is shown in

Figure 7, while the temporal variation of ETc for rice and wheat is given in Figure 8. Table III also shows 10-daily

basis NIWR and GIWR.

NIWR is the depth of water required at the farm gate level. To compare it with the actual water supplied, delivery

losses (40% overall irrigation efficiency of the system) are included in the analysis and the resulting value is listed

as the GIWR in discharge units (m3 s�1). The discharges required, as calculated, are compared with actual water

supplies and the allocated water supplies. A comparison of estimated requirements with actual supplies and

allocated water (PID, 1999–2006) is shown in Figure 9.

The figure shows that 10-daily standardized evapotranspiration varies in the range of 8–62 mm over 1 year for

this study area. It seems that this is due to high temperature variation (5–398C). A characteristic feature noticed for

this region is a dip in the ETsz curve in 2nd 10-daily value for August (Figure 6). A probable reason for this

considerable reduction of ETsz is a low value for sunshine hours during August in comparison to adjacent months.

It is further observed in Figure 8 that peak demand for the two major crops – wheat and rice – occurs in the

months of March and August, respectively. Both of these months coincide with high water-shortage months, as

shown in Figure 9. One possible option to reduce August shortages is to explore the possibilities of local storage of

excess water supplies in May–June (Figure 9).

The analysis also estimates a gross crop-based irrigation water requirement of about 2 BCM and an overall

shortfall of more than 40% on an annual basis. Figure 8 shows a larger deficit to occur in the months of July, August

and September in Kharif season and February and March in Rabi season. The figure shows that estimated irrigation

water requirements seem to be more than double in some of these months compared with the actual supplies.

Prospective remedies

The above analysis indicates that: the system is short of surface water supplies by 40% as compared to water

requirements; the months of August and September are the most severely stressed months and there is a need to

enhance yields, as crop yields are lower than in other countries of the world. The shortage is managed by

uncontrolled pumping out of the groundwater, which is generally of low quality. This excessive use of low-quality

groundwater adds to secondary salinity in the soil and reduces crop production in the long run.

Supply enhancement. To reduce the ill effects of this low-quality groundwater there is an urgent need to

augment the fresh water supplies. A recent study (Shakir et al., 2009) has shown that the UCC system can get


DOI: 10.1002/ird

Tab

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par

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fQ

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andQ

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lefo

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(mm

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ET

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NIW

R(m

m)

GIW

R(m

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ired

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nal

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d(m

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Mai

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org

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Ap

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3.6

93

6.9

42

4.7

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2.1

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3.2

72

2.9

02

35

91

17

58

24

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9


DOI: 10.1002/ird


Figure 6. Average reference evapotranspiration (ETsz) for UCC command area. This figure is available in colour online atwww.interscience.wiley.com/journal/ird

Figure 7. Total ETc values for various crops cultivated in UCC command area. This figure is available in colour online atwww.interscience.wiley.com/journal/ird


DOI: 10.1002/ird


Figure 8. Temporal variation of ETc values for wheat and rice. This figure is available in colour online atwww.interscience.wiley.com/journal/ird


enhanced water from Marala Barrage for more than 90 days in a year (June–September) at 80% reliability.

However, for utilizing this water, the canal needs to be remodeled.

Other possible options to resolve water shortage and low yield problems of the study area are as follows.

Demand-side management. In addition to enhancement of supplies through remodeling, demand-side

management (DSM) is a also a solution for the system. DSM includes adjusting cropping pattern by reducing the

high delta crops or varieties, reducing water losses, improving field application efficiencies, improving conveyance

Figure 9. Comparison of water requirements with actual and allocated supplies


DOI: 10.1002/ird


efficiencies, reducing demands by economic tools, etc. Some of these are already practiced in Pakistan through

‘‘on-farm water management projects’’ (OFWM) and canal lining initiatives. Use of economic tools for demand

management is not very popular in Pakistan, perhaps because of the relatively low crop production per unit water.

Cropping pattern. In this study a preliminary analysis is carried out to revise the current cropping pattern with

the objective to minimize shortage and enhance net income. Unit prices and the unit yields of various crops are

obtained from the Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock (2007) for this analysis. The cropping pattern is

varied by replacing the high-delta crop with a low-delta crop suitable for the study area. In modified cropping

patterns, the area under wheat cultivation is enhanced up to 40%, while rice area reduced by 15%, in their respective

cropping seasons. Wheat area is enhanced by replacing Rabi fodder and rice is replaced by maize. The analysis

shows that the economic returns of such proposed interventions are not favorable, and the current cropping pattern

seems to be optimal, as far as income is concerned, while the changed cropping pattern resulted in maximum

shortage reduction of only about 5%.

Lining of water delivery system. Lining has been successfully applied in some parts of UCC, Fordwah

Eastern Sadiqia (FESS) Project and other canal systems. Siddique et al. (1993) showed that a concrete lining in the

Cheshma Right Bank Canal (CRBC) has resulted in a 32% reduction in seepage losses. Garg (1999), in light of his

experimentations, showed that seepage loss will be 0.007 m3 s�1 per million m2 (MSM) with brick plain cement

concrete (PCC) 1:3:6 and 0.009 m3 s�1 per MSM for tile lining, in comparison to the 3.4 m3 s�1 per MSM for the

unlined channel. Khan et al. (2001) carried out detailed field investigations on the efficacy of a geomembrane along

with various protective layers at Fordwah Eastern Sadiqia (South) Project in Pakistan. They found that the

geomembrane with a hard cover (concrete) of 50–75 mm combined with proper joint sealing reduced seepage loss

by more than 90%. The economic viability of the geomembrane was, however, not ascertained in the study.

Because of previous experiences of lining in Pakistan (FESS Project, Chasma Right Bank Canal, Thal Canal,

etc.) and international experiences it is recommended that lining of main canal, distributaries, minors and

watercourses should be implemented for main canal stone pitching at the banks, whereas for distributaries and

minor canals brick lining at the banks is recommended, for economic reasons. Concrete lining is proposed only for

those watercourses where quality of groundwater is poor.

On-farm water management. OFWM has been successfully practiced in Pakistan for the last three decades.

The major components of OFWM include watercourse improvement, precision land leveling (PLL), zero-tillage

technology, and bed and furrow irrigation. Gill (1994) observed that such a package as PLL, by introducing

improved irrigation methods, e.g. borders and furrows, and water scheduling, can reduce irrigation water

requirements up to 50% and can increase yields by as much as 25%. It is reported that PLL has increased crop yield

per acre from 725 to 984 kg (Johson et al., 1977). PLL has also increased land use efficiency from 8% to 63% and

cropping intensity from 6% to 70% (Gill, 1994). It has also resulted in savings of irrigation water to the extent of

25% (Sarwar et al., 1985). In zero tillage (or no tillage), seed is placed directly in the uncultivated soil through a

mulch layer with the help of a seed drill. Zero tillage allows for earlier wheat sowing by 1–2 weeks and seed bed

preparation cost is 75% lower compared to the conventional tillage method (Steiner et al., 1998). It was also found

savings of irrigation water of 20–30% were achieved. It is therefore recommended that a package of OFWM

interventions, including a review of previous OFWM interventions and proposing improved OFWM strategy,

should be executed in the UCC command area.

Feasibility of adopting SCADA System. The SCADA (supervisory control and data acquisition) system and

its variants (such as precision irrigation control system (Environment Information Technology (EIT), 2009) have

proven efficiency in a number of industries. It is extensively used in the electric power distribution system in

Pakistan and a limited use has been initiated in irrigation control systems also through installation of the SCADA

system at major water storage and diversion structures. The system has not gained popularity/acceptance owing to

reservations of the stakeholders (provinces) regarding accuracy of the reported data. Therefore, although the

SCADA system is a powerful tool for modernization and improved control of the irrigation system, a detailed and

careful study is warranted before its system-wide implementation because of the huge investments required in auto-


DOI: 10.1002/ird


control structures. It is therefore recommended that a study for the feasibility of its implementation in local

environment and constraints should be conducted.

Enhancing farmers’ participation. It is realized that irrigation management not only requires infrastructural

involvement but also farmers’ participation in management. Several countries have experienced the positive results

of farmers’ participation in irrigation management, such as the USA, Turkey, Mexico, Australia, Sri Lanka and

Nepal (Mirani and Memon, 2001). Farmers’ participation efforts should therefore be continued and strengthened

for the UCC command area also.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMENDATIONS

This study has successfully estimated crop-based water requirements using a state of the art approach for one of the

important canal irrigation systems of Pakistan. Large gaps between supply and demand have been found in August

and September, while excess waters are available in May and June. This excess water needs to be harnessed to

reduce the shortages in other months to some extent.

The gap in surface water supplies and in water requirements is currently being filled through uncontrolled

groundwater abstraction. This haphazard practice needs to be controlled and institutionalized as it is causing

secondary salinity, which ultimately reduces crop yields.

A package of on-farm water management (OFWM) interventions, including a review of previous OFWM

interventions and proposing an improved OFWM strategy, should be executed in the study area.

This study will be helpful in improving the management of the canal system in general and the UCC canal system

in particular. It can be utilized for requirement-based water scheduling instead of the current supply-based

warabandi (rotational) system.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are thankful to the Irrigation and Power Department, Government of the Punjab, and the Regional

Meteorological Centre, Lahore, for providing relevant information and data. The facilities provided by the

University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore, during this study are also thankfully acknowledged.

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canal water management: case study of upper chenab canal in pakistan

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