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IDRC IDRC • l1b.

~ International Development Research Centre

Centre de recherches pour le developpement international SOUTH ASIA REGIONAL OFFICE

SARO Annual Programme Meeting: January 30-31, 1992

Towards A Regional Strategy For SARO

11, JORBAGH, NEW DELHl-110 003 INDIA ARlt\"'1 3L\\ .. ,(5&\) .... ;c SS

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SAK> NH1AL MEETJB:; : .J1\NUARY 30 - 31, 1992 Verue : Taj FaliJCP Hotel •. SanJar Patel. Mal:g. New Delhi

'llllRSllAY. JANUARY 30. 1992

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0900 - 0930

SESSiaf II

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Introductory Remarks by Regional, Manager

Adoption of Agema

SAR> Regialal. strategy am New Program ~ (SUnrise Activities)

SARO Regional Strategy OYerview

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Discussion led by Vijay G. Parrle arxl Ratna SUdarshan

Agricultural Productiai Systens (Forestty)

Discussion led by C.B. Sastry

coffee

water an:l M~ )I/: S,;:r-frr;:~-:;;;v.f-

Discussion led by AurxJ ~i

Discussion led by stephen Tyler

Economic, Trade an:l Tedmology Iblicy (strucbJral Adjusboent)

Discussion led by Rarrly Spence

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FRIDAY. JANUARY 31, 1992

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Research syst.em; Devel.cpaelt (R&D Omnercializaticn)

DisaJssion led by Sitoo Mukerji arrl Mira Aghi

Stmset am Transitiooal. Prograus

SUnmaJ:y of ro Reccllmematiais

DisaJssion led by Amrew Mc.Naughton

Coffee

Linkages, o •••••11 'lbemes, Geog:rapri.c am 'lhanatic Prioritizaticn

Discussion led by Ste{i1.en Tyler

criteria for Select:in.J SUnr.ise Activities

Discussion led by R. Spence

Coffee

SUnrise - New (Activities yai want incl.med in the SAID initiated program)

DisaJssion led by Maria Ng

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$ESSIClf VIII

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Infannatiai scieDeS arrl Syst:em:;

An overview of strategy - ROOert Valentin

Results of Evalaution and Future D.irectials

Disrussion led by Vijay G. ParrlejManjul Bajaj

I.llnch

Discussion led by Vijay G. Parrle

Coffee

1dni.nistrative Issies

WorkinJ Relationships between RM, DD an:i Rro an:i between Rro an:i ottawa-based ros Disrussion led by Ramy Spence

SARO' s Work Plan derived f:ran Annual 1992 Meeting Vijay G. Fame

Dinner hosted by Mr. an:i Mrs. Vijay Fame

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SAR> HWWtm MEEfll«;: '11\WARY 30-31. 1992

'J.gwm A REGICH\L ~ RR 'DIE &l1DI ~ REGIQ0L OFFICE.

I. Develcpoent Ccn::ems

II. :rmc Regional strategy for SARO

III. Program Delivecy Mechanisms

J)J. IIR::~ collaboration

V. SARO Projects : SUnset, Transitional aRi SUnrise

VI. Workirg Relations bebveen RM, DD aRi RIO aRi between RIO am ottawa-based ro

VII. SARO organization Structure

Annexures

I. SUnmacy of Reoc:mneOOations of Coonb:y Stu:ties

II. Research Institutions : A Prelimi.naey Mag>irg

III. Definin;J an awroach to the NGO Sector in the Scuth Asia Region : A di SoJSSion note

J)J. Environmental Policy : An agema for Sooth Asian Social Scientists

v. sane Issues for Research in the context of structural adjustment

VI. CIJ:l7\ : Asia Branch Strategic Plan 1991-92

VII. Voluntary Ol:ganisations aRi Pcpllar ltk:Jvemnts in Bihar-Rlilip Eldridge arrl Niel Ratan, University of Tasmania, Australia

VIII. Profile for SARO Rros

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Enviromnental, livelihood, econanic am socio-political security are sane of the key developnent ooncem.s preoccupyirYJ the attention of goverrnnents in the SAR:> region. To redress these governments have assigned high priority to R&D am its utilisation am are takirg apprq>riate steps to make their respective science am technology policies responsive to developnent concems.

In the decade ahead the region is expected to face significant environmental degradation broogh.t aboot by a set of carplex am inter-related factors, particularly pressures of ever increasirYJ pcpllation, poverty, am econanic growth. SUb-optimal management of natural resoorces am irrational disinvestment of ecological capital are posirYJ a serious threat to the region's life-SUFP>rt system through increasirYJ frequency am intensity of natural disasters; deterioration of soil corxlitions; increasirYJ deforestation; discontinuities in water cycle ·am increasirYJ trenjs tC7Wards desertification. 'lhe increasirYJ dan.;Jer to envirorunental security is evidenced by, am:>ng others, the continual recurrence of drought am floods resultin"J in the convergence of homelessness, disease am unemployment which aggravates the continuing threat tC7Wards livelihood.

South Asia with over 250 million in absolute poor (with an annual i.ncane of below US$ 275 - IBRD criteria) - 50% of the world's absolute poor - am over 550 million poor (with an annual i.ncane below US$ 370 - IBRD definition) seems destined to suffer from poverty not too different in form am intensity from sub-Saharan Africa. 'Ibis poverty manifests itself in continuing errlemic hunger, deprivation, illiteracy am high infant m::>rtality. F\lrther, poverty aa:::entuates envirorunental degradation. As the UNDP Human Developnent Report 1990 argues " .•• poverty is one of the greatest threats to the envirorunent .•.• Arxi this envirorunental damage reinforces poverty". While the governments in the region have assigned high priority to poverty alleviation their policy-mix directed at redressal of this acute prcblem have prcxluced miniscule results. A key cause, am:>ng others, is high rates of population growth - 2.3% per annum. In some countries, notably Bangladesh am Nepal - rates of pcpllation growth are higher than growth of foodgrains. In these countries the spectre of Malthus may be back with a vengeance.

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'1he econanic security of the region is equally en:lan;Jered. '!he risirg OOrden of external am internal debt ac:x:x::mpanied by deterioratirg terns of trade has generated a reverse flow of resoorces f:ran the region to the glOOal system. '!he increasirg glOOalization of the econanic system has further eroded the econanic base of the region as ~l as the limited cx::rrpetitive efficiency. With the birth of Fortress Eurqle in 1992, am the emergence of t.raclirg blocks in North America am the Asia-Pacific region, the econanic sustainability of the region is expected to be in greater jeopaniy. structural adjusbnent has been adopted as the critical: panacea for the region's sw:vival with the invisible harrl of the market am privatisation fonnin:;J the co:rnerstone of eoonanic strategy. While all ooontries in the region have uniertaken structural adjustment measures - with India followirg suit in July 1991 - the region runs the risk of continuirg to fall beh.i.rd many parts of the gld::>e.

'!he above nul tifaceted crises that have EIDJUlfed the region have created violent am increasirgly urananageable social conflicts which may lead to societal collapse am anarchy. '!he goverrnnents in the region are aa::ordirgly preoccupied with firXiirq short am lon:J-tenn solutions to goveznance, civil unrest, devolution of power to provinces, increasirg intensity of social tensions am related violence, security in the Irrlian Ocean region; am defenoe-develcpnent trade off. All these issues are vital to the very sw:vival of the ooontries in the region as distinct nation states am to the continuation of strengthening of deioocratic values am institutions am preservance of htnnan rights. Regional cooperation through SAARC ~ to be a possible solution to these problems provided the current geopolitical realities allow for positive thinkirg.

A critical constraint to addressirg the above key developtelt ooncems is ilrperfect knowledge of their nature am dimensions am the degree of inter-connectedness of the issues involved. Sane key problems clemaniirg further knowledge are easily identifiable.

As concerns environmental security, a primary area of concern is to seek technical, managerial am people-based solutions to reverse the process of ecological degradation of the bianass based econany which still constitutes a dcmi.nant part of the econanies of the region.

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Areas requirin;J further knowledge are, am:>rg others, poverty-ecolCXJY-pc:pllation nexus; lan:i use management; afforestation an:i agro-forestry technologies; systematic not destructive or wasteful extraction of resources for imustry; human settlement; water management including techniques of water cxmsezvation an:i conjunctive use of water resources; an:i determinants of water resoorce dynamics. ·

To effectively address issues related to livelihood security the crucial area demaRlin;J further knowledge is that of enpowennent - how to E!lTpOWer peq>le so that they can exercise entitlement over resoorces. In this context these areas need to be addressed thra1gh research: incane generatin;J technologies which are affordable ani add value to agricultural am forestry resources am produce; technolCXJY for increasi.."¥] productivity an:i c:x::trpetitive efficiency, of small an:i medium scale in:lustries including village based am primary product irxhlstries; envirornnent friendly technologies for the SME sector; an:i management of the coastal regions.

With regar:d to econanic security additional knowledge is required to unierstarxl the dynamics of macro-micro linkages an:i structural ad.jusbnent policies; management of international debt am flows of international capital, services am goods rrovement; limits of the market mechanism in fosterirg grcM:h; negotiatirg strate:]ies; an:i dynamics of glcbalization particularly in the context of integration with the global econany; social effects of adjusbnent; speed of refo:rm - iq>ortant for maintaining socio-political stability as dramatically illustrated by the disten;Jration of USSR; an:i sequencirg of refo:rm, am:>rg others.

'!be areas requirin:;J further knowledge in the context of socio-political security are administrative an:i political structures awrcpriate to the nulti-ethnic nulti-racial, multi-religious an:i nulti-cultural heritage c.haracterisinJ the region; techniques to enhance pluralism an:i participation of disadvantaged groups in the governing process; strate:]ies for conflict resolution an:i; methods/strate:]ies for consolidat.in;J democratic institutions.

In the context of econanic preocx:upations of goverrnne.nts in the region an:i related problems demarrlirxJ further knowledge, sane rel~· research entry points for the Centre, which suggest themse!Vt?s are

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I. Environmental Seglrity

Natural rescm:oe management evolved in the context of the basic needs of the peq>le with particular entiJasis on

(i) Hamessirg of water, larxi, forestry, agriculture, pasture arxi livestock resairces;

(ii) Environment arxi :i.rdustry : resoorce extraction with a particular focus on minirg - Avoidance of irxiustrial hazards; arxi the effects of irxiustrialization on the lives of the local people;

(iii) Environment arxi urbanisation - environment arxi health hazards faced by the m:ban poor;

(iv) Erwironmental policy - research directed at forrculation of national/regional oonsei:vation strategy arxi at providirg the intellectual. umerpinnirg to the region's stance in relation to glci:>al envirorunental issues as well as evolvirg regulato:cy arxi policy frameworks to address emerginJ danestic envirormmtal issues;

II. Livelihood arxi F.congnic Security

( i) studies to acquire a better urxie.rstarxi.i of the poverty-environment-pcpllation nexus;

(ii) studies on health, nutrition,education arxi human develcpnent

(iii) Studies on gerrler issues

(iv) Studies to develop a coastal research system incorporatinJ o6astal; agriculture/horticulture, agroforest:cy, fisheries, larxi use management arxi asset creation activities;

(v) Iniustrial developnent arxi c:x:mpetitiveness particularly in the small arxi medium scale arxi agro irrlustries aimed at (a) addirg value to local raw materials arxi cxmoodities, (b) creatirg enployment arxi i.ncane; arxi (c) export p:rarotion.

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III. SOCio-JX>litical security

(i) Linkages aIOOr¥;J issues of devolution, decentralization, dE'Joocracy, ethnic harm:xiy, ard peq>le' s participation in governarx::e;

(ii) Refonn of p.tblic administration to make it a catalyst ani facilitator of develcpnent processes through nmilizirq greater participation of the citizem:y;

(iii) Medlanisms for deoentralization am devolution of authority ard develq;coent management to match political devolution;

(iv) I..an:Jua9e policy

(v) Village -level institutional framework

(vi) Information system to pennit management of devolution of power ard governarx::e at the local level am to democratize infonnation;

(vii) DesdloolinJ am training of administrative am political cadres; ard

(viii) Carparative ard intracnmtry studies of sucx::essful ard JOOderate lOOdels elsewhere, for exanple, canada

IV. R&D utilization

(i) Resa.trce allocation mechanisms for R&D am financial oontrol systems;

{ii) S&T policy fonrul.ation ard .inplementation;

(iii) On-qoin;J ard post-facto evaluation nethodologies;

(iv) Policies ard strategies for prcm:>tirq researcher-user interface;

(v) · Partnership anag research am S&T, financial ard venture capital institutions;

(Vi) Analysis of patentin;J am licensin;J policies ard procedures;

(vii) ·:Methodology for integratin;J R&D utilization objective in project fornul.ation;

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(viii) Evaluation of technologies f:ran the perspective of oc:mneroialisation.

· Tasks far the C~:ub:e

It is inpossible for the Centre to resporrl to all of the above develcpnent issues am related research entcy points given the constraints defined by the Centre's maroate, mission, carparative advantage arrl financial resources. A shatply focussed, well articulated arrl integrative response - both in tenn.s of program arrl geograptlc concentration - is warranted. In the SAOO region the Centre oool.d position itself strategically by focussinq on the issues of enviromnental, livelihood arrl econanic security with a oonoentration on these areas :

- Haznessin;J am processin;J of water, forest, am lam resources incl\Xlin;J livestock am coastal resources

- Erwironmental. insults am chan;Jin;J patterns of human settlement arisin;J art: of in:lustrialization am w:banisation

PUblic policy in the context of the interrelated issues of environment, structural adjustment arrl socio-political security

In addition, the Centre shoold address the post research issues of oamunications, arrl R&D utilisation within the framework of the chosen focus.

In the SAR:> region, as elsewhere, the Centre has high credibility both amrg researchers arrl policy makers arrl hence has high potential for inpactin;J positively on the developnent of the region - a potential which nust be maximized.

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ClJAPDR II

I. :nmqM:J.'laI

SUcoessive SARO annual progranme strategy meetinJs have addressed the· questien of fo:r:nula~ a regional strategy for the sooth Asia office. Key elements that have been identified in the past are nutritien, food systems for semi-arid tropics, basic needs, urbanizatien, AIOO am R&D utilizatien. 'lhe same meChanism also identified a special geogralitic focus en the eastern parts of the regien, coverin;J al<DJ a continuum, Nepal, the Irxlian states of Bihar, Ben;Ja1 am orissa, am Ban:Jladesh. 'Ibis regien, backward am disaster-prone, displays characteristics of extreme rural am urban poverty am high ecological instability. SUbsequently, an advisory graip to SARO oanbined JOOSt of these concerns to define a special focus en the theme of Poverty-Environment-Pop.ll.ation with a thrust on the eastern regien.

Natm:a1 :r:eswrce management 'Wall.d IXlW fmm the oet1Lte piece of ~· s strategy. In additien SARO's programs would address the issues of (a) structural adjustment am (b) c::x:mnercialization am utilisation of :researdl results. 'Ibis note elaborates on these issues am attenpts to articulate the rutline of a cogent action plan for SARO en the basis of the general principles am direction as doannented in the Board ai;:proved Imc Strategy 1991. It nust be noted that this note is cnly an rutline am SARO would substantiate these ideas am evolve a oarprehensive strategy beginning with the SARO progranme meetin;J in late January, 1992.

'lhe actien .Plan, applicable for a time frame of three to five years ~d be centered aroon:l a sin;Jle progranme theme - Envi.I:a10011t.

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Environmental. jssues as they relate to the lives, livelihcxxis, quality and stamam of livin;J of people, specially the poor, as growth and develcpnent takes place in the region would be a leadin;J program oonoem.

·A fo.ir ~ ar;proadl has been tentatively fo:rnul.ated

Natural Resoorces Management Envircnnent and Imustcy Envirooment and Urbanisation Environmental. Policy

1. Hatm;aJ. ResrurQes Mara@IAJt

Both pqnlatioo growth and develcpnent have led to the degradation and depletion of natural resa.u:oes like land, forests, water arxi livestock, in the process jeq>ardizin;J the subsistence of a large number of the rural poor. A primary area of ooncem wool.d be to seek technical, managerial _arxi ~le - ba§§rl §Qlytiops to reverse the process of ecological ~ 0n of the bianass based econany whidl still constitutes a daninant part of the econany of the CXAJl'ltries of the regioo. Nanuwin;J down on this broad theme FOJ:est and Water Management have been identified as viable first points of intervention. '1he rationale for the choice of these entry points is elaborated below :

'lhe F.astem region of South Asia contains diverse am ecologically inportant forest resources - the Himalayan arxi sub-Himalayan forests of Nepal arxi North Bengal, the ridl noist and dry deciduoos forests of Bihar, Orissa am South Bengal am the ~e systems of the SUrrlarbans in Bargladesh and parts of Bengal. Forest manageoont presents itself as an inportant area of intervention on these COllllts.

Forests occupy a large part of the territocy of the eastern states in IMia (f:ran as nuch as 38.2% of total geogralitlcal area in orissa. to 13. 5% in West Ben;Jal) am in Nepal. A large number of peq>le are directly part of a largely forest based eoonany arxi it vitally affects as well the overall econany of the region.

While forests continue to be inportant in Nepal arxi the above .. mentioned states in Inlia recent satellite mawin:J has shown an alannin:J decline in forest cover.

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Sane seninal. work with a high potential for spread has already been done by the Forest Deparbnent in West Berga! in evolvin:J an innovative aJXl pragmatic partnership with local oama.mities for joint management of forest resoorces. Research aJXl collaboration with state Forest Deparbnents in devel.q>irg an alternate to the present management system· based on a colonial forest policy (centered exclusively en ccmnercial exploitation .am state custodianship), cn.tld have far z:eac:hin:J inpact for Irxiia as a whole as well as for the smaller ooontries in the sub-continent with similar forest management systems.

Nepal is currently executin;J its Forestry Plan developed by the SWedes arxl adopted by the Goverranent aroorxi 1989. 'lhis plan is bein;J executed with financial aJXl technical suwcrt of ADB, SIDA. aJXl other bilateral am nul tilateral donors. '1he Plan's research agerm offers an unique qp:>rtunity for the C.entre to join hams with other donors in helpin} Nepal to execute the Plan.

Water Ieniroe Management has been identified as a secorrl point of interventicn for these reasons aJOOJX1 others :

Nepal has a hu;Je hydroelectric resource estimated to be the biggest in the l«>rld - '1he Gan;Ja - Brahmaputra - Barak Basin is erdowed with a vast hydroelectric potential of the order of 200,000-250,000 l.fi of which half or 100re cn.tld be viably harnessed. '1he water resources constitute the lai:qest sin;Jle resource errlowment of Nepal aJXl a source of wealth which cn.tld be harnessed for the nutua1 benefit of the entire sub-continent. For exanple, Nepal's hydroelectric potential has the capability of meetir¥J the entire power requirements of Nepal, Irxlia am Bangladesh for now as well as for the next several years. Not to develq> this potential is to acx::ept a Self denyin} ordinant:e am lose the incane, enployment am overall llllltiplied effect that hydel generatioo cn.tld brin;J to South Asia. As George Verghese in his excellent p.lblication entitled "Waters of Hq>e" has remarked "hydel power is to Nepal am Bhutan wbat oil is to the UAE or KUwait. Not to develq> it reasonably fast is to forego the one resan:oe above all others that 'WOUld prq>el. these COlllltries fran poverty to plenty' transfonn the lives of the people am safeguard their"; fragile environment".

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- Natural disasters dCMnstream in F.a.ste.rn Irxlia am Ban:Jladesh which occur in several areas on a continuin:J basis

Need to increase the efficiency of irrigation to :maxl.llUZe agricultural ootp.lt. Irrigation is by far the largest consunptive use of water in Saith Asia am ano.mts to 85% or ITOre of all uses · in these CXJUntries. Irxlia has the largest irrigation system in the world with over 70 million hectares urxler irrigation rut water efficiercy averages not ITOre than 40%. Irrigation losses have been steadily nnmtirg in Irxlia am touched a figure of nearly Rs. 900 crores (CAD $ 496.50 million) in the recent past. In Nepal· hill irrigation poses special pr<i:>lem.s.

2. F.nvhameat am Imust:r;y

Viewin;J ilx:reased irxiustrialization as necessary arrl desirable in amelioratin:;J many of the pr<i:>lem.s of the region it seems ilrp:>rtant am appropriate to give due attention to minimizin:;J the pr<i:>lem.s that .iniustrialization brin:Js in its wake. Areas of poptl.ar concern, inter alia, are : systematic, not destructive or wasteful extraction of resoorces for i.rrlust:ry; maintenance of air, lam am water quality; avoidance of .iniustrial hazards; am the effects of irxlustrialization on the lives of the local people.

In the specific context of the F.a.ste.rn region minim has been identified as an appropriate point of intervention. '!he region is rich in mineral deposits am constitutes a major source of coal, iron-ore, mica, limestone am dolanite (the three states of Bihar, Bengal am Orissa together aCCO\lllt for 54% of the country's coal oot:put· :an;i about a quarter of the total value of mineral production in Irdia) ~ Quarries am mines in the region date back over a century am CXl1le in different sizes, different generations of technology (open cast arrl uniergroom) am different fo:rm.s of ownership (private am plblic sector). camon over all these however, with one or two rare exceptions, is a neglect of the environmental arx:l health inpact of the minin:J activity on the region arx:l the local pcp.tl.ace. Collaboration with the minin:J irxlustry, interaction with government on the policies am regulations governing the in:iustry am with local pressure groups, seems to present pri.ma facie a wide scope for action.

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3. &Jvizg!!Hlt am Urbank.atim

Develq.mant has resulted in the rapid growth of urban centres, both metrqx>litan cities ard meili.um sized t:a.rms. 'Ihe growth has largely been unplanned ard is marked by chaotic ard inadequate provision of basic llllili.cipal services - halsin;J, transport, power, water, · sanitation, educational ard other facilities. An analysis of the factors whidl contrib.lte to lazge-scale rural-urban migration, the patterns of migration ard the ensuinJ charges in social relations, the better plannin:J arrl provision of services, the heal th arrl environment related hazards faced by the urban poor in these centres· wcW.d be the third area of thrust in the "Envirornnent" theme.

SAR:> has already initiated a pilot project on the study of the urban poverty syOOrane in Patna city, the capital of Bihar state. other urban centres in the region - Calcutta, Il1aka, Kathmarxiu, Ranchi, Olttack, Illanbad to name a few - are equally victims of dense overpcptlation ard unregulate.1 expansion arrl camidates for similar research effort. ~D}l"-, c1 nA.~;_~

4. Envil:a1De11tal. l\:>licy

Envirooment is just ar.rivin;J on the political agerrla of the camtries of South Asia. '1hese camtries are in the process of both evolvin;J their stance in relation to global environmental issues as well as evolvin;J regulatory arrl policy frameworks to address emergin;J danestic environmental issues. Further, in the context of the global issues in the area of envirornnent there is an irc:'easin:J concem that environment wcW.d becaoe an instrunentality of ooercion for the North vis-a-vis llllltilateral ard bilateral aid negotiations. 'lhe South Asian governments are worried at the lack of adequate knowledge base to reb.lt North's views on what arrl who has responsibility for environmental degradation. '!here is a fear that like the seventies arrl eighties North-South dialogue on "new international econanic order", the North-South dialogue on environment could becaoe a dialogue between the dumb ard the deaf. Research by South Asians on critical glcbal. environmental issues to ensure that the North-South dialogue on environment - which is expected to gain nanentum after UNCED 1992 - becaoes a dialogue aIOOn:J "equals" (ma:tchin:J of skills arrl knowledge base) has assumed special significance. SAR:> wcW.d catalyse ard suwcrt research directed at articulation of envirornnental policies of South Asian governments both in the national context arrl emergin:J global agerrla on environment.

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III. QIHm H00Wtm AREAS

Apart fran the EnvironmentjF.astern Region Progranme focus SARO wa.tld concentrate on two other themes

Eoonanic policy issues

Researdl utilization/carmercialization

'!he eoonanic policy program would seek to address the issues of structural adjustment - managenent of international debt; aid flows; fiscal arxi monetazy refonns; the effect of structural adjustment policies for the CXA.mtries in the region. An equally inportant theme to be addressed would be globalization. Special eJliilasis 'Wt:W.d be given to supportin:J research to develop policy frame in Irrlia arxi other sart:h Asian coontries awropriate for integratiDJ the region with sart:h Fast am Fast Asia.

As c::oncerns R&D cxmnercialization a key area would be identification of Centre supported research done in the past which has potential for dissemination, widespread utilization aOOjor cxmnercialization arrl actively praootirg the same. SARO would also seek out ewortunities for cx:m:oorcialization of R&D outp.lt emanatirg fran non IIRC supported projects for providirg assistance with respect to c:anmercialization.

r-i ·'Ibis would provide an unique opportunity to the Centre to augment its t- resairces t.hra.lgh sales, royalties am licenc~ fees, particularly

r in In::lia Sri Ianka am Ban;Jladesh. For cx:mriercialization related activities SARO would strike partnerships arrl collaborative arrangements with the private sector, venture capital institutions am p.iblic sector developnent banks interested in cx:mnercialization

1of R&D.

In the first instance beginnirg FY 1992-93 SARO would be staffed with four professionals with followirg specialisations

Forestry Hydrogeologist/MinirXJ EnvironmentaljResource Econanist Carm.mication Systems/TedlnOlogy Marketirg

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13

'lhe :rmc strategy 1991 document contains guidelines on mdalities blt also recognizes the need for • fine-tunin;J' to iooet regional needs. 'lhe dncuDW?nt ~ that there shruld be fewer oonventional projects, :rore oo-fi.narx:in;J am. nwaga-grants where possible. '1he new strategy offers ~rtunities to develop lon;Jer tenn programs, give integrated institutional suwart, am. generate research netTNOrks.

'lhe menu of mdalities listed in the Ccllperrlium to IIRC strategy 1991,· with sane c:xmrents on their likely ill'portance in the saith Asian coiltext, is disc:ussOO belc:M.

1. §nRlJ projects am DAPs. Small projects can provide a means of addressin;J short tenn prd:>lems of limited scq>e but high potential inpact. An additional use of this nDdality is to e><parrl the netTNOrk of institutions that IIRC works with, by making snall grants in the first instance, to new am. less well known oi:ganizations. since absorptive capacity ins. Asian institutions is often limited, this mdality is likely to remain inp:>rtant particularly in Ban;Jladesh, Nepal am. Sri Ianka.

2. Q>l.1aba@tive projects. A strategic awroach to canadian collaboration cool.d have ill'portant substantive benefits for Imc. '!his waild involve targetin;J Canadian institutions for lon;J-tenn relationships, rather than furrlin;J one-off projects. Areas in which SAR> hq>es to develop collaborative projects include water management (University of Waterloo - Bihar College of ED:Jineerin;J) an:l envirornnent-frierrlly technologies for small am. medium ente.rprises.1 Collaborative pi:oposals in the pipeline include the Medlatrari.cs Institute (Pace-Elcot/ICX2, QJebec) an:l Habitat Polytechnics (HUIXX>/ :ltGill). In the area of structural adjustment collaboration between saith Asian institutions am. the North-South Institute cool.d be productively exploied.

1

:.,:_,

'1he Ontario Trade· ·Office has offered to identify awropriate private sector R&D partners. '1he D.lsiness Cooncil of sustainable Developnent, Geneva am. FUNDES, Geneva are also considerin;J oo-furrlin:J these activities

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14

3. T.tainirq/research neb!oz:ks. Neb«>rks cx:rnbi.nim trai.nim arxl research are ale of the lOOSt effective means of enhancirg capacity in environments where institutions are weak. In the Sart:h Asian context these networks wrul.d be specially useful in Nepal, 13anJladesh am F..astem Inlia. Also, NGO trai.nirg/research neb!orks with a thematic arxl /or gee:>gralillc focus c:nll.d usefully be develq>ed.

4. Effifm!1l nebigk. '1he Centre is well koown for its suwcrt of intematiooal networks. SUch neb«>rks can provide a l1Ullt>er of advantages, incl~ cg:x:>rtunities for oooparative research;' cast-effective specialization anag a::mponents; high visibility, increasirg the likelihood of inpact; arxl transfer of knowledge ( enpirical arxl methodological) between countries. EKistirg neb«>rks in Sart:h Asia, which are expected to continue urxler the new strategy, incll.lle the neb«>rks on mycorrhiza, bani:loo arxl rattan, oilseeds, arxl global IOOdellirg. Regional progranmes in the areas of f orestcy arxl water management might be well inplemented throogh neb«>rks, likewise a progranme on econanic policy in the context of structural adjusbnent. In the case both of research neb«>rks arxl research/trainirg networks, SAR> 'tt'0.11.d continue to suwcrt institutions presentirg diverse ideological stances.

5. Insti.t:utima1 &gxnt. '1his tenn refers to large packages of suwcrt to relatively weak institutions to allow them to upgrade their capacity. Project bldgets tam to be devoted to trainirg, library suwcrt, jrurnal. subscriptions, catmmications, catp.Iters, arxl consultants, as well as research. '1he case for selective suwcrt of a few institutions is stroo;J. '!his is particularly the case in Sri Ianka, where ethnic conflict arxl brain drain have adversely affected institutiooal capacities. Regeneratirg institutions oatl.d be a significant contrib.J.tion over time to b.ti.ldirg up research capacity. '!his in tum is needed to lllCll1a<je the transitioo fran the nulti-faoeted crisis of debt ··am ~, anag others, facirg the countJ:y. Institutiaial SUR>Ort has been stron:Jly recamen:led in the country report oo Sri Ianka cxmnissioned by SAR>.

6. Pi:wi;am Grants· A large literature on research utilizatioo suc;ReBts that the lOOSt frequent a.rd inp:>rtant inpacts of social sci~ research cane not fran specific short term studies, rut fran research that generates new concepts, methods a.rd problem definitions. It is also apparent that the demams of policy makers

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15

are so urgent and unpredictable that the.re is rarely tine to la\DlCh a new project to meet such demarxis. Rather, researchers llllSt be ready with their data and analysis when the call cace;. 'lhese oonsiderations in:licate that II:RC shrul.d enpiasize lorg-tenn :research programs, rather than short-tenn projects. '1he grant to Bl\IF is an excellent exanple of an integrated program grant that has been able to address a ran;Je of issues. other institutions that cool.d be possible recipients of program grants include ~ and CIRll2\P in BanJladesh; the In:lira Garrlhi Institute of DeVelcpnent Research and Tata Energy Research Institute in :rmia; and ICJM:>D in Nepal.

7. Q•utLact research- In cases where the Centre agrees to act as an executirg aqercy for another donor, \tie cool.d not only levy an administratioo fee tut also make a financial oontribution. 'Ibis 'Wall.d enhance the confidence of the donor, as \tlell as dishn:sing :f\Jms with minimal additional effort. For exanple if the Centre agzees to the request f ran the D.rt:.dl for administering their aid program then SAR> cool.d administer the S. Asian c::aip::>nent of rutc.h aid. Possibilities also exist for developing such a relationship with UNDP.

8. o:nvent:imal. moiects· Olrrently the IOOst frequently userl. IOOdal.ity ·in the Centre, these are often the best way to address specific prd:>lem.s. A secom useful ?Jl1Xl5e is assessment of an aqercy. In sate cases oonventional projects act as sprirxjboards to larger secom phases and to networks; but this should not be seen as their only justification. While the stress of many of the above IOOdal.ities is on strerxfthening institutions, one of the unique features of Imc grants has been the identification of in:lividuals, who through their role as project leaders or as part of a team, have received professional ehcxJuragement and training where needed. '!his aspect of htnnan resource develcpnent shoUld not be lost sight of; in so far as there is greater flexibility with a oonventional project to encourage in:lividuals, irrespective of institutional strergth or weakness, this is a modality that will retain its relevance in all of South Asia.

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I. CJDA'S Procp:am Priorities in s. As~

CI~'s program in Asia (incl'lX!inJ sa.rt:h Asia) will increasirxJly 11¥JVe away f ran

(a)

(b)

(c)

''haniware" (capital intensive projects) to "software" with major enpiasis on policy :research directed at maximizirxJ policy leverage particularly in the followirxJ areas

structural adjustment environment an:l pcpll.ation issues in:iustrial collaboration

:infrastructure develcpoont to social sector; am

aid to econanic cooperation largely with:in the private enterprise sector. In tenns of program delivery Cim proposes to 11¥JVe away fran the project delivery node to the program delivery node an:l encairage networkirxJ with local an:l canadian institutions •

• II. ImQ-CJDl\ Cl>l1abaratiai

'1he emergirxJ program priorities of· Cim are identical with II:RC's program priorities in the region an:l the decision by Cim to 11¥JVe into S\Jll)OrtirxJ "software" an:l social sector would blur an:l perha.ps eliminate the current thematic differences between the two respective organizations. CI~ is expected to take care to avoid overlap aro;or oc:npetition between the two agencies by institutionalizirxJ a joint plannin'J process between Irn.c am Cim.

'!he BAIF grant is an exanple of successful on-goirxJ collaboration between CI~ an:l II:RC. other projects which envisage such collaboration include the Mechatronics Institute, which is to be set up in Madras in collaboration with IOQ, QJ.ebec. Cim collaboration

2 Refer to Amexure VI for details

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is also likely for a series of Habitat Polytechnics to be set up by HUIXX>. 'lhese polytedmics would integrate the efforts of research institutions in developir¥J awrq>riate housir¥j materials, am the extension 1N0rk of J:xlilclirg centres, with an awrq>riate educational system. II:RC-CIIll\ collaboration in the Chllka project catl.d also be a possibility.

In the cx:>ntext of emergir¥J new directions of CIIll\ am the close similarity between CIIll\' s program priorities am U:RC Is program priorities in s. Asia a joint plannin:J process would have merit. Access to the CIIll\ budget has definite attractions. We llllSt hCME!ver ensure that oor identity is not merged with CIIll\.

IIEC-CIIll\ collaboration shoold address the issue of continuirg sane SUJ::PJrt fran CIIll\ for ''hardware" am infrastructure with software (research) fran IIEC. While it is generally acceptable to furding agencies to provide SUJ::PJrt for equipnent, suwart for J:xlilclirg is rarely considered. HcMever' finance for the people am equipnent associated with particular research projects is often inadequate am a ruilclirg is not conceptually different fran a scientific instnnnent if the only way of gettir¥j the \\10rk clone is to provide the J:xlildir¥j. CIIll\-IrRC collaborative efforts catl.d address this issue.

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CHAPTER V

CLASSIFICATION OF SARO PROJECTS (ON-GOING AND PIPELINE) IN THE FOLLOWING CATEGORIES :

1 SUNSET PROJECTS 2 TRANSITIONAL PROMISES 3 TRANSITIONAL OTHER DONORS 4 SUNRISE - CONTINUING - OWN PROGRAM 5 SUNRISE - CONTINUING - OTHER PROGRAMS 6 SUNRISE - NEW- SARO (SINGLE/MULTI PROGRAM) 7 SUNRISE - NEW - GLOBAUOTHER IDRC

1 SUNSET PROJECTS

On-going projects which will terminate without follow-up.

2 TRANSmONAL PROMISES

Irrevocable commitments, not yet appropriated and no further support Intended beyond the commitment made.

a TRANSITIONAL OTHER DONORS

On-going projects to be handed off to other donors.

4 SUNRISE - CONTINUING - OWN PROGRAM

On-going projects and subsequent phases which flt the new SARO strategy.

5 SUNRISE - CONTINUING - OTHER PROGRAMS

On-going projects and subsequent phases which fit the new SARO strategy but cannot be maintained in new SARO.

e SUNRISE - NEW - SARO (SINGLE/MULTI PROGRAM)

Activities you want included in the SARO-initiated program regardless of who occupies the positions.

7 SUNRISE - NEW - GLOBAUOTHER IDRC

Recommendations for IDRC activities relevant to Asia, but not incorporated with the SARO initiated program.

ABBREVIATIONS USED

A.M. ANDREW McNAUGHTON

C.D. C.DEVENDRA

c.s. C.SASTRY

E.R. EGLAL RACHED

M.A. MIRAAGHI

M.Ng MARIA LEE HOON NG

• D.B. DAVID BROOKS

S.B. SOMSAK BOONYAVVIROJ

S.T. STEPHEN TYLER

E.W. EDVVEBEA

LG. LARRY GELMON

P.F. PEDRO FLORES

R.S. RANDY SPENCE

J.G. JOHNGfWiAM

BIS BAIF INSTITUTIONAL. SUPPORT

Page No. 01/15/92

PROJECT NO.

85·0011

87-0048

87-0197

87-0236

87-0263

88-0292

91-0106

86·1043

TITLE

Hi lsa (Bangladesh)

Goats

Mycorrhiza Network (Asia)

Tissue Culture (India)

Irrigated Forestry (Pakistan)

Poplar l~rovement (India)

Regional Forestry Coordinator CAsia)

'Lathyrus l~rovement (India/Ag Canada/Manitoba)

******************************************** 1. SUNSET PROJECTS-

(ON·GOING PROJECTS WHICH WILL TERMINATE.WITHOUT FOLLO\l·UP) *****************************************

AMOUNT COUNTRY DIV. P.O. END OT REMARKS

443500 Bangladesh AFNS A.M. I Dec. 92 Consultant to monitor.

80500 Nepal AFNS c.o. March 93 Monitoring and technical guidance necessary. Given the very weak research base, some technical support is necessary. Final supplement of CADS 100,000 is suggested.

189200 India AFNS c.s. April 92

157600 India AFNS c.s. April 92 Conmercialization possibilities 7

245400 Pakistan AFNS c.s. June 95

264800 India AFNS c.s. May 95

147000 India AFNS ~ c.s. Jan. 96

497400 India/Can AFNS E.R. March 93 In process of extending to March 1993. This is linked to the Lathyrus Network. It would appear from recent correspondence from

Page No. 2 01/15/92

******************************************** 1. SUNSET PROJECTS

(ON·GOING PROJECTS WHICH WILL TERMINATE WITHOUT FOLLOW·UP) *****************************************

PROJECT NO. TITLE AMOUNT COUNTRY DIV. P.O. END DT REMARKS

Clayton Campbell that Lathyrus is gaining momentl.111 with other donors, particularly with EEC. Campbell believes that when this phase is c~leted, there may not be a need for continuat.ion. We may on the other hand ·want to redirect our support to Lathyrus into other directions such as network support/VOPS.

88-1004 Rapessed/Mustard (Ag 538000 India/Can AFNS E.R. March 93 This is on·going, Canada/India) c~leting in March 1993.

Unc:lerspendi ng and could be extending. Crop i~rovement project, which would appear to have low priority in future IDRC. SUNSET (unless something can be done on VOPS).

87-0135 Dn·Farm Sesame Research 160700 India AFNS E.R. Feb. 93 on-going. Cl ndi a)

87-0070 Sesame Research Cindi a) 96900 India AFNS E.R. March 93 Extension requested to March 1993.

Page No. 3 01/15/92

··························~················· 1. SUNSET PROJECTS

(ON-GOING PROJECTS WHICH WILL TERMINATE WITHOUT FOLLOW-UP) *****************************************

PROJECT NO. TITLE AMOUNT COUNTRY DIV. P.O. END OT REMARKS

89-0038 Grain Leg~s (Nepal) 93000 Nepal AFNS E.R. On-going. Classification depends a bit on whether we will have neglected crops in program and whether Nepal's National Grain Legl.llle Program (NGRP) will want to focus on the crop. Presently Lathyrus has little priority in the program despite its i~rtance in . Nepal. This is due first to the preference NARC gives to groundnuts /lentils, and second to the influence of ICRASAT on program. Program weak in coordination, particularly with hill research stations, and in identifying constraints. So, depending, project could be classified as SUNSET or SUNRISE-CONTINUING-OWN PROGRAM.

87-0190 Asian Fisheries Social AFNS J.G. Dec. 92 Sciences Res. Network Ill

.....,

Page No. 4 01/15/92

******************************************** 1. SUNSET PROJECTS

(ON·GOING PROJECTS WHICH WILL TERMINATE WITHOUT FOLLOlol·UP) *****************************************

PROJECT NO. TITLE AMOUNT COUNTRY OIV. P.O. ENO OT REMARKS

88·0116 Farming Systems outreach AFNS J.G. Feb 92 (IRRI) Phase IV

89·0268 Small R1.J11inants Network (Asia) AFNS J.G. Oct. 95

90·0049·01 Rice·Fish Asia Network AFNS J.G. Aug 91 (CLSU·FAC/ICLARM)

90·0049·02 Rice·Fish Asia Network AFNS J.G. Aug 91 (CLSU·FAC/ICLARM)

90·0046 Post Harvest Economics Advisor AFNS J.G. June 92 (Asia) III

90·0117 Rural Diversification (Sri AFNS J.G. Feb 93 Lanka>

90·0238 Goat and Sheep Feeding (India) AFNS J.G. June 84 II

91·0111 Bee Network for Asia (BEENET) AFNS J.G. Nov 95

91·0124 Asian Rice Farming Systems AFNS J.G. Mar. 95 Network (IRRI>

90·0192 Research and Training on 51950 Nepal Conm. M.A. Jan. '93 The project has just Interactive Corm..riication started and would need

monitoring.

90·0147 Srupna Newsletter n450 India Conm. M.A. Nov. 93 Should continue on its

-Page No. 5 01/15/92

******************************************** 1. SUNSET PROJECTS

CON-GOING PROJECTS WHICH WILL TERMINATE WITHOUT FOLLOW-UP) *****************************************

PROJECT NO. TITLE AMOUNT COUNTRY DIV. P.O. END OT REMARKS

own. It belongs to network.

90-0251 Health Education through Child 7460 India Conm. M.A. Feb. 93 Monitoring would be to Family in Rural Maharashtra required.

90·0250 Irrpact of Television 22570 India Conm. M.A. Nov. 92 Routine monitoring after Advertising on the Values, the activity gets Attitudes and Aspirations of started. Children

90·0351 Camunication Jatras for 24015 India Conm. M.A. Sept. 92 Routine monitoring. Women's Sanghams Development

91-0020 Health COITlllJrlication Behaviour 10883 India Conm. M.A; May 92 Routine monitoring. of Rural Women

91-0147 Health Education Through Audio 19400 Sri Lanka Conm. M.A. Routine monitoring. Visual Methods (Project proposal is

under preparation).

91·0217 Participation rate of Tribal 11005 India Conm. M.A. Women in Rural E~loyment and Poverty Alleviation Progranmes

89·0250 Science Popularization Phase 120072 Nepal Conm. M.A. Feb. 94 Would require close II monitoring.

88·0196 Biomass Roofing 165600 India EES A.Gyi Feb. 92 Conmercialization possibilities?

Page No. 6 01/15/92

******************************************** 1. SUNSET PROJECTS

CON·GOING PROJECTS WHICH WILL TERMINATE WITHOUT FOLLOW-UP) *****************************************

PROJECT NO. TITLE AMOUNT COUNTRY DIV. P.O. ENO OT REMARKS

88-0400 Manual Silk Reeling 55000 India EES A.Gyi Sept. 92 Although the project deals with the value-added process of the local resources, there is no indication that the researchers will present a II phase proposal. PCR to be prepared by AG. Supplement· of about CADS 20,000 might be required for organization of workshops, for dissemination of research results. Regular project.

88-0032 Consl.Jller Information Resource 168700 India ISO M. Ng Dec. 93 Centre

89-0225 OEVINSA Phase II 245050 South Asia ISO M. Ng Dec. 92

86-0140 Women's Studies Information 56700 India ISO M. Ng March 91 PCR contracted. Centre

87-0278 ,Training course for 51000 Nepal ISO M. Ng April 91 PCR contracted. para-professional librarians

86-0108 Water S\4)ply and Sanitation 142550 Sri Lanka ISO M. Ng Dec. 90 PCR contracted. Oocl.Jllentation Centre

Page No. 7 01/15/92

PROJECT NO.

88-0303

88-0123

86-0174

86-0318

88-0076

*** Total ***

TITLE

Diarrhoeal Disease Information Service and Ooci.mentation Centre

Energy Use and Air Quality

Instructional Improvement in Primary School Phase II

Extra Instruction, Social Equity & Ed Quality

Resource Allocation, Ethnicity and Education

******************************************** 1. SUNSET PROJECTS

(ON-GOING PROJECTS WHICH WILL TERMINATE WITHOUT FOLLOW-UP) *****************************************

AMOUNT COUNTRY DIV. P.O. END OT REMARKS

132150 Bangladesh ISO M. Ng April 91 PCR contracted.

445130 India sso O.B.

165000 Nepal sso S.B. Finishing - monitor and PCR by SB.

28800 Sri Lanka sso S.B. Finishing - monitor and PCR by SB.

45800 Sri Lanka sso S.B. Finishing - monitor and PCR by SB.

4960285

- -Page No. 01/15/92

2. TRANSITIONAL • PROMISES (Irrevocable Comnitments, not yet appropriated, and no further support intended beyond the comnitment made.

****************************************

PROJECT NO. TITLE AMCXJNT CCXJNTRY PROGRAM P.O. COMNT OT END OT REMARKS

82-0191 Inland Fisheries 150000 Nepal AFNS A.H. March 92 Part of inland aquatic resources program. (Reservoirs).

85-1051-02 Fish Genetics (Asia/Dalhousie) 80000 India AFNS A.H. Dec 95 Mainly PhD training remaining. See Fish Genetics in ASRO transition.

Agroforestry Evaluation India AFNS c.s. With WINROCK.

87·0024 Oilseeds (Nepal) II 250000 Nepal AFNS E.R. Jan 92 It will involve a PCllS approach in the various agro·eco zones, and strengthening of coordination. one useful component deal with substitution of iqx>rted protein supplements by glucosinolate-free rapeseed cake. This woul translate in enchanced income for farmers.

90-0207 Hill Crops (Nepal) II 322235 Nepal AFNS E.R. 1993 On-going. COl11)leting 1993. Good program, largely due to presence of Ken R it ey and influence in strengthening

Page No. 2 01/15/92

PROJECT NO.

91·0205

*** Total ***

TITLE

Risk Management Strategies for Small Fishermen : "Boat Tying" Arrangements and the Role of Fish Merchants as Suppliers of Capital and Credit.

COITllUl'lication Strategies for Sex Workers

AMOUNT

75000

83375

960610

2. TRANSITIONAL • PROMISES (Irrevocable C0111nitments, not yet appropriated, and no further support intended beyond the c0111nitment made.

****************************************

COUNTRY PROGRAM P.O. COMNT OT

Sri Lanka AFNS J.G. 1992

India COl!ln M.A.

END OT

1995

REMARKS

RRA/surveys/coordination Baniya, the Project Leader, is good and dedicated. During E. Rached's last trip to Nepal, heard runours of his transfer, due to political allegiance.

AEP/F I

Phase II required. Lead division HS. COITllUl'lications expert advice required especially in the second phase.

Page No. 01/15/92

PROJECT NO.

90-0191

89-0176

90-0120

*** Total ***

TITLE AMOUNT

Oilseeds Transfer Technology 63740

Information Research Centre on 160350 Climate change

Locale Specific Environmental 139500 Education

363590

3. TRANSITIONAL - DONORS (On-going projects to be handed off to other donors)

****************************************

COUNTRY PROGRAM P.O.

India Coom M.A.

SARO sso S.T.

India SSD s. T.

COMNT OT. END OT

Aug 93

REMARKS

Income generation for farmers through existing cooperative set up by th Central Government. It would get into the syste in all probability.

No research c~nent.

Possible other donor CIOA,

Page No. 01/15/92

PROJECT NO.

91-0230

91-0238

TITLE

Meat Handling Systems Phase II

Goats and Sheep Feeding Phase II

4. SUNRISE - CONTINUING • OWN PROGRAM con-going Projects and Subse(juent Phases which fit the new

SARO Strategy) ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

AMOUNT COUNTRY PROGRAM P.O. COMNT OT

241980 India AFNS

80000 India AFNS C.D.

END OT

June 95

REMARKS

MGC not sent yet. Project has just been approved and remains to be illlJlemented. It is linked to 91-0238 in addressing whole cOlllllOdity systems R&D and fits in well with the concept of INRMU. Close monitoring and technical guidance necessary.

Linkage between the two projects need to be ensured together with preparation for the dissemination activities in year 3. A final supplement of 60,000 CAD is proposed.

Monitoring and technical guidance are envisaged. Project is in good hands with strong leadership. It is linked to the Meat Handling Systems Phase II project in addressing whole cOlllllOdity systems.

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Page No. 2 01/15/92

4. SUNRISE - CONTINUING - OWN PROGRAM (On-going Projects and Subsequent Phases which fit the new

SARO Strategy) ************************************************************

PROJECT NO. TITLE AMOUNT COUNTRY PROGRAM P.O. COMNT OT ENO OT REMARKS

It fits in well with the concept of INRMU. A final supplement of 80,000 CAD is suggested.

86-0234 Fann Forestry (Nepal) Phase II 262000 Nepal AFNS c.s. July 92

87-0170 Paulownia (Pakistan) 178300 Pakistan AFNS c.s. June 93

88-0262 Bamboo/Rattan (Sri Lanka) 178300 Sri Lanka AFNS c.s. Jan. 93 Phase 11

88-0294 Silvipasture Clndla} Phase 11· 455390 India AFNS c.s. June 95

89-0051 Agroforestry (India) 370000 India AFNS c.s. June 96

89-0224 Bamboo Mat Board (India) 145150 India AFNS c.s. June 94

90-0184 Fruit Trees Clndia) 250000 India AFNS c.s. March 95

90-0198 Banboo Cindi a) Phase II 156560 India AFNS c.s. March 95

90-0199 Rattan Cindi a) Phase 11 158220 India AFNS c.s. March 95

85-0263 ~ultipurpose Trees 11 250000 India AFNS c.s. Pipeline 1992-93. A phase II program that could be included in Phase II of 87-0161.

91-0131 Farm Forestry (Nepal) Phase 50000 Nepal AFNS CS/CO 36 months MGC not sent as 111 yet. Project due to be

Page No. 3 01/15/92

--

PROJECT NO. TITLE

91·1042 Mountain Resource Management

Rural Diversification Phase I I

87-0161 BAIF Institutional Support -Upgrading of Frozen Semen Technology and its Transfer for the Development of suffaloes

4. SUNRISE • CONTINUING • OWN PROGRAM (On-going Projec~s and Subsequent Phases which fit the new

SARO Strategy) ************************************************************

AMOUNT COON TRY PROGRAM P.O. COHNT DT

421200 Nepal AFNS E.R. Feb 92

100000 Sri Lanka AFNS J.G. 1993

5000000 India BIS C.D.

END DT

Feb 95

March 93

REMARKS

ifl1)Lemented shortly. This is the first farm forestry project Linked closely to envirorvnental concern as well as development of sustainable agriculture. Animal science is very weak and requires intensive monitoring and technical guidance. Continuing support from program funds of 80,GOO CAD is suggested.

Collaborative project CUBC/ICIMOD).

AEP/SSD.

These progranmes are expected to continue into a phase 11 BAI F Institutional Support Progranme which will have as its thrust dissemination, comnercialization and utilization of research results in consonane with SARO's new strategy and

r-1 ---.,

Page No. 4 01/15/92

4. SUNRISE - CONTINUING_- OWN PROGRAM (On-going Projects and Subsequent Phases which fit the new

SARO Strategy) ************************************************************

PROJECT NO. TITLE AMOUNT COUNTRY PROGRAM P.O. COMNT OT ENO OT REMARKS

focus.

87-0161 BAIF Inst. Support - India BIS c.o. March 93 II

Standardization of Micro-carrier Culture Technique for !""roving Quality & Development of llTfll.Jnobiologicals using Marek's Vaccine

87-0161 BAIF Institutional Support - India BIS c.o. March 93 II

Development of Economic Feeding Systems for Runinants from locally available Agricultural By-products

87-0161 BAIF Institutional Support - India BIS c.s. March 93 II

Development & Standardization of Production Technology for VA Mycorrhiza lnnocula


Development of Mushroom Production Technology


Development of Sericul ture Technology


Collection of Ger""lasm and

Page No. 5 01/15/92

PROJECT NO.

87·0161

87-0161

87·0161

87-0161

87-0161

90-4804

91-4901-41

89·9228

TITLE

Adaptability Study for Bantx>o Species

BAIF Institutional Support -Exploratory Studies and Operations Research on Post Production Technologies

BAIF Institutional Support -COllnlUnity Based Research

BAIF Institutional Support -Information Resource Centre

BAIF Institutional Support -Rural Polytechnic

BAIF Institutional Support -BAIF Management Training Centre

Concept Testing Cl.Ill Market Feasibility Study of Selected Alternative Technology Products

Rural Equipment Package for Envirol'l'llental and Clinical Testing

Bantx>o Mat Board (India)

4. SUNRISE • CONTINUING • OWN PROGRAM (On-going Projects and Subsequent Phases which fit 'the new

SARO Strategy) ************************************************************


India BIS

India BIS L.G.

India BIS M.A.

India BIS · P.f.

India BIS P.F.

12580 India Conm M.A.



END OT

March 93

March 93

March 93

March 93

March 93

Nov 91

act 92

Jan 93

REMARKS

II

II

II

II

II

This is a OAP activity. The new phase is conmercialisation.

This is a OAP activity. Will develop into phase of conmercialization.

Conmercialization.

Page No. 6 01/15/92

PROJECT NO.

90-1045

86-0133

86-0035

85-1035

86-1029

TITLE

Oobby Conmercialization (India)

Oeepwell P~s (India)

Amylase-rich Food CARF)

Food Enterprises

Industrial Waste Treatment Bi ogas Cl ndi a)

Microprocessor Modules for Machine Tool and Process Control Applications Clndia)

4. SUNRISE - CONTINUING - OWN.._PROGRAM (On-going Projects and Subsequent Phases which fit the new

SARO Strategy) ************************************************************

AMOUNT COON TRY PROGRAM P.O. COMNT OT

137007 India Coom M.A.

160000 India Coom M.A.

India Conm M.A.

India Coom M.A.

690170 India EES A.Gyi


END OT

Oct 92

March 90

Apr 90

May 92

Dec 91

REMARKS

Lead division HS. Li cenc i ng and conmercialization being negotiated. Needs close monitoring and follow-up.

Present phase under negotiations. Research result utilization.

Popularization, Conmercialization, Research Results Utilization - Phase under negotiation.

TLEP collaborative project.

There will be a second phase proposal. In addition to the II phase proposal, there will also be an institution building type of proposal as an offshoot of this project. This institution

Page No. 7 01/15/92

PROJECT NO.

88·1022

89·1019

89·1028 .

90·1002

TITLE

Hicroprocessor·based process control for tea drying (Sri Lanka)

llJ1'.)roved Processing Techniques for low grade jute and cuttings (Bangladesh)

Coal Workings (India)

International Small Scale Mining Information System

4. SUNRISE - CONTINUING - OWN PROGRAM COn·going Projects and Subsequent Phases which fit the new

SARO Strategy) ************************************************************

AMOUNT COUNTRY PROGRAM P.O. COHNT OT

3oom Sri Lanka EES A.Gyi

232367 Bangladesh EES A.Gyi



END OT

June 92

Hay 93

Dec 94

REMARKS

building proposal is being developed jointly with COHH at present. CIDA contribution is also expected for the institution building proposal. TLEP collaborative project.

There will be a II phase proposal for process control of other stages of tea manufacturing in a tea factory in Sri Lanka to make the introduction of microprocessor-based process control COIJ1'.>lete in a tea factory. TLEP collaborative project.

There will be a II phase proposal. TLEP collaborative project.

The project deals with studies on coal pollution. ESP collaborative project.

Project developed in collaboration with !SD.

Page No. 8 01/15/92

PROJECT NO.

90-1030

91-0050

91-1005

91-1018

91-1023

TITLE

Fly Ash Cement (India)

Mixed Fibre Processing and Spinning (India)

Sebacic Acid II Phase - India

Conjunctive Use of Water Resources in Deccan Trap (India)

Localization of Gem Deposits -II Phase

_4. SUNRISE - CONTINUING - OWN PROGRAM con-going Projects and Subsequent Phases which fit the new

SARO Strategy) ************************************************************






398376 Sri Lanka EES A.Gyi

END OT

Sept 93

Sept 94

REMARKS

The project to be monitored by ISO. Pending for Govt. ESP collaborative proejct.

Duration of project 30 months. MGC still pending with the Canadian partner. TLEP collaborative project.

TLEP regular project.

TLEP collaborative project.

Duration of project three years. MGC ·still pending. ESP collaborative project.

Duration of project 2 years. MGC still pending. ESP collaborative project. If mineral production is not part of the program under "Water and Mineral Production Program", this project could be one of the

Page No. 9 01/15/92

PROJECT NO.

91-0224

91-0076

91-0070

TITLE

l111>roved processing techniques for low grade jute and cuttings II Phase

Microprocessor-based control for tea drying II phase

Microprocessor·based modules for machine tool and process control applications II Phase

Industrial Waste Treatment Biogas Phase II

Mountain Environmental Management

Mt. Everest National Park

Sustainable Use of Resources

4. SUNRISE - CONTINUING - OWN PROGRAM (On-going Projects and Subsequent Phases which fit the new

SARO Strategy) ************************************************************

AMOUNT COUNTRY PROGRAM P.O. COHNT OT

250000 Bangladesh EES A.Gyi

300000 Sri Lanka EES A.Gyi



500000 Nepal SS/AFN D.B. Q31992

341170 Nep/Tibet SSD D.B. 91/92

136840 India SSD D.B.

END OT REMARKS

Sunset projects.

It will add valµe to local resources. Will be a collaborative project.

It deals with the applications of C0111>Uter to the traditional industries. It will also add value to the local resources. Will be a collaborative projeLt.

Same category as above. Will be a collaborative project.

It deals with the waste management and protection of the environment. Will be a collaborative project.

ICIMOD : Nepal [Plus organizations in five inenDer countries].

Approved in October 1991.

r ,,-. r·.

Page No. 10 01/15/92

4. SUNRISE • CONTINUING · OWN PROGRAM (On-going Projects and Subsequent Phases which fit the new

SARO Strategy) ************************************************************

PROJECT NO. TITLE AMOUNT COUNTRY PROGRAM P.O. COMNT OT END OT REMARKS

·Jhabua

Economic Liberalization 350000 s. Asia SSD R.S May 94 Network S. Asia

Economic Policy - India and Asia SSD R.S. Feb 92 • (included as may lead to East Asia more/larger) IGIDR.

89-0310 Poverty Alleviation Programs 25000 India SSD R.S. March 92 89/90 Late start. Monitoring & and Macro Policies - India PCR by WRS · Links to

Bihar project - S25 is supp.

89-0311 Interest Rate and Flow of 36600 Nepal SSD .R.S. 89/90 Nearing c01Tpletion • Funds (Nepal> monitoring & PCR by WRS.

Macro-economic Policy Reform 200000 Nepal SSD R.S. April 93 May be subsuned in SARO (Nepal) or SARO/ASRO network.

MIMAP Research Network Asia SSD R.S. May 94 Estimated total $ 400 put in ASRO list.

88·0250 Rural Industrialization in 72000 Tha,Mal,SL SSD R.S. Sept 88 Almost done • monitoring Asia & PCR by WRS.

Rural Enterprise Development ASRO,SARO SSD R.S. May 94 Possible global program Asia Network also • est. total s 300

put in ASRO list.

90·0055 Women and Social Forestry 40000 India SSD S.T. Jan 91

Page No. 11 01/15/92

PROJECT NO.

*** Total ***

TITLE

Rural Mountain Off-Farm Errployment (Phase II)

Poverty and Environment, Bihar

4. SUNRISE · CONTINUING · OWN PROGRAM (On-going Projects and Subsequent Phases which fit the new

SARO Strategy) ************************************************************


300000 I/Pk/Np/Ch sso s. T. 92/93

100000 India sso s. T. March 92

15267037

END OT REMARKS

~ith Env. policy and possibly Soc. policy. Est. total S 250.

r- "'"'\ '"" ~ ~ --- ---.., -..., "'"'\

-----...., '

Page No. 01/15/92

5. SUNRISE - CONTINUING - OTHER PROGRAMS On-going projects & subsequent phases which fit the new SARO

strategy but cannot be maintained in new SARO **********************************************

PROJECT NO. TITLE AMOUNT COUNTRY PROGRAM P.O. COMNT DT END DT REMARKS

Karnali River Development 500000 Nepal AFNS A.M.

Reservoir Systems 500000 Sri Lanka AFNS A.M.

Reservoir Systems 200000 India AFNS A.M.

Aquatic Resources Development 300000 Bhutan AFNS A.M.

Draught Animal Power 60000 Pakistan AFNS C.D. Subject matter is high priority in Pakistan and runs parallel to 90-0323 since Phase I is essentially diagnostic, a final supplement of 60,000 CAD is proposed in Phase II. Will require monitoring and technical guidance. MGC not yet sent. Project Duration 12 months.

Asian Fisheries Social 400000 Asia AFNS J.G. 1993 ENV/Fl/SSD Sciences Research Network (AFSSRN) Phase IV

Fisheries Economics 30DOOO Asia AFNS J.G. 1995 ENV/SSD/FI (SFU/AFSSRN) Phase II

Socio-economic aspects of AFNS J.G. Idea. technology development or

,, "·.··::··

Page No. 2 01/15/92

5. SUNRISE - CONTINUING • OTHER PROGRAMS On-going projects & subsequent phases which fit the new SARO

strategy but camot be maintained in new SARO **********************************************

PROJECT NO. TITLE AMOUNT COUNTRY PROGRAM P.O. COMNT DT END DT REMARKS

iq>rovement in the new integrated production program of NRD

Research on technology AFNS J.G. Idea. introduction, adoption and adaption practices and utilization by farmers.

lq>act Assessment Work AFNS J.G. Idea.

Resources allocation in AFNS J.G. Idea. agricultural research - the payoffs to research and ways of making research programs more effective CS&T Policy)

Several iq>ortant coq:>e>nents AFNS J.G. Idea. (Excluding of agricultural pol icy marketing and trade research. policy and resource

economics policy issues).

90-0314 Access to Information 51170 India ISO M.Ng

89-0098 Village Information Centres 127240 India ISO M.Ng

89-0024 Lahore business and economics 75700 Pakistan ISO M.Ng Second phase planned for libraries network 93/94 • 300 IC.

89-0069 Health literature, library 77870 Sri Lanka ISO M.Ng information service CHELLIS)

'\';.

Page No. 3 01/15/92

PROJECT NO.

88·0280

90-0155

91-0235

*** Total ***

TITLE

MINISIS Resource Centre

Market Research on Utilization of Management Information -India

Monitoring adjustment and poverty

AMOUNT

174340

300000

186930

3253250

5. SUNRISE - CONTINUING - OTHER PROGRAMS On-going projects & subsequent phases which fit the new SARO

strategy but cannot be maintained in new SARO **********************************************

COUNTRY PROGRAM P.O. COMNT OT

India ISO M.Ng

India ISO M.Ng

Bangladesh ISO* M.Ng

END OT REMARKS

Extension and second phase planned. (92/93) -150-200K.

l~lementation preject planned for 92/93 -300,000 CAD.

* This is an EPP/ISO/Nutrition collaborative project. Lead Division is EPP/SSO. Other participating agency - CIDA.

Page No. 01/15/92

6. SUNRISE • NEW • SARO (SINGLE/MULTI PROGRAM) (Activities you want included in the SARO·initiated program

regardless of who occupies the positions) ****************************************************

PROJECT NO. TITLE AMOUNT COUNTRY PROGRAM P.O. COMNT. OT END OT REMARKS

Neem Pesticides Asia AFNS c.s. With ADB/FAO collaboration.

Medicinal Plants Asia AFNS c.s.

Timber Utilization Asia AFNS c.s.

Mangrove/Coastal Systems India AFNS c.s.

Banboo/Rattan Network Asia AFNS c.s. Global initiative with nulti·donor support.

Rural Diversification 200000 Asia AFNS J.G. AEP/SSD. Strategies • Employment and Income Opportunities in Value-Added idustries • Policies and Program Opportunities.

Agricultural Trade Policies of 200000 Asia AFNS J.G. AEP/SSD. Asian Countries and their Coq:>atibility with GATT Rules

Post Harvest Economics Advisor 200000 Asia AFNS J.G. 1992 AEP/PPS. Phase IV

ASEAN Grains Postharvest 300000 Asia AFNS J.G. 1993 Program CAGPP)

Secondary Forest Products 100000 Asia AFNS J.G. AEP/FOR.

Page No. 2 01/15/92

PROJECT NO. TITLE

Utilization and Marketing Systems

Asian Forestry Social Science Research Network

Land Use and Grazing Management Systems • Overstocking and Resource Depletion associated with Conmon Property Resources.

Water Resource Management Systems and Alternatives in the Mekong River Delta.

Training Scheme for Connunication Researchers at Mass Connunication Research Centre

Slaughter House Conmercialization

Transfer of the Amylase-rich Food (ARF) Technology to Pediatricians, Nutritionists, ICDS and other MCD Program Managers in India and neighbouring Countries

AMOUNT

300000

200000

200000

56000

126000

6. SUNRISE • NEW • SARO (SINGLE/MULTI PROGRAM) (Activities you want included in the SARO-initiated program


COUNTRY PROGRAM P.O. COMNT. DT

Asia AFNS J.G.

Asia * AFNS J.G.

AFNS

India Cornn M.A. 1992



END DT REMARKS

FOR/SSD/ENV/AEP.

* India, Pakistan, Philippines, Eastern Islands of Indonesia andNorthern China.

AEP/CPS.

Vietnam/I RR I.

AEP/CPS/ENV/SSD.

Page No. 3 01/15/92

PROJECT NO. TITLE

Popularization of Sorgh1111

Experiment in Dissemination of Family Related Knowledge though COlllllJl"lications Technology

Castor Dil Based Foams

Development of insecticides and repellents from nature~ resources

Ta1V1ery Wastes • India

Toxic Waste Management • India

AMOUNT

68200

43000

200000

250000

300000

210000




India Coom M.A. 1992

India Coom M.A. 1992

India EES A.Gyi

Sri Lanka EES A.Gyi

India EES A.Gyi

India EES A.Gyi

END DT REMARKS

It will add value to the local resources. Regular project.

It will add value to the local resources. Will be a collaborative project.

It deals with the waste management and protection of the envirorvnent. Will be a collaborative project.

It deals with the developnent of waste management workbook/seminar package to train the industrial personnel. The proposal came from the Canadian institution.

Page No. 4 01/15/92

PROJECT NO. TITLE

Institute of Mechatronics -India

Work Environment l~rovement in Agate Industry - India

Geuda Heat Treatment - Sri Lanka

Study of Flood Sediments -Bangladesh

AMOUNT

500000

200000

250000

300000

6. SUNRISE - NEW - SARO (SINGLE/MULTI PROGRAM) (Activities you want included in the SARO-initiated program


COUNTRY PROGRAM P.O. COMNT. OT

India EES A.Gyi

India EES A.Gyi

Sri Lanka EES A.Gyi

Bangladesh EES A.Gyi

END OT REMARKS

It is an offshoot proposal of microprocessor-based modules for machine tool project. It is an istitution-building type of project. It is being developed jointly with Connunications. CIDA funding is being sought at present.

It deals with environment i~rovement. HSD is being consulted.

It is a local resources value-added project. Will be a collaborative project. OAP funds were already used for the socio-economic study and for the travel of Sri Lankan researcher to Canada. It will be ready for funding before March 1992.

It will deal with floods, river bank erosion and

Page No. 5 01/15/92

PROJECT NO. TITLE

Soil Erosion - Nepal

Water Management in Lower Tandava River Basin

Natural Springs - India

Dholka Wasteland Development -India

Conj~tive use of Surface and Gr~ Water Research in Bihar State

Conj~tive use of Surface and GrOl.l'ldwater Resources in Rural Areas in a given Watershed

Urban Water Resources Management including Pollution Studies, Waste Management Studies and Remedial Measures Development

Studies of Soil Erosion,

AMOUNT

250000

250000

150000

250000

300000




Nepal EES A.Gyi

India EES A.Gyi

India EES A.Gyi

India EES A.Gyi

India EES A.Gyi

India EES A.Gyi

EES A.Gyi

EES A.Gyi

END DT REMARKS

sedimentation. Will be a collaborative project.

Will be a collaborative project.

Will be a regular project.



Will be a collaborative project.

Idea. Will include the integration of water management with the land use management.

Idea.

Idea.

Page No. 6 01/15/92

PROJECT NO. TITLE

Floods, Landslides, Riverbank Erosion, Sedimentation in Selected Basins with reference to lirpact on Environment & Development

Full-text database of legal statutes, judgements - India

Connunity Development Library (COL) - Bangladesh

Information needs to support the roles of NGOs and POs in the Janasaviya Progranme - Sri Lanka

Janasaviya Trust Fund - Sri Lanka

Lahore University of Management Sciences' Business Research Centre/ Program Pakistan

Oecentral ized Plaming Management Information System - Sri Lanka

Shamsul Islam Khan's post-project award -

AMOUNT

400000

100000

50000

350000

400000

300000

60000

6. SUNRISE • NEW - SARO (SINGLE/MULTI PROGRAM) (Activities you want included in the SARO-initiated program



India ISO M.Ng

Bangladesh ISO M.Ng

Sri Lanka ISO M.Ng 92-93

Sri Lanka ISO M.Ng 93-94

Pakistan ISO M.Ng

Sri Lanka ISO M.Ng

Bangladesh ISO M.Ng

ENO OT REMARKS

Continuous with above mentioned activity.

Page No. 7 01/15/92



PROJECT NO. TITLE AMOUNT COUNTRY PROGRAM P.O. COMNT. DT END DT REMARKS

Bangladesh

Institute for Library R&o - 25000 Bangladesh !SD M.Ng Bangladesh

Democracy and Development 40000 South Asia !SD M.Ng 1992-92 Initial consult1ncy Relationship between assistance to define Information issues. Institutions/Issues and Democratic Development

Child Relief and You: 75000 India !SD M.Ng 92/93 To be developed jointly Educational Materials - India with SSD.

Information Technology 300000 South Asia !SD M.Ng 92/93 (On a yearly basis). Partnerships

Informatics Training - 100000 Bangladesh !SD M.Ng 92/93 Bangladesh

Interaction between People and SSD D.B. Program idea. Nature Reserves

Environnental Education SSD D.B. Program idea.

Econometric Model 150000 Bangladesh SSD R.S.

Econometric Model 150000 Sri Lanka SSD R.S.

CSCD/SAARC South Asia Regional 100000 S. Asia SSD R.S. Policy/Integration

--, _,(·.···

Page No. 01/15/92

PROJECT NO.

8

TITLE

s&T Policies - India

R&D Incentives

Economics of Health and Nutrition - India

Health Systems Planning Methodology

Education systems planning methodology

Stabilization Policy Network

Trede Policy & Regional Trading Blocks

Household and COllllU'li ty Monitoring Systems

AMOONT

200000

250000

75000

200000

200000

300000

300000

5DOODO




India SSD R.S.

Asia SSD R.S.

India SSD R.S.

Asia SSD R.S.

Asia SSD R.S.

Asia SSD R.S.

Asia SSD R.S.

Asia SSD R.S.

END DT

'.,.~ ' . ".', .

REMARKS

Could be research systems dev program - Could be global program ...

With HS and Nutrition. Good pilot idea, but proposal poor after RXJCh work.

With HS program. Could be global. Estimated ETTP $100 put in ASRO List.

With Social Policy Program - Could be global - Estimated ETTP S 1000 put in ASRO list.

Could be global.

Could be global - With Soc. Pol, Nutrition, ISS. Estimated ETTP s 150000 put in ASRO list.

Page No. 9 01/15/92

PROJECT NO. TITLE

Agricultural Price Policy Reform - China, Indochina

Rural Diversification Strategies - E~loyment and Income Opportunities in Value Added Industries

Agricultural Trade Policies in Asia/GATT

Management of Natural Disasters

Social and Natural Resource Use

Urban Transportation/Pollution Network

Development & Displacement -Orissa

AMOUNT

100000

-- . ---

6. SUNRISE • NEW - SARO (SINGLE/MULTI PROGRAM) <Activities you want included in the SARO-initiated program

regardless of who occupies the positions> ****************************************************


Asia SSD R.S.

Asia SSD R.S.

Asia SSD R.S.

Sri Lanka SSD S.T.

India SSD S.T.

India SSD S.T.

India SSD S.T.

END OT REMARKS

Trans & Marketing initiative. ETTP collaboration. See TM file for start year and cost.

Trans and Marketing initiative. ETTP collaboration - See TM f I le for start year and cost.

Trans & Marketing initiative • ETTP collaboration - See TM file for start year and cost.

Page No. 10 01/15/92

PROJECT NO.

*** Total ***

TITLE

Connunity·Basecl Coastal Resources Management

Regional Network on Social Forestry

AMOUNT

10128200


regardless of who occupies the positions> ****************************************************


India SSD S.T.

SARO/ASRO SSD S.T.

END OT REMARKS

Page No. 01/15/92

PROJECT NO. TITLE

Biodiversity

Natural Forest Conservation

Innovative C~nent Technologies (eg. Biotechnology)

The demands on Business, Industry encl the Public: Sector

AMOONT

7. SUNRISE - NEW - GLOBAL/OTHER IORC Rec:onmendations for IORC activities relevant to Asia, but

not incorporated with the SARO initiated program **************************************


Asia AFNS c.s.

Asia AFNS c.s.

Asia AFNS c.s.

ISO M.Ng

ENO OT REMARKS

Could be global

Jointly with CIFOR (New -- Centre).

Jointly with Canadian institutions.

Customized information proc:fuc:ts using new technologies (eg. nulti-media, hypermedia, CO-ROM, etc) ie. Executive Information Systems CEIS) which requires the ability to identify information needs, bring together internal encl external data encl package the information in a usable encl useful format.

Information encl a corporate resource. Information management solutions - knowledge will be increasingly

Page No. 2 01/15/92

PROJECT NO. TITLE

On-line Information Service

Electronic Data Interchange (EDI> Services

AMOUNT

7. SUNRISE - NEW · GLOBAL/OTHER IDRC Reconmendations for IDRC activities relevant to Asia, but


COUNTRY PROGRAM P.O. CCl4NT. OT

ISO M.Ng

ISO M.Ng

END OT REMARKS

utilized to give an organization differential advantage over the coq>etition. Such knowledge is hard to identify and harder'Stil l to deploy effectively. But a well·trainecl information professional will be capable of finding it and exploiting it to achieve new heights in business performance.

This provides global leads and extensive information coverage of COl.l"ltry profiles, trade statistics, developments in local overseas markets, global business opportunities, overseas market information, trading procedures and international business news.

To facilitate the access, retrieval and transmission of data for business transactiona -

Page No. 3 01/15/92

PROJECT NO. TITLE AMOUNT

7. SUNRISE • NEW· GLOBAL/OTHER IDRC RecOITlllendations for IDRC activities relevant to Asia, but



..... -

END OT REMARKS

TRADENET, PORTNET, LAllNET, HEDINET, AUTONET. These services are used primarily by the COlllTUl'1 i ty to speed up applications and business transactions, they ltso offer information databases which can be assessed by some libraries. Identifying standard formats to electronically exchange comnercial data. These become very il!l)Ortant issues not only for ASRO but for the SARO countries, in particular, India, as they open up their economies and venture into free trade systems, and in relation to the structural adjustment that rrust be made,

TRADENET

Serves the international trading cormuni ty and allows for the electronic

Page No. 4 01/15/92

PROJECT NO. TITLE AMOONT

7. SUNRISE • NEW • GLOBAL/OTHER IDRC Recomnendations for IDRC activities relevant to Asia, but


COON TRY PROGRAM P.O. COMNT. OT END OT REMARKS

sul::mission ard processing of irrport, export ard transhipnent doci.rnents.

PORTNET :

Allows shipping agents, freight forwarders, transport c~nies, shippers, consignees ard other port users to electronically sul::mit their shipping docl.6llents to the port ard to have real time access to its information database for vessel, cargo, container ard shipping details.

MEDINET :

Links hospitals, goverl'Yllent clinics, goverl'Yllent departments, private clinics, insurance COllp&nies, medical libraries ard medical supply houses through the network.

Page No. 5 01/15/92

PROJECT NO. TITLE AMOUNT

7. SUNRISE - NEW - GLOBAL/OTHER IDRC Reconmendations for IDRC activities relevant to Asia, but


COUNTRY PROGRAM P.O. COMNT. OT END OT REMARKS

TECHNET :

Computer network of~ scientists and researchers to exchange ideas and information, get second opinion, submit journal articles for review, exchange pictures and diagrams, connunicate with scientists abroad -connection with INTERNET.

INTERNET :

A global scientific network connected to more than 2,000 networks around the world.

Electronic networks linking universities and both private and public sector research organizations play a major role in developed C<X.l'ltries.

Page No. 6 01/15/92

PROJECT NO.

91·0139

*** Total ***

... -.....

TITLE

Pre·school Education for Better Nutrition

Global Environmental Negotiations • Support for Regional Research end Policy Responses

International Trade Policy end Envirorvnent Linkages

AMOUNT

175000

175000

7. SUNRISE · NEW · GLOBAL/OTHER IDRC Recamiendetions for IDRC activities relevant to Asia, but



Nepal SSD S.B. 1991

ENV·HQ SSD S.T. 92/'13

SSD S.T. . '13/94

END DT REMARKS

Idea only.

ADDENDUM TO CHAPTER V

As inputs were received from POs after the documentation for SARO's meeting had been finalized, their views on classification of projects for which they are responsible are given as an addendum.

Page No. 01/15/92

PROJECT HO.

87-0092

88-0052

85-0282

TITLE

Moten in Handpu1p Technology -Phase II

Co11unity Participation in PHC - Phase II

Drug Survey

A KOU HT

************************************* 1. SUNSET PROJECTS

(OH-GOIHG PROJECTS MHICH MILL TERHIHATE MITHOUT FOLLOM-UP) ***************************************

COUNTRY PROGRAH P.O. COHHT OT EHD OT RE KAR KS

Sri Lanka HSD L.K.M Dec 92 Joint funding with CIDA.

Sri Lanka HSD L.K.M Sept 91

Sri Lanka HSD l.K.H Sept 91

PRO:JB:'J' !I) ..NOm DIV P.O. EJIDDT

90-0023 Weaning Practices 30,040 India NU pp JUN 92 {3)

87-0036 Inf ants 1-'oods 208,400 " " ti Feb 91 (5)*

86-0035 Food Enterprises 285,200 II " " Jul 92 (5)**

89-0111 Nutrition fl:l. for 243,500 II NU/FMJ/ PP/Mira Nov 92 (4)*** Young W:lnen COMM

90-0004 Nutrition in Urban 317,550 II NU/HSD/ PP/JC/SB Jul 94 (4} Slums SSD/FAD -! I

I

90-0156 Nutrition Surveilla:::::e 204,000 " NU/IS PP/FRY M3C not signed yet (6}

91-0046 Vitamin A Orissa 91,479 " NU/HSD PP/JC (6)

Eoonan.:i.cs of Heal ti= 150,000 " NU/SSD PP/RS (6) & Nutrition

DMR Netv.urk

NOO's in Nutrition & Health Delivery

Food SUpply in Draught 120,000 Areas {Rajasthan}

canadian rollaborative project (M::Gill Univ)

* Phase II under consideration

** Phase II under consideration

*** Phase II carrni.tted

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Global

India, s Lanka, Nepal, B'desh

India

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1NTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH CENTRE

IDRC CRDI :~L.J ~~

CENTRE DE RECHERCHES POUR LE DEVELOPMENT INTERNATIONAL

To:

From:

(, A N A 0 A

REGIONAL OFFICE FOR EASTERN AND SOUTll ERN AFRICA

MEMORANOllM

VIJAY PANDE ~~ A. L. GELMON ~ ek--.--

D t January 10, 1992 a e:

Subject: Categorization of HSD Projects in SARO Region

Thank you for your E-Mail of January 8, clarifying the categories into which you would like me to divide the on-going and pipelined HSD projects in SARO.

I must confess that I am having a little difficulty with this, mainly because I am unsure what you mean by the "New SARO Strategy". Is the "new" SARO strategy that which we have been discussing for the past few years, centering around activities in Eastern India and Nepa] , and including input from all IDRC Divisions, or is it someLhing LhaL has only developed in the past few months, focussed exclusively on the four program positions which SARO has been allotted, and therefore not including Health issues? (And as a side note, have either of these strategies, if there are indeed two of them, been approved by the President or Board of Governors? I was under the impression that the Regional Strategy Process was still ongoing, or has that been derailed by this year's reorganization?). (I would also guess that you, like us in EARO, have been awaiting answers to many of these questions).

In any case, I don't think it makes much difference as far as the Health Sciences Division ls concerned. The HSD program in SARO has been run from outside the region since October 1989 by PO's in Ottawa, Nairobi, and Singapore, and I presume that this arrangement will continue, since none of the four designated PO profiles for SARO will be positions for which an expertise (or interest) in Health-related issues is a requirement.

As well, unless there have been recent developements in Ottawa of which I am unaware, it seems that at least for the next year or two, Lhe Heal th Sciences Division wi 11 continue to work through the three Programs into which it was reorganised in 1987 (with perhaps the addition of Nutrition). The implication of this is that almost all of the projects approved in SARO since 1988 fit the "new" HSD strategy, and could be considered to be "sunrise" proj_ects, with hoped-for Phase II's, etc.

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P.O. Box 62084, Nairobi, Kenya. Telephone 330850, Cable: RECENTRE. Telex: 23062

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International Development Research Centre

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Whether or not this strategy is congruent to the new SARO strategy is something that I hope to learn when we meet later this month. At the same time, I would also hope to learn more about the relationship between Regional-based and Ottawa-based staff in the "new" IDRC, a subject that has certainly not been explained to us yet in EARO, and one which will have a bearing on most of the above.

So, on the following pages, I have listed projects which are (as far as I know) still open files, and have divided them into "Sunset" projects (your category #1), and "Sunrise continuing" (your categories 4/5). As far as I know, no HSD projects in SARO are being transferred to other donors. Regarding your categories 6/7, I have provided a partial list of proposals in the HSD pipeline which we hope will become projects. A complete printout is available from HSD Ottawa.

I am copying thii to HSD Ottawa and Lee Kam Wing in ASRO, and they may send you some revisions. I hope this is helpful.

Looking forward to seeing you, and best regards.

cc. K. Smith, G. Forget, D. Pedersen, A. Stark, Lee Kam Wing

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1. SUNSET PROJECTS

85-0094 81-0145 83-0303 85-0052 86-1002 86-0133 88-0333 85-0282 85-0290 86-0067 86-0061 87-0092

HSD PROJECTS IN SARO

Prevention of malnutrition (B. Desh) Tuberculosis (India) Pneumoconiosis (India) Rice Husk Filters (India) Coal-based sorbents (India) Deep Well Pumps (India) Mental Health U.P. (India) Drug Survey (Sri Lanka) Poison Information Service (Sri Lanka) Weaning Practices (Sri Lanka) Helminthiasis (Sri Lanka) Women and Handpumps (Sri Lanka)

2. SUNRISE (CONTINUING) PROJECTS

Desh)

(India)

(India)

90-0082 91-0059 91-0154

91-0157 87-0161 88-0295

89-0041 89-0227 90-0004 90-0083 90-0149 90-0235 91-0046 91-01!'7

91-0205 86-0125 88-0052 88-0212 88-0246 88-0344 89-0150

Environment & Mortality (B. Desh) Developing research capabilities ( B. De sh) Credit, empowerment, and faro.planning (B.

Malaria control (B. Desh) BAIF (India)

lmprovcmcnL of Fam. welfare services

Anticonceptive vaccine Ph. IV (India) Iodine Deficiency (India) Urban nutrition (India) Comm. based mental health (India) Tuberculosis control (India) InfanL mortaliLy in S. Kanara (India) Vitamin A suppleme'nts in Orissa (India)

Women in the Heal th Deli very System

Comm. strategies for Sex Workers (India) Health Sciences Resea~ch (Sri Lanka) Comm. partic. in MCH Ph II (Sri Lanka) Malaria Control (Nepal) Corneal Infections PH II (Nepal) Promotion of Rural Hygiene (Nepal) ARI (Nepal)

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3. SUNRISE (NEW) - HSD SARO PIPELINE

Desh)

1730-C 2097-S

2230-C 1493-S 1571-C 1813-C 1932-S 2149-E 2231-C 2225-E 2284-S 2300-S 2264-C 2338-E 2297-S 1742-E

Heal th impact of family planning ( B. De sh) Socioeconomic dev. for target people (B.

Integrated community health (B. Desh) Indigenous health in S. India (India)

Psychosocial study of Child health (India) Determinants of infant mortality (India)

Economics of nutrition and Health (India) Environment and periurban health (India) Food security (India) Fluorosis in Gujarat (India) Morbidity profile in Bihar (India) Field model for comm health care (India) Leprosy control (India) Groundwater contamination (India) HSR Phase II (Sri Lanka) Occupational health survey (Nepal)

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~ING RELATIOOS BETWEEN RM, DD AND RPO AND BETWEEN RPO AND OITAWA-BASED FO

November 29, 1991 R Spence/AM::N

1. There are many elements of working relations (including hiring, reporting, appraisal, consultation, collaboration, resource allocation) for which some decisions have been announced, but many details are as yet unspecified. The following paragraphs look fi~st at the nature of relations in the new IDRC, after the transition period, and then at related transition issues. The general starting point is that the RO will be irore nearly a programning unit, under the direction of the RM, and the RM will in turn be responsible to the Management Group (DDs and President) .

2. Several views are possible of the fonnal and infonnal working relationships after transition. These views would appear to differ primarily around the degree of separation of RO (regional) and HO (global) progranming. The following view is put fonmrd for purposes of discussion and improvement. It embodies the view that, while a considerable degree of fonnal separation of responsibilities is important to the workability of the future IDRC, much of the Centre's strength could be lost if mechanisms are not developed to enable a high degree of interaction on technical and program matters. It is also felt that, for officers to be both effective and entrepreneurial, the interaction 'arrong all POs and managers will need to be irore vigoro~ and substantial than in the past.

Fonnally, the RPO is hired by the RM, reports to the RM and has his/her perfonnance appraised by the RM. While the RM may have formal responsibility for hiring RPOs, the RMs ultimate responsibility to .Management Group (HJ) means that consultation on hiring would in practice be undertaken. MJre specifically, the RM \\O.lld consult with the appropriate DD and AD for the position being filled. After hiring, however, the RPO reports first and foreroost to the RM. Similarly, on matters of regional progranming, the RM reports to HJ as a whole rather than to incii vidual DDs .

The RPO participates, under the direction of the RM, in the developnent and carrying out of the Regional Strategy and Program (RSP). This has two components. First are the activities initiated by the RPOs - for ease of reference called the Regional Office Program (ROP). The size of the ROP is based on a guideline allocation (eg $1-1.5 million) per RPO. Second are the activities, in the region, initiated by Ottawa-based POs (OBPOs) and/or ADs -

dubbed the Regional Global Program (RGP).

It has been said that Ottawa will focus mainly in future on "global" programs. This will need clarification over time. For present purposes, sane global programs may be thought of as nt5t anchored in any country(s) or region(s); developing a methodology or abstract system, for example. Many, hO'wever, are likely to be activities whkh are country prototypes or country cases or country network elements of global programs (definitions and examples needing irore elaboration) . It is suggested that these be identified by country/region, wherever possible, and canprise the RGP for each region.

The RM would be responsible for assembling the ROP and RGP, integrating them into a RSP and subnitting it to M3 on an annual basis. The "project" part of the RSP 'WOUld be a two-year fonmrd pipeline. The ROP and RGP canponents 'WOUld be expected to be at least consistent, and in places ccmplementary. For this to happen, there would need to be robust ongoing camunication between RPOs and Ottawa-based POs (OBPOs)/ADs on the,activities being developed by each - on both program (appropriateness) and technical (soundness) issues.

In tenns of fonnalities, OBPOs would not develop country/r89ion-specific projects (only those clearly connected to global issues/programs); otherwise,

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regional strategic choices and program priorities have no meaning. (This is equally applicable to OBPOs in Programs which ARE represented in a RO and those in Programs which are NOT represented). Similarly, RPOs 1;o0uld not develop global programs.

RPOs 1;o0uld nevertheless be expected to assist their Ottawa-based colleagues in developing global programs, or region/country aspects of global programs, up to the limit of the time/effort needed to meet their responsibilities to the RM for Regional Program development and implementation. ADs and OBPOs "WOUld similarly be expected to assist their RPO colleagues in developing regional/country projects/programs, particularly in tenns of technical input, and again up to the limit of the time/effort available; when these projects/programs came to H3, the assessments of ADs and DDs "WOUld in any case be needed.

Several kinds of mechanisms could be considered to facilitate the camunication, collaboration and program consistency suggested above. It "-0\lld appear essential, for example, to develop a continually updated and easily accessible infonnation system containing ongoing and planned (2-year forward) RO-initiated projects, together with HO-initiated projects (with regional/country components identified wherever possible}. Secondly, it may be important for ROs to develop means to liaise regularly with all HO

. Programs, not just those represented in the RO, and for HO Programs/Divisions to identify persons/places which focus on each region.

Another important mechanism is related to the "entrepreneurial officer." RMs and RPOs YOUld seek to interest and convince DDs, ADs and OBPOs of the merits of their regional activities and generate interest in important regional aspects of global issues. OBPOs and ADs, in particular, 1;o0uld draw on regional perspectives/issues in development of global programs and advocate the inclusion of issues in RGPs. Within approximate ROP and Division/Program budget guidelines (and fran outside sources) , there 1;o0uld be canpeti tion for funds. While formal lines of authority YOUld usefully be clear, this canpetition "WOUld help generate energetic and vigorous interaction at ~11 levels. What other mechanisms may be needed?

On particular aspect of this interaction, ASRO POs have raised the issue of the extent to which Programs not represented in the RO should advocate regional projects which are outside the RO program structure, but are seen as highly important to the development of the region. This needs discussion. On one side, the Centre/RO cannot cover everything, strategic choices are being made, and failing to stick to them will leave us all over the map again/still. On the other, some argue that strategic choices ~re made largely due to resource constraints and exclude important regional issues. Can coherence be achieved without excluding important issues?

3. It is possible to envisage a greater separation of RO and HO activities - RO does regional programs, HO does global programs, and the twain shall meet only at Management Group. This concept is simpler in many ways , but loses the strengths of collaboration and the coherence and consistency of programs. For these reasons, it looks highly undesirable. Are there other basic IOOdels which should be considered?

4. During the transition period - some 2 years - there will be special concerns regarding 1;o0rking relationships. On one hand, the new relationships ( eg as sketched above) will take effect (mainly) for sunrise activities. On the other, there will be a large set of sunset and transitional activities, to be managed by RPOs , OBPOs , their managers and others (consultants, transitional contract personnel ... addressed elsewhere on the ASRO Meeting agenda) . Some special aspects of relations arrong these groups are suggested as follows.

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An important initial step is a full listing and categorization of activities. ASRO RPOs felt that the initial judgements on categories should be made by those closest to the activities, and hence the lists according to 7 transitional and sunrise categories . It is suggested that Ottawa-administered projects in the region be similarly listed and categorized.

There appears then to be a need then for a first thorough review of the lists by ROs and HO Divisions/Programs to identify/narrow the sunrise category -what may actually survive given projected resource availability; this review will nnve some activities back into transitional and sunset categories. It may also nnve some activities up into sunrise categories (relegated by HO but picked up by RO, and vice versa) . Within the RO, it is suggested ·that the review be finalized by meetings of all RPOs and the RM.

Decisions \\OUld then be needed on (minimum) anounts of new nnney needed in the transition period for sunset and transitional activities (supplements, DAPS, project appropriations) . F.qually importantly, decisions 'WOUld be needed on what mechanism to use for the nnnitoring, canpletion (PCR) and/or handing off to other donors of ALL ongoing and transitional activities . It is suggested that these recamiendations be made by the RO on the funding and handling requirements for sunset and transitional activities - in the context of mechanisms actually available (extended tenllS or term-contracting

. of some POs , consultants, devolution to clients , assignment to remaining RPOs and OBPOs etc) . A parallel process \\OUld be needed for the RO to recamiend those sunrise activities for the ROP and RGP, together with projected appropriations and Program responsibilities.

At this point, intensive camrunication/interaction is needed between those relinquishing responsibilities, and those taking them on. This also applies to sunrise activities nnving into new Programs. MJch of this interaction will necessarily be ad hoc. The recent A.SRO project/activities review was an important first step within ASRO, and may need to be done within and annng other RO and HO units.

5. Out of these processes needs to come, in fairly short order, a listing of sunset, transitional and sunrise activities, and a clear indication of how /where/by whan each is to be handled. '!ID characteristics of the processes seem critical: openness and lack of bureaucratic behaviour in the interactions am:>ng individuals; and a watchful patience on the part of Management Group to ensure that specific requirements are elucidated at the appropriate levels prior to M3 making broader and nnre generic/policy decisions.

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UI I lDRC-SARO ORGANISATION STRUCTURE

RRi~~uen

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"Hr RE~P~ A ~HlC ~u~HH!~. PRllJER -

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ANNEXURE I

SUnmary of Recarmemations of camti:v studies

In 1990, the Regional Director of SAro contracted cioontry experts to identify research needs arx:l research entry points in the context Of major current socio-econan.ic problems arrl develqm:mt trerrls. 'Ihe 0JUntry papers produced 'Nere discussed at the SAR) Annual Meetin:.J I 1991. Sane ca.mtcy-wide concerns identified by the country experts are as follows.

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Bargladesh is one of the poorest of the developin:.J countries with a low resource base, a very low larxi-man ratio, threatened by both natural hazards and · anthropogenic mismanagaoont arx:l Ol/er-exploitation. 'Ihe vast majority of the pcpllation is ~ the poorest in the world arx:l live aln¥:>st exclusively on the natural resource base. But this resource base is urrler serious threat arx:l envirormental. planrri.nj prcbably offers an opportunity for sw:vival.

Pop.llation growth has been identified as a serious problem inhibitin:.J a sustainable use of resources. Family planrri.nj is heavily praooted by the Govermnent. In Bargladesh, poverty-envirorurent-develqinent-pc:pllation arrl natural resources have to be addI:essed together: there are no uni-dimensional solutions.

Another major issue which cuts across all sectoral considerations is the abserx::e of grassroots camunity or p.lblic awareness of the what, why arx:l how of sustainable resource utilization for a sustained quality of life now arx:l into the future. Public or cxmwnity participation arx:l mnerstarilin:J Of the future With reduced resources due to current Oller-exploitation is vital now. Little formal information reaches the rural pc:pllation. An envirornnental awareness drive is urgently needed arx:l the Govermnent arx:l the NGOs could share the blrden.

'lhere is growin:.J expertise arrl enwargerx:::e of effective non-g011errment organizations arrl advcx::acy groups who are raisl.Ilg environment issues arx:l developin:.J databases on natural resources arrl evaluatirg people's perceptions on the envirornnent.

'1he Perspective Plan (1990-2010) identifies the followirg as the IOOSt inp:>rtant strategies:

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- Human Resoorces· Developnent (defined as the ability of the people particularly in the rural areas to identify their problems arrl plan am :inplement theses plans by themselves particularly in areas which OOIDam them IOOSt) •

- Decentralized participatoty plannin} with village as the initiator of develcpnent activities, union as the basic unit for preparation of Village Plan arrl Upazilla as the CXX>rdinatinJ unit for such plans. Special programmes 'Wall.d be mnert.aken for wanen on a priority basis in order to integrate them in the overall pl.annin;J process.

- '!he Government of Bargladesh in its policy arrl plannin:j document has highlighted the role of NGOs am also the need for addressinJ environmental issues.

INDIA

Alxx.1t 10-11 % of C>m received by Inlia goes for R&D. Goverrnnent auwort to research in the J;bysical sciences has been generous, but it has oot been the same in the social sciences. An analysis of 1433 studies carried oot by 75 selected research institutions (of which 50% resporded) showed that the subject area that clearly daninates is agriculture (irrigation am foodgrain production), followed at sane distance by plblic finance (direct taxation) am then irxiustcy (<p:"CMth of the irxiustrial sector) . Little has been researched on poverty {l.8%). '!he entire area described by activities allied to agriculture claims no nore than 3. 7% of the studies, nK>St of which are in foresb:y,. Other neglected areas are international trade, deoograply, environment, w:ban developnent, nutrition arrl wcmen' s issues.

'!he dlan:jes in Iniia's econanic policy over the last year have given an increased inportance to concems arisirg out of the effort to restntcture am stabilize the econany. While protection had enabled irxiustcy to qrcM, it had also danpened incentives for efficiency. lack of c:cmpeti.tion within the country has been possibly nore detrimental to cost efficiency than absence of external cal'petition. Cllarge in the demarrl pattern of consumer goods also calls for match.in::J structural acljusbnent in suwly. Cont.racy to expectations, the paper speaks of the obse:rved decline in poverty in Irxii.a. '!he proportion of population belot1 the poverty line declined f:ran 48% in 1977-78, to 37% in 1982-83 am further to

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29% in 1987-88. When poverty is seen to decline, it is not the result of charges in econ::mic factors in isolation tut of a dynamic interaction between social, cultural, political an:i econ::mic charges. '!he debate on poverty issues are hc7.r.1ever statistical in nature. Research on poverty shalld fcx::us on enpirically relatllq the decline in poverty. to tenp:>ral chan;Jes in factors influencin;J the .ixx::idence of poverty. Inciderr.e of poverty estimates are based on consunption data - . 'Which is not awropriate - for lack of time series data on inx.me. Besides one lon;;Jitudinal data set for rural Irlli.a, oo other data is available for sb.xiyin;J the dynamic features of charge in rural poverty. No lon;;Jitudinal data set is available to stOOy the dynamic features of chan;Je in poverty in uman areas. '!his is only one exairple of the inadequacy in the availability of primary information. '!he author suggests that· pertlaps the ·best way of makin:J a contribltion 'WOUld be to pick a particular data set for sb.xiyin;J charges in poverty, select an institution that has the capacity to con:luct the required surveys an:i ensure that by providing awropriate fi.Jniln;J that the data is generated an:i made available over an exterrled period of time.

Urban problems to be studied are the health status of sltnn dwellers, their access to m:rlical facilities, the functionin;J of those facilities an:i the allocation of furrls for health sei:vices; envirornnental corrlitions an:i the availability of dri.nkil'q water facilities.

other SU<Restions:

Besides generation of primary data, there is also the need to stren:Jthen information dissemination systems.

- Brin;Jin;J two specially backward segments of the pcp.llation i.e. scheduled castes an:i tribes an:i wanen into the mainstream.

- inpact of liberalization on irrlustJ:y as well as in other sectors requires assessment for future guidan:e. Policy initiatives are creatin;J a new envirornoont for in:iusti:ial growth which is creatffi3' different types of problems which need to be studied. 'lhe database for irxlustry is weak. 'lhe Irxiex of In:iustrial Production provides production information only fran oi:gan.ized irrlustJ:y with limited coverage. '!here is no authentic source of information for 1.ll'lregistera:l or unoi:gan.ized irxlustry, despite its substantial contribltion an:i rapid growth.

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- agricultural researdl shCAJl.d n¥JVe away fran focd:;Jrains to oilseeds, vegetables, fruits, ~' etc; oonservin:J water in fannin;J practices.

NEPAL

Nepal has recently entered a new P1ase of democ:tatic i.InJvations. 'llle broad develc:pnent strategies p.lrsued by the government durinJ the last decade have e.q:ilasized the develc:pnent of agriculture, forest resources am lan:l conservation, irrlustries, exports, tourism am control of pcpllation. A science am technology strategy was identified by the seventh Plan, as 'Well as a basic needs · awroacn, ai.m.:i.rg at the eradication of absolute poverty by the year 2000. By am large the broad develcpnental strategies follCIW'ed by the periodic plans are difficult to fim faults with. In the early periods, the priority was directed at piysical, human am institutional infrastructures. Fran the late seventies on, a bias in favor of the involvement of people in the developnental process was introduced. :ait evaluation of each periodic plan in tenrs of its sectoral targets reveals significant gaps in perfonnanc:e. Pertlaps the m::>st sin3ular failure of the past plans has been the inability to structurally transfonn the econany.

Nepal's developoent strategy, irrespective of the ex>lor arx:l hue of the government in the future, cannot afford to ignore the problems of pcpl.lation growth, of poverty or of a sustainable management of the resource base of the country.

Given the overwhelm.irgly depen:lenc:e of the people arx:l the econany on the agriculture sector, Nepal will have to cxmtinue its efforts to inq:>rove both the production arx:l the productivity of this sector. Foc:us will have to be directed on small am medium scale irrigation facilities in tenrs of construction am praoote measures for effective management of existin] arx:l future facilities. SUbstantial p:>tential exists in p:rcm:>tinJ fanners' involvement in both management arx:l construction activities.

In the :irxiustrial sector, a ex>rgenial climate ex>n:iucive to the healthy growth of irrlustries is yet to be developed. In addition, substantial potential exists in the ex>ttage in:iustr:y sub-sector both in tenrs of generatinJ inccme of the rural people arx:l in tenrs of llx:reasin;J production arx:l possibly exports.

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'llle .inportance of the toorism · sector derives :Eran the fact that m::>re r than a quarter of the total export eam.in;Js of the cnmtJ:y oanes fran

it am it has enployment genera~ potential. Main dlal.lerqes in r ... this sector is in:::reasirg the average duratim of stay ani to

st.ren;Jthen am maximize link.ages with other sectors of the eocn:my to ( reduce its depeOOence on the inp:>rt sector.

< Inplementation of a system of health care whidl cx:JUl.d :reasonably be expected to address the needs of the majority of the pop..llation has

< been a lon;J way f:ran beirg :realized. On the one bani, pop..llation growth threatens to outstrip available resrurces Wile on the other,

( the pcp.llation is still facirg relatively high rates of fertility, disability, malnutrition, iromidity am m:>rtality.

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I:Uril'XJ the Panchayat system, an often repeated theme in pl.annirg am day-to-&y administration was "decentralization". 'llle Panchayat (Village, town, district am zonal levels) were given sane functional autoncmy in developnent pl.annirg arrl local administration. Now that the whole Panchayat system as been uprooted, there is an urgent need to take a fresh look am encourage local autonomy arrl \Yark out the nmal.ities involved.

'llle challerges confrontirg Nepal arise fran three major problems: pcp.llation growth, poverty arxi ecological degradation. A list of illustrative and non-exhaustive priority areas follows as suggestions for research involvement:

Ig;ulatim

- Analytical \Yark on determinants of family size. 'llle determinants could be cultural, etlmic as well as econanic.

Motivatirg camunities to accept family plannirq. 'lhis nust involve the design of proper incentive package as TNel.l.

RJvertv Identification of the appropriate 'elements of human resource developnent strategy for the rural areas

Possibilities of prcm:>tirg labour intensive technologies in different sectors

Generati-on of~ enployment/self-help programs

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Agria.il.ture am .Irrigatiai

- agro-forestry - water ha.rvestin:J - bio-f ertilization

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small irrigation projects (local involvement; local resan:ce; lost cost tedmology)

Fmesgy

- designing and implementation of larrl-use plannirq with awrc:priate incentive packages

- institutional altematives for management of cxmtDll ~

- alternative energy sources (cxmm.mity biogas; micro-hyaro ena-gy; efficiency of conventional energy use)

- P.rcm:rt:in;J capacity utilization - staffin;J an:l management patterns - government intezventions arrl inplications - tedmology assessment - inccme generation through cottage irdustries

- prd::>lems of staroardization - role of private sector arrl p:racotion possibilities - possibilities of diversification

fblicy Analysis

'1he weakest aspect in Nepal's developnent efforts is the absence of analytical inp.tts in the fonm.llation an:l inplenentation of p:>licies an:l program. Perhaps a needs assessment study could be the first step in this direction.

SRI IANRA

'Ihe Sri Lanka steerin;J Ccmnittee recxmnen:ied that IIRC could best assist Sri.-~ develcpnent researches in the next J;i1ase by not

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continu:in3' funiing in an ad hoc manner, with in:ilvidual research projects, in a wide variety of fields and scattered .institutions, rut by IrRC supporti.rg/strengthenin;J existin;J capacity or l:W.ldin;J new capacity to reinforce developnent awroadles and processes in Sri Ianka that would meet sane of the initial dlallerqes and whidl would directly benefit the poor and would be sustainable. Six critical areas in whidl capacity needs to be strenJthened or Wilt are:

Policy Review

An imeperxlent think group needs to be established to keep Sri lanka's econcmic, political and social corrlition umer review and to advocate rational options to the pressin;J l~ tenn developnent prcblem.s. . .

- An :inter-disciplinaey Institute of Devel.q:meut stulies

'lhe M:irga Institute would need to be restructured with a new man:late, staff and funiing to respom to its full potential as a resource centre for developrent thinkin:J and research. '!he key issues that the Marga Institute could research in the future would be (a) the m::>re carplex developnent strategy involvirq irrlustrialization, m::xiemization and poverty alleviation and the ilrplications of such a strategy for South Asian Regional Cooperation and International Develc:pnent Cooperation (b) the ilrplications for establishment of a broad-based participatory demx:ratic polity in Sri lanka and the mve towards devolution, decentralization rd identify the steps towards national reconciliation; and (c) the trethodology of pl~, oonsequent to devolution, establishment of Provincial Council and participatory developrent.

- An Institute for Reoalstruct.icn am. Deve.lcpie'It: in OOrth East Sri Ianka

A major reconstruction effort that goes beyord relief and rehabilitation to sustainable developrent has to be designed and inplemented in North-Fast Sri Ianka. - 'Ibis could best be done by an Interdisciplinary Institute for Reconstructions and Developnent located in the University of Jaffna, ex>llaboratin;J closely with the F.astem University and NGOs -workirq in the North E'.ast Province. Until peace is established, a great deal of preparatory -work could be urrlertaken by academicians and practitioners both within Sri Lanka and abroad. It is possible to Wild a

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develcpoont-oriented :t-esponse, on whatever capacities - human am. :Etiysical - that exist after sudl a disaster. Even durirq the conflict within the "political" space available, small develcpoont-oriented activities are PJSSible arrl shoo.ld be experimented with, as part of a learn.i.n; process for all concemed.

EcDl.ogical balance am natural :resau:oe use

In Sri Lanka there is a need to go beyorrl damage limitation am. protection of the enviromnent as such. '!here is a need to harness available local natural resources for reinforcirg the productive capacity of the poor am. for the Jasnasaviya Prc:igpmne. '!his · means a strategy of natural resource use has to be built into the complex in:lustrialization n'Odemization poverty alleviation strategy in such a manner that the strategy is not predatory on nature arrl can at the same time benefit the poor. '!here are short-tenn as well as lorg-tenn issues that have to be studied. 'lhe solution cannot cane merely through technological fixes. Deforestation for instance, cannot merely be reversed by a technical p:rogranuoo of social forestry alone. Social forestry is mainly about people arrl not about trees - hence a 100re holistic awroach with interdisciplinary research is urgently required. To reinforce the small attenpts that are beirg made on various aspects of the EnVironmental arrl Developnent problenatic in Sri Lanka, it is necessary that a "state of the Art" survey be quickly con:iucted. on the basis of this survey, IIRC cnild identify a suitable institution in Sri Lanka to urxiertak.e policy-oriented research arrl provide some intellectual back-up for trainin;J am. advocacy in this area.

- Justice am raw

'!here is very little systematic capacity in Sri Ianka for lookin.;J into questions of the in:leperrlence of the judiciary, the starrli.rg of the legal profession, the effectiveness arrl i.Irpartiality of the legal system arrl its responsiveness to the new :Eililosqtiy un:ierlyirq a poverty alleviation strategy arrl need for social justice. It is timely therefore to study the system of justice arrl the legal system with a view to orientirg it first towards maintenance of rigorous standards of comuct arxi professional achievement, speedin:J up the redress of peoples' grievances through a cost-effective process. '!hereafter, the larger issues raised in transfoilllirg the System can be further studied.

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- mucat.ia1al. R>licy arrl the :KruileciJe system

"'lhe education system itself is creatin; contradictions _am tx>larizirq the people further. It rot cruy shal:pens the rural url:>an·divide, but also .contributes to the brain drain at a time ~ Sri Ianka requires m:::>:re skilled peq>le at all levels for the o:mplex strategy erwisaqed. 'lhere is also rx> direct link :between the education system am buildin; technological capability for irdustrializatian nor for the direct attack on p:1Verty through innovative m:i:>ilization strategies. . It is reoc:mreOOed that IIRC consider helping to design and support an enhanced interdisciplinazy research capacity in the National Institute of Education t study sane of the mre furoamental ~ :relatin:.:J to lon:Jer tenn education policy, the lm::Mled::Je system am ttie develcpnent strategy. 'Ihe study Team should be interdisciplinazy arrl should include developnentalists.

- 'lhe Infomatiai System

'!he Mministrative Refonns Ccmnission looked at major aspects of the structure, procedures arrl capacity of the Administrative System to resporxi ·to the nW.ti-faceted crisis in Sri Ianka arrl recarmnerxied devolution of power an:i decentralization of decision-makirg as a major thrust for the future. However, to manage the transition out of the current nul.ti-faceted crisis, a great deal of qualitatively new kirx:Is of infonnation is required. IIRC support could be given for a research stµ:1y to be located in the ~ university to explore the use of available infonnation Technology for a coherent strategy of Irrlustrialization, M:lderni.zation am Poverty Alleviation in Sri Ianka. '!he ~ University YJOUJ.d need to work closely with the Council of Infonnation am Conp.rt:er technology in Sri Ianka •

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Researdl Institntims: A Preliminary Marpim

'!he· SARO strategy 'NOUld remain in a vacuum wit.hoot sane JmJwledge of who the potential partners might be. In ad:lition to the institutions with which Ir.RC already has projects, a large number of other institutions 'NOUld be good cardi.dates for researdl grants; as a first step in identification, sane of the reputed institutions ergaged in research relevant to the thematic focus of this office in ~ladesh, Nepal, Imia arrl Sri Ianka are listed here •.

It sh.oo.ld be eqilasized that this section is the result of prelllninary · mawin:J done at SARO, arrl as such is i.ncatplete arrl scmewhat uneven in its coverage.

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~ladesh centre for Mvance:i studies (focal point of research in envirorunent, resource management arrl developnent)

~ladesh Institute of Developnent Studies (leadi.rq developnent research centre on econan.ic an:i social issues)

~ladesh Academy for Rural Developnent (action research in rural developnent)

Institute for Appropriate Technology (science and tedmology policy studies)

Center for Integrated Rural Developnent for Asia an:i the Pacific

International Council for Di.an:heal Disease Research

Centre for U:rban Studies in the Geography ·Deparbnent, Illaka University

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INDIA

'Ihe SARO strategy recx:mnerrls a sub-regional focus on Eastern Irxli.a. In light ,of this, prelbninary contact has been made with sane of the

institutions in Bihar am orissa. ~ praninent institutes in Alnv::>ra, ,uttar Pradesh, were also visited, in response to the .inp)rtarv::e accorded to the Himalayan eco-system. '!his process of mawin;J is ~ to continue.

orissa

C»IDEREI'. xavier Institute of Management, Bhubaneshwar Co-ordinator: M.V. d Bogaert sj

CENDERfil', the centre for Devcltijoent Research am ~ has a good nebJork of relationships with: NGOs in orissa am is interested in research work of relevance to orissa.

Institute for Socio-Econanic Developnent (Bhubaneshwar, orissa)

Dr. Balaj i Paniey - ISED Director

ISED was established by Balaji Parrley (previously with the centre for wanen' s Developnent studies in Dillli) in 1987. Ir:RC has an cn-goirg grant to the Institute.

'!he Institute' s ~roadl ·to generatirg their questionnaire for · a village-level survey was a m::xiel. of participation: they organized two 3-day workshops, invitirg village leaders, village-based· NGO reps, village wanen, am local level forestry officials to atterxi arrl structurirg participation to facilitate interaction, givirg the groups responsibility to define the problems, help select the field sites am design the questionnaire. Senior forestry officials (who specifically requested to atterd) were deliberately excluded to prevent them fran hijacking the sessions. Feedback fran participants was very positive (e.g. forest rarqers reported leamirg mre about wcmen's roles in forestry in those three days than in three weeks of official "trainirq").

'!here have been no reported difficulties with the waren workirg in:ieperrlently on fieldwork (e.g. personal security, authority or status). '!hey have already uncx:wered -~ remarkable arrl highly

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notivational ex.anples of illiterate wanen orgaru.zm::J themselves to protect a::amunity forests. '1he typical pattem is that village (ma.le) leadership ani the forest raIXJers daninate the decision process "for camunity forest lams. '!heir EllPlasis is on fast-gn:Mirx] cash crops, which do not help the wanen' s needs for ll1ll.ti-pn:pose fuel ani fcx:lder trees.

ISED have already recognized that their results are potentially very useful to grassroots organizations: village wanen thfm:;elves, NGOs, village leadership ani even local forest ran;JerS. 'Ibey very nu:::h want to use the research as a tool to inprove the effectiveness of these other organizations, ani they seem to have the connections, skills ani ccmnitment to do this·. Specific activities they. Suggested if they could get m:>re :furxis .include:

1. translation of key project fin:lirgs in layman's tenns, ani publication in brochure fonrat in one or two local lan3tJages.

2. preparation of a short video production featuri.rg powerful mtivational interviews with village wanen who are fighti.rg for cxmtrol of their own forests (for ,POSSible broadcast or dissemination to NGOs ani villages usi.rg portable VCRs)/

3. trainirq workshops on wanen ani social forestcy for the benefit of local ani district-level forestl:y officials who have already requested this service.

Rarx:hl.. Bihar: Priority research areas ani R&D institutions Ranchi, located in South Bihar, will be of considerable strategic inp:>rtance in Bi.bar's developnent plans over the next five years. Arouni 60% of Ranchi' s population is tribal, ani it is the administrative centre for the Bihar Tribal SUb-Plan for the Eighth Plan period, o.Jrrently un:ler preparation, which will be financed by the World Bank. Tribal SUb-Plans were first prepared for the Fifth Five Year Plan, in areas of tribal cxmcentration (50% or m::>re tribal pcpllation at the block level). '!he lon;J tenn objectives of the sub--plans are to narrow down the gap between levels of develq;:mmt in tribal ani non-tribal areas; ani .inp:rove the quality of life of tribal cxmmmities. Consideration has to be given to the needs both

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of tribal develcpnent an:l of area developnent. Area developnent shoold not by-pass tribal ccmramities nor should these ccmrunities be subjected to interventi6ns that result in stratification or to disroption an:l destruction of .the eco-systems within whidl they live. (95% of Randti. 's tribals live in rural areas). Rardrl district has also been selected. as one of three districts in whidl the Bihar Education Project is to be .implemented. One of the objectives of this project, jointly sponsored by the Depart:JDent of Education an:l UNICEF, is to adlieve 100% literacy in the district over the Eighth Plan period. At present the literacy rate in the state of Bihar is 38.54% - the lowest in the countzy. Literacy levels in Rardrl would be even lower: in 1971, the literacy rate in the district stood at 17.54 for tribals an:l 31.13 for non-tribals. 'lhese two projects alone will mean a considerable inflow of developnent funjs directed to specific ems into the region.

'!his plateau region is ridl in mineral wealth: Ranchi stams at the hub of coal, steel an:l heavy EID3'ineerin:J irrlustries. 'lhese two features, the agrarian an:l forest based economy of the tribal carmunities on the one harxi, an:l the coal an:l iron ore based irrlustries on the other, have been the source of mudl conflict between_ the inpmitives of irrlustrial developnent an:l tribal welfare. lard alienation, poor health, increasin:J alcoholism, the disappearance of old value systems, deforestation an:l soil erosion, increasin:J population pressure an:l lack of education, have all jointly contributed to increasin:J the crisis in tribal communities. 'lhe R&O institutions in Rardrl reflect these concerns: both of the irrlustrial an:l the tribal economy. over the last few years interaction, both at a thematic an:l an institutional level, has increased substantially. '!his is partly a consequence of legislation requiring m:>re strin:Jent envirornrent protection measures, an:l the statutory obligation placed upon public sector enterprises to show that their activities have had a positive impact in the surroun:lirq areas.

Research infrastructure in Ranchi is good: R&D institutes, both tedmical an:l other, have been able to attract both manpower an:l finance. Where sane strengthenin:J seems to be needed is in the areas of . research utilization an:l greater interaction between institutes to rationalize the use of facilities already created. Even on a brief visit it is apparent that donor agencies have been generous in providing financial supix>rt for purdlase of sq:ilisticated equipnent from overseas. But the manpower to maximise the use of this equipnent is probably inadequate. resultin:J in tlirler-

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utilization. 'll1ere is also sane lack of clarity in institutional oojectives arxl the relative priorities to be given to awlied an:i basic research, design arxl developnent, arxl teachirq arxl trai.ninq functions.

M:lst institutes expressed an interest in possible collaboration with the IIRC. '!his does not reflect a shortage of IIDlleY for research so nuch as an interest in the professional inplt of the organisation, the possibility of trainin;J for researchers, arxl in sane cases of collaboration with appropriate Canadian institutions. One SU<}gestion, pertai.ninq to · progranme developoont' rather than any specific project, was that an in:lepen:ient group be convened to identify priorities in research, develc:pnent arxl design, an:i detennine appropriate c:bjectives arxl functions for the numeroos technical R&D institutes in a manner that will maximize co-ordination, reduce overlap arxl wastage, arxl be scx::ially sensitive. '!his idea draws on the experience of the Canadian National Rourrltable on Environment am the F.conomy. An exte.mal agency like the IIRC might be better able to get maxim..nn participation fran the R&D institutes, govermrent arrl inieperrlent sector. ('!his suggestion came fran the Director, Birla Institute of Technology).

An observation that cannot miss any visitor to Ranchi is the appallin;J con:li tion of traffic management. Sorting out this chaos should be very high on someone's research agerrla! Ranchi is an exparrli.rXJ town arxl sane tbre arxl thought spent on planning transport systems 'WOUld not be wasted. 'Ihe problem of irregularity in water arxl electricity is acute over a wide area.

A list of praninent institutes with major research themes is given below, followed by profiles of each Institute. Infonnation on financial aspects was difficult to get as the question - in the absence of concrete project developnent - on annual outlays was a sensitive one. As a general point, none of these Institutes is very "snall", all had good infrastructure, but a relative shortage of manpower.

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1. Birsa Agricultural university 2. Ramakrishna Mission

(Divyavan KVK)

3. Randl:i university: a. Pop..llation F.ducation Resource

centre b. Dept. of Tribal ani Regional

I..an:Juages c. Dept of Psychology d. Dept of Anthropology

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4. xavier Institute of Social Sciences

5. R&D centre for Iron ani steel (ROCIS) I SAIL

6. National Institute of Fomrlry ani Forge Technology (NIFFT)

7. Birla Institute of Technology (BIT) 8. Central Mine Plannirq ani Design

Institute (CMPDI)

BIRSA ~CIJUIURAL lJNIVEmI'1Y Kanke Ranchi, Bihar 834 006

Vice Olancellor Dr H.R. Mishra Director of Research Dr A.A. I<han

Key Research '!hemes

Rural Developnent

Tribal welfare; education ani literacy; pop.ll.ation issues, in::l. nutrition; health ani enviromnent; inpact of anti-poverty policies .

Traditional research areas centered on product prcx::ess technology

New research areas in::lude Waste management; Recyclirq;

Envirornnental protection; pollution control; Energy conser1ation; non-conventional energy sources; Ccmplter Aided Design

Adell. Director Research Dr Shankar Tiwari

Birsa Agricultural University was established in 1981. 'lhe

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jurisdiction of the university is shown on the map am covers nearly 46% of the lam area of Bihar. Only 7% of this area is mxier sane form of irrigation. '!he area has abalt 79% of the forests of Bihar. soil erosion am deforestation are severe problems. 'Ihe farmers are predaninantly tribal.

'Ihe annual expen:liture in 1989-90 was awrox. Rs 584.04 lakhs, of which abalt 74% came fran the state goverrmmt am 25% fran ICAR, with 1% from other sources. 'lhese included the World Bank (Rs 43,55,000 durin:J 1989-90); Pir480 (Rs 3,22,200); Potash Research Institute of Iniia (Rs 52,965) am others. IDOkirg at research alone, 61% of research :fun:3s came from IC.AR in 1989-90 am 36% from the World Bank.

Total faculty ~ is 272. Of this 138 are in Agriculture; 78 in Veterinary Sciences am Animal Husbarrlry; am 12 in Forestry.

Research Methcxiology Teachirq, research am extension are seen as integrated functions. Attenpts are made to involve the "total agricultural ccmnunity"-scientists, farmers, voluntary agencies, students, goverrnnent departments, social scientists am we.men as well as men. BMJ experience suggests that the sin:Jle greatest constraint to developin:J the area is marketin:J, not the level of agricultural production.

CUrrent research programmes stress the follc:Min:.J areas: a. Testin:J on-canplS research in different agro-climatic zones. b. studies on tacklin:J high acidity in soils. c. Research into pulses am oilseeds. d. Developin:J suitable tedmologies for drylam fanning, soil

conservation am water manageirent. e. Research. on fruits am vegetables. f. Problems relatin:J to higher production of milk, meat, egg,

wool am other livestock products through inprovej breedinq, nutrition am scientific management.

g. Improvement of agricultural inplements. h. Denx:>graphic problems am anthropOlogical aspects. i. Social forestry, agro forestry medicinal plants, energy

plantation am fertilizer experiments in forestry. j • Post runvest problems of Cllotanagp.ir am santhal Parganas ·am

control measures. k. Trainin:J am deoonstraticn in mushroan research am

production.

JWW(RISBNA MISSial swami VishuddarlarXla Road M:>rabadi Rardli Bi.bar 8.34 001

secretary swami Atioavidanama

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'1he Ramakrishna Mission, Rardli, foomed in 1927 I turned its attention to rural develcpnent after the drcAlght years of 1966-67. In 1977 it was designated as the "Divyavan Krishi Vigyan Kerrlra." an:i since then has been supported by IC7\R, the Ministry of Welfare, an:i other agerx:ies. '1he primary function of the KVK is to carrluct trainin:J programmes for villages. An initial oourse of 6 W'eekS duration exposes them to different facets of agrarian activity, incluiin1 da.iryin:;J, poultcy etc. SUbsequently those who wish to do so can enroll for specialized oourses, the duration of which ran.;Jes fran 3 ronths to a year. . In 1987-88 aroon::l 300 fanners atterx:led the Motivational Training Course, an:i a little over a 100 atterx:led. the Special Training Course. Trainin:;J is also given in the villages itself through extension programmes.

Since inception, over 5000 fanners have been trained by Divyavan KVK through on-campus trainin:J programmes an:i over 35, ooo through off-canp.lS trainin:J programmes.

Ashram philosophy is reflected in the rules followed durin:;J trainin:;J (for which period fanners stay at the hostel) • 'Ihe entire maintenance of the fann an:i hostel is done by them, an:i there is free provision of food, beds an:i even clothes.

Of those att:erxlin;J the courses approximately 70% are tribal fanners. '!he non-triba.ls who atterrl are usually fran am:n;J the poorest classes.

In addition to these trainirq programmes the Ramakrishna Mission works intensively in 55 villages. Extension agents - 8-10 in mnnber, about half of whan are triba.ls - have been designated to help in contact an:i dialogue with. the fanners. other activities urrlertaken in these villages include the organisation of non-fonnal education centres, hospitals, dispensaries, nutrition centres. A ccmrunity centre has been constructed in each village. Wanen in sarwa villages have urrlertaken serirulture an:i bee-keepinq as additional activities. '!he Mission assists with irplts an:i marketin:;J as well.

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F.ach year a t\vo-day ·seminar is held to whidl former participants in t.rain.iiq p:rogramnes are invited. 'Ibis enables sane follow-up. It has been fcurn that daizyinJ is not a pop.llar caJrSe. Workshcp trainirq is also offered in caipent.J:y, maintenance of pmps, lathe an:i famdzy forge tNOrk. 'llle latter is useful to sane larxiless pec:ple. As far as p:issible, the Missioo seeks to strerx}then villagers so that they return to the lam am revitalize their villages. Abcut 800 wells have been dug in the villages with goverrnnent sutsidy, but maintenance is the resp:>nsibility Of the villagers.

Divyavan KVK has functional linkages with government agencies (specially ICAR, Ministry of Welfare, Ministry Of Human Resource Develcpnent, the Bi.bar State govennnent, District administration, Block Oevelopnent Officer); donor agencies (Ford Fanmtion, Swiss Developnent Co-operation, UNICEF, AFPRO) ; Bar'lks am voluntazy organisations; universities an:i other institutions (Bizsa Agricultural university, Central Tasar Research am Trainin;J Institute, Irxlian Iac Research Institute, Society for Rural Irxiustrialization).

'Ihe Ashram P'lilosqi1y of "Service of God in Man" is SUfP:>rted with excellent organisation am management, whidl has enabled it to use resources to exterxi am deepen its p:rogramnes. Although not a "research" oi:ganization, as its activities increase the Ashram might feel the need to document an:i analyse its experiences.

RANCHI UNIVmSI'IY

Vioe Olancel.lor Dr Amar RUmar sin;Jh

'Ihe fOpulation F.ducation Resource Centre has undertaken an intensive study of health am envirornnent issues (jointly financed by the UGC am UNFPA) • Attenpts have been made to develop appropriate material for tribal ccmm.mities, usirq tribal dance fonn.s for exairple. Infonnation :rel.atID} to population, diet am nutrition, such as child care an:i milestones of develoµnent is widely disSeminated. Printed material has been developed for college stu::lents on health, food, family plarmirq am child care issues. '!he educational problems of socially disadvantaged children, aironq tribal groups am other poor cxmtlll'lities, is another area of study.

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'llle Dept of Tribal arrl Regional I.ap:ruages is desi~ primers in tribal lan:Jl.la9eS at the request of the Bihar government, for use in the Bihar Fducation. Project.

other faculties in the mtlversity that urdertake research in the area of PEP are the Departments of Psyd'lology am: Anthrgpology.

XAVIER ll§l'l'IVIB OF SOCIAL SfWI<E OCISS> Post Box 7 FUl:ulia Road Ranchi 834 001 (Tel. 22769)

Director Fr. L. Francken Asst. Director Fr. C. Iakra Director (Research arrl Plannirg): S.K.Charrl

Foun:ied 1955 as an extension department of st. xavier's College, Ranchi; registered as a separate Fducational Society in 1973; noved into its own canplS in 1978.

Major activities arrl progranunes:

a. '!he Institute comucts post~te courses in rural develcpnent; personnel management; catpiter applications.

b. '!he extension trainin;J department corrlucts short courses for i.rrlustries, vol\mtary organisations, govermoent departments, arrl educational institutions.

c. '!he Institute functions as a resource centre in the field of rural develcpnent through its Rural war.en Develcpnent Cell arrl Adult F.ducation Department.

d. 'llle research department un:iertakes socio-econanic smveys arrl remers consultancy sezvices.

e. Entrepreneurship Develcpnent Progrcm"ma Department corrlucts various EDP courses sponsored by the Govt. of Irrlia, IDBI arrl Govt. of Bihar.

Total students (1989-90) 325.

Research Firrlings arrl Methodolooy

~ projects recently C01Ipleted include

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- the traditional herl:>al medicine system of Olhot.anagplr: 1988 - inplementation of the F.qual. Renuneration Act in Bihar : 1989

concurrent evaluation of IRDP beneficiaries ('lhird ~} : 1990 - inpact of Icns on sc;sr carmmities ·in Bihar (on-qoin:J)

1't:lst prci>lems face:l by the tribal CXllllllllity turn aroom lan1 a1ienation am hea1th. '!here is an extremely high incidence of malaria. '!here is little evidence of govemment sponsored anti-poverty an:i tribal 'Welfare progranmes havin:J a positive inpact.

XISS has generally used stnJctured questionnaires an:i large scale surveys for data collection, but is open to usin:J new method.olog"ies. An action research project was un:lertaken in Palanau District (1981-87). Field teams of the Institute helped the beneficiaries to get IRDP loans. '1he experience of the project was that there is no clearcut answer such that "if these 12-15 points are applied you are bouni to succeed"; but it was a rich leami.rq experience. · '!he last survey carried out used participato:r:y research methods. '!he experience of usin:J these varied across teams; probably reflectin:J varyin:J skills.

~AND IEVEID:EMEm' CEN.Im: RR m:tl AND S'l'J:E"· CRIX!I.Sl (Steel Authority of Irxlia Ltd.}

General Manager (Research.} Dr v. Ramaswamy

ROCIS was set up in Ranchi in 1972-73 as the corporate R&D Cell of the steel Authority of In:lia Ltd. It is involved in a broad spectrum of activities including:

- process optimization - energy consezvation - developnent of new products - quality upgradation an:i quality assurance - inprovement in yield - develop:nent of irrligenous technologies - adaptation of advanced technologies -- process IOOdel.lin:J

develop:nent of alteJ::nate routes of iron makin:J to suit in:ligenous raw materials

- pollution control

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:Research on aspects of environment protection an:l waste management is relatively new. Projects un:lertaken so far have included a dust emission stuiy 'Which led to new dust collection systems; effluent water treatment; oontrol of emission of toxic gases; waste disposal, incltdin;J use of fly ash for brick mak:i.n;J an:l road oonstruction; mmtorin;J ambient air quality at steel plants through m:bile vans; noise levels. 'lhe eqilasis on research utilizaticn, is high sin::e the :research is designed to address prd:>lems actually faced or likely to be faced in the steel plants.

Begi.nnin:J fran a nucleus of 14 persons in 1972-73 the R&D Centre today enploys a total of 1030 persons, of wan about 400 are engineers.

'!he annual financial outlay has shown a J,ilerx:menal growth arxi starrls today at over Rs 265 m. ($19 m) which is about o. 5 % of the sales tumover in SAIL. 'lhese films have helped expedite the developnent of technical arxi diagnostic facilities of the Centre. An extensively equii;:iped Infonnation an:l D:x::umentation Centre an:l advancEd catprt:er facilities also bear testinDny to this.

ROCIS has tied up with leadin;J :research oxganisations like ~, Sweden; SUMriaD MErAI.S, Japan; arxi HUMOOIDI'-WEDAG, Germany for the developnent of process technologies. 'Ihe Centre is also pursuirg basic :research programmes in Blysical arxi Process Metallurgy with institutes like the Inlian Institutes of Technology, TSNIIOIERMEI', USSR arxi the National Science Fou.njation, USA.

NAT!amL INS'l'£1\JIE OF RXJNim AND FCRiE 'JR]H):ux;y CND"FT) Hatia P.O. Ran:hi 834 003

Director Dr P .N. Olakravarty

NIFFT was established by the Govermoont of Inlia in collaboration with UNDP-UNE:SCX> in 1966. It is administered through a duly constituted Board of governors representin] fourxhy arxi forge organisations, professional bcx:ties, - educatiorial arxi :research institutions arxi the Ministries of Human Resoorce Develc:pnent an:l Irrlustcy of the Goverrnnent of Inlia.

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~ has fair faculties:

1. Foormy Technology 2. Foi:qe Technology 3. Production Erqineerirg 4. Material Sciences

'!he initial d::>jective of settirg up NIFFr was for it to be the "design arrl developnent" centre for the Heavy Erqineerirg Corporation (HEC) located nearlJy. 'llrls proved for varioos reasons to be \.ll'lWOrkable arrl NIFFT gradually became instead a centre for trainirg c::aJrSeS of vacyirg duration. It also corrlucts research ~ offers consultancy services. 'llrls process of :re-orientation· has been only I2rtially successful in that while NIFFr has very good lab arrl library facilities it has a total faculty stren:Jth of only 28. Ideally it would like to be recognized as a regular educational institution grantirg graduate arrl post-graduate degrees arrl .. to that extent nove away fran the "D&D" arrl trainirg functions.

'1he research agerm for the cani.n:J year includes apart fran product developnent, CAD/CAE, arrl the developnent of new alloys, the areas of energy conservation arrl envirornnent protection.

BIRIA INS'l'IIDIB OF 'IB:lm!OOY P.O. Mesra District Ranchi Bi.bar 835 215

Director: Dr H.C. Parrle

Brr is a "Deemed University". Located so close to heavy ergineerirg arrl other irxiustries, Brr has developed a nunt>er of in:lustrial research projects, in which final year students are involved. An "Entrepreneur's Park" has been developed contiguous to the university camplS. 'llrls offers facilities for developirg prototypes of laboratocy IOOdels. Where ex-students are able to obtain orders they are offered the further facility of a shed in whidl a small scale irrlustry unit can function. '!he d::>jective is to facilitate arrl support those students who wish to go into small-scale production until they are in a position to set up irrlepen:lent factocy units.

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'!here are several exanples of effective inix>rt substitution that has taken place here .- effective both in . terms of CXJSt advantage an::i suitability to local con:litions. ·

'!he research enphasis at BIT is thus on "design an::i develcpnent" rather than basic research. Exi.stin:J technology (foreign or Iniian) is· mdified an::i adapted as necessary. Erm.Jragement is qiven to those wi.shin;J to be small entrepreneurs, for whidl BIT sees anple scope in the area.

Research ideas that the Institute WCA.ll.d be interested in p.irsuiIXJ concem the :recyclin:J of waste, pollution control, an::i the utilization of scrap; non-conventional ena-gy sources;· · an::i the testin:J an::i un:ierstaniin:J of hert:>al medicine. It was interestin:J to see in this in:lustrial technology oriented institute a nursecy c::ontainin;J 400 species of medicinal plants, whidl are ~ed by the Dept of :Rlannacology. '!he Director is enthusiastic aboot the potential. of a Rourxitable (on the lines of the canadian National 'Rr!lndtpble on the Enviromnent an::i the F.cxmgny) in rationalizin:J through co-ordination the infrastructure an::i lab. facilities that have already been created in Ran:hl. SUdl a Rourxitable 'WOUl.d also help in better :recognition of the joint .inpact of production an::i technology decisions on the econcmic an::i envirornnental features of local ccmm.mities.

camw:, MrNE PIANNIH; AND IESIGN INS'ITIUl'E CCMPDI) Gorx1wana Place Kanke Road Ranchi 834 008

Director RDl' Dr B.C.Mishra (Research, Design an::i Technology)

CMPDI is a subsidiacy of Coal In:lia Ltd. the nationalized corporate l:xxly for coal in In:lia. It has six regional institutes at

- Asansol, West Berga! rhanbad, Bihar

- Ranchi I Bihar - Nagpur I Maharashtra - Bilasp.ir I Madhya Pradesh - Sin]rauli I uttar Pradesh

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Formal RO & D activities in the coal sector -were initiated only after nationalisation of the coal irrlust:cy in 1971-73 ard the fol:lilllation of the "science ard Technology Plan" by the Govel:l'llDeI'lt of Imia in 1976.

QIPOI as the oodal aqen:::y for co-onlinatin;J all RD&D activities in ·~-- · the coal sector collaborates closely with varioos ·· coal research

-establishments in the c:amtey. 'lhe field of coal RO&D encxnpasses:

- Minin:J technology Allied ergineerin;J in:::lud:in:J mininJ electronics Coal utilisation

- Coal exploration - Coal preparation - safety ard ecology

To stg>lement facilities CMUI has set up a fUlly equiwecI laborato:cy to provide a scientific data base integrated with the overall growth plans of the Inti.an minin:J irrlust:cy. It works closely with the ~ scientific Researdl camrl.ttee (SSRC) a high level ccmnittee set up by the Department of Coal, Government of Irrlia.

'lbrust areas of RO&D in:::lude :

1. Producti6n, productivity, safety: new m.i.nin;J methods, strata control, mine environment, mine fires, ~' equipnent develcpnent, surface coal transport et.c.

2. Coal Beneficiation: beneficiation of cookirg ard non-cookirg coal ard coal fines

3. Coal utilisation: danestic fuel, blerxi ratios for metallurgical coke, gasification in:::lud:in:J urdergroun:i gasification, coal to oil et.c. CMJ?DI has been a pioneer in the developoont of Special Slookeless F\lels. A mechanical process for the production of SQft coke, which is econanical arxi SIOOkel.ess arxi can be an alternative to u:G am Kerosene in cookirg, has been developed.

4. Environment am ecology: air, water am noise :p::>llution, lam degradation et.c. Activities to canbat envirorunental degradation caused by mininJ have included afforestation on

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overtm:den . duqls in q>en cast minin;J projects, "creation of residual lake after operx:ast minin;J.

O!PDI has a large staff - aver 200 qeo-scientists alone. e>cpen:liture was estimated at Rs 1195.16 lakhs in repJ::eSel'ltin:J 27. 28% of sales turnover.

Total R&D 1988-89,

A.N. SINHA IN$'!'1'l.\!Jl$ OF SOCIAL SCIENCfS Patna 800 001

Foun::ied 1958; autonaiO.is statutory body sin:e 1964; recogrlized as a centre of excellence for social science· research in 1972 by the ICSSR.

· Research interests broadly convcm:Je on developnent arrl charge with particular reference to Bihar arrl the F.astem Region.

Faculties include

- psychology - political science arrl plblic administration - eoonanics division - sociology arrl anthropology - statistics division

'lhe Harijan study centre is located in the Sociology the Child study Centre in the Psychology Division. provides counsellirg arrl guidance services to parents, adolescents.

Division arrl 'lhe latter

teachers arrl

Faculty members total 24 am suwcrt staff (in all grades) 60. rn addition there are I:b:toral arrl Post-I:b:toral F~lows associated with different universities in Bihar, arrl project staff recruited on a tenporary basis.

'lhe Institute plblishes a bi-annual joUrnal, the Journal of Social arrl F.conomic studies (started 1973).

Inter-disciplinary research is encouraged. Research projects have been sponsored arrl financed by agencies like the World Bank, IID, NABARD, WHO, UNICEF, arrl the IJ:RC.

ADmlI 2/30 state Bank Colony II Bailey Road Patna BUlar 834 014

Contact person Ms Viji Srinivasan

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ADI'IHI is two years old an:i has as its main objective the organisation of poor -wanen for inccme generatin;J activities. Its activities are spread all CNer Bihar. At present it receives oore suwcrt fran the Ford Fourmtion.

A research idea that ADI'IHI would like . to :p.irsue conoems fresh water fish. Fish ponds in North Bihar are used lx>th for breedi.n3 fish an:i grONirg 'makana' (fran the lotus plant). But the latter-whidl .is very ~tive - results in the fonnation of a thick secHment of stems an:i leaves at the bottan of the pon:i an:i also reduces the viability of the porrl for fish fannirx}.

'Ihe research prq>OSE!d is for a deloc>nstration pon:i in a selected village in North Bihar, to examine alternatives an:i identify optinrum use for fish fanning and lotus cultivation, trade-offs, environmental an:i econanic inplications etc. It would have as its ·action' carponent an attenpt to involve wanen in an organised manner in the activity. At present a male mafia of fish fanners with considerable political clout makes it difficult for wanen to get even a toehold.

'!his research will be done primarily by K.Srinivasan an:i Rajeev I<Umar sinjl who obtained an M.Sc. in Fisheries fran the Agricultural University, Bargalore in 1989 (for the latter, it could also be a career buildirq exercise) •

A1m:>ra COttar Pradesh)

'lhere are stretches of denuded IOOUntain slopes on the 3-hour drive up fran Kathgodam (the last railhead on the terai plains) to AllOOra ( about 380 kms.fran J:.lelhi) whidl depict the degradation an:i soil erosion 1.llXierlyil'q envirornnental problems in the hills. '!his part of the Himalayas is densely pcpllated an:i depen:ient on agriculture (IOOStiy rainfed); econanic sw:vival deperrls on a high rate of male migration, an:i the ''Iooney order eco~". 'Ihe dlalleD;Je to

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develcpaent planners lies in the fact that even thg.gh wage enployment. has. beo.:ma essential to ·survival, m:iney canmt dbe translatsi into the goods that are needed for the lorg . term sustainability of the hill· ecx>-system. Techniques of inprovin;J prcxiuctivity of lard, both agrialltural arxi o:ttm:>n lams, arxi for generatinJ employment that are CX>nSistent with cx:n;ervation am regeneration of forests am other natural resources, remain elusive. 'lhose that serve the one cbjective often mdenni.ne the other.

'!he objectives arxi priorities of develq:ment efforts are in:licated in the Five Year Plans. '!he Fifth Plan introduced the concept of special Hill Area Develqment Plans, in recognition of regional imbalance in growth; the seventh Plan further entilasized the need for envirornrent consciousness. Alm::>ra District was selected as a ''m:xlel. district" durinJ the seventh Plan period. Despite this increased attention arxi the resources that it brought, the plamti.n;J .process has not been acx::acpanied by public· responsiveness: suggestinJ that there is either sane failure in policies or in their inplementation, or both.

It is llllch easier to describe the problems than it is to suggest possible solutions. It seems clear that goverrnnent, at least in the manner in which it has operated so far, is unable to respon:i adequately to people's perceived needs arxi that without .the active participation arxi involvement of people, plans arxi developirent efforts will continue to meet with little sucx::ess.

Most R&D pertain.irq to these issues is financed by the government. '!he Alm::>ra Magnesite canpmy (a joint sector enterprise, which extracts arxi processes magnesite ore at Jhiroli, alxut 50 kms from Alm::>ra) has a fledglinJ R&D unit, arxi is interested in pursuin;J research aimed at better utilisation of natural resources locally available. '!he ManaginJ Director of the canpany was IOOSt co-operative in the recently canpleted study suwe>r.ted by the :rmc am done by the Institute of Social Studies Trust, New Delhi, explorirq the socio-ecx>namic inpact of minirg in the region~ He disagrees with those who feel that minirg in the area will alloost inevitably contribute to envirornnental degradation without cxmimensurate econanic benefits. 'Ihe ISS'I' study did not, for various reasons, attenpt a ccxrparison of the situation in non-minirg villages to that in minirq villages, a catprrison which acco:rdi.rq to him would alter one's perceptions on minirq inpact significantly. Alm::>ra Magnesite is gene.rally seen as an exception, in that i~ has had a far m::>re favourable inpact on the local people arxi econany than any other mine

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in the area. '!his cou1d be the starti.D;J point of research directed at stmyin:J the manner in whidl m.inin:;J is beiD:J done and hai it _cou1d be inpraved, withoot suggestJnJ that the scale en lolhidl minirq is dale cou1d or shalld be substantively reduced (a CX>l'lClusicn that emerged fran the ISSI' stmy) • other related research areas 'Wall.d be utilisation of ash and magnesite· dust, and of pine needles abmiantly available.

G.B.Pant Institute of HiDBlayan Dwh;a11ext and Develu11ert: Paryavaran Bhawan, Kosi-263643, Al.roc>ra.

Director: Prof. A.N. PU:rdti.t

'!his Institute, an autoncm:u; o:rganization of the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of Irrlia, came into existen:e in August 1988. '!he mandate of the Institute is to umertake in-depth research and developnent studies and to develop/denv:>n.strate awropriate technology packages allned at integrated and sustainable developnent in the entire Himalayan region (which has a vast ecological and socio-a.Il.tural diversity in an area of about 3000 km in l~ and 250 km in breadth) • In addition to the centre at Al.roc>ra, the Institute has centres at Garhwal, Nagaland, and Sikkim.

Main areas of research:

1. r.am and water resource management 2. SUstainable developnent and rural eco-systems 3. F.cological econanics and envirornnental in'pact analysis 4. Consavation of biological diversity.

In addition the Institute plans to set up a caip.rt:er centre, library and an info:r:mation system, and be active in institutional networkin:J.

It is difficult to make a substantive evaluation of this relatively new Institute, as no major research projects have been CC111pleted as yet. Deperrlin;J essentially on the degree of ccmnitment that is displayed by the staff, and the extent to which local people, students and others, can be involved in its work, it could play a very major role both in creatirq awareness and in contrib.Itirq to hmnan resource developnent. '!his will not be possible if the eqilasis is to be on networkin:J and info:r:maticn systems: in that case it nms the darger of bec::aninJ a field outpost for people livirq, mentally or otherwise, in Delhi. ·

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Dr Purohit, formerly Director of the centre for High Altitude Plant Rlysiology, Srinagar (Garhwal) , took over as Director of the G. B. Pant Institute in August 1990. One of the major criticisms of this institute over the last · few years has been its failure to: recruit stildents,.of RUmaon University or develc.p any durable links with other

: '.~·local . institutions or people. In the ooorse of a meet.irq . with Dr Qm:irl."b1 - issue was raised. He concur.red with the need .to. develc.p

. local. human resoorce capability, arrl pointed rut that . similar prci>lems have not been faCEd in Sikkim or in Nagalarrl, where the best students are haWY to wrk in the area, arrl are also quick to notice arrl resporxi to advertisements. 'llle differerre in political. arrl administrative status of Alloora, which is only a district headquarter town, is largely responsible for the anxiety of good students to ioove away. In addition it is necessary to "follow procedures". However Dr Purohit ~ to be sin=ere in his attenpts to develc.p contacts with mtlversity departments arrl increase local recruitments.

'llle institute has acquired larrl at Katannal, near Alloora, but the canp.lS is yet to be developed. While the Minisb;y of Envirorunent arrl Forests makes an armual allocation to the institute the Director has also approached international donor agerx::ies, arrl hopes to have m::>re flexibility in managerial matters arrl freedan fran bureaucratic regulations with such grants as arrl when they becane available.

uttarakhaqi Seva Nidhi. Al:am:a Manorath Sadan, Cllanpmaula, Alm:>ra 263601

Hony. Secy. : Dr Ialit Pan:1e

'llle UI<SN will c:x:nplete soon 5 years of a project on enviromental education. 'lhis project was an outcx:me of the reccmnen:3ations of a special ccmnittee set up urder the auspices of the Plannirq camdssion in 1986. 'llle Ccmnittee made the inp:>rtant point that for the succes.s of envirornnental education progranmes in schools, it was necessa:cy to create mass awareness arrl people's involvement in the ilrprovement of the environment in the villages themselves. It also recognised the i.nportant role that NGO' s were playirxJ in sp~ environmental awareness. Social wrk in the hills a1Ioost invariably has an enviromnental ccmp:>nent, since rural poverty is closely connected to envirornnental degradation, arrl such work has an i.nportant educative effect. 'llle UI<SN was therefore selected to be a nodal agency through which the work of NGO' s in the eight hill

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districts of U.P. could be expamed with enpiasis on the educational carponent of the programnes.

'!he• project ccmnenced in April 1987. A wide ran;le of activities have been ~rted. 'Ihese in::lude :

- balwadis or p:re-sdlool · centres, with an enpiasis· on sane environnental teachin;J

- plantations - suwcrt (partial subsidy an:i dem::nstration) to con.stJ:uction of

sanitary latrines workbook for use in classes IX-X, which aims at C01Weyi.n:J correpts like that of "carcyinJ capacity'' through practical exercises.

- p.lblications · - suwcrt for CC111p; I nature walks I seminars in Villages

· In all about 150 NGOs have been assisted. Of these only 2-3% have dropped out, sane due to unsatisfactory work:irg, an:i sane due to unforeseen .bourda:ry disputes an:i the like. In Gartiwal, 'WCIDeJ:'l have played a significant part in the p~, often through mahila · maI'XJal dals.

'Ihe DepartJrent of Education is considerin] a proposal to develop a centre for Research in Environmental Studies, to be located at Alnora, which will consolidate an:i build upon the UI<SN experience. studies umertaken will be lcx::ale specific, an:i a flexible an:i participatory approach to enviromnental education in schools will be used in generatin] the material an:i designirg the curricula.

Vivekanarrla laboratory for Hill Agriculture (Irxlian Council for Agricultural Research) Alnora 263601

Director: Dr K.D.Koranne

'Ihe Vivekanarrla laboratory is a multi-crop an:i mu1ti-disciplina:ry research institute devoted to agricultural research for the north-western hill region, coverin] Janmu & Kashmir, Hiina.chal Pradesh an::l the U.P. hills. Since 1974 onwards the main eIIPlasis has been on crop-based agricultural research in the disciplines of crop i.mproverrent, crop production, crop protection an:i social sciences. 'Ihe institute is at Alloora (1600 m AMSL), an:i the main research fann at Hawalbagh (1250 m AMSL) about 13 km. fran the institute. Since about 90% of agriculture in the hills is rainfErl, an:i there is

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limited scope for introducin:J canal irrigation due to t:opograprlcal a:>nStraints, the ellJilasis is on crops suitable to drylarrl agriculture arrl on rainwater management. ·

Technologies have been developed for the mid-hill region (inclulin;J valleys) ·for both rainfed arrl irrigated coniltions. catp:>nents of the nev technology incl\Xle illproved varieties, package of practices in::ludin;J agronanic practices arrl plant protection measures, water resource developnent arrl its utilization,· grasslarrl management arrl forage production. To date 44 iirproved varieties of major hill crops have been developed arrl released.

'!he spread of new technology is haqlered, accoz:din;;J to socio-ecx>I'lCl11ic surveys carried oot by the Institute, by such factors as fragmentation arrl scatteredness of holdings; failure to involve wanen; inadequate infrastructure for marketirg of fruits. Attempts to co-ordinate agriculture-related research beirg done by different organisations are fully supported by the institute, which participates actively in institutional networkirg. '!he translation of suo::essful research into widely adopted technology or practices remains the objective of the institute's work. However the links between the scientist arrl the fai:mar need to be strergthened further, a process that possibly requires sane dilution of traditional professionalism. So far the methods used in extension have included on-fann den¥:>nstrations, distribution of mini.kits for evaluation of perfonna.nce, radio talks, preparation of extension literature arrl the organisation of kisan melas.

Although the Institute does not currently have, from the point of the SARO fcx:::us, an excitirg research agerm, it represents an institutional resource arrl scientific capability that could possibly be used at sane point.

A project in the inp:>rtant area of people-park . interaction is beirg done in Nepal through the Woodlams Mountain Institute, west Virginia, USA. Rep1ted institutions in Nepal incltide ICIM:>D;

Government Praooted organisations:

Agricultural Projects SerJices Centre (AP!me) (experienced in policy research arrl project design; current

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involvement is cx:n=entrated in areas like nnmtain off-farm employnent ani dynamics of afforestation in aa:tition to its ccmnitment to trairun:J. ~ has over a hundred professional staff).

'lrade Praootion Centre (TPC) (good expertise on trade ani export related issues)

F.conanic Services Centre (ESEC) ( focus on in:iustrial sector)

Tril:nuvan University system: Centre for F.conanic Developnent ani Administration (CECA) . (six core areas, econanic policy ani planriin;J, management system ani administration system, :cura1 developnent, enviroIUnent ani resOurce managenent, action research ani population ani human resources) •

Centre for Nepal ani Asian Studies (rnAS) (Nepalese cultural ani heritage studies, social change ani developnent studies ani Nepalese political studies)

Research Centre for F.ducational Innovation ani Developnent (CERIO)

Research Centre for Applied Science ani Technology (RECAST) (appropriate technology, especially in the field of irrlustry ani agriculture)

Private sector:

Inte:;Jrated Developnent Systems (IIS) NEW ERA FAST CONSUI.rl' No-frills Associates Valley Research Group arllding Design Associates Geoce consultants M.llti-disciplinary consultants Centre for wanen ani Developnent

'!he major envirornnents arxi infrastructures for R&D in Sri Ianka have been grouped -as foll~ :

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( i) plannirq arrl policy makirq bodies sei:vin] as advisory bodies to line ministries, dlannel.lin] fun:is arrl coordinatin] research projects, arrl provic:Iin:J feedback to the state arrl the PUblic on scientific issues, scientific policy, etc.;

(ii) the universities arrl associated post-qraduate institutes: (iii) institutes actively con:tuctin] furmmental or awlied R&O

progranmes, with a cxnbination of local arrl foreign fun:tinq; (iv) research dissemination bodies.

Plannim arrl oolicy makin:J institutions

Recognition of the need for coordinatin] on~oin] national research, arrl provid.in:J advice on the ailns, objectives arrl status of scientific research arrl scientific issues to the relevant Ministries, led to the fonnation, in 1968, of a National Science COOncil (NSC) urder the Ministry of Irrlust:cy arrl Scientific Affairs. However, early Government fun:tinq to NSC was sparse, arrl in the mid 1970's constituted a mere Rs. 1 million, a sum which was to be used to support arrl coordinate all mtlversity based research as well as to sei:vice administration overtleads. Nevertheless, between 1969 arrl 1976, NSC financed nore than 200 research projects, of which approxinately 45% were within the Natural Sciences, 15% Agriculture, 30% Medicine arrl 10% Social Sciences.

In 1982, NSC was reconstituted as the Natural Resources, Energy arrl Science Authority (NARESA), with an enhanced ll\al')jate arrl directly attached to the President's office. '!here was a substantial increase in fun:tinq, arrl by 1984 NARESA's annual Wdget was approxinately Rs. 18 million, of which about a half caIOO fran foreign sources. A 1986 estimate puts a figure of just over 5% to NARESA' s share of the total fun:tinq involved in Sri I.anka's national research activities. However, this fun:tinq is predaninantly within the mtlversity system arrl is estimated at about 90% of the costs of all local fun:tinq of mtlversity based research. NARESA is, therefore, the ma.in local 1:xx:ly actively fun:tinq research projects for the University based scientific cxmnunity.

In 1980, a Central Environment Authority (CFA) was established by Act of Parliament as the l:xx:ly responsible for fonrul.atin] national environmental policies arrl enforcement strategies for all ecological arrl environmental issues. CFA also acts as a channel.lin] agent for the in~tional ~ agents, arrl distributes arrl nonitors

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research fUnjs to state institutions, the universities am. saoo NGO's.

In 1982, a UNDP/IID study proposed the adq>tion of a national carp.rt:er policy am. the fonm.tl.ation of a National ccrrpitirg council am. corresporrlil'g secretariat. Flc:iwi.nJ fran this, a carpiter Infonnation am. Technology Coun::;il (CINl'EC) was created by Act of Parliament in the next · year as the body responsible for ccup.rt:er-related policy maki.rq. CINl'EC currently canes· umer the Ministry of In:iustries am. science & Technology, am. operates within a very low armual J::uiget. As a result, its efforts are largely fragmented.

'!he universities am. institutes of JX?Stgraduate study

'!he nine university canpJSes c::crrprise Colanbo, Kelaniya, Moratuwa, Sri Jayawardeneplra in the West.em Province, Peradeniya near Karrly in the Central Province, Ruhuna near Matara in the Southern Province, am. Jaffna am. E'.astern in the North am F.ast respectively of the Northeast Province. '!he ninth, the Open university, provides higher education am. awareness programnes on a distance method basis, usirg an islarrl.-wide network of regional am. study ··centres, am. a main canp.is on the outskirts of Colanbo in Nawala. '!he traditional universities, that is excludirg the Open University, can cater for an un:ie!graduate intake of about 6,000 armually. '!he current student registration at the Open university is aroum 16, ooo, however less than 1, ooo are urrlertakirg higher education studies leadinJ to a degree level qualification.

F\m:lirg provided to the universities by the universities Grants Ccmnission (UGC) is non-research specific. Although university academic staff, in catm:>n with their countapnts throughout the VJOrld, are expected to devote a certain percentage of their time to both corxiuctirg research am. disseminatirg the results of this research through :p.lblications am. seminars etc, there is no specific UGC allocation for this purpose. As a result, iesearch activity in the universities is highly constrained both by· a lack of local facilities am. by the absence of gld:>al ccmm.mication links. A poor reward structure am. a limited environment puts great en{ilasis on in:tividual ootivation am. personal factors. Encouragenent towards urrlertakirg research rarely exterrls beyon:i the requirements arisirg fran pi:UtJJtional considerations. '!he in:tividual stan:lin;J Ccmnittees for ea.ch discipline within the umbrella of the UGC are generally ---

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corx::emed with curriculum am course details, not with the prarotion of research activities. Silllilarly, the links that have been established between local mtlversity departnert:s am comterpart departments in foreign mtlversities are mainly teadri.rq based.

'!he five institutes of postgraduate study are the Postgraduate Institutes of Medicine, Archaeology am Management, all of Wich are linked to the University of Colanbo, the postgraduate Institute of Agriculture linked to the University of Peradeniya, am the Postgraduate Institute of Pali am Buddhist studies linked to the University of Kel.aniya. A sixth Institute of ED;JineerinJ has been proposed.

Rese3rr;h enactim bodies

Agrarian related research remains today the major focal ·area for research in Sri .Ianka. '!he Department of Agriculture, established in 1912, un:lertakes a significant annmt of this research within the various Divisions am institutions c:xxnin;J urrler its win]. Research is corrlucted primarily on a regional basis, for which p.u:pose eight agI:o-ecological zones have been identified, am a Regional Research Centre (RRC) established at each. '!he RRC' s are suwcrted by satellite experin'ental. stations. In addition,·the:re are a further four special research centres, namely a Central Rice Breedirq station (CRBS) at Batalagoda, the Sita Eliya Research station (SERS) for potatoes am vegetables, the Lani am Water Use Division (IWUD) am the Soil Consavation Division (SCD). '!he RRC's are loeated at Killonochchi, Maha IlluwaJ.ama, Karadiyan Anl, Angunukolapelessa, Makan:lura, Barxmrawela, Gannoniwa, Banbuwela am Giramurokotte. '!he main centre is at Gannoniwa am is known as the Central Agricultural Research Institute (CARI) . Research into animal health am production is also mrlertaken at Gannoniwa by the Veterinary Research Institute (VRI) .

A Rubber Research Institution (RRI) at 1'.galawatte, a Tea Research Institute (TRI) at Talawakelle, am a Ccx::onut Research Institute (OU) at Iunuwila, were established by the British in 1910, 1918, am 1928 :respectively, am continue today as the main bodies servicinJ the science am technology needs of these three major irxlustries. An Agrarian Research & Traininj Institute (ARI'!) , a SUgar Cane Research Institute .(SOU), a Rice (Paddy) Research Institute (FRI) am an International Winjed Bean Institute (IWBI) have_ been added subsequently, in 1972, 19rm am 1982 :respectiveiy • . . -

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All these institutes c:perate urrler the p.irview of the Ministry of Agricultural. Developnent & Research.

'Die Department of Agriculture also administer the three major botanic gardens of the CClIIltzy, whidl have .beo me focal points for botanical research.

other lam related research bodies include the . Forest Department (FD), the River Valleys Develq:ment Board (RVDB), arrl the survey Department, all urrler the Ministry of rams, the Maha-wel.i Authority (MA) urrler the Ministry of Maha-wel.i Develqment, aIXl the Irrigation Department (ID), urrler the Ministry of Irrigation, all of whidl urdertake a limited aIOCJUnt of research in their respective areas.

Responsibility for fauna aIXl flora protection, aIXl ex>nsenra.tion of wild life, rests with the Department of Wild Life Consenra.tion (WI.C), who also urdertake a limited am::xmt of research as available fun::1s pennit.

'!here are three main State institutes with a maroate relatin:J to the technological up;radin;J of imustcy aIXl cx:mirq within the p.u:view of the Ministry of Irrlustries aIXl Scientific Affairs. 'Ihese are the Ceylon Institute for Scientific & Irrlustrial research (CISIR) established in 1955 aIXl which is the largest, the Irrlustrial Developnent Board (IDB) established in 1974 aIXl the National Ergineerirg Research & Developnent Centre (NERD), also established in 1974. A fourth institute specialisirg in Ceramic research is the Ceramic Research & Developnent Centre (CRDC), established in 19nn. In addition, both the Geological survey Department, established in 1962, aIXl the Atanic Energy Authority (AFA) , established in 1969, are organisations urdert:ak.i.rX] research in their respective areas that operate within the purview of this Ministry.

Research relatirg to heal th, nalical research aIXl related sciences, is urxiertaken within the umbrella of the Ministry of Health, particularly by the Medical Research Institute (MRI), established in 1946, aIXl the National lnstitute of Health Sciences (NIHS) • Traditional medicine research is un:1ertaken by the Ayw:vedic Research Institute (ARI), established in 1962.

In 1982, a National Aquatic Resources Agercy (NARA) was established un:ier the Ministry of Fisheri~, aIXl urxiertakes marine

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related research. Althrugh baSEd in Colarix>, substations alon:J the islam's coast.

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'!here are several other state l:xxlies that perfonn .a certain annmt of R&D in cxxmection with the sezvice furx:tion that they perfonn. A1ocnJ these are the National Buildin:J Research Organisation (NJR)) of the state Er¥Jineerirq Cozporation am the water Resa.Jrces Board (WRB) •

All the above mentioned l:xxlies are state institutions that operate within the p.irview of different ministries. However, there is no assigned a.gercy responsible for overall plannin:J, m:>nitorin:J am coordination of their activities. In addition, the Institute of Fumamental studies (IFS) in Kamy am the Institute of Policy studies (IPS) in Colanbo, established in late 1980s, are l:xxlies initially sponsorsed by the state rut considerably ioore in:lepenjent, not c:cmirq urrler the direction of any particular minisb:y rut continuin:J to receive state patronage •

... '!he major NGO's are oriented towards corx:iuctin:J research am sezvice programmes in the social sciences, socio-encx:>nanics am political studies. '1he leadin:J institute is the Marga Institute, established in 1972, whose major fcx::us is on social science am econanics, rut has latterly been exterxled to include the natural sciences. Marga receives a significant portion of foreign furxlirg in social science am allied research.

'!he International Centre for Ethnic studies (ICES), established in 1982, is an NGO urxiertakin:;J research on sensitive issues, as well as organisin:J seminars am workshops on etlmic issues. Another NGO, the Sarvodaya m:wement was fonned to uniertake grass-roots activities at the village level am, although largely sezvice oriented, urrlertakes some research projects.

'!here are a rnnnber of other NGO's with narrow focus areas, such as the Centre for Wcmen's research (w-M)R), which focuses on wcmens' issues, one of a rnnnber of very small rut active groups, with a specific fcx::us of interest. - ·

'!he Social Scientists Association (SSA), established in 1977, is one of the few professional l:xxlies that actively urrlert:akes research relatin;J to members' areas of ~ise. SSA also collaborates with other institutes in some 9f these areas.

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'lhe C.entral. Bank of Ceyloo has an eca'lallic research unit, as do the main state baJlks I the Bank Of Ceyla'l am the Peq>les I Bank.

Re§fflpji dj §-5ffllination institutes In terms of research plblicatioo jooi:nals,· the Sri Lanka ...

Associaticn for the Mvaooement of Scierx=e (SIMS) fonned in 1944 specifically serves this :i.q:>ortant need of the scientific research ·. cxmrunity by means of an annual conferen:e spread over a nJl!lbp..r of days I am the plblished proceedin:Js thereof o :tJaNever I in general I only abstracts are plblished, the 1989 proceedin:Js carprisirq · 168 abstracts fran 296 research authors.

Whilst NARESA aooepts a limited number of. papers for plblicaticn ·in its own bi-annual research journal, there is an increasirqly large lead time between acceptan:e am plblication. 'Ibis journal CX>ntains about 25 papers per issue an::i in the pericxi 1973-1987, papers fran a total of 631 authors (12.4% female) were plblished.

IFS plblishes abstracts of its own research activities, an::i sane professional societies, ~ludirq the Institute of Ergineers for exanple, produce a regular journal of members' research papers. Most societies. also plblish ad-hoc proceedin:Js fran their various 'WOrkshops)- seminars an::i annual sessions. In the main, ~er, there is a dearth of q.porb.mities for acadeltlics an::i researchers to plblish full an::i refereed details of their research activities.

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Annexure III

JEi"TNT)§ AH APIBlM:JI 'ID 'DIE JG> SFX:IU< IH '.IHE &Dlll ASIA REGiaf : A DI.Sal:JSiaf ICrE

'Ibis brief note starts oot with a limitation whidl needs to be explicitly stated at the a.rt:set. It does not ?1't down a definition of what is meant by an NGO am that is a potential area of confusion given the ranje am variety of NGOs in the region {f:ran large institutions like NCAER, TERI, the Centre for Policy Research at one errl of the specb:um to small semi-organised 'Y.1allell 1 s groups or youth clubs at the other) • For the ~ of this discussion an NGO is whatever the reader is canfortable with a~.in:;J as one.

While sk.irtin;J the semantics, it is still inportant to p.It down the chief characteristics of the non-govermnent sector. '!his is necessary on two counts - one to establish that there are cc:arpell.in:;J reasons why the non-govermnent agencies are good potential partners in devel~t am why the sector sha.tl.d not be ignored am two' to clarify how they are different f:ran the mainstream sector am therefore establish.in:;J that a separate strategy for or a:wroach to them needs to be defined.

I. 'lhe RD Sector - stregths

Private voluntary organisations are ccmoonl.y acknc:"'1ledged as ioore powerful. agents of devel~t am extension than their govermnent countez:part:s {whidl are normally unimaginative devel~t schemes administered by an uninspired, if not outright CX>rrupt, petty officialdan, am further bogged down by a ioorass of regulations am procedures).

sane of the reasons why the non-govermnent sector has an edge over the traditional sector are listed below :

1. Better target the poor

2. Strorg presence in re.sairce poor/inaocessible/diffirult areas

3. ~re participatory in their a:wroadl am OOtain.in:;J ioore authentic feedback on developnent initiatives

4. Better urxlerstarxling of local context, needs, knowledge base

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6. Institutionally flexible over time

7. Program flexibility

a. Irn:JVative in oollectin:j, usin:j, transmittin:J infonnation for the rural poor

9. Strorq 1€adership/ccmnitment/oontinuity

In SUD1Dation, a nore eq;ilatic pro-poor stance, presence in diffiatl.t areas, visionary leadership, flexibility, ani local relevance are sane of the reasons why the NGO sector is an awealin:J develcpnent agent. It is alJoost axianatic that the weaker the govermnent develcpnent efforts in a region the strorqer the voluntary sector. 13an;Jladesh with its over 10,000 registered NGO's is a case in point. In Irrlia too (which by one COlll'lt boasts of over 400,000 such agencies of all hues) there is a terdency for voluntary effort to be concentrated in the hilly, tribal ani drought prone areas.

II. I,imitatiais

'!he above advantages notwithstarrlin;J there are several limitations to develcpin:j partnerships with the NGO sector. '!he sector is dispersed ani heterogenals ani not amenable to unifo:rm or starxlard procedures for project develcpnent. Fran the Centre's viewpoint the followin;J limitations need to be explicitly spelled out :

1. »=ist NGOs are i.nplementin:j agencies with alJoost no interest in ani no ability to do research {whidl shc:W.d not be exterrled to read as 'no need' for research)

2. In teJ:llls of b.rlget ani staffin:j many of these agencies are si.nply too small to interact with the Centre. '!heir requirements are time ani effort intensive ani the absoi:ptive capacity for furrls is eXtremely low.

3. Management ani acx:nmtin:j structures are frequently very ad-hoc ani would not easily fit with the Centre's ITOde of operation.

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III. St;rategy

'!his sectiai aairesses the questiai of how returns to interaction with the NGO sector can be maximized for Imc given the strergths am limitatiais of this sector as c:utl.ined above. Four nDdal.ities are suggested belc:M am a; srussed subsequently :

1. ProgranVInstitutional SUR;>ort 2. WOrkirg with Professional Assistance NGOs 3. Research nebNorks 4. Policy Research

1. P.rogramlinstitutimal SUmart :

'!he BAIF grant provides a very suocessful role lOOdel. carrlidates for such broad based SUJ;P)rt will be few am far between but once they can be successfully located the potentials for develcpnent are .i.nmense. Sare agencies in F.astem Inlia which suggest themselves as potential partners for this type of support are listed belc:M :

a. Krishi Vigyan Ken::Jra Ninpith, Ramakrishna Ashram - SUrrlerbans (W. Belgal)

b. I.Dk Shiksha Parishad, Ramakrishna Mission, Naremrap.ir (W. Berga!)

c. Ramakrishna Missiai, Ranchi {Bihar)

d. Pradan Resa1roe Management Team (W. Belga1 am Bihar Plateau)

e. Gram Vikas, Orissa

2. Professimal Assistance RDs :

A relatively later entrant cm the NGO scene is the intennediary NGO, or Professional Assistance NGO. 'lhese agencies service a group of smaller voluntary agencies am charmelize to them the follc:Ming main types of assistance

F'urxis Managerial assistance Tedmical assistance Professional staff

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Liaison (with government/donors) Trainin;J

In tenns of develop.in} a workirg relationship these agencie5 wwld provide a better fit with the Centre's tpmitin} style on several ooonts :

Relatively sq:hlsticated management systems Greater financial stability Ability arrl desire to do research Trained manpower Provide reliable acx::ess to a mnnber of smaller NGOs (whet~ function) Efficient resource allocation (i.e. they ca.lld break-up arrl channelize a larger grant to a number of small recipients whan the Centre cannot interact with directly)

sane of the institutions in this categoi:y that the Centre ca.lld explore the possibilities with are mentioned below :

a. Participatoi:y Research in Asia (PRIA) b. Professional Assistance to Develcpnent Action (PRAD.'\N) c. Society For Prcm:>tion of Wastelarrls Develcpnent (SmD) d. Centre for Develcpnent Research arrl Trainin;J (CE2IDERIT,

xavier Institute of Management, Orissa) e. xavier Institute of Social sciences (XISS) Ranchi f. Action for Focxi Production (AFPRO)

3. Research Networks :

Networks canbinin;J trainin;J arrl research can be an effective means of capacity ruild.in;J in the NGO sector. 'Ihese networks ca.lld be aro.mi thematic (e.g. coastal systems research) or geograptlc foci (e.g. Bihar plateau).

4. B>licy Rieffflrdl :

'!here is a large vacuum in the area of research arrl action on the macro variables that affect the voluntary sector, which the Centre ca.lld occupy for maxinum leverage. '!he NGO sector while di verse segmented arrl diffused is nevertheless united by the fact that it q>erates within the confines of a policy arrl regulatoi:y framework given by the state. While liberalization in sare measure is be.in}

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·seen in all the oamtries of the Sooth Asia region the likelihcx:xi that it may by-pass the NGO sector for a lon;J time, for want of an active lctiJy is very high. Initiative in this sector, as lll.ldl as in the private entrepreneurial realm, is thwarted by regulation~ red tape, state suspicion arrl blreaucratize. LUcumentation, analysis arrl plblicization of these issues with suitable partners f:ran within the NGO sector oc.W.d be an area where II:RC can take a proactive stance.· sane critical issues are listed below :

1. raws related to registration or inco:rporation. In Irxlia, for instance, the IOOSt. c:xmoon fonn of registration is a Society or Trust. I.sgislations of both were first set up durl.DJ oolonial British rule arrl eadl successive amerrlment to these acts in different states have further given unilateral arrl inordinate powers to the agents of the state to intervene, regulate arrl check. Other fonns of registration - e.g. ooqieratives, non-profit carpanies are equally problem ridden.

2. Incx:lne Tax Iaws : In Inlia, the Incx:lne Tax Act, 1961 adopts a highly ananalrus stance vis-a-vis voluntary agencies. A critical issue is that of havl.DJ to prove 'non-profit' status. '!he current provisions make it i.npossible for a voluntary organisation to cany out any activity to raise :resairoes of its own because sw:plus is liable to tax. '!his mdennines both econanic viability arrl autonany of the sector.

3. Foreign Contrib.ttion Regulation Act. '!his act dates back to the 1976 Emergercy in Irxlia, is placed in the Ministry of Internal Security arrl Hane Affairs arrl has been amerrled several times to make it ioore restrictive. '!here are 14, ooo agencies in Irxlia governed by its strinJent requirements arrl many ioore aspirants for the FrnA certificate.

4. state F\Jrxtin;J : several institutions have been set up by the government to assist arrl finance voluntary organizations. Praninent aIIDl1g these are the KVIC, CAPARI', Central Social Welfare Board, Deparbnent of Science arrl Tedmology arrl varirus ministries. '!his is an appropriate time to look at the procedures arrl principles that govern state fundirq of voluntaey action.

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5. Sectoral studies: studies lookin;J at NGO acx:::ess to resa.irces am info:cmation am ease of NGO inte.J:vention in areas of interest to the Centre in SARo (e.g. forests, water, environment policy) orul.d be another area of action.

6. SARO is already explorin:J the possibilities of develq>in;J a credit ratin;J system for NGOs which if successfully aocxarplished · oruld be a powerful intervention affectin;J the \¥Orkin] of the sector as a whole.

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Annexure IV

ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY AN AGENDA FOR SOUTH ASIAN SOCIAL SCIENTISTS

An Agenda for Soutl1 Asian Social Scientists: Report of a workshop

THE International Development Research Cl•ntre (IDRC) and the Swedish AJ;ency for Research Coop-erntion with Developing Countries (SAREC) have jointly set up a Commission on Developing Countries and Global Change. The purpose of the commission is to set out an agenda for social scientists in the developing world on issues relating lo global environ-mental change. While numerous studies on global environml.'lllal issues have been undertaken by Wcstl.m

. social scientists, there have bl.'\?n few contributions I · from social scientists of the developing world. This

is leading to a lopsided world view of global environmental changes, particularly since the social reality is so dramatically different in developing countries. The commission is entirely made up of social scienlistsand environmentalists from theSouth.

Tile Centre for Science and Environment organ-ized a workshop on South Asian Perspectives on Global Environmental Change: An Agenda for Social Scientists on August 10, 1991. The workshop brought together economists, anthropologists, women's studies experts, historians, political scientists, legal experts and other social scientists from India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Nepal. The objective of the workshop was lo emphasise the role of South Asian social scientists in working out an agenda for social sciences on global environmental change.

The Challenges Before Developing Countries

It was pointed out at the workshop that developing countries have to respond to the growing environ-mental crisis and reconcile the ecological imperatives with the development aspirations of their peoples at the following three levels: 1. At the domestic level where the d'(!'gree of

independent action is still high; 2. At the domestic level which is heavily influenced

by the changing international economic and technological condi lions; and,

3. At the level of direct North-South economic rela-tions.

1. The relatively independent domestic level

The changing l.'Cological conditions pose a serious th real to the subsistence of the people in the develop-ing world. Let us take the case of India, for instance, which facl!s an extraordinary challenge over the next two dL-cades. The Indian population today is about 800 million. By the end of the century it will be about 1000 million. Every one million hectares of India's land, which today support about 2.5 million people, will have to support three million people by the end of the century.

The majority of the people in India survive within a biomass-baSL'<.i subsistence economy, that is, on products obtained from plants and animals. Over the coming years, India's demand for food, fire-wood, fodder, building materials like timber and thatch, industrial raw materials and various such products will grow by leaps and bounds. In the next 10 to 12 years, foodgrains production must increase from about 170 million tonnes to about 240 million tonnes. Simultaneously, production of milk, cotton, rubber, fish and various other sources of food and industrial raw materials must grow rapidly. Almost half the industrial output comes from a biomass-bascd industry and so even industrial output will be seriously affected if biomass production cannot keep pace with population growth. At the same time, to meet basic survival needs, firewood production must increase from an estimated current production level of 100 million tonnes to about 300 million lonnl."S and green fodder production from about 230 million tonnes to 780 million tonnes.

As India's land area is not going to increase, these growing demands can be met on! y if we can find highly productive systems for growing all fonns of biomass from foodgrains to grasses and trees which will be at the same time l.'Cologically-sound. Tile lim-ited land and water resources will, therefore, come under increasing pressure to meet these diverse bio-mass nl'cds. lndi.t has to find a strategy to optimise the use 0f its natural resources in a way that it can get high productivity as well as sustainability.

This will pose a major scientific, social and politi-

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cal challenge for India. And, in this, India can learn precious little from the countries of the so-called: developed world. As the economies and the popula-tions of the Western world grew, they began to extract resources, including biomass resources, from other parts of the world. First, there was the stage of colonialism. Today, there is the world market system. For every one hectare of land that a Dutch person uses in the Netherlands, that person uses about five hectares outside, and most of it in the Third World. Given the fact that an average Indian is unlikely to pick up the kind of purchasing power that Europeans and North Americans have achieved, Indians can hardly import much biomass for their needs and, thus, use other's land resources. Indians can mainly consume that biomass which they can grow within their own limited land mass.

Quite contrary to what the need is, the overall biomass production in India seems to be declinmgand extremely depressed as compared to the natural potential in several areas. Nearly one-third to one-half of the country can today be called a wasteland. To reverse this situation, every inch of land must produce grains, grasses or trees and every pair of hands will have to be put to this task in a scientific and highly productive manner. India has an extremely rich natural resource base. But this resource base is not a fixed asset. It can be enriched and it can be depleted. India can have a rich and green future, India canbecorneavastdesert. Buthowcanthis 21st century problem be resolved when the country is still saddled with 19th century administrative systems and laws and 20th century concepts of economic and social development borrowed from the West?

The ecological crisis of the 1980s threw up several popular responses to arrest the growing degradation. Some of the most successful projects were not only able to regenerate the physical environ-ment and increase supplies of subsistence biomass goods lik". firewood but also increase employment opportunities and cash incomes through increased agricultural, liwstock and artisanal production. But m.1ny of these projects were based upon institu-tional changes which brought about a system uf participatory democracy in natural resource managL'-ment, control and use. Equity, sustainability anJ community management were emphasised in these micro· projects.

Translating these micro- experiences into an dfoclive macro-policy framework remains a formi-dable ch.illen~c for policy analysts a•\J soci<1l scientists. The biggest problem that a country like imlia faces is the l;ick oflmlislic a pproachcs to natural ·resource prubll•ms. An inlcrJisciplinMy perspl·ctive '.is vil,\l for <m.1lysin,; or proposin,; resource ;;management prescriptions.

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Urban problems

The processe5 of rapid urbanisation throw up yet another major set of problems faced by developing _wuntrics. Urban development is an area in which developing countries have almost blindly followed the Western technological model. The trouble with this Western model of urbanisation is that it is, on one hand, extremely capital intensive and, on the other,extremelyrcsourceintensive. The capital inten-sity ensures that the urban population in a generally capital-scarce and low income situation gets sharply divided into haves and have-nots. While some can afford the new urban services, others cannot. The resource intensity, on the other hand, means that the cities destroy the hinterland for their growth as they sweep away natural resources to meet their, growing needs of energy resources, building materials, food, water and industrial raw materials through defor-estation, mining, construction of roads and darns in the hinterland, and conversion of subsistence farm-ing into cash cropping. The towns and cities them-selves suffer increasingly from air and water pollu-tion and problems of toxic waste disposal. The Western world was able to subsidise its urbanisa-tion process through the exploitation of natural resources and labour in its erstwhile colonies. After decolonisation, its economic, technological and military clout has allowed it to continue the exploita-tionof theresource basein the developing world and purchase its products, especially biomass products, at declining terms of tr.ide.

But how docs a country like India develop its towns and cities and make them more habitable, wilhoutdcstroyingtheforests in the Himalaya or the Aravali hills? By the end of the century India will possess the world's largest urban population. This population cannot develop with the same resource intensity as in Europe or North America without causingenormousdestruction and human displace-ment in the countryside and swelling the tide of ecological refugees lo the city.

Appropriate policy pack;igcs arc needed to de· tcrminc technology choice anJ use that will lead to environmentally sounJ anJ socially just use of natu-ral resources. Let us lake the question of housing. Both bricks 1rnJ n·mcnt arc extremely energy· intmsive matl'riab anJ result in thL· mining uf the land. Thl·ir cost b also so high th<1l the bulk of the urban population in Sl'ver.ll developing countries cannot yd afford the chl'ilPl'St low cost brick and cemL•nt building. I low do Wl' dl'vl'lop less resource inll·nsiVl' buildings and l'llSllH' thl'ir spn•ad anJ use? Similarly, with resp1..•d to don\l'stic waste dispos<tl, ~·wl'ril).;l' is <Ill in.1pprupri.1tc ll'l·lmology that cmL·rgl'l.I Juring tlw oil11ni;1I 1wrim.l in Europe. Its C<lpital

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intcn;;ily..iS~uch that aGccssto it is ilcarly impossible ablc;cncrgy technologies like solar cdls which have for ni~s, u~an dwcll'-'°5. Nearly a U\ird of India's the potential to revolutionise power i;cncration arc urban d~cllcrs, for irls(ancc, have no access lo toil~ts, extremely capital intensive and science intensive. a third have access to bucket type latrines, and only a Developing countries generally l;ick capital and a third to~wers. Sewers, thus, serve t\1c riclu.•st good scicntificbasc. ll1ey will find tlll'm!>Clvcsheavily 5(.'Ctions 0£ the urban population. Withouti adl.'tluate dependent on imports to obt."lin tl\l'Sl' dc~irahle kch-invcstmcnts in water treatment systems, the sewer- nologics, as and when the ll.-chnologicJI brl',1k-

{. ·, ... · age bl\scd waste disposal systems pollute ~he rivers. throughsoccur. lntcgratcd J'l.'Sl m;inJi;l'mcnt can help ) Surely an alternative technology for waste disposal is . to reduce pesticide use in agriculture but it requires

.-~_·.·.:.·,_,·:··.·.,:{··'.:.>.·:.,·.-. .. · needed· wl~ich can convert l:tuman nightsoil into a · a good scientific understanding of local ecological, - : - ma1:\Urial resource and stop the pollutiqnof the rivers.' crop and pest specificities. Yet devclopini; countries

J · · . Cities can, in fact, become major sources of nutrient~ may be pushed ·into this area faster than their · · ·· and not a nutrient drain on croplands. domestic scientific resources can effectively manage

':\· Does all this mean that we have to think only in because of changing environmental and food safety "\ . . terms of simple technologies, which often get branded standards and specifications in industrialised coun-

·:;;( · as sccohd-gr:~de.technologics? Why can't the most tries. In an increasingly integrated global economy, _ ;. . complicated· principles of biotechnology and genetic th~ kinds of pressures arc expected to grow. The fr _> · engineering be used. to make compasting toilets a dcman4 for pollution control equipment will alone · ~~!'=.:.,:· suc~~t'"~ial scientists can· play a key role in, constitute a multibillion dollar markcL : ,"(" ~.· . assisti'nK_thcirsocictiestomakcgood tcchnologychoi~ f- .Apart from the above challenges, there are sev-:·.>::·.'i'. : · .' . . ~r~·< =-. · : . ;i 'I· eral dangers that developing countries face because ~JY 1~·.<·2· "Th' ·~· .:g_~:-,,·b:· .. ~ •. · • "t.. t d d u 1 I . . ·. r.l::. 1_of increa~ing_measur'es ,to control pollution and cn-... J.. -. .. • , o a_I~ in egra e omes c eve · :..~. "' · • 1 d · 'nd t · 1· d t · t~~~j\;L::~~~·:~i~t~~o~~tri~·today have to face up~ th~~~/.~-.~~::i~ah c:~r;~es~~ti~~ '.s na ·~ · co~n nes. ,_ -~ . · 'problc~~ ~fenvir()nmentaldcgradatio1_1,povcrtyal'.'c.1': j V= relocation and transferof enviroomcntally harmful. ,:~:i t' .. t une~J.>J9.~t~·as d~ribed abov~, at_ a time .whC,r:~~·;j: l 'and polluting i~dus~es to t~edcyeloprng world; . :.~(; '.;: :· ·; ~er~a!lf~~ing global techi1ologic.i~. ~Ii ti~I :ai<4!,,:r~l 2)~ / ~le of ~azardous.: prooucts_ in ~cveloping ~o~n- · ,:: l · CCo'1011l:fC chan~es, The global technological sys tent;-~ •. tries which are banned or rcstr1cte4 for use m in-.. ,·, for i~stance, is changing rapidly. An cntir~ran,ge of dustrialised counbies; and, ... . . '.i new technologi~, which have the potential to affect . . 3) . dumping of hazardous wastes in developing

almost all fields of human endeavour like industry, 1 countries which are generated in industrialised ,l

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agriculture, health services, education, communica- countries. lions ~d exploitation of energy and mineral resources, All these dangers have been expressed in the are emerging and finding new applications. Amongst past and some specific examples have even been the most famous of these are microelectronics, bio- documented. Lack of ad~uate information often technologies and modem communication systems. prevents the documentation of more such cases partly The introduction of these new technologies can pose because of commercial secrecy at both exporting serious social and economic issues for the develop-. and importing ends an~ partly because of the finan-ing world, which will be affected both directly and dal inability of researchers in developing countries to indirectly by the profound changes they will bring international information sources. Some of the case about,firstly,intheeconomic structuresandresource studies which have exposed the above dangers in use, consumption and trading patterns within the developing countries have been conducted by con-industrialiscd world and, secondly, in the trade ccmed researchers in industrialised countries or relations betWeen developing and industrialised coun- through cooperative nctwotks of social activists in tries. Reconciling the objectives of poverty eradica- developing and industrialised countries. But this is tionandemploymcr1tgcneration withtheobjectiveof an area where considerable vigilance is needed. desirable technological modernisation may prove to be diffirult in conditions when the direction of techno-logical change is less labour absorbing, capitaJ-inten-si vc and science-intensive. New energy ~ffident tech-nologies arc often, though not in an cases, capital-intcnsive and arc often labour-displacing technolo-gies. Yet, with energy prices uncertain and rising, ~nergy efficiency has to be considered an important objl.'Ctivc of technological modernisation to reduce ,dependence on energy imports and maintain inter-national competitiveness. Similarly, several renew- ..

3. North-South economic relations

The ethicofcaringandsharingisstill far from ~he arena of North-South international relations. The former, firstly, want to deal with environmental issues in a highly selective and sectoral way(ozonclayer, global warming, biodiversity, tropical forests etc.); and, sec-ondly, a void any serious discussion on the restructur-ing of international economic relations and, thus, address only symptoms and not the systemic ca uses

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· of environmental degradation and associated eco-nomic problems. The industrialised countries ar~ also kcenlo define the global environmental agenda. They want to separate the globe's environmental woblems into local problems and, hence, best left lo national action without recognising the rcla ted inter-national dimensions; and, global problems and, which are considered appropriate for international negotiations and commitments. For developing coun-tries, thisagendaisobviously indifferent to their im-mediate concerns and even a threat to their sover-eignty over natural resources and future develop-ment

As this century draws lo a close, the big chaJJenge is how are we going to manage this extremely divided and increasingly overexploited world in the interestsofusalJ? Since the basiclevers ofpower-aid, trade and debt- lie largely with the North, it is important for the North to provide the lead to give confidence to the South that it is truly talking about equitable and sustainable management of the world's environmentandnaturalresources in the interestsof alJ humanity. The North must indicate its willing-

J ness to deal with basic issues that force the South' to ! scrape the earth. It would be wrong for the North to believe that the South does not care for the environ-

. ment. In fact, the starting point for international environmental negotiations must be the consump-tion patterns of the Northern countries. It is indeed an irony of the international environmental situation today that it is the environmentally immoral who are today preaching environmental morality to those who have largely been frugal and sparing. Does anybody believe that the earth can support everybody at the consumption level of an European or a North Ameri-can? Way back in 1908, India's Mahatma Gandhi had asked, almost like a 1990s environmentalist, 'If it took Britain the exploitation of half the globe to be what it is today, how many globes would India need?' The Northern economy has been heavily subsidised by the wasteful use of globalcommons like the oceans and the atmosphere and the land-based resources of the South. Northern consumers still do not pay the full ecological costs of their gargantuan consump-

. lion and emissions. The South continues to subsidise the' North. Firstly, it supplies all kinds of luxury biomass products from tropical hardwoods to pca-n u ts, pineapples, tea, coffee, cocoa, bananas, prawns, cassava and bl.>cf at constantly declining terms of trade. The basic message of environmental econom-ics, now so popular a discipline in the North, is that all consumers must pay the trUl' ecological costs of their consumption. The prices in the world m.lrkct system, dctcrminl'<l by markl'I compl.'li ti wncss, however, Cail lo inrnrpor.1te the l-Ci.llogical costs. These costs c;rn be captunoJ only through a series of fiscal and l.'Conomic i nstru men ts i\S pi!rt of a dcl i hl·ra te public polic_y package.

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Secondly, the South provides all kinds of seeds, herbsand other resources for genetic variability, in-cluding traditional knowledge about their uses, which have transformed the world's pharmaceutical and food industries. The North pays nothing to the South in return while most technical knowledge emanating from the North is protected by patents and has a strong financial value, and Northern governments arc making efforts to further strengthen the patents system. But has any Western enterprise paid royal-ties lo the American Indians for the knowledge they have given the world about rubber, quinine, curare (without which modem surgery would have been impossible), potatoes, tomatoes, avocadoes, tobacco and com? What royal tics has Ethiopia received for its coffee, Madagascar for its vanilla and India for its reserpine, which resulted in the development of tran-quilisers? American Indians are today amongst the poorest and most persecuted people on earth, such that they cannot even protect their immediate habitat - the Amazon, for instance.Given even a fraction of their rightful economic dues for the biological re-sources and knowledge they have provided, the Amazon Indians will themselves ensure that the biological diversity of their habitat is well protected.

Thirdly, the poor of theSoutharenot even using a small fraction of their legitimate share of the global commons like the atmosphere, thus, permitting the people of the North to pollute on the cheap and build up their economy rapidly and cheaply.

On top of this all, the South is today enmeshed in a system of indebtednes.s that results in over US $40 billion being transferred every year from the South to the North, even after all the aid and private sector investments arc taken into account. This leaves the South bereft of the 'financial space' needed to invest in the long term to take environmental considerations into account. On the contrary, the South is forced to draw upon its natural capital constantly to meet itscurrcntconsumption and repay its debts.

It is vital that steps arc taken to reform the world economic system so that all citizens of the world, including the world's poor, arc empowered to take control over their environment and the rich arc forced to pay the L'Cological costs of their consump-tion. Only then can productive activities governed by the world market system respond to the ecological impl·rative and the poor nations possess the financial space nl-cdcd to invest in the future. Within their <1bility, the poor already do theirbl.•st to conserve their l'llVironml·nt and m<ikc sust.linablc use of it. The Nl'p.llcse and Indian forml·rs of the western Hima-1,,y.1 put in an l'normous amount of labour in the tcrrncing of the mou11t.iins to conserve the shallow mont.mc soilY. Even the World Bank would find it difficult to underwrite such massive labour invcst-llll'nls. The I limal.ly.lll f.1rnwrs do this on their own .

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And this is not the only thing th<lt people of the developing world undl•rtakc to manage their 11,1turill reS1.mrCl'S on a sustainable basis.

I lowever, the South must also ll•arn a ll•sson. Whill'ldling the North bluntly that it is the Soutlwrn pt'<ipll•s' lifcstyll'S and cultures lll<ll h;wc kl'pl the world's ecological fabric together, it must also take c.1n• not to <ldopl the Northern consumptive lifostyle. The South must gel rid of its poverty but not the t•wlogical prudence inherent in its traditional lifo-styles. The South must put brward its own world view, as the legitimate voice of the world's poor, on how it would like lo s<.'C the world's environment managed. This would creiltea basis for a truly global environmental agend<l to emerge.

Context of the Global Environment Debate

Global environmental concerns, as currently pro-jected and debated, cover a time span of about two decades sandwiched between the two miljor mile-stones of Limits to Growth (early 1970s) and Our 1Commo11 Future (late 1980s). Despite their short his-tory, these concerns have not only made a dramatic impact on the popular mind, scholarly diS<.ourscsand political summits but they seem to have completely overshadowed (in terms of attention and resource allocation), the immediate issues of world poverty, hunger and inequity, which directly or indirectly contribute to nationc.I, regional and global environ-mental problems. One of the principal reasons for this upsurgeinenvironmental concerns is the high scare potential of some of the issues covered by the global environment debate, such as global warming which potentially threatens the very future of the resource extractive, market driven, environment insensitive . production systems on which the modem human

·civilization has been built. This, in tum, distorts our perspectives on the global environment problems, approaches and priorities.

One fallout of this isa duality of approaches to ·global environmental issues, namely, (i) the dominant · view, and (ii) the alternative view. This classification of views is not on the basis of their inherent strength

. and relevance, but on the basis of time, energy and • resources they occupy in debates, negotiations, re-. search and actions at the global level. The currently 'dominant view' of global environmental problems, propagated largely by the Western world and the international agencies, primarily focuses on long term, inter-generational issues manifested by global

, warming, shrinking biodiversity, threat to the ozone : layer etc., issues which are prcS&ltcd as central for ' the sustenance of the present pace and pattern of

prosperity of the global humansocicty,butarclargcly central for the sustenance of the prosperity of the

global rich. The 'alternative view' on global environ-mental problems, on the other h.1nd, focuses on issues of current poverty, hunger and inequality, all of which arc causes and conscc.1uenccs of environ-mental degradation mainly within an intra-genera-tional context.

TI1e dominance of vk•ws in the glolMI environ-ment debate, as in all other issues, is directly rcl.1ted lo the dominance of the view holders in economic, political, technological and other spheres in an un<.>c.1ual world. This dominance overtly manifests itself in the very definition of what arc 'glob.-:!' issues. The discourse about these global environment issues (global warming, biodiversity, ozone layer etc.) leads lo a preoccupation wilh presumably catastrophic consequences of current actions in the future rather than an investigation into the present systemic causes of the global environmental degradation. Allusions only to the future of our planet- "that beautiful spaceship earth" -- masks the realities of a divided world, the small air-conditioned class and the large class of second rate passengers on board the space-ship earth_ There is a vital difference between the immediate, existential concerns . and the not so immediate, although real, concerns. This draws the dividing line between the priorities seen from the perspective of those for whom environment is a livelihood and survival issue, and of those for whom environment is largely an external and future cop-ccrn. To those who earn a livelihood of meagre subsistence by applying their human skills, ingenuity and knowledge on nature's capital, the pr<?Gent and the future are a continuum linked together and the 'global' includes the 'local'.

The major environmental issues seen from an alternative perspective are those which relate basi-cally to those planetary resources which sustain present livelihood and are crucial for the immediate survival of that part of humanity which depends directly on the natural environment for its daily liv-ing. Land and water issues, in general, arc the most crucial environmental issues. In particular, these would include soil erosion and degradation, defor-estation, desertification, floods, water scarcity and pollution, coastal zone resource depiction, and eco-systems dislocation. Taken together, these problems link poverty tocnvironmental degradation, a shrink-ing range of production options, and a persistent decline in quality of life. The dominant view rele-gates these issues to the domilin of 'nationill con-cerns', hence out of the purview of what is global. It also tries to extend the blame for global problems too to the Third World and, thus, creates an impression that all humans in the world must together solve these global ,problems. This completely distorts the priorities of the South. The lending priorities set under the Global Environment Fund by the UNDP I

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UNEP /World Bank are a clear reflection of the global environmental priorities set by the· dominant view'. The fund provides finances only for projects that aim to prevent global warming, preserve bio-diversity, reduce threats to the ozone layer, and control pollution of international waters. On the contrary, UNEP's anti-desertification fund has re-ceived almost no financial support.

The role of Social Scientists

It is obvious that social scientists in the developing world have a major role to play in increasing the understanding of their societies about the processes of planetary environmental change and their implica-tions for the world's people, including the poor and the marginalised. Generally speaking, social scien-tists both in the North and the South have been assigned a marginal role, both by design and default, in conceptualising and advocating global environ-mental issues even in the North. There is a heavy involvement of natural scientists in the global envi-ronmental debate and .there is a persistently higher ~source allocation to them. The physical dimensions and the geobiological variables, typically in the natu,ral science framework, of the global environ-mental change are being emphasised, with little direct incorporation of the human and social dimen-

• sions of the change. In this process, the role of social sciences has got marginalised. The issues emphasised- for example, global temperature rise, sea level, changes, reducing gene pool etc. - rely more on.what are believed to be hard scientific data but, which are also at the same time, very uncertain 'scientific' facts. Environmentalists themselves have ·emphasised scientific data and have played an im-por'tant role in getting them embedded in the popular mind.

The limited role or social sciences in the above debate is also due to default on part of the social scientists. A few exceptions notwithstanding, social scientists have by and large ncglech.>d issues central to the global environment debate. Though the situation is changing in developed countries, in ,developing countries social scientists' contributions to the debate and research on the subject is extremely limited. This is partly due to the perceived low relevance of the 'dominant view' of global environ-mental isSUl.'S in the devl'lopi:'lg country context, where intra-generational bsues and imml.'<liatc problems occupy greater attention. But wlrm a :.;lol1t1l framtwork for dt•11ling witl1 mviro11111ent11I issm'S is '11•i11:~ 1lt-vl'111pt•cl, suclr a rieglt'Ct ca111irove to lie d1111,'\mJ11s.

Another possible reason for the limikd involve-ment of social scientists in environmental issues is the relative newness of the subjl'Ct. Soci;ll scil'ntists in

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developing countries, including those of South Asia, have indeed been dealing with environmental re-sources (like land and water), nature-centered prob-lems such as floods, droughts and famines, and various natur<JI resource related externalities of public interventions in different areas. But this .has often been attempted without an integrated environ-mental focus. For instance, in many countries of South Asia, data are analysed with reference to prac-tically every administrative and economic category, su.ch as state, district, village, caste, class, family size and fann size, but usually without any reference to / the specificities of different ecological or natural resource zones, which will constitute a first step to-wards incorporating environmental concerns in so-cial science research.

The problem is further aggravated by the lack of a tradition of interdisciplinary work by social scien-tists, especially involving natural scientists, in defin-ing problems, conceiving solutions and designing research and action programmes. Even efforts such as the joint panels of the Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR) and the Indian Council of Agriculture Research (ICAR) have not helped to change the situation much. The same is the situation of social scientists working in agricultural univer-sities and technical institutions, where interdiscipli-nary work can easily nourish.

It should, however, be mentioned that there is increasing environmental sensitivity in social science work, partly du~ to sponsored research projects and partly due to the work of pressu1e groups and NGOs dealing with specific problems (for example, location and design of irrigation dams with environ-mental side effects). However, there too the focus is usually scct(')ral and the totality of environmental issues arc rarely analysed in an integrated manner. The role of social scientists in analysing environ-mental issues can be enhanced by focussing on (i) an J integration of environmental concerns in social sci-ence research; (ii) interdisciplinary work; and, (iii) creating conditions for frequent interaction between social scientists, environmentalists and natural scien-tists.

Some Generic Issue in Social Science Research

The workshop particip;mts raised several getll'ric is-sues rel\\ ting to social science n•S(.•arch in devl'loping countries of South Asiil with speciill reference to the growing l'nvironnwntal concern.

1. Rl'lcv.1ncc of rcseard1

' A gl'lll'ric point w.ls r.tisl'J during the workshop on

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the irrelevance of much research in developing coun-tries which is often based on an inappropriate and unnt.'Cessary extension of imported concepts and methodologies. Kamla Chowdhry, former chairper-son of the National Wastelands Development Board, recounted her experience from her days as a profes-sional psychologist. She said she was surpriSt.-d to find numerous psychologists working on problems caust.-d by deprivation by studying rats whereas dep-rivation in the human society was staring us in the face all around. A few participants, however, felt that problem of irrelevance w~sprobably greater in the natural sciences than in the social sciences. Probably one way of dealing with this problem, especially with respect to environmental problems, is lo bring social scientists in touch with grassroots activists. NGOs and other development organisa-tions who want actual field problems investigated.

2. Western domination of research

Environment related work of social scientists in Western countries has influenced the beginning of

l similar work in developing countries through dem-. onstralioneffects, interactionsand financial support. How far all this has led to 'Western domination' is difficult to say and the answer has to be sought at different levels. A primary indicator of domination would be the unquestioned acceptan~e of imported ideas, approaches, evidence, interpretations and in-ferences and their propagation through work car-ried out in the local/national context, irrespective of their applicability.

Fac~ors facilitating such influences are (i) the ex-istence· of a conceptual vacuum because of a lack of alternative ideas and perspectives; (ii) training and background of national professionals which promotes

. blind adherence to Western ideologie5 and method-

. ologies; and, (iii) financial support/ grants and facili-ties for work and propagation of results using hy-potheses and approaches developed by Western spe-cialists. These factors can lead to the possibility of

, Western domination of work by national social · scientists in the first instance. But as work progresses , and higher levels of understanding are achieved,

national professionals should be able to question ex-ternal ideas and develop their own perspectives on social problems, including global environmental is-sues.

In thespecificca5eofSouth Asian social scientists and their perspectives on global environmental is-sues, the situation is quite mixed. There is no doubt that the 'dominant view' of global environmental issues is accepted to a certain exlentwithin a range of professionals working in South Asia, including natural scientists and environmentalists. Both aca-demic and stale supported projects on these issues

have often borrowed ideas and methods from the West. Western views and interpretations often re-main unquestioned. Funding and networking arrange-ments which support the sharing of ideas, often lead to an uncritical acceptance of importL-d ideas, espe-cially in the presence of a conceptual vacuum locally.

But the recent critique prepared by the Centre for Science and Environment of the interpretation of sci-entific data on global warming shows that the uncritical acceptance of even scientific data and methodologies is dangerous as they arc based on culturally biased assumptions. lltis exercise further emphasises the role of Southern social scientists in the examination of global environmental issues. Strate-gics lo combat global environmental problems and sharing of costs and gains have been viewed di ff er-ently by developing countries as compared to West-ern countries.

It is also important that the arguments espoused by Southern social scientists rise beyond the level of a repudiation of Western views and goon to develop an independent alternate set of pcrspt.'Ctives. Unfor-tunately, a major problem arises out of the Southern social scientists' traditional confinement tosociocco-nomic issues detached from their biophysical frame-work and the lack ofan interdisciplinary tradition. It will be important to remove these gaps if the South is to develop alternative perspectives to the 'domi-nant view' of major global environmental issues.

However, certain participants at the workshop emphasised that a certain amount of caution needs to be exercised while critirlsing the 'Westernism' pres-ent in South Asian professionals. It has become a fad amongst many South Asian scholars to label every-thing as Western and then decry it. These scholars risk getting sidelined, which can then lead to the curbing of what could have been very useful research. Secondly, certain concepts and tools, though devel-oped in the West (the best examples of these come from economics), are universal today and should be readily used by Southern social scientists without any fear of Western domination. The challenge to social scientists is to use these concepts/tools, with im-provements if necessary, to develop their own agenda and solve their own problems. Mixing up the 'agenda' with 'concepts/tools of analysis' is counter-productive. Anti-Westemists should defirutely be-wareof an uncritical and unquestioned romanticisa-tion of the past For instance, several environment-friendly technologies of the past were also women-unfriendly in terms of the excessive demands they placL'<l on women's labour.

3. Inadequate participation of social scientists in; policy formtilation ,

Yet another generic issue that was raised during the·

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workshop was that, with the exception of economists, social scientists rarely get consulted or involved in official policy formulation. It is not a matter of sur-prise, therefore, thatofficialpoliciesareheavily influ-enced by ecpnomic and/or technical considerations

.., while social, cultural and political factories rarely receive adequate attention. :

4. Lack of interdisciplinarity

Human-nature interactions have many facets, which require an integrated, holis~ and interdisciplinary analysis. Ideas and concepts need to be integrated across space, time and disciplines to solve environ-mental and natural resource management problems facing us. lnterdisciplinarity, in the specific context of environmental problems, cannot be restricted even to disciplines within the social sciences but they must also tie up with the natural sciences too.

The tenn environment is often used as a synonym of the natural environmenL This myopia is unjus-tified as the naturalenvironment isonlyoneaspect of the human environmenL It is the physical back-groundagainstwhichall interactions between human beings and other organisms and ecosystems take place. Human beings interact with each other, other floral and faunal species, and the physical environment, and thus contribute to environmental change and are affected by it.

Without a holistic approach, natural resource man-agement will often fail. For many conservationists today, for instance, environmental management is merely planting a few trees and protecting some endangered animal species. Environmentalists often also preach a rejection of consumerism and individu-alism in favour of a back to nature lifestyle. As opposed to this, there is a gaggle of devclopmentalists who often argue that the panacea for all problems lies ina fastN rate of growth. This is justified as the only practical way of producing the wealth necessary to solve the problems of poverty and environmental

'degradation. However, the emphasis on boosting production ignores the question of distribution, that is, who gets the fruits of production, how it is

· achicVL'd, and w hethcr it is at the expense of the poor and their environment? Environmental destruction is sometimes justified as a necessary s.1crifice for the urgent goal of increasing national growth. Forests ;.re cleared forrevcnucor to unlock the mineral assets of iron ore or coal that lie below th~m. Industries pour out poiSonous pollutants ix-cause the cost of cleaning them up arc presumL'll to be too expc.•nsivc for poor countries and would slow down thq;rowth rate.

But m•my expL·rts involwd in ·11,irJ World Jcvcl11pm~nt now rt'Ci •);nisc th.it, n mtr;iry tu the 11ld idea that <~nvironment is a luxury, it is the poor

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people in these countries who face the most pressing environmental crises. Additionally, national eco-nomic development will be 'development' only for the short term if it ignores the degradation of the natural resource base upon which any kind of devel-opment must be based. There is, simultaneously, a trend in certain sections of the environment move-ment that neglects the problems of poverty and hides its real causes. Degradation of the world's natural re-sources cannot be halted simply by imposing the burden of environmental conservation on the poor. A series of "keep out'' signs around the world's forests and environmental hot spots would not only leave the poor hungry, and, therefore, be morally unaccept-able, but also they would just not work.

The poor and the hungry are not the helpless victims of a hostile natural environment but the products of an exploitative human system.'They find themselves and theirlocal environmental the end of a chain of cause and effects, which starts with the rich and the powerful, living in the capital cities of the developing world and thousand of miles away in the boardrooms and government offices of London, Brus-sels, Washington and Tokyo.

Environmental destruction in the Third World cannotbe prevented without challenging the under-lying economic and political pressures arising out of unequal asset distribution, international debt and unfair trade practices. A technical understanding of how culting down of treesJeads to soil erosion or to a drier climate may help in finding technical solutions to the problems of rapid descrti fication. But they need not work in the field. flying in a foreign forestry expert or setting up a project funded by international aid agencies to plant exotic trees will be ineffective, perhaps even harmful, if politically sensitive ques-tions-like why were the trees cut, by whom and for whose benefit? - were to go unanswered. Very often, environmental problems are posed as purely scientific questions with technical answers, because they involve complex natural processes like the greenhouse effect or soil erosion. An accurate scien-tific understanding of how the processes work is undoubtedly important. But this can easily slip into the belief that "if we knew all the scientific facts we could easily solve the problems". Similarly, a good understanding of the social issues will be inadequate to find workable 11uestions unless there is accurate scientific knowledge of the natural processes in-volved, their 1:apacity for and resilience to human intl•rvcntii m.

All this nwans that an interdisciplinary approach is m·l·Jed to umkrstanJ the developmcnt-environ-ml·nt rd1tionships ;111J that p.utial or scgmenkd at-t.1d.s 1m poverty can ll•ad to policies in which nd thcr till' go.ils of devl'lopnwnt nor environmental n•gcn-eriltion <He ilL~lieveJ. Unfortunately, despite the rec-

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.. ,,. ngnition of the above, hardly any academic institu-tion in the region offers an integrated, interdiscipli-nary programme which l<X1ks at the environment as an integral part of development. Possibly the sole exception to this is the M.Phil course in the Centre For Development Studies, Trivandrum. ll1e envi-ronment curricula offered in a few places a re mostly cuurst.'S on "science and technology" which empl~asisc purcly tcchnical solutions to whatarc also social and economic issues. Among the social science insti-tt1tions, the scenario is reminiscent oCthe story of the six blindmcndiscovcringanclephantand thc'truth'. Holism is a fad to which lip service is paid in seminars and conferences, but not in the classroom. Even in the social sciences, the admission criteria rule out switching disciplines in most universities/ colleges and environment or ecology receive at best a passing mention. The 'valiant few' who dare change disciplines find it extremely difficult to get jobs, a factor which deters those who arc potentially interested in undertaking such risky ventures. A liberation of curricula is extremely essential for interdisciplinary training programmes to succeed.

For an interdisciplinary analysis of human-na-ture interactions, the human environment will have to be divided into two broad categories: a) the natural environment, and b) the socioeconomic system. The two continua11y interact and modify each other through numerous feedback loops. The socioeco-nomic system is itself a mosaic of technological, social, cultural, economic, political, legal and admin-istrative sub-systems of a human community inhab-iting a specific· given natural environment These various sub-systems are intimately interconnected and determines the pattern of a human commu-nity's interactions with its surrounding natural envi-ronment The interactions may be mutually benign or injurious. Ahuman community may overexploit its natural environment, causing it to deteriorate. But since the two are joined by a feedback loop, the dete-rioration of Jhe natural ecosystem wili ultimately affect the socioeconomic system adversely.

The human-nature interactions of a particular community are further affected by interactions with extcrnai human communities: a) by' interactions with cultures living in different

natural environments within the same nation through economic exchanges and knowledge or technology transfers; and,

b) by interactions with cultures living in natural ecosystems outside the nation, either indirectly through economic exchanges, knowledge or tech-nology transfers, and spread of foreign lifestyles, or directly through political doMination (as in the days of colonialism) or economic domination (as a result of heavy ;indebtedness and extcrnally-impo~ conditionalities).

In addition, thcentiremosaicofintcractions can vary over different historical periods. For instance, natural resource use patterns changed dramatically in India as it moved from the pre-British period to the British period, partly because of the numerous

· legal and administrative changes that the new colo-nial masters introduced. In post-British India, while the legal-administrative order did not change much, there was a dramatic change in natural resources use patterns because of the rapid increase in technologi-cal interventions - the result of a political desire to modernise production systems as rapidly as possible. All this makes it very important to place ourunderstandingofthcrelationshipofhumansocic-tics with their environment within an interactive, interdisciplinary, spatial and temporal fr"mework.

S. Augmentation of research funds

In general, social science research especially in the third world, gets far less funds than the physical or natural sciences. One cannot but comment on this, especially since a lot of the physical/natural science research ends up re-inventing the wheel and is far removed from the needs of the people. (However, the same criticism is applicable to the social sciences too). Further, within the social sciences, some disci-plines get more funds than others while inter-disciplinary research is hardly ever encouraged. A lot of this is due to lack of funds, but even the lack of vision is to blame.

6. Lack of adequate data bases

Research needs the support of facts and figures. A wide array of quantitative and qualitative data are

, collected on subjects which have a bearing, both directly and indirectly, on environmental issues. A country level and inter-country level data bank, with free access to social scientists, needs to be developed. The data base must include not only data of typical interest to social science research but also appropri-ate data from the natural sciences and reorganised along an ecological classification together with traditional classification along political entities. For any serious social science research to take place, the development of such data bases would be crucial and, at the moment, they are conspicuous by their ab-sence. A useful start has been made in India by the recent Planning Commission project on agricultural planning to collect and collate the available data on natural resources on the basis of agroclimatic zones.

Some Spe,cific Areas for Research

The workshop threw up ideas about a number of

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areas of research that ought to be pursued to develop sustainable and equitable systems of natural resource management Since a number of these ideas were thrown up in the context of specific disciplines, they are listed here as such but they all have interdisci-plinary dimensions.

1. Economics

The biggest challenge before South Asian economists is to help identify strategies that will maximise natural resource use, subject to a conservation constraint.Growth and equity, themajorconcemsof contemporary political economy, remain as valid as ever but they must now be considered together with the need for sustainability. The environment is liter-ally the entity on which we all subsist, and on which our entire agricultural and industrial development depends. Development without a concern for the en-vironment ean only be development for the short term. Developing countries today face both an envi-ronmental crisis and a developmental crisis, and both these crises are intensifying and interacting to rein-force each other. On one hand, there does not seem to be any end to the problems of inequality, poverty and unemployment, the crucial problems that the devel-opment process is meant to solve. On the other hand, environmental destruction has gro'wn further apace. The challenge of development, in fact, lies in utilisa-tion of natural resources at high levels of productiv-ity while maintaining sustainability and ensuring equitable distribution of the benefit.

Economists, therefore, have a major role to play in: a) Improving our understanding of the biomass-based

subsistence eccmomy of South Asia and economic impacts on this subsistence economy res11lting from (1) enviromnental degradation, and (ii) enviro11-mental lransformalion being brought about by the

. ptt)e~ration of the formJJI sectors of the tconomy. · Th~re has been a growing appreciation of the

poor's dependence on their immediate environment and biomass resources for their daily survival. A nu!llbcr of studies, for instance, have been conducted on rural energy consumption patterns. Several stud-ies have also shown that the poor are adwrscly arfoctcd when the environment degrades or its re-sourCl'S get transformed because of external eco-nomic pressures and agents. But there is a nL't.'Ci to uhilcrstar.d arid document these patterns of depend-

. eilce, which vary enormously bctwl'Cn diHercnt cco-, systl·msand between different socioeconomic groups , with an rrnsystrm. h) 111111rt1i1i11g our 11111lt•rst11111li11,~ of tl1e m111111gt•111t•11t of

n11111mm 1m•11aty rt'S<mrn-s, l1t1tl1 i11 tm1litit11111l !>u:ie-1 it'S 11,,,1 in 11n-s1·11t 1illy 11roj1·ds 111111 mil'ro-011ai-lllt'lltS.

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Several key environmental resourcesUke forests, streams, tanks and groundwater systems are com-; mon property resources. South Asian social scien-i tisls have played a key role in increasing our under-; standing of the importance of common.J>roperty re-• sources for the poor'sdaily survival. Buf there is now an even greater need to outline and elaborate the management strategics for common property re-sources while taking ecological and social specifici-ties into account. c) Analysing the economic, including employmenl,

impact of micro-experiments in environmental regeneration and management, and translating the lessons of tl1ese micro-experiences into alternative national policies. Though there is a growing effort to document the

economic impact of micro-projects and, voluntary agency acti vi tics, there is a lot more that can be done. Studies of this kind can greatly enthuse and guide social change agents and evaluate the impact of their work, which is receiving increasing attention. The 1980s threw up a .number of extremely interesting projects and people'sefforts to control, manage and regenerate the immediate environment for eco-nomic gain, both for subsistence and cash comrriod-ity production. Few economic analyses of these expe-riences have been prepared. d) Developing an appropriate combination of regulatory

and economic instnunents for increasing industrial, social and individual environmental responsibility. There is growing worldwide interest in supple-

menting regulatory instruments for environmental management with economic instruments that pro-vide an appropriate set of incentives and disincen-tives that push economic behaviour of firms and individuals towards ecological prudence on a so-cially cost-effective basis. While considerable work has been undertaken during the 1980s in this area in the industrialised countries, little work has been undertaken in developing countries and is urgently needed.

Regulatory instruments in 'sort states', however strong on paper, often remain ineffective to protect human populations from environmental harm. More-over, some or these concepts can be used to develop mamgement stratl'gies for global environmental problems like global warming which could be more foir to developing countries. The Centre fm: Science and Environment's recent study on global warming, for instance, argul's for each individual's rights to environmentally accl'pt<ible emissions and a system to trade the unused n&1tion;il quotas to the assimila-tiw rnpacity of the l'ilrth's ;itmosphere. r) DL•vdoping tools for integratingL•nvironmentill

rnnsidl•rillions in tu ecrnwmic cost·bl'ndit analy-sis of drv,clopm~nt projects <llld measurement of n.1tionill economic growth ilnd devdopml·nt.

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Efforts to take into account ecological costs resulting from development pmi'-'Cts, csax'Cially Ulmugh the depreciation of natural capital, arc being made in several countries of the world to develop new Cost-benefit analysis (CBA) techniques and natural rl'-sourccaccounting procedures. But South Asi;mcoun-tries have paid little attention to these arei\s. In a few countries that have already initiated environmental impact analysis (EIA) procedures, financial CBA is conducted separately from the El As. An integrall-d assessment would obviously be better. The resource accounting methods that arc being developed arc unlikely to take into account certain spl.-cial ret1uin'-ments of developing countries such as those in South Asia. For instance, the distributional impacts analysis (EIA) or environmental degradation on regeneration is unlikely to be a major concern in the industrialised countries. Similarly, Western economists arc un-likely to appreciate the social value of village commons,asisthecasein South Asia. Conccptslike the 'Cross Nature Product' will better measure the contribution of the biomass economy to the poor's survival than the Cross National Product. But such concepts have yet to be elaborated and worked out in detail. The availability of biomass has a major impact onthepovertyof the people. If enough biomass was available, poverty-that is, the lack of cash -would not disappear. But, without doubt, the increasing rigours of poverty would be arrested. Conventional measurements o'f poverty based on income data or on calorie intakes are clearly inadequate in a situation where the rest of the biomass needs are becoming increasingly difficult to meet, and collecting them on a daily basis constitutes the worst and growing drudg-ery hUmankind, espedally womankind, has ever known. These calculations are not only inadequate, but are al~ ~trongly gender biased because they deal mainly with those aspects of poverty (lack of cash) that the male is generally concerned with, but not those with aspects of poverty thatthewomandealswith(lackof fuel, fodder, water, etc.). 0 Analysing the value of traditional knowledge and

its contributions to modern economic growth and developing suitable systems, both global and national, for suitably compensating the genera tors of this knowl-ttlge. It is both an unfortunate and unequal situation

that while private or corporate knowledge- gener-ated in laboratories and on drawing boards-can get

. patented and legally qualify for compcns.1tion, com-munity knowledge docs not, regardless of its eco-nomic contributions. Farmers in the South have provided numerous seeds and other biological re-

. sourcesfor inc;orporating appropriate genetic vari-ability in form crops. Similarly, herbalists and tribal communities have played a significant role in virtu-ally transforming the world's food and pharmaceu-

ti cal ind us tries Uuough their knowledge of the ;iscsof biodiversity.

Unfortunately, very few cconomi!>tsin the South have studied the subject of biodiversity orof the eco-nomic contributions of traditional biological knowl-l'<lge lo modern economic growth and stability. In fact, the area is neglected to a point that traditional biological knowledge, an extremely prt'Cious heritage of humankind, is on the verge of extinction with tl:e slow and steady destruction of traditional lifestyles and of whole tribal communities. g) Analysing tire eco11omic impact of llie ecological dt•g-

radation of proposed a11d co11117leted dt'Velopmerit proj-ects. Extremely few development projects have been

subjected to rigorous scrutiny for thcirenvi,ronmcntal impacts. This is an area that is crying out for more rigorous studies. And this is an area where profes-sional economists can play an important role in working together with change seeking agents like environmental activists. As yet very few economists and activists work together though there are some outstanding exceptions in the South Asian region. h) Calculating the im1estments made by the poor in

ecological sustainability. It it often said that developing countries do not

invest in sustainability and discount the future. This may be true of the modem economic sector. But is it true of the subsistence sector, which ronstitu tes a major part of the national economies of South Asia?

Within their ability, the poor already seen to do their best to conserve their environment and make sustainableuseof it. Hasanybodyevercalculated the labour costs that Nepalese and Indian farmers of the Western and Central Himalayan regions have incurred in the massive terracing of mountains slopes to conserve the shallow montane soils for rong-tenn agriculture? Is this an isolated example? What about the invesbnents that rural communities used to make or still make in traditional water harvesting systems? i) Analysing the changing consumption patterns in the

North and the South and tht"ir impact on the environ-ment. While it is often pointed out that 'poverty is the

biggest polluter' and others contend in complete contradiction that elite consumption is the key cause of environmental degradation, there are very few detailed studies that have been conducted on the ecological impact of current and changing consump-tion patterns. Such studies would be US<!ful in focussing attention in the need for sustainable life-styles as well as delineate in specific terms the key unsustainable components of modem an& tradi- · tional lifcsty)cs. Disaggregated demand studies in the energy sector have had a major impact on energy planning worldwid,e and in quantifying the role and

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potential of energy conservation. Similarly, studies could identify key areas where water and materials conservation and changes in li(estyles can considera-bly reduce social and ecological costs th~t are currently being externalised at"heavy costs to the poor and future generations. Such studies could also play an important role in highlightingkey aspects of Northern lifestyles that are particularly environ-mentally damaging in the South.

For instance, the food needs of the West have exerted enormous pressure on the lands of the devel-oping world. Despite the worldwide political de-colonisation process, there is many times more land being used in the developing world to ~t the food needs of the Western countries than in the 1940s, before the process of decolonisation began. More than a quarter of all Central American forests have been destroyed since 1960 for cattle ranching. Between 85 to 95 per cent of the beef produced as a result has gone to the US. In the US, this beef has been mainly used to make tinned and pet foods and cheap hamburgers,, because the Central American beef is half the price of the grass fed beef produced in the US. The price of Central American beef does not repre-sent its correct ecological cost. Cattle ranchil'lg has proved to be the worst form of land use for the fragile soils on which these tropical moist forests existed. Within five to seven years their productivity dropped dramatically and the cattle ranchers have had to move on .

Similarly, theSahelian drought of 1968-74, which hit the world headlines and claimed tht? lives of ap-proximately 100,000 nomadic people, was caused by the French colonial policy to drive these countries into peanut farming to secure its own source of vegetable oils. Through heavy taxation policies, the French colonial authorities forced the West African pea5ants to' grow groundnuts at the expense of subsistence crops. Groundnut cultivation rapidly depl,etcd the soil. It soon spread to traditionally 'fallow and forest zones and encroached on land previously used for grazing, thereby upsetting the delicate balance between the farmers and the nomadic hercders. The expansion of groundnuts was encouraged by artificially high prices, but when the US soya production bL•gan to hit the European market and vq;ctablc oil priCl'S lll.'~•m to fall, the newly independent West Africiln countries had no alternative but to increase the groundnut area to kccpuptheir foreign cxch;mgcrescrves. Asthisarea increascdbyleapsilnd bounJs unJer the pressure of government policies, the nomaJs Wl're slowly puslK-d further and further north into the Jesert, fur which they were not prcpan.-d, thl'ir lrilditional rl'1;1tion· ships with the fonncrs h;wing lx·l·n tot.11ly disturl~d. When the long period of drought set in .ind thou-s.1~ds ?f ~nimals and hum;m bdn~s lx·giln to d ic, the

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nomads and their overgrazing were blamed. Nobody blamed the French or theSahelian elite, who worked hand in glove with the French. j) Analysing the eco11omic impact of economic liberali-

sation, international indebte1lness, restmcturing and declining terms of trade on the natural e11vironmet1t and resource use pallerns in developing countries a11d dtvdoping appropriate policy packages to deal with t~ problems. It has often been pointed out that the the heavy

debt burden of the Third World and high interest rates in the West has a major impact on the environ-ment of the Third World. The debt burden and declining term of trade have forced many developing countries to put pressure on their natural resources, often to the point of overexploitation. But what is the real impact of balance of payment sta~ilisation policies, including devaluations, on the environment, for instance, is as yet anybody's guess as very little work has been done on this.

The debt crisis will certainly delay ecologically sustainable industrial development in the develop-ing world as it demands financial space. It demands that additional invesbnenls be made today to secure the future. In the case of developing counbies, new waste treatment and energy efficient technologies will have to be imported from the industrialised coun-tries. But if developing countries are in the proverbial moneylender'sclutches- "I can't pay but I will pay" - then it is obvious that ecological sustainability will be a low priority, especially in those sectors which bring in foreign exchange.

Similarly, it is important to deal with the declin-ing terms of trade of biomass and other products ex-ported from the developing world. The public pres-sures in the industrialised countries which are lead-ing to greater investments in pollution control are resulting in an unintended, but serious, global eco-nomic asymmetry. Northern exports mainly consist of industrial products. With increasing investments in pollution control, ecological costs of production are getting increasingly captured by Northern prod-uct prices, which then gets paid by consumers across the world. But biomass products like bananas, tea or coffL-c and minerals like bauxite arc also produced at high social and ecolo~ical costs. Unfortunately, the world market system is not working in such a way that it is bl•ginning to ct1plurc these costs in the case of proJucts l;u~cly exported from developing coun-tries. If con~umers ought to pay the full ecological costs Pf their consumption, tlll'n obviously this North-South asymml·ntry is unreasonable and ought to be rcctifil'J throu~h a p.Kkagc of public policy nl\.•as-urL'S. Bcttl·r terms of lr•1dc for commoditicscxportl·d from the Jevcloping worlJ would also help to att;1ck the dd>l problem, rcJuce poverty, and create more finand.11 span.! for l'1wironml•nt.1l management pm·

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gramm<..'5'. k) A11alysi11g arrd artic11/ating strategies for irrcorporat-

iug s11stai11ability i11to ec01wmic growth programmes with s11ecial releva11ct to developi11g co1111t rics - ;,, otlier words, prt'seuti11g tl1e eco110111ic co11te11t of a11 alta11ative di'tlelop111et1I strategy. It is now widely accepted that sust.1in.1bility

must be incorporated as an csscnti.11 component of economic development together with growth and equity. 11\is may even lead to a redefinition of the C<'Onomiccontcntof growth. Economists must play a key role in presenting an environmentally-sound and cquit.1ble development strategy which is viable and effective in dealing with the economic duality that exists both at the national level within Southern countries and at the international North-South level.

Tilcrc isanenormousdifferencein the economics of developing and industrialised countries in envi-ronmental terms. The fonner continue to depend heavily on the exploitation of their natural capital to meet their current consumption needs and generate the investments needed to build up a stock of human-made capital and a modem knowledge and a resource base of skills. The industrialised countries, on the other hand, have already gone through a prolonged phase of natural resource exploitation, both within their own countries and outside, to build up a massive base of human-made capital, knowledge and skills. This differential situation today leads to several differences in their t.>conomic and ecological conditions and approaches: 1) Environmental problems in developing coun-

tries, not surprisingly, result from a greater stress on the natural resource base (for example, overexploitation of groundwater and surface water, land degradation, deforestation etc.) whereas environmel)tal problems in industrial-ised countries largely result from problems of pollution and disposal of waste.

2) 'iWhercas environmental management in industri-alised cou'ntries can afford to take a conserva-tionist approach with respect to land, water and forest related environmental problems, in de-veloping countries, given the extreme pressures on the natural resource base for daily survival, on one hand, and economic growth, on the other, only an extremely well thought out, holistic strategy of rational and sustainable resource exploitation will be able to reconcile environmental constraints with development requirements. But tradcoffs can be carefully considered by poor economics and a long-term view adequately incorporated if they can gcncr-ote more than what they need for current con-sumption. However, while doing so remains a national

imperative, the current North-South economic rcla-

tions make it diUicult for them to do so in areas that arc internationally integratL-d. Natural resources in developing countries are being consistently 'deval-ued' within the world market system - through rising debt, on one hand, declining terms of tr.1de of I.ind and water-based products, on the other, and if nothing else works, through thl' currency dcv.1lu-ation promoted by the IMF to increase economic competitiveness of indebted nations.

The global market system is today rapidly inte-grating an ever larger number of national economics. In environmental terms, this is also integrating the use of the world's ecological resources. But the con-sistent financial devaluation of their n.1tural re-sources forces developing countries to increasingly exploit the margins of their environment t,o produce goods for the international market at low prices and, thus, maintain the high standards of Jiving in rich countries. In other words, developing countries have been exporting sustainability while industrial-ised countries have been importing sustainability.

This links environmental issues in developing countries intimately with their problems of poverty, indebtedness and global inequality in resource use. It also points out to the fact that there is a massive 'market failure' that we are confronted with, which is setting prices on the basis of competition and not on the basis of ecological costs of production so that environmental externalities are not getting incorpo-rated into commodity prices. There is obviously a need for compensatory public policy measures. And what is true ~d necessary of the North-South level is also true at the national level within developing countries, including those of South Asia.

Economists can playamajorroleinchangingthe situation. A major branch of welfare economics has important ramifications for public finance and

·monetary economics too. Notably, thecontributions of A.C.Pigou, an early 20th century economist, could be used to price public goods and formulate eco-

. nomic instruments (taxes and subsidies) to modify market forces. This naturally means a closer look at the costs {both real and notional, and monetary and ecological) of production. .

Alternate paradigms of development, based on the keywords of equity, growth, sustainability and •· social freedom, need to be worked out and econo-mists can delineate paths of attaining them in the quickest possible time. This necessarily would have to include the true value of the ecological resources. New methodologies, techniques and data, are all needed, but most of all a freedom from given mindsets is needed as to what constitutes the subject of economics. This should be the essential malldate of CfOnomists striving to understand eco-nomic development in the developing world in an environmentally sustainable manner.

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I) Dtvtloping strategies for the managtmtnt of the global commons like the atmosphtrt to control tmtrg-ing probltms like global wanning. Global environmental issues are now an impor-

tant part of intergovernmental negotiations. Various international conventions like the convention to pro-tect the ozone layer have already been accepted. Nu-merous other proposals that will have significant economic implications for the developing countries are being discussed. There are several aspects of these negotiations that ought to be carefully analy-sed by developing countries and wherever neces-sary, al temative management strategies presented to protect the legitimate economic interests of devel-oping countries, esP!'!cially those of their poorer popu-lations. With the global ecology under threat, 'struc-tural adjustments' will have to be made to prevent ecological disasters. These adjusbnents will require technological transformations, which will definitely demand major financial allocations. Considering the state of their economies, many developing countries will find the financial and technological burden of these transformations difficult and in some cases, even impossible to bear.

Management strategies could be built upon a sys-tem of 'equity in burden-sharing' or a system of equityintheownership/acce$ to the common global resource. The first principle adopted in the ozone convention is not neces.sarily economically more effi-cient nor socially more just •• The ozone convention argues that the threat to the ozone layer poses global problems and, therefore, all countries are morally bound to accept economic restraints and attempt technological transformations off ward of this threat. The amendments to the Montreal Protocol on the control of substances threatening the ozen layer, accepted after much debate and resistance by developing countries, are based on the acceptance that· (i) the la~ger responsibility is that of industrialised countries, as they have been more responsible for the accumulation of substances threat-ening the ozone layer; and, therefore, (ii) they must assist developing countries to undertake the re-quim.f technological transformations by providing fi-nancial assistance through existing bilateral and multilateral aid channels and technology transfer on preferential tcnns. The financial transfers are e'xix.'Ctcd to be over and above the existing aid flows and, therefore, mechanisms arc needed that would m;'lke this additionality transparent.

This strategy raises a key problem of forcing developing countries to foll back upon traditional aid ffil'Chanisms and institutions t;.> make the nL'Ccs-silry kchnologic•ll transformi\tion. The process rc-m.1ins at the whims of industrialised countries and giws the public there the concept thilt it is 'aiding' the developing world tu 'save the planet'. On the

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contrary, the heavy consumers of ozone layer-damaging substances are essentially paying repara-tions to those who are suffering or are likely to suffer the damages caused by that activity. The global ecological costs were simply being externalised by the North and now have to be internalised by it. "

In the ca5e of global wanning, for instance, a better strategy would be to stop the atmosphere from remaining a free access resource by turning it into a managed resource. The first step to do this would be to allocate equitable property rights - that is, equal rights to each individual to greenhouse gas emissions. The cumulative emissions so allocated should add up to a global sum that is scientifically and politically acceptable to all governments. Countries which can-not use their entire quotas of permissible emissions should be able to trade them with countries which exceed theirquotas. And countries which emit green-house gases even after all unused quotas have been traded, must then be forced to pay fines. Such a system would put a real financial value -that is, real ecological costs - of using or harming the common atmospheric resource. It would also provide financial incentives to low emitters in the South to keep their emissions Jow and high emitters in the North to reduce their emissions rapidly. The financial incen-tives obtained by a nation could then be passed down the line to industrial firms and rural commu-nities in the South to encourage environmentally re-sponsible behaviour of all economic agents. Southern economists, however, need tostudyandanalysesuch concepts in detail to improve the bargaining position o( their countries in international negotiations and identify the most appropriate econGmic strategies for their own societies. As yet almost no attention has been paid in South Asia to these problems.

2. Political and Legal Sciences Despite the obvious importance of the subject, political scientists and legal experts have paid even less attention to it than economists. However, with attention to environmental issues growing both within the region and worldwide, political and legal sciences can greatly! to help increase our understanding of the problems involved and the proposals being made to solve tlwm. They can make a significant contri-bution in increasing our understanding of: a) the pulitical u111I frsal i111plicutio11s of the glubal

rnviru11111t•11t11/ nmvrnlio11s beiug proposed, awl tire use of 11itl, trade and dt'lil us puliticul levers fur rlw11gi11:~ mviru11111i•11t11/ l1t'luiuio11r in dt'Velq1iu,"( curm-trit'S. The various inkrnation,11 envinmml·nt convl'n-

lions lh;it haVl' alfl•,1dy lwen adopted llr arc undl'r considl'ri\tion h;wc some very important political im-plications for Jl'veloping countries. These propos.1ls

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It is obvious that the key issues on the current global environmental agenda (like the ozone layer, climate change, biudivcrsityconscrvation and tropi-cal forests) mainly deal with issues of relatively long-tcnn ecological threat, which worry environmentally concerned groups in Northern countries but arc not of immediate environmental interest or threat to developing countries. The glol>al environmental agenda is, therefore, partisan and political. Issues like desertification and land degradation which are of critical interest to developing countries are being increasingly described as 1ocal issues' which have to be dealt by national governments with largely national resources. The international dimensions of these local issues, which arc no less than the interna-tional dimensions ·of the so-called global issues, are

. being neglected or glossed over. Moreover, the current environmental negotia-

tions are about the use of natural resources- some of which are truly global commons (like the atmor phere and the ozone layer) while others are largely national resources over which nations have sover-eign rights (like forests, biodiversity, and folk knowl-ed&e about . the uses of biodiversity). They raise fundamental issues regarding global equity in the Use of global common resources and the basic. inalienable and equal rights of all human beings to survival and development. To the extent that the political and economic terms of the global environ-mental governance beingproposed are unfairorun-equal, it is obvious that developing countries will see an t?rosion in their sovereignty over their national re-sources, and a denial of their rightful and equitable share of the global commons and their right 1o deter-mine the use .of these resources for their develop-ment. And there will be a corresponding increase in the control of global resources by indLlShialiscd countries. · · ( A ·participant at L'le workshop felt that numerous

international conventions have been formula~ with-out adequate consultation with or participation of experts from developing countries. In other words, they have been unilaterally thrust upon the develop-in~ world. But another participant strongly felt that in an increasingly interdependent world, it is our re-sponsibility to engage in these discussions and bring our own perspectives and concerns to bear upon them.

':Political Scientists can help developing countries and their leaders to identify and appreciate both the

opportunities and the pitfalls in these negotiations. Global environmental negotiations have reached their current state partly because the leadership in the developing countries has failed to seize thccsscntially moral basis of the environmental issues to argue its case. It is indL'Cd ironic that it is those very countries which have done the most to destroy the world's environment through their profligate consumption and extensive exploitation of the worlJ's natural resources and ecosystems, arc today preaching envi-ronmental morality to the South. Within their limited resources, a number of developing countries have undertaken major en vironmcnt rcl~tcd program-mes; subsistence farmers across the developing world make enormous labour and other inputs into sustainability; and, most of all, lifestyles in developing countries arc still in far greater harmony with the environment than in the North. Unfortu-nately, partly because of lack of adL'quatc studies undcrt.1ken from a Third World perspective and partly because of a lack of training in and understanding of environmental issues, most bureaucrats and diplo-mats are unaware of environment and developing linkages. Third World diplomacy on these issues, not surprisingly, has been poor.

"The Centre for Science and Environment has pointed out, for instance, that the current Northern strategy of proposing conventions for the manage-ment of specific environmental problems, which have some provisions for new funds and technology lTans-fer to deal with each specific problem, can be replaced by alternative conventions which provide all indi-viduals with equal rights over the resource in ques-tion. Such an approach would probably be more equitable and fair. Political scientists and legal ex-perts have a major role to play in suggesting effective and fair. systems of global environmental manage-ment in a culturally plural,sociallydiverse,economi-cally unequal and ecologically multifacettcd world. In other words, with the global ecological crisis growing it is important to develop a Third World perspective on how true global environmental de-mocracy can be developed. There has been a rapid internationalisation of the environmental concern and political scientists must keep their societies aware of any efforts to reproduce the existing modes of · political power through the globalisation of environ-mental concerns. b) Tht political character of tht growing green parties

and non-political green fonnations in the North and tht political implications of their growth for the South. No Third World political scientist has as yet cared

to study the political character of tne growing green consciousncs~ in the industrialised countries. Not only has thisconsdou~ncss resulted in green political parties but it has also given rise to powerful, transna-

tional, green, non-political fonnations. like Green-peace, Friends of the Earth and Worldwide Fund for Nature-all of which exert an enormous influence on policy formulation in industrialised countries. The Danish Society for thcConservation of Natuq?has nearly a quarter of the country's households as it members, which arc more than the total number of members of all Danish political parties combined. Greenpeace-Holland has nearly 10 per cent of the country'spopulationasitsmembers. Withthegrowlh of green consciousness, even mainstream political leaders and parties and leading commercial and industrial organisations are keen to acquire a shade of green and take up green issues both nationally and internationally.

What dangers or opportunities do these trends pose for the developing world? Is this a liberal concern or a conservative, status quoist trend or both? Can it be used to put domestic public pressure on the Northern political system to reform North-South relations? On the contrary, will it be used by the Northern leadership to impose unfair environmental discipline ori the South and derive commercial and political advantage in the process? Is Malaysia right when it claims that the demand for tropical forest con-servation is being used by Northern softwood prod-uct manufacturers to expand their market? Is Mexico right when it claims that 'dolphin friendliness' in the US is being used to edge Mexico out of the tuna market? It is equally important to find out whether this green consciousness is going to have a lasting charactetor will it just bea passing fad. Would it be right to say that green politics is really a harbinger of politics in the post-industrial era?

· '''~imultahoously, political scientists in developing cout,'trics should also study the political character of the 'emerging green consciousness in their home eountrics. Given th~ dual character of Third World

· sod~ties, is green consciousness an opportunity for forcing social change and, if such an opportunity docs exist, is it being utilised properly, or is the environmental concern simply getting cooptcd by the articulate middle class, which benefits the most from natural resource exploitation in the society and now al5o wants clean air, clean water and protl.'Cted nature reserves for holidays? Political scientists can defi-nitely play a significant role in answering some of these interesting and import&mt questions. c) The nature of laws a11tl inslit11lions nt•t•dt•1l

. lo increase prople' s control a11tl ma11ase,,1eul of ll1l'ir · imme1liate nat11ral resource 1'11se - in oll1t'1' w1.1rds, ll1e Cl1ici1lalior1 of a system of 1111rlici1111tary 1ll'llw-cracy.

. The growing R'Cognition o( an t•cologic.11 l'risis 'du'ring ,tflc ·1980s brought forth its own pt1pul.1r re~punse in the South Asian region- numemusc.1m-paigl\s against cnvironmentillly destructive pni~'l·ts

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and equally numerous projects to regenerate the envi-ronment. The m6st successful projects repeatedly re-vealed the need to involve the people in the manage-ment of their natural resource base. But given the sharp division between power and powerlessness and wealth and poverty in our rural areas, what type of village and urban institutions and laws would be best foe environmental management? This is a vital question on which as yet very little work has been done. At the national level, it may be useful to ask whether the antiquated Westministcrian parliamen-tary system in India or dictatorships in Pakistan arc thebcstwayto manage natural resources and ensure that long-tcnn concerns are adequately accounted for?Whatformshoulda national government take so that people's genuine interests and aspirations are protected and met, globally and nationally? Legal experts, in preparing us to intervene, can start with an elucidation of the existing environmental and natural resources related laws with respect to their social and environmental impacts. Do they encour-age people's management or do they discourage it? The gaps in the existing framework ought to be identified and amendments proposed, 'which could then be further analysed by political scientists. Just as it is important for people in the developing world to fight for their access to global common propeity resources, it is equally important to press for the restoration of community and public rights over common property resources within their own nations. These rights need to be given a formal legal sanction in the absence of which private usurpation is often fa-cilitated. d) The marginalisation and impoverishmmt of natural

resource dependent groi1ps as a result of the ongoing economic and social development processes. There has been a considerable amount of work

on the marginalisation of women, tribals, nomads and fishcrfolk as a result of development projects

.. and other resource exploitation processes. But an immense amount of work still needs to be done in this area. This is an area where political scientists and legal experts can work closely together with environ-mental and social activists and, thus, both can play an important role in l'mpowerment processes and in the struggle against social injustice. Current work of this genre isstillrestrictcd to a few types of human groups and to a few l'COlogical zones.

3. Women's studies

Milhiltma Gimdhi w.1s once asked when we pliln for lndi.1 what should Wl' rl'mcmlwr most? "Think of till' I.1st 111;111", ht• is ~1ill to h<1ve rcpliL•d. ExperiL•nce tdls us th.it the I.1st miln, ,1t IL·ilst in the Indian sulx:ontinl'nt, ,is inv.1ri.1bly ii womiln. Holistic treat-lllL'llt of till' l'nvini11nw11t i11rludcs both the natural

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and. the social/ cultural. Gender concerns arc, there-fore, integral to any understanding, analysis and solu-tion of the environmental crisis. Yet women as a group remain neglected in efforts to regenerate and manage the environment even though they may be the SJX'Cial victims of its degrada lion. Women's studies can play an important role in: a) preparing critiq11L'S of c11rre11t d1'Vdopme11t aud

"alural resource exploitation prousses from a gerrder perspeclivt. The impact of environmental problems which

have emerged, given the unequal nature of our devel-opmental processes, has not been uniform for all women. However, certain macro-trends have clearly resulted ~n an increasing devaluation of women, socially and politically, despite pious statements to the contrary. The sex ratio has been declining. Tilc contribution of peasant women to the subsistence of their families still remains largely unrecognised. Increasing casualisation of women workers and their predominance in unrecognised, badly paid, badly organised home-based work goes to increase their economic and social vulnerability. lack of educa-tion reinforces their lack of confidence. How does environmental destruction and transformation of biomass from subsistencecropstocash crops affect the drudgery and livelihoods of women? Though women deal directly with a rural community's natural resourt:es, they hardly have any managemel'.\t or decision making powers. Whatever rights, knowl-edge and skills they posses get eroded with the loss of access to resources. Women's concerns have often ·~ ~merged in the fight for the environment within the subcontinent Women themselves have participated in numerous struggles to save the survival resource base of lOcal communities.

It 'is important to analyse these trends and, working together with social activists, use these studies to organise and empower women in their struggle for justice and equity. A better and deeper understanding of the relationship between the heal th of the environment and women's daily lives may even help us to develop better policies and program-mes for women's development, including women's literacy programmes. It is well known that environ-mental degradation increases women's, including the girl child's, work burden. To what extent does this i~tenere with the spread of educational progra-mmes? Is the high female literacy in Kerala somehow also correlated with the high biomass availability in Kerala's environment?

In dry regions, common property resources, the fallback for destitute women and a necessary adjunct for_ poor peasants, have declined through deforesta-tion, priy~tisation and curtailment of rights of access. The 1~ of these resources has meant a loss of liveli-hood and income, and also increasing drudgery, par-

ticularly for women and girls, especially of poor peas-ant and agricultural labour households. In their desperation for fuel and fodder, women have been forn.-d to dig up shrubs from the rcx>ts, or steal from the boundaries of their richer neighbours. The com-merci;llisation of subsistence biomass like crop residues has further contributed to women's prob-lems.

There is no doubt that past resea re h has provid l.-d us with a certain picture of the ongoing processes and their role in marginalising women and threatening their daily livelihoods. Bula lot more work needs to be done to understand how these processes arc at work in different areas of India and amongst women of different socioeconomic levels dependent on different types of natural resources. ' b) elucidating lht nature of instit11tio11s "eeded to

empower women lo control and manage natural rt-sourcts in their immtdiatt environment. Whereas several projects in the subcontinent

have shown that peasant women take a keen intcre!>l inparticipatinginactiviticsaimcd at thcrcgeneration and management of the immediate natural resource base, very few studies or field projects have been conducted to elucidate the nature of community-level institutions neede,d to ensure women's partici-pation in environmental management

'This is an area in which there is very little, good quality research. In fact, very few studies have been conducted even to find out whether some of the so-called successful environmental management proj-ects have actually.empowered women 1Jr improved their living conditions.

The focus on research on decision-making has the ultimate objective of determining how women, es-pecially poor women, can be em powered not only be-cause by doing so they will be able to save the environment, but also because they will be able to i m-prove the objective and subjective conditions of their existence.

There is a need for more action ·research on modalities of empowering women as direct control-lers of the environment and as acti vc and equal members of a ·community.

4. Sociology and anthropology

While anthropology is perhaps the only discipline which has, at least theoretically, a holistic perspec-tive of human-nature interactions, it has been one of the most maligned subjects. One reason for this was the development of a "colonial" cultural anthropol· ogy which, with the help of physical anthropology, · tried to provide a justification to rule the "natives" on grounds of the racial superiority of the colonisers. Cultural anthropology, till the 1940s, tried to under-stand a society not only to prove the rulers' supcri·

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ority but also lo facilitate better administration whi~ineffect meant more control and exploitation.

v,t anthropology and sociology today have tre-mend?~s. scope and potential to help us get a better appreciation of the human-nature interactions of the "?ativesH. A significant cqntribution of anthropolo-gists has been in the ar<?a·of documenting human-~atun: relations of micro-cultures, including rela-tionships between human beings themselves. De-lineation of modes of ecological prudence and how these are being destroyed by modern development and ~atural resource exploitation processes, are of special relevance in today's context.

A world facing an ecological crisis needs to know as much as it can about sustainable and harmonious resource exploitation strategies. There is as yet a lot more to be done. Very few groups have been studied and responses and adjustment strategies to change processes need to be documented as well. Traditional knowledge about natural resource use is today possi-bly ~he most threatened common property resource. At its most mundane level, ethnobotanists ethnozo-ologists have a lot of work to do to document the uses of biodiversity by tribals and other hun1al\ groups.

~thropologists also have an important role in making the world aware of the importance of main-taining its cultural diversity. The world's cultural diversity is a direct response to the world's ecologi-cal diversity. Will a uniform, multinational lifestyle make the world's production systems more sustain-able or less? It is obvious that in biomass-based subsis-tence societies, biomass productivity can be sus-!3ined at high . levels only by maintaining the ~nher~nt ecolo~cal dynamics the specific ecosystem m which the biomass production activity is situated. ~is. will autom,atically impose upon the world a mm1mum leyel of cultural diversity.

At the workshop,a participant pointed out that in fact it is not just biodiversity that is responsible for cultural diversity but that the maintenance of cul-tural diversity is importante for the maintenance of biodiversity, especially the domesticated biodiver-sity. Human beings have selected and domesticated plants for centuries for variety of purposes. Numcr-ou~ such plants could be lost with changing lifestyles and cultures.

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S. History

The very idea of history has changed today. Histori-ans are ~o longer ~chroniclers of events but may be c~ns1dered. active agents of change. History can definitely provide lessons for the future, especially in terms of the mistakes that can be avoided. The sub-continent is a region with an ancient history of humansettlements. People have lived in diverse eco-logical regions and developed numerous natural re-source use and management systems. During the colonial period these natural resource use and man-agement patterns changed considerably because of !1'e legal, administrative and technological changes introduced by the colonisers. It would be very useful for today's· natural resource managers to learn the lessons of history. Not only should the historical patterns of resource use and management at the community level be mapped out but the micro-level perceptions and "ideas" of nature and ecology and theirrelationswithhumanbeingsalsoneed tobe recorded. A workshop participant pointed out that t~ere has been ~o attempt to construct the ecological history of any single region of the subcontinent. The region's historians have a major task before them.

As is obvious, this will require the reconstruc-tion of a comprehensive social history. A cross-cul-tural perspective, that is, how changes in a particular social system and its resource use patterns affected th~ resource base and resource use patterns of an-other culture, would be an integral part of this exer-cise. However, merely documenting this would not be sufficient. The historiography of 'genetic knowl-edge' and ecological prudence of South Asian com-munities could fill up several encyclopaedias. There are several questionsof vital importance that ought to be a~wercd. Why did these systems get eclipsed? Was 1t solely due to the colonial presence or were there factors. inherent in the systems themselves, such.ascertamfo~ms of knowledge being exclusively restricted to particular groups and classes? While a body of technical knowledge can be revived, is it possible to reproduce a management system when the corresponding social system has broken down? Interdisciplinary analyses of the past may offer some useful pointers for the future.

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Annexure v

SOIH&lQ(AL Alll1E'lMtNl' IN fD1DI ASIA : &Im <DfS'lRAINTS Nm REIATED RESFARalABlE ISSUES

Foor ooont.ri.es in the SAR:> region - Bargladesh, :rmia, Nepal arrl Sri Ianka are currently at different stages in inplementation of structural adjustment programs. While the structural adjustment program has been urxier inplementation for a period of 3 - 4 years in Sri Ianka arrl Bargladesh arrl for about 2 years in Nepal, the structural adjustment program in Irrlia was launched in July of 1991. '!he experiences of these four countries have revealed a m.nnber of inadequacies in policies for respcn:lin;J to both the external arrl internal impediments to a successful implementation of liberalization which is a critical element of structural adjustment in all the four countries.

'!he external factors which are constrainin:J structural refonn are

- shrinkirq markets for South Asian ~rtables ·primarily as a result of ID=reasin:Jly irrward lookllYJ arrl protectionist econanic policies of the North

emergence of regional econanic groupin:Js in North America (USA-Mexico-Canada), in Europe (the birth of Fortress Europe in early 1992), arrl group.in:Js of Fast Asian ea:>nanies arrl the Pacific rim countries

- decline in aid due to (i) declinin:J share of aid in GNP; (ii) the emergin:J diversion of aid :resources for :rehabilitation of Fast Europe through the newly established Fast European Bank for Develqrnent; arrl (iii) ID=reasin:J use of i.nst:r:uroontalities of coercion, for exanple, use of human rights arrl envirornnent ilrpact assessment as corxlitions governing aid

intensive cx:mpetition for foreign direct investment which is limitin:J the flow of foreign investment to Saith Asian countries

- ID=reasin:J reverse flow of fUrrls due to massive debt :repayments whidl is limitin:J the soope of South-Saith cooperation, anong other adverse inpacts.

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'1he above constraints together with the rapidly dlanjin;J glcbal geo-political realities have isolated South Asia fran the rest of the world and substantially diminished their capabilities for inplementin:J the 1llldl required structural refonn reasures in a ccnesive am. holistic manner.

In addition to the external constraints South Asian econanies are also faoed with a :nunt:>er of internal constraints. Sane of these are

inadequate infrastructure particularly in the power, oamunication am. inf onnation sectors

- absence of policies to support ard reinforce structural adjustment policies, for exanple in the areas of financial refonn; exit mechanisms; safety nets; ard strategies for relocation of eoonanic activities

- absence of a definition of the new role of Government in a liberal market econany framewo:rk.

In the absence of a successful resolution of the external ard internal constraints it wruld not be Slll'prisin;J if structural adjustment dynamics in · South Asia aggravates the already acute prd:>lem of govemance. '!his cx:W.d hawert as in the absence of a:wrqn-iate policies to reinforce stnictural. adjusbnent policies the nonnal socio econanic oonsequenoes of the structural adjustment cx:W.d create deep social unrest through, anaq others, regional imbalances, in:lust.rial unrest, unmanageable inflation am. birth of noveau poor.

A progrcim of researd:1 directed at increasin;J the capability of South Asian goverrments to address the alx:Jve external am. i.nt:.et:nal constraints to structural adjusbnent is warranted lest the refonns release destnlctive rather than oonstructive forces. '!he current ard on-goin;J shifts in gee-political realities ard the emergin;J realignments in the econanic ard political arena present unique q.p:>rb.mities to South Asia to refonn structurally to en:l its isolation fran the rest of the world through a well articulated ard imaginatively inplemented policy mix supportive of on-goin;J structural refonn.

In the first instance a program of researd:1 on structural adjusbnent cx:W.d fcx:::us on these issues, anaq others :

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- i;x>licy framework for develcpnent of an:l in::reasing the efficiercy of the infrastructure sector particularly power, camuni.cation an:l inf onnation

- articulation an:l fonmlation of i;x>licies related to financial refonns, exit of inefficient units in the private an:l PJblic sector, develcpnent of safety nets to soften the socio eoonanic shocks of structural adjusbnent an:l relocation strategies

- i;x>licy framework an:l mechanisms for integration of South Asian eoonanies with South Fast Asian econanies

eoonanic an:l trade i;x>licies for resporrling to the increasing protectionist i;x>licies of the North an:l the emargence of regional groopings

in::reasing the negotiating capabilities of Sa.1th Asian Govemments in international fora

- management of international debt

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Annexure VI

CIDA : Asia Branch Strategic Plan 1991-92

ASIA BRANCH STRATEGIC PLAN 1991-92

TABLE OF CONTENTS

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1. ADJUSTING TO THE NEW REALffiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 1. 1 Canadian Foreign Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.2 Trends Within Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1. 3 New Re:alities in Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.4 · CIDA Policy Priorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2. A NEW PROGRAM VISION FOR ASIA IN THE 1990S . . . . . . . . . . 3 2.1 CIDA GOALS IN ASIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 2.2 OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

3. STRATEGIC INTERVENTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 3.1 South-East Asia (ASEAN); Indochina; Asia-Pacific Economic

Cooperation (APEC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 3.2 South Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 3.3· China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 3.4· C>ceania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 3.5 Other Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

4. MANAGEMENT AND PROGRAM DELIVERY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 4.1 Agency Management Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

ANNEX I: FINANCIAL RESOURCES

Annex II: ASIA COUNTRY POLICY FRAMEWORKS - GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

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ASIA BRANCH STRATEGIC PLAN 1991-92-

1. ADJUSTING TO THE NEW REALITIES

Over the past three years, the CIDA program in Asia began to move in directions which mark a significant shift from the type of program which characterized the previous 15 years. The need to rethink some aspects of the program has arisen from a combination of recent changes - in the global environment, in Asia, in Canada, and within the Government of Canada and CIDA. This Strategic Plan aims to consolidate the various decisions already taken into a new policy framework and to set out new directions for certain country strategies in the next 10 - 15 years.

The fundamental force underlying these changes is globalization. Asian countries and Canada alike are faced with an accelerating requirement to adjust-economically, politically, and socially - to a different and much more competitive international environment and to political changes spreading throughout the world oriented toward greater openness and pluralism.

1.1 Canadian Foreign Policy

The Canadian foreign policy framework towards Asia is evolving. Emerging themes are: competitiveAess and interdependence with the dynamic economies of the Pacific Rim, including positioning Canada within emerging regional economic cooperation structures; promotion of market-based economies, good governance, and human rights; promotion of global and regional cooperation on environmental issues; and regional security, defined broadly to include both arms control and nuclear non-proliferation, and population growth and mass migration.

1.2 Trends Within Canada

Economic, political and social trends within Canada ·also call for reshaping CIDA's programs in Asia. These include: growing demands for assurance that development programming is environmentally sound; declining Canadian competitiveness, even with ODA financing, in some traditional areas of the CIDA program in Asia (cg. capital equipment),but stronger capacity in others (services); low awareness of the changes underway .in Asia and too f cw linkages with Asia despite the importance to Canada of Asia in coming decades; demographic changes (38 per cent of immigrants now from Asia, with linkages to Asia but limited history_ of involvement in CIDA programs); declining faith in governments generally and speeifically in governmental institutions' capacity to deliver effectively, leading to demands for more direct participation in the

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Asia program (partnership) and for more decentralization to the private and non-governmental sectors; fiscal restraint resulting in permanently reduced allocations of ODA to Asia unforeseen in earlier budgetary projections.

1.3 New Realities in Asia

Asia itself is changing at an extraordinary pace. The counlms of the Pacific Rim have now become a major economic force. Regional economic integration is a growing reality. Japan has emerged as the largest source of both private investment and ODA to the countries of the region. Japan's dominant role with respect to regional industrializ.ation and trade, and its economic activities, have a critical impact particularly on the South East Asia environment. The success of these countries has been driven primarily by sound economic policies, appropriate involvement of governments, private sector-led investment and trade, combined with development policies which have reduced poverty significantly. China also is increasingly integrating into the world economy. While serious problems lie ahead, particularly environmental, these countries will look to Canada less and less for traditional development assistance in the next 20 years. Their priorities are shifting to economic and other cooperation (trade, investment, instihitional linkages and networking, and regional political and security cooperation). The differing economic prospects for Canada and Asia over the coming decade will clearly shape our policy response. From a Canadian perspective, the window for the establishment of the relationships which will be the basis for future economic cooperation is closing rapidly. Given the region's importance as Canada's second largest trading partner after the USA, transformation of these relationships is a major priority in which the development cooperation program can play a role.

South Asia is also undergoing profound change. It is faced over the next 20 years with major development challenges: alarming population growth, massive poverty, structural adjustment and economic policy reform, unsustainable military expenditures, disintegration of the single party regimes in control since independence and a rise of ethnic, religious, and regional conflicts, and environmental degradation. Canadian development assistance in the 1990s has to be targeted upon those crucial policy and institutional weaknesses which may even (in some cases) affect their viability as countries into the next century, with consequent impacts on Canada. At the same time, India and Pakistan in particular are seeking to move to broader forms of cooperation with Canada than primarily development assistance. India's global impact on the environ{llent and potentially on the world economy require Canada to develop a more diversified range of relationships with it. Again, the development cooperation program can play a role. -

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1.4 CIDA Policy Priorities

Finally, within CIDA, the March 1991 redefinition of our mission statement and adoption of a number of new operational principles, as well as of a sustainable development policy framework, also underline the need for revision of programming strategies.

These match changing Asian development priorities well (and represent an acceleration of recent programming trends in Asia). The most important elements for Asia programs are: a heightened focus on influencing policies and institutions in Asia which contribute to sustainable development, with a related shift in the CIDA product mix away from individual projects toward policy interventions; a change in CIDA's role to facilitating the creation of durable partnerships and linkages between Canadian stakeholders and their Asian counterparts; policy integration across CIDA's multiple programming ch~nels and complementarity with other foreign policy instruments.

2. A NEW PROGRAM VISION FOR ASIA IN THE 1990S

Central to the Asia program vision for the 1990s will be two elements: the complex concept of sustainable development, and the building of linkages between Asian institutions and firms, and Canadian stakeholders.

Our analysis of the needs and prospects of Asian countries will have to take into more explicit account the appropriateness of countries' economic, social, and environmental policies, and issues of governance and human rights. The Asian experience of the 1980s has shown that internal factors - sound macro-economic policy frameworks, attention to equity, ~ppropriate roles for government and the private sector, and institutional capacity to implement policy - were at least as important as external resource transfers in promoting development and reducing poverty. In particular, the critical role of governments in performing well focused functions supportive of the private sector as the primary engine of growth, has been the key to the econpmic success of many countries in South East Asia. As well, there is an emerging consensus that broadening environmental awareness and a better harmony between environment and development can only be achieved by democratii.ation and a wider participation in public decision-making. CIDA's interventions will thus focus increasingly on these elements rather than on projects .pr resource transfers per se.

The building of linkages and relationships has been for some years an explicit goal of the CIDA program in Asia. A number of countries, particularly in the Pacific Rim, are quickly moving toward development sUCCCM and economic and political power. linkages both meet their changed development needs and assist Canada in building the base for future economic, environmental, and other cooperation. At the same time, even

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countries such as India and Pakistan are seeking to broaden relationships with Canada beyond the traditional donor-recipient relationships of the Colombo Plan era. By the choice of interventions and the building of linkages, the CIDA program in Asia can and should play a role in the transformation of the relationship to one that is broader-base.d and takes into account mutual interests.

CIDA's new goals in Asia therefore will be:

2.1 CIDA GOALS IN ASIA

o To promote sustainable development in Asian countries

o To support transformation or the relationship between Canada and Asian countries to broader based and mutually beneficial cooperation

While objectives will vary from one country and region to another (See Annex II), four broad objectives will guide the Asian program:

2.2 OBJECTIVES

o To strengthen the institutional capacity or Asian countries to develop and implement policies conducive to· sustainable development

o To cooperate on the resolution of national, regional and global environmental problems

· o To promote collaboration between the Asian and Canadian private sectors in supp0rt or Asian development priorities

o To roster institutional linkages and networks between Canada and Asia ·.

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J. STRATEGICINIERVENTIONS

3.1 South-East Asia (ASEAN); Indochina; Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)

o While countries will remain the main programming units, in view of the rapid integration of East Asia, a region-wide (APEC) polky /ramework will be required. Programming on an ASEAN or APEC-wide basis will increase, particularly in the area of environment, as well as private sector collaboration and economic policy research.

o CIDA programs in Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia have been successful and will be phased down over the next 5-15 years. Programming in these rapidly industrializing countries will focus 'on achieving a successful transition to broader and more mature cooperation.

0 Bilateral and regional institutions (the Canada-ASEAN Center, Asia Pacific Foundation, Pacific Economic Cooperation Conference, and APEC) will be strengthened to play an increasing role in policy and economic cooperation activities of priority to Canada and countries of the region. CIDA will play a role in both assisting in the building of these institutions and positioning Canada at the policy discussions on major issues of common Canadian-Asian interest in the Asia-Pacific region.

o Programming in Vietnam will be a priority following agreement on a CambOdia peace plan. The focus for a relatively modest financial envelope for Vietnam ($20 million over 5 years) will be economic refonn and economic management. Programming in Cambodia and Laos will continue to be limited to NGO initiatives. Tripartite cooperation on policy dialogue and institution building in Indochina with ASEAN countries such as Thailand will be pursued.

3.2 South Asia

o The priority development issues to be addressed in South Asia will be economic poUcy refonn and adjustment to global economic forces, socuu poUty re/onn (population, literacy, education, poverty alleviation), environment and governance, including human rights and democralization. --

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CIDA will focus on policy re/onn in two ways: first, by strengthening those South Asian institutions (both governmental and non-governmental) which can have an influence on the design or implementation of policy change; second, through greater emphasis on policy dialogue and economic and social conditionality, in collaboration with IFis and donor consortia. CIDA will play particular attention on policies which mitigate the impact of structural adjustment on vulnerable groups or empower the poor-to play a greater role in development. Governance and human rights will be ta.ken fully into account and in the case of Sri Lanka, will be the primary programming priority.

New priorities will be environment and resource management (India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal) and population (Bangladesh, Pakistan).

A new country policy framework will be developed for India leading to // a significant shift in programming strategy. Emphasis will be placed upon ;/ environment, economic reform, strengthening non-governmental :1 institutions capable of delivering social and community programs in favour 1

of the poor, and building mutually beneficial linkages between Canadian and ~dian institutions commensurate with India's potential economic and political power.----·· - ··· · ·

3.3 China

China is a world power with a vast network of overseas Chinese assisting with its gradual integration into the global and regional economy. In view of the complex economic and political dynamics in China and Ministerial decisions:

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A new country policy framework will be prepared with a stronger emphasis on supporting Chinese reforms and on the environment.

The China program will promote new types of projects aiming at greater influence at the policy level (e.g. strategic energy planning, applied economic research linkages).

Environmentally sustainable development will be promoted via interventions at the policy level. CIDA will play a major role in establishment of the China Council for International Cooperation on Environment and Development

6

3.4 Oceania

o Despite pressures for expansion, CIDA involvement in the Pacific will continue to be limited to marine management via regional programs and small. projects on individual islands via the Canada Funds.

3.S Other Countries

0 No additional countries or major programming initiatives can be accommodated without cancellation of existing commitments. Mongolia, Papua New Guinea or other country proposals cannot be accommodated. In view of the on-going human rights situation in Myanmar, no resumption of programming is anticipated in the foreseeable future.

4. MANAGEl\IBNT AND PROGRAM DELIVERY

The major management issues in delivering the program, with its greater emphasis on · policy interventions and the building of partnerships between Canadian and Asian stakeholders, have been clearly set out in the Strategic Management Review. The view from Asia is that the highest priority over the coming years must be to align and develop the organization's capacity to deliver the type of programming articulated in our policy documents. :

·, ..

The Asia program has a much higher degree of geographic and financial concentration than other geographic programs, but faces most of the same problems in management and program delivery. While the basic program shifts proposed above can to a degree be achieved within the management constraints faced by the Asia program, we will encounter serious problems of underperforrnance and staff burnout without significant changes in CIDA 's organizational capacity to deliver a new type of product.

Assuming a focused corporate follow-on to the Strategic Management Review, the following are the program delivery implications for the Asia program:

o Partnership with Canadian stakeholders will increasingly be the dominant programming mcxle in Asia. This will involve greater knowledge of and consultation with Canadian stakeholders, and joint programming within country policy priorities set by CIDA. It will also imply a priority to those Canadian institutions and firms prepared to undertake a long-term commitment to Asia. -

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Communications with Canadian stakeholders will assume a much higher priority than in the past, and domestic communications strategies will need to be prepared with the collaboration of Communications Branch.

Country policy frameworks, prepared in full consultation with stake-holders and with other departments, particularly External Affairs, will be the crucial instruments for strategic planning.

The role of Asia staff will change over time: from project management to policy analysis, institutional analysis, and networking with Canadian institutions· and firms.

The number of contracted activities (traditionally defined as projects) per country will decline in coming years. "Projects" will be defined as "umbrella programs" with broader goals, larger room for flexibility in redesign, and subcontracting by partner agencies. Mechanisms such as the Private Sector Development Fund will be fully explored.

The current decentralization model will have to be reviewed, both for reasons of cost but also in light of the implications of a programming strategy increasingly based on policy interventions and Canadian partnership: Asia Branch is convinced of the benefits of decentralization with respect to knowledge of local conditions and capacity to influence policy in client countries. At the same time, what is required is a cost-effective corporate approach to decentralization, covering all core countries, which will allow for location (and relocation) of functions in Asia or Canada according to program needs and cost considerations. Some of the elements· of such an approach were set out in the Asia Branch paper to President's Committee in March 1991.

4.1 Agency Management Implications

Five Agency management priorities arise from the Asia strategy:

o a need to give operational substance to the still undefined concept of partnership

o a need to develop a better inventory of Canadian institutional capacity to deliver policy-based programming and environmental programming, and strategies to enhance Canadian capacity through CIDA

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Acceptance that the Asia program strategy will involve a blurring of the traditional lines between program channels, particularly with the responsive programs

Significant effort on the part of Asia Branch and Multilateral Branch to develop policy coherence and programming complementarity in activities related to CIDA core countries in Asia, particularly Canadian policy toward IFis.

The need to put into place the operational instruments required to implement ClDA's policy on evironment for development and to establish the environmental assessment procedures arising from Bill C-13.

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ANNEX I: FlNANCIAL RESOURCES

After a series of budget reductions in recent years, there remains little flexibility for new commitments in the Asia program before 1995/96. Nevertheless, there is scope for earlier initiatives in terms of policy and program planning. The overall Asia IPF prior to the 1991 budget reductions stood at $2.289.billion. The budget resulted in a reduction in the 1992/97 IPF of $554.8 million or 24%. The majority of this reduction was absorbed by South Asia - India (-31 %), Pakistan (-39%), Bangladesh (-21 %). The decision to reduce the Asia share of the geographic program budget from 39 % to 37 % further reduced the scope for flexibility between 1992 and 1995/96.

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ASIA BRANCH FUTURE YEARS FINANCIAL STATUS

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ANNEXURE VII

t:'.:~~'oluntary Organisations And •Popular Movements In Bihar · Philip Eldridge and Nil Raton

[No two scholars ever agree on Dihar, except that ·a lot is going on' in the state:. Awa;· from the bustle of political horse-trading, caste and class violence, deaths due to famines or floods-all of which strengthen the in1p.ression of a state p::rpetually in conflict a=id troub!::', there is indeed a lot goi,og on in Bihar. And not the least through the efforts of hundreds of voluntary organisations.

Surprisingly, empirical assessment of the voluntary activity in the slate is not easy to come by. Tbe current contribution by Philip Eldridge and Nil Ratan·; whether or not their assessments are agreed to by others, breaks useful ground in this regard. More importantly, the article serves to provide the base for more theoretically inclined debates in the field.]

~ This paper does not claim to offer a comprehensive } ~ove:age of voluntary organisations and aclion groups in ; Ribar. Rather, the approaches of some 10-J2 groups have been.

assessed and compared in terms of the light they may throw on several key themes and concepts which appear salient to the more general debate about the potential capacity of-..:q_luntary actio_n groups to advance the position of th~ poor. At the same

The authors are associared with the Dcpn. of p,-:itical Science, Univcr-•ity of Ta~rnaaia, Aust;all~. ;

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time, rather than attempting to •;valuate' ;ny of the~ group~ individually, in the conventionally understood meaning o.f that term, our interest lies in extracting from their total experience in wa)s which may enhance understanding of these themes and the choices confronting voluntary activrsts. .

Clarification of issues here can be assisted by a brief discussion of questions relatin;; to methodology, terminology and rationale for selection of groups. Since there are thousands of voluntary organisations and action groups acro~s the length and breadth of India, including Bihar, we can begin by narrowing down the focus of concern to orga.nisatio~s ;.nd groups whose activities are directed towards improving the social and miltcrial condition of the poor and .d1sadvan~a~ed. This would exclude activities of a purely charitable, rcl.1g1.ous or humanitarian nature-though such exclusion does not ID itself entail any ad\·crse value judgment on the worth of such work. Economic, cultural and other associations of the non· poor arc also excluded. Secondly, while interaction between voluntary aclion groups and the formal political system represents a key aspect of the overall study, party or quasi-party group~ concerned with obtaining and wielding political power ~n any direct sense, whether through electoral or more revolutionary means arc similarly excluded. . .

A very large number of groups and organisations re~ain which arc engaged in a variety of development~!, educational and popular mobili5ation programmes. Some 1mport~nt distinctions need to be drawn in this context. An o_bv1ous distinction can be drawn between organisations wh1c~ concentrate on conventional programmes of commumty development-irrigation, drinkin&&water, health centres, . agriculture, animal husbandary, handicrafts and other economic programmes-and those whose main efforts centre on . educating and mobilising poor people to unde~stand their 'rights and to demand effective delivery of services and . . implementation of laws re wages, bonded ~a~our, land .alienation and so forth. Most social workers and act1Y1sts see a vital need to integrate the two modes of action, or at least deny th~t either can be pursued without the other. Jn practi~e, v~ry few groups achieve this ideal and most tend to emphasise either developmental or mobilisation aspects bu·t rare~y both. E .. ·en official policy statements such as the Seventh Five Year Plan 1985·90 (Vol. II, pp. 68·70) support this position. However, governmental authorities, particularly at the local level, t~nd to look with disfa\'our at even mild efforts at popular education or

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mobih~ation of al.ind which increase~ pressure~ on offi.:1al~ or J0ca I elite~.

An important clement in the O\erall rationale ofkrcJ by 'oluntary action groups in promoting and Jc:gitimising their role centres on claims that they arc more c:ffecti\·e than other institutions such as gm·c:rnment agencies, political p:irtics or tr.ade unions in fostering popular participation among disadvantaged groups. One relevant test of such claims is th: extent to which the efforts of voluntary organis:itions and

· action groups lead to the formation of organisations controlled - and managed by poor people themselves. The distinction here

is between intermediary as opposed to primary or 'grassroots' organisations. While some measure of 'panicipa1ion' is often achieved in relation to individual projects, this docs not necessarily lead on to the formation of aulonomous organisations of poor people themselves, although examples can be found, including some of the groups surveyed in Bihar. where 10 a greater or lesser extent this docs occur.

A significant related question is the extent to which local groups of poor people arc linked to each other through some form of federation. While poor people may achieve some measure of local organisation, they often remain dependent on a.n outside organisation to undcr1ake inlermediary roles vis a vis government agencies, banks, lawyers and funding agencies. It is encouraging lo find that more voluntary activists are becoming sensitive lo this aspect and seek 10 develop popular leadership capable: of undenaking such wider roles. Even so, voluntary action groups contain many internal structural characteristics which tend to institutionalise hierarchical

• patterns of organisation and inhibit popular participation. .. Indeed, systematic strategies are required, closely linked to the

l~cal context, if there is to be any meaningful participation by • disad .. ·8ntaged groups. · - Our third focus of inte;est centres on voluntary action

groups' efforts to transcend their local spheres of action and for~ networki; and coalitions capable of ad\·ancing the cause of d.1sa~van1aged groups on a wider societal and political plane. MaJor issues of philosophy, strategy and tactics arc entailed in thi!i context, which influence the kinds of networking and other kinds of cooperative arrangements currently emerging in Bihar and e~sewhcre in India. In a m:icro sense, understanding of what is entailed in formation of a 'peoples movement' and the way ~n such movements differ from political parties or other quasi-party sturcturc:s is still inadequately understood, even in

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a th~retical sense. At a more 'grassroo1s• level, the experiences of Bihar 1roups surveyed in this paper, though encouraging in their polcntial. iadicalc tha1 substantial practical difficulties must be overcome when groups whicb·have achieved some 1igni6cant measure of mobilisation and cohesion operating in their immediate local conlexl, aucmpt joining together in clusters and federations. Parallel problems can be identified in rclalion to loose associations of activists on a stalcwidc basis who meet for informal exchange of experience and to assist each other in arranging training programmes, legal education and reprcscnlation oflocal groups' interests vis a vis politicians, bureaucracy, legal syslcm and media.

As will already be apparent, terminology presents problems. This field abounds with many different terms-voluntary agencies/organisations, non-government organisations (NGOsJ. private voluntary organisations (PVOs), community (development) organisations, action/social action groups, non-party groups, micro/people's movements. No single term "'ill adequately cover the whole field and all are open to some form of limitation or distortion. Thus the term voluntary organisation raises the problem that most organisations could not function without paid staff, even though general levels of remuneration in the voluntary scc1or arc well below what can commonly be oblaincd in the public or private sectors, with longer and more unpredictable working hours. Interestingly, more radical action groups were until recently tending to equate voluolarism with emphasis on charitable or community development activity of a traditional kind coupled with a generally conservative social and political outlook. Allhough the criliquc of such approaches by established organisations bas not diminished in strength, as part of the reaction to the proposal 10 lcgislalc for the establishment of a Council of Voluntary Agencies and rclalcd Code of Conduct, the other dimension of meaning implicit in the concept of voluntarism emphasising autonomy, free will and creativity has gained in some renewed legitimacy (cf, e.g. Jai Seo, 1986: 32-36).

The term 'non-government organisation' is potentially open-ended and could include religious, educational and cultural associations, hobby and lobby groups, business organisations, peasant organisations, trade unions ard other groups whose composition is not necessarily targeted toward~ the poor and disadvantaged, nor concerned specifically with their advancement and empowerment. The term ·action group' is open 10 simil,ar problems and can.logically include

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- landlord 'scna~· and plher rcactionar" "r"un• 'Co · . • • • • e- ~ ,.~. mmuni&) ~r~an1sa11.C1n CClnnys lhc coC1pcra1i\·c dimrnsion in\"ol\'cd bu1 impl_1es a whole CC1nimuni1y· appro3ch rather lhan one f~u,ed spcc1tically on the needs of the poor Prof U d B .. ·o . . · · pen ra ax1 s lerm r~an1sa11on~ of lhc Rural Poor' (ORP) comes near the mark. though t~crc is an increasingly urgent need lo include the ur_ba~ p~or in social acrion. Perhaps simply 'poor pcopk"s

. organ1sat1on would mos1 ndequatch· fill th,. b.111" H . . · d fi · · • .i • • O\\ e'er . " .. c n11.1on of lhe poor' poses ob\'ious problems, while the .. r_hel~ric o~ many ~r~anisalions clfnstantly threatens to dcbasi:

. the inlcgril~ o~ this and similar terms. The qucsliC1n of whether •. such organ1sat1ons arc conlrollrd and managed by poor people · rather I han me~ely on their behalf is clrarly crucial. The nccd

~r som~ gc_ncric term remains evident despite all these d1fficuh1cs, if only for literary purposes. We ha\'e therefore ~~lllcd, no do~br somewhat arbitrarily, for a composite lcrm \O~uotary ac11on groups· lo embrace the full spectrum of

action under discussion. ~seful ctrorrs ha\'c been r adc by D~nu Roy (1982) H I

. -:,~hi 0 9B4) and oih:rs lo categorise the acli\'ilics, oricn~al;:~: mode~ o~ opera11on adopted by \'oluotary actiC1n groups

~cross ~nd1_a I~ terms of a spectrum ranging from charity/ . -d~'~anilarian1s~, _through conventional kinds of community

. clo~mcn1 ac11v11y to succcssh·e stages of mo bilisatioo cducar1on: consciousness-raising and organisalion capabic of transcending purely local spheres of action. To some cxlcnl such a_ specrrum can be sccn in terms of progrcssi\'e c\'olut1onar\.• stages u . • · ·

.i • • • nO\\C\cr, 111s generally acknowledged that su~~ progrcss.'on is by no means smooth, pre·dctcrmiocd or

. un.lin~ar; while many combinations arc possible. Equally, ii is -:no re impo~ran I lo use such categories as a lool for crcati\'e undcrsr.andmg of lhc moti\'C forces uoderJ,·ino oroups' Slr"JCIU d · .J e e . . res an ac11ons rather than altcmpting the frus1ra1ing exercise of classifying each and C\'cry \'Olunlary acri.:-n group.

. Role 1·is a ris Go a·ernmelll and;,, the Pvlitical Sphere . Turning lo ~r~ups' external impact. rebtions with

!!"''c~nmco1 a_genc1c~. parries and politicians loom large. Thcsc arc c_ ar~crerised, nor only in lndia bur in most kinds of nC1n-1otal11arian socic1 ic~. by ;i prc\·a~ivc bl"nd of c . fl· . • ooperat1on and con icl. Esscnuallv, this i~ caused b,· conlrad'ct' .. fro h . . . .J I ions ar1S1og

m t c occcss1ty both lo mobilise people lo de d . h . d · man rig b an scn·1ces and dependence on go\·crnmcnt for numerous.

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:~ rt\olution' can claim to ha'c dc\·clC1f1Cd an altcrnJti\·c

mail'Slre"am formulation and implementation of official· Mueprint. e\'Cn though this will probabl~ turn out to be developmental programms. v.hile welcoming greater access tl' ·i unworlablc. In practice. it is ncccs!oary for group~ to deal runds JD<l other benefits. At the same time. they fear loss of

;~ with hoth partie~ anJ indi\'idual politician~. and their role in this

indcntity and grassroots links. Go\·crnments for their pan rci:ard rc!-cml:ilc~ essentially that of con\'cntional intcrt~t group;. 1 ~

~eek to cro·opt the ser\'ices of \Oluntary action groups in the { Thi~ can be !occn u a potentially \'Cry important role. as partic!o ·~ . hope or belief that they can generate popular support for hy their nature secl IC'I aggrei:atc the interests of di,ersc troup~

~ ! 1 implemcmting their programmes. Howc,·er, bureaucratic I and cannot be expected to maintain a consistent commitment ~

·; ncccssitf Slops ShOrl at the point of reporting successful ~ to the specifi: di~ad,antai:cd poups represented hy \'oluntary ~

i fulfilmcm.t of targets, bO\\ ever artificial these may be: in reality. \ action group~. Howe, er. many such groupi-. envisage

·\ Polillcians and bureaucrats alike fear the emer1?ence of 1 pre>rressive C\Olution of cC1alition·buildin~ to the.stage where :i )

genuine popular participation with the potential to -undercut r 'people's mo\'cment' will emerge which will not merely replace their owa influence Go,·ernments commonly seek to co·opt or :1 hut transcend the need for political parties. Such :ispiratiC'ln~ .,

could easily be labelled a~ utopian or alternatively dismissed by ! in some ,..ay neutralise voluntary action groups through some l I combin.>1.ion of 'sticks' and 'carrots' as evidenced in the case of ' comparing rhetoric and ideology wit!1 daily practice. However,

India~- the fierce debate surrounding the proposed Voluntary ..

our interpretation is more sympathetic to the extent that we \ Agencies Council and Code or Conduct, the vast increase .in the :j bcliC\'C that many c0orts by \'Oluntar~· action groups represent flow of fands earmarked during the Se\·enth Piao, side by side \ .~ a sincere attempt to reconcile rcali~m and idealism, even though . \\ith oepti\c manifestations such as the Kudal Commission ;! lhc O\ er all outcome is often one of 'confusion. and the daily experience or harassment, including violence,

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cxpcricmccd by social acti,·ists across the whole country. ~-~ Relera111 FeatureJ of the Bihar Scene 8 How.-c\·cr, a more underlying conflict can be identified, in

the Indian context particularly, arising from the ambivalence of .:I Ob,·iously within a country so vast and di\'erse as India, \·oluntary action groups about the nature and legitimacy of the ).; each locality is in many ways unique. This necessitates state itsdf. This has deep roots in the Gandhian tradition and :j sensitivity to c:ic'li local en,·ironmcnt and context, avoidance or its more recent re-interpretation by Jayaprakash Narayan (JP), i shallow comparisQns and mechanical application of and can be most sharply illustrated in the antithesis these ha\·e

'.) methodology. 1t is therefore necessary to note briefly some

posed bC'twccn 'rajniti' (state power) and 'lokniti' that pervades ., ~encral characteristics of Bihar society ·and politics \\hich ... both grO'ups' concepts of development and their perceptions or appear salient to the context in which voluntary action groups democratic political processcss, in both cases questioning operate. whether conventional models can ever deliver either basic needs Bihar society is characterised by extreme disparities of wealth -:.z?

or cffectin citizenship rights to the masses. In the latter I

and po\·crty. It's agrarian·society operates within a semi-feudal '~ context, many voluntary action groups would describe their ; framework or social relations. Though capitalist dc\·elopment approach as 'non·political', though many of them at the same i of agriculture has been for slower in Bihar than in other parts I time wotald insist on the necessity.of de\·eloping an overall ~ or r:orthern and western India, it is slowly gaining ground. (.

political analysis and strategy. Evidently, 'non-political' means > A hii;b level or caste conflict is evident in all spheres of social independence from all political parties and rejection" of personal and political life in Bihar, particularly in the operation of ambition and power·seeking commonly associated with .. dectoral politics, the police force and bureaucracy. Caste I conventional modes of politi~al confiict. In the case of groups ~ association~ arc well organised to pursue their various interests, influcnc.ed by Gandhiji, Vinoba and JP, such a stance is usually and caste associations ha,·e been active since early in the 20th linked to an O\·erall ideology of non·vio.lcnce. century (H. Dhar ct al.) Caste conflict occurs not only between ~

Unronunately, there is no clarity about the overall kind or low and high castes but also between low castes such as Kurmis l

policy ~hich most groups are proposing, although arguably /. and Yadavs and between low castes and harijans. ' those :io seek to carry forward the ideas of JP for 'total It would be wrong, however, to explain political and social '1

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. ,.. .. ~ connict ia Bihar exclusively or excessively in cilsle terms. Class factors arc also impotlant. most obviously in relatio'n to land. Thus both lar~c and sm:ill landowners find a common interest in resisting wage increases and in maintaining a dependent labour force by limiting alternative economic opportunities-although large landowners and moneylenders arc in a stronger position to maintain such dependence through controlling the cycles of indebtedness of landless labourers. For their part, landless labourers. who arc commonly harijans. and other disadvantaged groups. notably tribals and women arc gaining a growing awareness of their legal rights and the structures which oppress them. As they have become less willing to acc:cpt exploitation as their inC\·itable f atc and ha••c become organised to voice their demands, they ha,·c encountered a growingly violent reaction. This is evidenced in numerous accounts of scnas (private armies) being formed to punish and intimidate gr~ups below them on the social and economic scale, demanding impro\'cmcnts in their situation. While caste may often be a con\"cnicnt vehicle for such 'senas• and pa"11lcl organisations, mcchnisms for repression cut across caste lines. "When the . landlord confronts his labourers or sharecroppers he is not bothered by their castes. Also, the caste of landlords docs not make any difference in their vengeance to labouring classes. The state and the police back them. But here caste links arc more useful. If the landed gentry :ind the bureaucracy and the police have correct caste alignments the police crackdowns ari: faster. The bureaucratic help is more assured." (H. Dhar et al. : 111).

Social life in Bihar is thus characterised by growing levels of '"iolcncc and disorder, the evidence of which is recorded in numerous and extensi\·e reports of civil liberties groups. Political parties,' the police and bureaucracy arc frequently major agents of such disorder in their own right ac::ording to such reports and as attested by many journalists and other c)e· witnesses. The electoral process itself is also widely regarded as one of the most corrupt in India, with frequent reports of 'booth capturing' and other abuses ... as evidenced, for cxampk, by the monitorin.~ of the Banka by·dcction on November 23rd. 1986, conducted by the People's Union for Civil Liberties.

As in other parts of India! there is a trend towards popular mobilisation outside the framework of political parties, based on disillusion with the con\·entional political appratus. As clscwhe~:. politicians have sought to either control or coopt emergic, non·party, voluntary action groups, or at the very least

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maintain co<'pcrative inrormal linh. While voluntary action groups cannM orerate in a political vaocum, IC\ the extent that they succc:cd in devcl<lpin(! independent or~anisational stren(!th. they encounter the risk of retaliation, including violence. They further f acc extreme risks in mobilising the most disadvantageJ groups to which groups seeking to assist them should be highly sensitive.

Voluntary Action Groups in Bihar The organisations discussed in this paper include Chattra

Yuva Sangharsh Vahini (Patna and Gaya), Peonlc!.' Union for Civil Liberties (PUCL), Rashtriya Lok Samiti (HQ-Varana~1 · Nav Bharat Jagriti Kendra and Jan Jagaran Kendra (Hazaribagh), Prayas (Patna and Gaya). Catholic Centre (Khagaul), Xavicrs' Institute of Social Service (Ranchi). All these groups arc part of more extensi\'c local and regional Jet works, and all except Pr a ya s ~an be seen as part of wider national movements, although their particular focus and styk of operation is unique to Bihar. There are also significant linkages between several of these groups. All can be seen as directly or indirectly invol\'ed in some form of popular mobilisation, though all except Chattra Yuva Sangharsh Yahini (CYSV) also undertake de\'dopmental, training or educational work.

Two further organisations which concentrate on constructive work rather than mobilisation arc Samanwaya Ashram, Bodh Oaya, and the.Association of Sarva Sc\'a Farms. Gaya. Their main inspiration has been drawn from the teachings of Vinoba Bhave, alth<'ugh they have also been inftuenccd to some extent by Jayaprakash Narayan. A third organ(sation which has been influenced by the ideals of both Yinoba Bhavc and JP is Muzaffarpur Development Agency, which operates in Musahari blbck, Muzaffarpur District.

CYSV and Na" Bharat Jagriti Kendra (NBJK) both owe direct inspiration to Jayaprakash Narayan for their foundation and both seeL: to pursue his ideals of 'total revolution'. althou~h

· their s~yle~ of operation arc distinctly different. A~ we shall se.:. the CYSV has now split into two factiom with <lpposing ideology on key issues.

Chattra l'ura Sa11gharsh Vahi11i ,,..,,,. .. ~ .J

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· JP ;a a national organisation on 30 September 1?78. With Jp•s 1:11:i1 aoproul. CYSV had been active on Janata"s behalf during 1he 19i7 elections. JP subsequently became concerned to cslablish CYSV as a youth organisation with an identity distinct fr->m the Jan ta party, fearing absorption of politicised youth by P"h1i:al parties. Membership during and immediately after the Emergency may have been a'i high as 10,000 nationally, plus many other informal supporters. Nominal membership of 7000 is s1ill claimed, but the number of active workers in Bihar is now probably between SCHOO. While the (lrganisation bas a presence in se\eral Indian slates, its main core of support has alw:ns been found in Bihar. It has conducted struggles in relation to the impacl of dam projects in Bhagalpur and . Singhbum, together with issues concerning fishing and forest rights. Dul its major effort has been concentrated in the struggle at?ainst the Math (temple) landowners of Bodh Gaya. ~ Th! origirs of the Bodh Gaya struggle arc open to

question. The initiati\C probably came from Shri S. Jagannalhan, Chairman of the Ai:sociation of Sarva Scva Farms (ASSEFA), a national organisation with headquarters in Madras. In 1974-S Shri Jaggannatban was living in the Samanwaya Ashram at Bo<.lh Gaya to help develop ASSEFA's constructive work in the Gaya area, linked to distribution of "bhoodan· land. He met JP and became impressed with the potential of the Bihar Mo\cmcnt. It seems that he shared his background knowledge of struggles against temple and ct.urch landowners in Tamil Nadu with a young Yahini activist living at that time in the Bodh Gaya Math, who eventually intlucnccd the CYSV to take up a struggle to re-distribute surplus lands. Howe\"er. CYSV su!>scquently claimed that the adoption of Bodh Gay a as its major centre of struggle represented a deliberate s1ratcgic choice. The CYSV had a concentration of ·acti,ists in the area and it was felt that a struggle against a single \"Cf"Y large landowner would enable them to forge . soliJarit.Y between landless and marginal farmers and at least a\oid opposition from middle and richc~ cultivators. Subscqi:cnily, CYSV has. become involv~d in a few struggles against owners of large land and surpluses, but h_as generally sou2ht to avoid broader based struggles on behalf oflandlcss lab~urcf!.. as this wouid, bring them in10 confiict wiib smaller owner Ctiltivators.

Te explanation offered by some Yahini leaders is lhat the Bodh .:;aya struggle was intended to develop experience and tools ;"o;r non-violent struggle which would have bcco more

ditracull in the conteAI or a hr,"3Jer·based and mNc compf\', conflict. Less charitable cri11cs sui~e~1 th31 the Vahini i~ now experiencing decline and di\·ision and comequcn1ly seekinr I('• claim crc-dit through post-hoc ratil'.'nalis:itions. Their largely middll'-clas~ background is attributed as a cause for inadequate analysis or the rural situation in Bihar and the requirement~ for

~ buildinJ? a mass movement. Supporting c\'idcncc for such ~ criticism can be adduced from the rcporled inlcrest of some

.

i·, mY~1~1ini tactivists in for1 gi~gddli1oks "d·ith Shctkari Sa~gbatana. a • 1 1 an mo\'cmenl o m1 can upper peasanu in Maharashtra

-· ·• · led by Sharad Joshi, with a singk plank platform demanding

l ·. higher agricultural prices. Shctkari Sanghatana is seen by many acti\'is1s in that slate as pan of the powerful Maharashtra 'sugar lobby'. Interestingly, Sharad Joshi wa!' reportedly

I invited lo the Bodh Gaya Conference on 'Total Rc\·olution' in l October 1986. h has to be acknowledged. nc\'crthclcss, tha1 1hc

CYSY has assisted laodkss Musahars to sustain their struggle against the Bodb Gaya Math for almost l~n years, and manv Vahini acti\'ists ba\'c been prepared to live full·timc in villaces for this purpose, standing alongside 1hc exploited classes in the face of of1en \'iolcnt retaliation from \'estcd interests and police.

It is bard 10 measure the amount of land regained as a consequence, particularly as the extent of land actually owned or controlled by the Math at various times is extremely difficull to calculate. Some Vahini estimates of the Mahant's tolal landholding run as high as I 8,000 acres, though some of the land held was given away as 'bhoodan· land to the

\ Samanwaya Ashram and elsewhere during the 1950s. Followinl? I an investigation by the Saxena Commitlec in 1979, the . ~

I. government eventually estimated the Math0s landholding at · 9,575 _acres. Th~sc were held in the names of the Mahant and of

I . related indi\'iduals in 138 villages in 1 I blocks of Gaya district; . 7,480 acres were discovered 10 b~ the personal property of the Mahan( (Manimala : 4).

1 The Saxena Report was not publicly released despite the

Vahioi 0s ctroris. In fact it only pro\·idcd guidelines as to the nature of the Math"s holdings. Gaya District go\'crnrncnt

I sources ~talc that 2,472 acres have been acquired for re· distribution. plus J.3 IS acres which the Math 'gave willingly". The Vahini acknowledges a total or 3,000 acres ;c-distributcd. 4,573 acres arc still subject to litiga1ion bef~rc various courts. Legal problems dcrhc from the Mahant's transfer of land to small sharecroppers. CYSY sources claim that the latter are th~

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Mabant•s relainers or strong mc11, while the go~ernment sees most or su.:h transfers as 'benami' to small cultivators. There are also disputes relating to trust arrans.e"'!cnts undertaken by the Math. Some complaints arc also voiced about land distribution processes, from which the Vahini have been largely excluded. · · G

The situation on the J!round is one or stalemate. ross . , iolence was used by the police at the height or the struggle in 1979-Sl "·hen the labourers look over and cultivated some 3,000 acres. But in turn, the labourers have been unabl~ to. harvest the large area ofland in dispute then:iselves. Cu1t1vat1on of land !'till held by the Mabant and his retainers bas been successfully boycotted for several years, albeit at the cost of great. personal hardship by the deslitutc, mostly Musahar .work~orcc. T~c local grain collection centres cum courts (kac~en~) which provided the basic infrastructure for feudal explo1tauon have been physically destroyed. in all but two ~ases where tb~y have been rendered non·opcrational. By nominally tra~sremng land, the Mahant has also been able 10 promote conflict between small cultivators and landless labourers, and is further able to take advanta&e of divisions among the Vabini themselves.

In Scplcmtcr l 9b7, the Bihar High Cou~t reversed, on appeal, a negative decision five months earher by_ the Ga ya court thus fir.ally ruling against the vast landholdings of the Math·, which was only allowed to retain one hundred. acre~: Ne\'ertheless, the distribution by land is rep?rtedly shl.l subject to intcrf erence by politicians and local officials. Desp1.te the rosy picture now painted by official spokesmen, the.re 1s no guarantee that the poorest groups will actually receive an~ cultivable land within reasonable access from where they h_ve. Also, as Bodh Gaya expands as a tourist centre, commercial. interests may be expected to seek access to prime land.

A serious split in CYSV has surfaced since 1984. Although its origins can be traced back several y~ars earli~r, t~e catalyst for the split was provided by the establishment 10 ~abar of the Mo,·ement for Total Revolution (Sampurna Kranll Manch~ that year. The Mancb was subsequently ~aunched ~s a national mo\·emcnt at a conference in Both Gaya m Octobe, 1986. CYSV itself was involved originally in the initiative to set up the Mancb, which was intended as a collecti•;e effort to overcome a sense of isolation experienced by the several . cone ~rned Northern Bibar groups. Former High Co~~t Justice, V.f\'. Tarkundc, who bad become Secretary of the C1t.'zens for [ emocracy founded by Jayaprakash Narayan during the

·' i

I 970s and subsequently Pre~ident or the People'ill Union for Ci, ii Liberties. \\·as app0in1ed Con\'ener.

At the initial meeting. ii was decided that no \'oluntary Npnisation which accepted foreign funding could be a member or lhe Manch. However. indi,·iduah, including somr Yahini 4lnd former \'ahini Working for such organisations, continued to play an acti\'e role. This led to a boycott of the Manch by those who look a more militant stand on this issue. A more fundamental division occurcd on the question or violence following the national conference orCYSV in June J91i4 al Alwar in Rajasthan. One group Bd\•ocatcd a programme or struggle and radical action, induding violence, bringing out a bool.lct to this effect in January 1985. The other group continued to ad\'ocale peaceful struggle along Gandhian Jines. The issue arose initially ai; a result or a killing, allegedly by the Mahant's strong man, io Mastipur ,·illage in 1978 during a procession demanding higher wages. As a result, lhc radical faction conclujed that retaliatory violence was justified in extreme cases. E\cn so, there is no e\'idencc that either milil.rn or moderace Vahini member$ have been personally involved in any act of \'iolenc~.

Nevertheless, factional di\'isions ha\'e subsequently become highly embittered. The radical faction controls the organisation at the nalional level and bas expelled the moderate group. The lauer is probably stronger in Bibar and seems likely lo launch a ri\'af organisation at the national level, using its links with the widt r Gandhian and ch·iJ liberties networks represented in the Sampurana Kranti Manch. This split has bad a debilitating

· impact on the Bodh Gaya struggle. The radicals controlling the national organisation have dissolved the Mazdoor Kisao Samiti and assumed direct conlrol of the struggle, apparently i~oring their own stated commitment to popular participation. The moderate faclion has continued the struggle in cooperation with MKS in Barachbati, Sbergbati and Bodb Gaya blocks. The radical faction only appears to be acti,·e in Mobanpur block. Some informal cooperation bctv.·een the lwo groups is ' continuing at local level and indeed, lines or di\'ision arc not al\\a)·s clear cut, with many cross currents in relation to ideology, debates over strategy and tactics, external links and

· personalities. , Finally, recognition must be given to the efforts of women

. in this struggle. While women ha"c played an active role in demonstrations, processions and other forms of direct action, they h3\'e had to wage a strong internal struggle 10 gain bot b

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equal status and rcco&nition within the Vahini or the 5pcd:il uploi1ation of women. As Manimala, an activist in the forefront of these campaigns bas put it ..... We thought that we could begin the fish1 with the s1rugglc for lanJ, and then the fight against the m:iny other inequalities in the social, cultural, political and educational realms would ultimately get linked up \\"ith the struggle for land rights, leading to a movement for to1al ch:ingc. However, 1here was no clarity about how the different forms of inequality involving exploilation were related 10 one ano1her. Therefore, without any analysis that unified. and organized the issues more systematically, the struggle for · Jaod became 001 just the focal point of our efforts, but our totat 11ruggle. The 01her issues usually got taken up or left behind according to the conditions laid down by the struggle for land"'· (Manimala : 2).

This realisation led to struggle on two fronts-on the one hand against domestic: violence against women and liquor and on the other to gain land allocation specifically to women. The two struggles were seen as linked, since improvement of women's economic status was seen as essential in raising their status within the family. Conversely, the women feared that if land was allocated only to men, abuse of women might increase rather than decrease. In any case, as women are part of the struggle for land, they should receive part of the land as a reward. Women made only limited gains on both fronts. with some reduction in domest!c violence, some greater role and respect being accorded to them within the movement, although overall male dominance has remained. Only limited land distribution to women was achieved, directe~ only to widows. Within the m

0,ement, though agreement was reached that women should

receive a share of land distribution, the government was only . \\·illing 10 register land in the name or beads or families, leading

to a further stalemate with the government on this issue (Manimala: 16J.

Na\' Bharat Jagriri Kendra The Nav Bharat Jagriti Kendra (NBJK) located in

Chouparan Block. Hazaribagh District, was registered arounJ 19i4·5 wilh 1he support of JP under the leadership of Shri Sali~b and Shri Girj:i. 22 acres of land were purchased and a centre es1ablishcd in Babera village. The centre is popularly known as Bahera Ashram, though Gandhian rituals are little

.1~

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t I' • {

·t . ) .

I I j • ·1 :l

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C'b.locnr~ in <In~· lraJiti.:>nal sense. and ih ou•look i\ rrneralf\· "~ular in rcla1mn t0 rcli~ion Wh"I 1'BJL" • . . dc,·clo · 1 e. • "' oreratcs communrt~

h pmcnt rro~ramme~ of the conventional kind !.uch a\ dair\" r.c emef~ .• animal husbandry, health. irrigation and h;ilwadr·, the. core o llS anp h · · ,. roac cenlres on the cs1ablishment of I k .. (people's commilte \) NBJK I . o sam111s ..

11 . r. · c arms that lhese now cover 4go

\1 aE?es in ~3 out of a to1al of 22 blocks in Hazariba!!h Dis1ri-t The philosophy underlyin!! the cstabli~hment of lok sami1i's.

represents an allempt to follow JP's goals of 'total re\'0lut" • The co.mmitrees arc int~nded to as!.Ume overall re~ponsibili'1~·nf~r the de\elopmenl of therr communities lo mob·1· lh ,· f, ·

1 · 1 rse e peop e

or r.~~1a cha~ge: buildini; awareness, and conduct of strui:gles 1.0 ac ie,·e.rhe1r ri~hrs. They also play a role in adjudication ~f internal d1spu1es throu~h people's courls (lok adalat) and stru~glc on moral issues such as alcohol and prostitution forcing the c~o.sure of se\'eral hotels and brothels. '

Lok nm111s are organised al tola and village le\'cl linked through a deleg:i1e structure at panchavat block a d ·d. t . le"el NBJK · · · • n 1s ric1 Lok~ . . is ac11ve in 1he national organisation, lashtri\'a

.am1t1 (RLSJ, w~~se headquarters is at Varansi. Both . ~BJK and Lok Sam111 are acth·e in the recently established . ovemcnl for Total Revolution. NBJK sent several of irs

'·11Ja~e level cadres to the national conference to launch th·s 17 movement at Bodh Gaya in October 1986.

1

Lok samitis are active in pressing demands I I government authorities to implement official pr:gnra:~ I 1 ri.gh~s ~~d cntitlem~nts, eradication of corruption and cs, ega d1sc1plmmg of officials. Processions and demonstrations are undertaken regularly at block and district levels. Reccntl . these efforts have been strengthened by more systematic ) programmes to promote legal cduca1ion, drawing on outside res~ur~s. notably from the People's Union of Civ·1 L'b ·.i. which NBJK 1·s am1· d I I erth;:S to 1ate . .

Despite energetic and sincere cff.'.>rts by NBJK 1 d.. d cadres, the lok sami1i structure manifests serious co~~e;~~a~:nd slructural weaknes~es. Active mcmbcrsh· f I I. ' . . 1po o.-sam111s consutules onlv a small proportion of th . . l i . • . . err nomma membcrs~~P· which in turn is of1en a minorirv of their resp' .. ' .. commun111es. Acti'e member· pa,· fi"e rupee's . .c.1\e ·b · · · per annum contn .ute 4·7 day~ work per mon1h and mu t b • f 1· · I . · s not e memb"'r~ o po 1l1ca part1e~. Some basic levels of li1erac~· .,nd d ~ . II · ,; "' e uca;10n are .~orma y required. Jn ~omc cases. particularly among hanian groups, membership m:iy be as li1tlc a-; 10-~0 families. 1

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18

but among such groups most or all families arc mcmbcrs'ortbe lok samiris.

NBJK faces a dilemma as to whc1hcr or not to form separate committees for harijans or wbc1hcr to intcrgratc them into \illagc·widc committees. Where the harijan settlement is more 1ban I km. from the main village, a separate lok samiti is usually cs1ablishcd. This may also be jus1ified on the grounds thal harijans will gain more confidence in sclf·organisa1ion and feel better able to define their problems. However, such separation goes against JP's basic ideology of breaking down caste and communal barriers as part of" process of 'to1al revolution'. On the other hand, where committees arc integrated, hJrijans find themselves in an inferior socio·cconomic posi1ion and their demands may -A·cti be ignorcJ or overridden.

By way of example, th~ \'illagc of Bha1bigha, Chouparan Block, has or.c or 1hc earliest lok samitis cs1ablished by NBJK, with approximately ISO families. of which about 60 arc Yadav and 50 arc harijans. As elsewhere in Bihar, the Yadavs arc small cultivators and the harijans remain landless. In 1967·8 the Forest Department bad released approximately 2.4 acres to each or eight harijan families. However, the Yadavs have dispuled 1hc harijan's righ1s 10 this land despite their receipt of firm litle, and the harijans have consequently been prevented tiirough harassment from any cffccti\'c cultivation. The lok sam'.ti in Bhatbigha has 34 members including 14·15 harijans and J 5·16 Yada .. ·s. Three of the fi\'e active members, including the Secretary, arc harijans. The latter report a high level of harmony and consensus at meetings but say that the net result is 1hat lhcy continue to be exploited. The central issue of land is not discussed. Even so, the harijan members remain commillcd and articulate in support of JP's ideals of non· violent struggle both on ideological and practical grounds-

. recognising, for example, their overall weakness in numbers. Thcv claim th.at at least they do not feel any sense of social disc~imina1ion against them and that a good deal of practical cooperation has been achieved in relation to village festivals, cstablishin!: balwadis, drinking waler and irrigation programmes -!hough ;bviously land owning families benefit most from the latter.

Where separate harijan 1olas are organised into lok samitis they suffer from lack of.res~urccs, alt~ou,gh several such samilis rcporicJ success in establishing security of land tenure and reduction in harassment from higher castes. Support from the A~hram was seen as a major cause. Cooperation with

i·.

" :!

: ' '

--· . nci~ht'tourin1: ~m11ts arpearcd weal: and mostlv ad·hoc in the ,.illal!CS $Ur,·cycd. lhouih most pariicipatcd fairiy often in dcm,1n!.tralion$ orl!ani~d al the block .Incl.

Women's parlicipation in lhc work of local samilis is 1

acknowledged by NBJK as being weak. A common cxplanalion is that women arc "not inlercstcd". However, the lack of trained female field workers or any serious a11cmp1 10 promote mahila mandals focused on the felt needs and intcrcs1s of women renders such explanations implc; usible, as experience elsewhere in India has shown. Ccriainlywomcn participa1c actively in dcmc.•nstra1ions or~aniscd al biock and dislrict level but their cffccli\'c involvement at a daily grass rools level would clearly enhance lhcir contribu1ion 10 the O\'crall struggle.

In an organisational context, the Jinks bclwecn the \'arious lc\'els o.r NBJK's lok samiti struclure scrm 10 need strengthening. In particular the panchaya1 organisalions seems weak due 10 lack or communication between individual tola·level samitis. Con~cqucnlly, block organisa1ion depends significantly up~n ad·boc links wilh individual samitis. In some cases, perhaps, rhc panchayat is no1 the mos1 suitable unil or organisation and a cluslcr formai'ion based on specific local linkages would be more appropriate.

The Zia Lok Samili meets regularly and is acti\'c on many fronts, though participation by block delegates is uneven and communications difficult. Efforts ha\'c recently been commenced to strengthen block organisation. Finally, 1he membership of individual lok samitis will now receive their membership certificates directly from the Rashtriya Lok Samiti, which in theory should bring closer integration be1ween all levels of the sami1i structure.

Jt;m Jagaran Kendra Jan Jagaran Kendra was formed in 1981·82. Prior to that

some key leaders were acti\'C in NBJK. According to Jan Jagaran leaders, the split began in 1980 when NBJK played an acli\'C role in supporting Jana1a pJrly candidates in the state election, dc~pilc ils stated ideology of being non·political in a par1y semc. The claim has credence in the context of NBJK 's

· acti\'c role within the Movement for To1al Rc,olution in Bihar whose informal links, at leas I with what remains of the Jana1a' coalition, arc fairly apparent. Broader differences centred on

· the commilment by NBJK to JP's ideology of 'non·\'iolent revolution' and the organisational strategy or forming lok

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',.,. '.·. - ~·

sami1is cStti\inl! from ii. The new org;rnisation dccl~r~J ils shin 10 a Man.isl framework of analysi~ and ac1ion. Ex1shng lok samitis wbich fell under the control J;in Jagaran Kendra were dissolved ~nd merged into a peasant organisation called Mazdoor Kisan Morc:ha (MKM). JJK!MKM leaders also differ, at least in theory, from NBJK on 1he issue of violence which they claim is necessary to achieve re••olulion. Consequm1ly, they have no sympalhy with the Movement for Total ~olution .

According 10 JJK, the MKM is active in 15 oul of 24 . blocks i• Hazaribagh dis1rict. Jls organisational structure : · seems not dissimilar to th~ lok samiti slructure of NBJK, with similar conditions for ac~ive and ordinary members. A similar struclurc exisls linking indi\·idual units to panchayat, blo:k and district organisalions, wi.th key officials represenling their . rcspecti\c bodies al higher levels. MKM claims that membership is de1enruned along class rather than casle lines. The problem which h1UK has encoun1ered in relation 10 harijan tolas is resolved in a formal, though not a real scn!e, by forming separate units based on Iola divisions wilhin lhe p;i~chayat.

JJK!~fKM conducls a wide range of construcllve, conscio~s.ness raising and struggle programmes, though with grealer emphasis on 1be latter two .. The~ la tier .center on land dislribution and regislralion, confhcls with officials ~ver access to forest land and resources, implementalion of official an1i·po\crty programmes and non-formal and adult . education programmes, together with internal struggl.es ag:11nst alcohol and domes1ic violence against women. Despite some 'awareness-building' programmes among women and the formation of a Mahila Sanghatana, so far an effective organisation among women has yet lo emerge. .

Officially, OXFAfyf.'s policy is lo fund only soc1a.1, educational and income-generaling programmes. This app~ars

. to hne rcsuhed in some division or labour between Jan Jagaran Kendra and Majdoor Kissan Morcha, which is opposed to tradi1ional·st) le developmental programmes. JJK acts as the vehicle for receipt and distribution of OXFAM funds. The distinclion is entirely arlificial. It is quile clear lhat OXFAM funds the major part of JJK/MKM educational and consciousness raising programmes and support of cadres anJ a cultural cum drama 1eai:n for this purpose, although funds arc also pro,ided for construction of dams and wells, animal husbandry and heallb programmes.

OXFAM's role is a cause of great bitlerness and contro\·ersy

. ;

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,.-. .

bc1"·cen 1'BJK and JJK/MKM. NBJK claims that the new Mpnisalion wa~ broughr inlo exislence through collusion between OXFAM and disconlenled members wi1bin the NBJK or~anisali<'n w~o had ambitions lo form 1heir own organisation. h 1s funher claimed 1ha1 despile JJl\/M KM's ideol.jgical rhcloric, in praclice there i~ no subs1an1ial difference between the two o~ganisations in their raoge or activi1ies, goals and methods. A~ OXFAM_fund!> both organisations, NBJK secs OXFAM's role as mischievous and displaying an inlervenlionist and 'divide and rule' mentalily. As a consequence, it is claimed, the popular struggle has been divided.

For its parl, OXFAM claims thal the differences in :ipproach beelween lhe lwo organisa1ions arc subslantial but as both organisations arc doing good work, it is willing to ~upport both. Not to do so "ould be more inlen·entionisl in the scn5e of signalling a slrong preference for one approach, whereas OXFAM re~uires only evidence of popular par1icipa1ion by and bcnefils flowing to poor people. In any case, some degre ·of compctilion is likely lo enhance lhe performance of bolh or~anisalions. ·

Judgemenl on this issue must depend subs1an1ially on comparative field e\'alualion of the two organisa1ions, which bas nol been attempted in any sys1erna1ic way in this reasearcb. No do~bl while lhe real si1ua1ion is more complell: than the polarised claims of lhe two organisations, there is never1beless some C\'idence of more ex1ensi"e, in-depth mobilisation in JJK/MKM, less encumbered by the complex nelwork of external alignmenls surrounding NBJK. On the question of foreign aid, there is ', s~me parallel belween the two organisations, in thal foreign '

. aid ca~nol be ~hannelled lo Jok samitis, due to the policy of the Rashtnya (nal1onal) Lok Sami1i on this issue. Similarly the ban

· place!-) on foreign aid by lhe Movemenl for Total Revolulion, of \l.:hich NBJK is a member, is circumvented by channelling fun~s directly to the Bahera Ashram for specific conslructi,·e projecls.

Total Rero/utio11

21

The concept or '101al rernlulion· lo which boch NBJK and RLS are committed is highly amorphous, embracing potencially all aspects or public, communily and personal life. One evident depanure from JP·s blueprin1 is the lack or mobilisalion of Joie sami1is for purposes or \·01er education or the nominaiion of people's candidales for parliamenlary, legislative assembly or e\ en gram panchayat election-: .. P.r.,c1~.,.. .. ~1 • ., •L.: •. ,, <' ·· .. • · ···.".7'·;·:···· ·· ·

,,":;r:~·;'.·:~: ... , .. ~.·.·.···.·/)·:._·:. , .. \ "·y·:-.":\: : .. ;, .......... ·. , . . . . .

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of confidence in the re)c\·ant institutions. However, no alternative representative structures have been proposed, C\'CD in theory. While this may rcftcct the Jack of legitimacy of formal institutions 1''ilhin the JP and Gandhian traditions, the role of go\·crnmcnt agencies in performing their current functions is generally taken for granted, as reflected by demands that they perform their ~olc efficiently and honestly, as th~ people's sen·ants rather .than their masters. But this logic is not extended to politicians and parties, contact with whom is generally treated as ta~o •. Tbis reOccts a common contradiction in such circles of both calling for total transformation in the political sphere while i.nsisting on a 'non·politicar approach. While 'non-political' is commonly interpreted as meaning independence from parties, this begs the question of coalition-building between those holding similar ideology and interests and neglects the obvious role of parties in linking state structures and inchoate masses of people and interest groups.

Rashtrt)'a Lok Samili The Rashtriya Lok Samiti, under the chairmanship of Sri

Tripurari Sharan. claims that some 2500 indh·idual lok samitis arc in active uistcncc in five Indian states, of which 2000 arc in Bihar. These figures arc almost ccr1aioly exaggerated. Only three active networks arc in evidence in HazariQagh Champaran and Santbal disiricts. The: shared location of RLS headquarters with that of the Sarva Scva Sangh' in Varanasi indicates a close relationship between RLS and mainstream Gandhian networks, though also reOccting a general sympathy by many Gandhian groups towards JP's ideas. However, the overall ideology and structure of Sarva Scva Sangh and the .discipline imposed on individual lok SC\'aks would militate against any acti\'C involvement in more general p:>litical struggles.

Mainstream Gandhians still tend to sec· struggles to achieve 'people's power' (loknjti) d~spit.c JP's rejection of conventional forms of political pow.er {~ajnitj) as nevertheless a form of po" er-seeking. Rashtriya Lok Samiti appears to have gained some suppon from Sarva .Scva ~ai:i~h. for the notion of voters' councils to nominate 'people's ~ndidatcs' at gram sabha elections. although there is no Clarily aboul how such a proc~ss might operate concretely. Some support also seems to be reviving in mainstream Gandhian circles for the idea of integrating constructive wc-rk.and s1ruggle. In practice the.re is

..

a tendency lo hold bad on the lallcr as this militate~ a~ain\t other Gandhian gciah of iocial h.ormony •nd comensu~. fN example. RLS has refused Ill lake up the issue of bonJcd labour, specifically for lhis reason. In this conrcxr. some ~bscrv~r~ sec Na\ BharJI J:i~riti Kendra a~ something of n flagship for Rashtriya Lok Saniiti, as one organisation whic!1 acli\·cly conducts people's struggles, albeit with only partial cfkctivcness, in this way legitimating RLS' claims 10 b: at th:: ~orc:ron1 of a m~,·ement for 'total revolution'. Yet objectively, 11s lies lci the mainstream of the Gandhian movement would on balance tend 10 place it alongside forces maintaining the sratus quo.

Bhoodan Groups/lnfl11e11ce Of Jayaprakash Narayan And Vinoba Bhai·e

Groups discussed so far have all been strongly influenced by the .ideals and methods of Jayaprakash Narayan, with the exception of Jan Jagaran Kcndra/Mazd1 or Kisan Morcha which has reacted negotively in an oppo~ite direction. There is another network of groups which ha\'e been influenced by JP but also ~y Vinoba Bhove, who for many years worked closely to~ether 10 the bhoodan Oand gift) movement. However, a spilt occurred between them during the 1970s which affected the whole Sar\'odayo mo\ement when JP initiated his movement for 'total revolution'. This led to confrontation first with the Bihar Mak go\'crnrnen1 and then with Indira Gandhi's Congress·) government at the Centrr. Following the declaration of Emezi:ency and JP's imprisonment in June 1975, di\'isions between followers of JP and Vinoba within the Sar"odava

... movement inrensified. For organisations which re carded both as .their 'founding fathers' and gurus, problems of-re-defining i:oals and identity ha\"e not proved ea~y. -

Three organisations encountered during this research for whom the bhoodan mo\'emen1 has pro\'ided a central frame of reference arc Samanwaya Ashr;1m, Bodh Gaya, Association of Sarva Se\'a Farms (ASSEFA), Gaya and Muzaff.upur De\'elopment Agency, Muzaffarpur. Their stron~ roots in the bhoodan 1110,·ement ensureJ 1ha1 despite stroni: emotional tit!, with JP, th::y would not support his more radical political !.lance. One of the orE'.anisations. ASSEFA, was in fact not es1a.blished in Bihar until 1978, although its Secretary, Sbri Dw1karji, worked with Dwarko Sundrani in the Samanwava Ashram durint; the 1950s and has maintained close ties e'~r

'·.

23

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I ~ I'· I! I' , . ; ~ : ; 1.·. '. !• I.

I.

·;.-. _..!..'. -

since. \'inol-a pro\·ideJ che fundJmencal inspiration for both these veteran ~arvodaya wo1kers, 1he core of whose work has centred on the de\·elopment and cultivation of bhoodan_ land, progressi\ely buifding social, educational and other projects on thi~ base.

Association Of Sarra Sera Farms (ASSEFA) Ami Somanwayo Ashram

ASSEFA was establisheJ in Tamil Nadu in 1969, wich _the idea of distributing bhoodan land to the poorest groups. consolidatina holdings into cooperati\"e units and in providing: necessary training and resources for culti,·ation. Bhoodan. land was commonly hilly, stony, unirrigated and in other way$ · difficult to cuhivate. Without such training and resources, impo\.erished and mostly illiterate landless labourers would not be able co .. ain any benefit from che receipt of land. The founder otASSEFA, Mr. Jagannathan, came from Tamil Nadu to Bihar in 19i4, specifically in order co meet JP and observe the Bihar Mo\emenl. He resided at the Samanwaya Ashram for approximately one year. later returning in 1977·8 to support the intensification of the struggle against the Math by rhe \'ahini, which as mentioned, he had helped to en~ourage on his initial \"isit. Shri Jaganathan in fact drew JP's allention to parallel struggles conducted against temple lands in Tamil Nadu, although some local conservative Gandhians later caused JP to hesitate in his support for CYSV's struggle at Bodh Gaya. fearing potential violence.

Jn the latter context, the leader of Che Samanwaya Ashram, Dwarko Sundrani, has generally supported the approach of Vinoba Bha,·e during conflicts with JP in relation to the Bihar Mo\'ement, the Emergency and the overall direction of the

. sarvodaya movement. Consequently, he bas felt unable to support either the Vahini struggle against the Bodb Gaya Math (from whom the Ashram had earlier acquired some 'bboodan' land) or the more recent Movement for Total Revolution, though open lines of communication with activists in both groups and some form of dialogue is maintained. · ..

By contrast with the approach of the Ashram, both \~anss of the CYSV reject development programmes as part of their overall incerpretation of JP's concept of popular struggle and, in any case. acknowledge their lack of interest in such programmes. This bas created some difficulties.in conducting the Bodh Gaya struggle as landless families have sought lo

·:~-~ ..... :~~ .. ··' . ·. ....., - .. :. -...; . --..· ... '""\. l

•"""'-··-·..,....,.---------~--...;.. ... .. "4. - ..... ~ .

suni\·e h'n!! rcriod' •hen Macti land\ ha"e been lerc·fallow. In such circum~ca nl"e'. S<lme !amilic) ha"e l urned to rtiorc CN~~n·ati\"e N!!anisation~. notably the Samanwaya Ashram, for a~~_istance in con~trucli\'e wMl pro~rammes. This ha!. L'au~ed Cl"n~iderablc hC'stil1ty bct,,ec:n the \'ahini and the A!lhrJm.

Dwarkl"ji is seen by the Vahini, particularly the radical faction, as dividin~ the popular struggle by self-appointed efforts at mediation and seeking to divert landless labourers with promise~ of income-generating proi;rammes, which for his pare. Dwarko Sundrani claiml' ha\·e been requested by the people for Che sake of sun·i\'al. He furcher believes that compromise with 1h-: ~fath in accepling panial concessions of land would lead I<' a de-facto bhoodan tram.fer of the rest.

Samanwaya Ashram's range of constructive and educa1ional programme~ is cercainly eittensh·e (A. Prasad). As yer no systema:ic social or economic ~\'aluarion of their impact. has ycr been conducted. The suslained I ersonal commitment of or DwarkC1ji Sundrani is hard to doubt. However, his philosophy and style ha\"e been called increasingly into question, in line with doubts expressed in many quarters, both with traditional Gandhian style programmes and developmental approaches generally which take inadequate account of social structure and fail ro mobilise poor people against vested interests oppl'1sing them. Dwarkoji counters these doubts with his own faith in bhoodan as a radical approach to land. ownership and economic disad"antage. Up to 1983, the Ashram claims to have distributed 1863 acres of bhoodan land, benefiting 793 families (A. Prasad). It is clear, however, even from sympathetic accounts such as Prasad's, that popular paniciparory structures of e\'en a rudimentary kind have failed tCl emerge .

WhatC\er the merits or ocherwise of the Ashram's particular approach, its reputation bas recently become clouded by an emerging counler·mo\·ement Jed by former pupils, mostly from the hoys school at Bagha. According to their account, an effort t-y these young people to de\"elop constructive and struggle programmes, based on a more radical structural analysis of the causes of poverty and exploitation experienced by their own Musahar community, encountered hostility from the Ashram. They allege that threats or \'iolence were used against them by the local member of the State Assembly. Several have faced a succession of false charges by the police. The yo"titli s ha,·e puQlkised ~""''.~;:irin .... r~:"":C'-··".'.': __ · · · ···

t~;:!~:"['f::j·:- .. : ;':·· .... ,1•' .. ~·;. '~ " '•!", , ...... ,···.

2

26

. I ( 1 I

__..,- "" __ ... -·- - . - . - , ......... ....,..-_~ - -- -----·~~---""""' ..

includin1 seduction and rape or female staff by teachers~ They_ also complain or the influence or the M.L.A; and a fema.le asso<..iate in the mana1emenl or the hostel. A uusttt, from Gujarat, "'ho has organised eye camps in Bo~h Ga.ya for.the past three years, is currently uctins as a mediator in the dispute. · ASSEFA operates in three districts in Bihar:-~anthal .., Pargana

9 Munger and Olya. ASSEFA sources claim that 1.14-

acrcs of bhoodan land had been distributed and developed in Bihar of which 443.7 acres was in Gaya District (A. Prasad : 74). The lallcr figure had risen to 772 acres by the end of 1985. This is a relatively modest achievement considering th al 31 :952 families ha\'e so far received 42,410 acres of bhoodan land in Gaya district. even when the work of Samanwaya Ashram and other small agencies operating in the area is taken into account. Nevenheless, ASSEFA'S work in areas where it operates appears both cxtcnsi,·c in its ranie of programmes and intensive in its social and edueali01\al as well as economic content.

Gram sabhas bad been established by ASSEF A in 13 ,-illagcs up to the end of 1985. Again, howc\·er, as these arc seen as the main vehicles for popular participation, coverage appears modest, with a total membership of 4U families. Total gram kosh tvillage funds) collections for all thirteen gram . sabhas was 2688 rupees-an average of just six rupees per family. The major benefits probably come from the irrigation. training and other agriculture-related inputs supplied by ASS~FA. A:; cultivators have gained udc to their land, they can i:nJOY thtsc benefits directly without incurring a hea"Y burden of indebtedness.

J.fu:affarpur Derelopment Agency (}.f DA) • Muzaffarpur De,·clopmcn~ As,ency (MDA) has rather more· dramatic origins than ASSEFA and Samanwaya Ashram, though all three would claim the blessing of JP and Viooba Bbavc as basic to their tradition. and work. ln 1973. JP settled in Musabari with ;J\~eh publicity in. order to pro,·c that a radical san·odaya approach based on bh<'odan and ·'·illage democracy through the grain sabha could pro,·idc an dTcxti,·c answer to the Naxalitc eballeoge by going to the root CdU~S of po\'CJty. Hi\ intention was also to meet the threat~ to kill_ sarvodaya ~orkcrs in the area by placing his ow.n life at risk.

JP found that bhoodan donations had slowed to a trickle and that many pledges were only OD paper. He tb~refore I-

........ -~· ~. - . --.., ..-.... - ~·~· ·~··~· . ------ ---.__. --.....

mobilised ru.11 time worlers and \'Oluntetri. around an intcnsi,·e pro~rammc_1n Mu~hari Block to consolidate the~c pledBe~. confir~ their leial status, c~tab1ish ~ram sabhas (villa~e counc1I!-} and ~ram kosh (\·1lla~c funds). Ooc-tw<"nticth of 1ramdan l~od was to be distributed to landless labourers. Al the .same time, a campaign was mounlcd to ensure that tenants en111l~d to do so rccci\'ed their parcha-an official document granlln~ perr.1anent tenancy in lbeir homesteads. ·

.These .c~n:ipaigns were lin_led to a wider \'ision of peoples' po~~r.(lo~nit1) as an altcrnatl\t:·and corre::live to state power (r~Jn1u) with decision-making de\·oh·ed to the gram sabhas. V11lag~~ were to function coopcrati\'ely, pooling gramdan land . ~or r.h1s _purpose. Musahari was to pro\·idc a model and 1nsp1rat100 for the whole of Bibar, with blocks, districts and finally the Slate itself being incorporated into a network of coope~ati\'cly owned and managed lands, councils, peoples' committees and cadres.

. While -!'P wa~ in rcsidrnce in Musahar'i, gram sabhas were established 10 !07 Ol of 108 \•illages in the Block of which 35 recei\'cd legal recognition by the state ' government (M. Franda: 132). Such recognition in fact only_ c~lendcd .to dc\'clopment powers, without full adm101strativc and local government powers. A gram sabha may be forme~, according to the Bibar Gramdan Act, with the consent. of 75 % people, covering at least SI~~ of the land. A concc_ss1on was made, which many sar\'odayists regarded as fatal allowmg land to be donated without conceding the title to the ' land. Some land donated due lo the direct persuasion of JP _wa~ sub~equcntly taken back, while protracted legal processes of _ re~1stra1100 and transf<r caused some land to be taken back by ·private owners.

Nc;\·crtbcless. both Sachchidanaoda and Franda found that there ~ad been ~csidual gains by disad\·aotaged groups, borh . materially and 10 terms of social slatus. Prof. Sachidananda ' found gre~tcr _e,·idcocc of participation in decision-making r~occsscs JD \•11lage council~ by harijans and low caste group:; in \·~llages where gram sabhas had been cs1abished than in other \'1llages. A notable exception, howe\'er, was the: absence of 1

female participation in gram sabhas (Sacbidananda: 22-4). 1

lo ~encral, gram sabha~ were more imbued with a 'sc:cular a111tude' a?d less inclined to pursuit of narrowly defined cash~ goals and_mt~rc.sls t_han the conventional pancbayat (ibid). Though d1scnm1nat1on against barijans still persisted, this appeared to ha\'c weakened relati\·cly in gramdao areas comn:ir .. rl

27

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L •• J

t I' !• !> I

t l· r I 28 !'

,- ,--

wilh other ,.jllages. While economic inequalities remained. a more coopcratiu: attitude by the upper cl~sscs was apparent, e,·idcnced by contributions or funds and tame to promote ,·illage development programmes (Sac~idananda: 2.8·40). One could .idd that an imr.ortant motive for marginal f ~rmers to donate land and maintain loyalty to the gram sabha 1s lo ensure prolection from foreclosure ..

JP mobilised outside expertise to draw up .a _block plan for Mus.1bari. based on antodaya principles. He h1mse1r.1~r1.after nine months, drawn a\\ay first by the Bangladesh crisis m 1971 and subsequently by the whole momentum or the movement · \\hich he himself began in Bihar from around 1973. Some ~ources suc~cst that the Musahari experience acted as the final catalyst ro"'r his political radicalisation which led •. if not to the rejection or more conventional models. of Gandhian dc\·elopment, to a perception or their inadequacy without a _broadly ba~ed popullr mobilisation. This led to JP's launching or the B1h_ar Movement. . · .

According to f randa, the work at Musahari languished until 1977 "hen with the o\·erthrow or lndira Gandhi an~ the . establishment of the Janata government, both JP himself and his whole philosophy 1!ained a new level of recognition (M FranJa : I 32·3). This in turn encouraged renewed efforts by sarvodaya workers at Musahari. MDA's constructive programmes were , irtually suspended during the Emergency .. A Cler a further spurt from 1977·80, the organisation became sub;ect to further bureaucratic harassment and non-cooperation with the return or Congrcss·l go\·ernments in Patna and New Delhi after 1980. Externail aid to MDA was mostly channelled through the Association of Voluntary Agcncie~ for Rural Dcvelopm~nt (AVARD), which bas close associations with the Gandhl Peace Foundation, seen by Congress·l·as allied to the Janata Party.

·The Gandhi Peace Foundation and AVARD later bcca.me a . major target or the Kudal Commission_. cstabli~hed to m~esugate alle~cd irregularities in relation to f ore1gp f undrng. but widely sec~ by \·oluntary activisls as illegitimate and politically mothated. ·

Despite these setback' and the Jading of JP's pe~~o~al in6uence, MDA bas achieved sorne modest success tn llS developmental programmes, most notably in th~ fie~d or irrigation. The irrigated area in Muzaffarpur Q1stnct bad declined dr:utically during the previous 50 years (M. Franda.: 137·8), with no adequate private or public in,·estmc:nt replacing . the role earlier played by zamindars in this regard. AVARD and

.· t . '

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.'.:

'' ~

'/~

• ...... ; ..........

MDA'.drar1cJ I rl:in :iimeJ at irr1

i~atil'I~ 80~ ~of lanJ in Mu~ahari Block. The!>c plan~ \\·t_re seriously interrupted both b) flo<'d~ in 1975 u wcll :i~.thc p<llit!c.'.11 fallout from the Emeri:enc>' (M. Fi'and:i : 139·40. Eventu01Uy.58 tubcwcll~ were constructed, of which 29 were functioninf at the time Qf Franda's obser~ation (ibid. 140). He nevertheless claims that this was a relatively impressive: achie\·ment. representing some 29~~ or the total area under cultivation in Musahari Block at the time, albeit only 4 % or its total culti' ated area (ibid: 144). Coopera1h·e contrnl or land through the gram Sabha offers a f'1r better prospect tflat marginal cultivators will actually reap the benefits from such development than in villages based on priute landholdings. where such improvements invariably favour larger landowners.

. MDA also. oprratcs a range of other programmes relating to agriculture, animal husbandry, horticulture:, drainage, fisheries, farm forestry, training and small industries, drawing on resources available through the Whole Village Developmenl Programme (WVDP}. Credit, consumption Joans and debt redemption sc~emes are channelled to the poorest familie via the gram kosh (village fund). MDA has been given responsibility for managing the Districl Industries Project for Muzaffarpur District which replaced the Rural Development Project established under the Fifth Plan (IJ75·80). This project promotes various small·scale programmes in carpet weaving, textiles, bamboo and leather goods linked to TRYSEM, JRDP and other governmenl schenles offering training, credit and other assistance. MDA has also established rural marketing and service centres and a training centre for women.

An internal e\"aluation carried out for MDA by the National .Institute for Rural Oe\·elopmc:nt, Hyderabad, found that the agricultural and small irrigation schemes had generated · substantial incremental income for small and mareinal farmers

· though_ lack or coordination was apparent in most-of the anima0

l husbandry schemes (NlRD: Ch. XIV). Credit and debt

• redemption scbentl!s were inadequately targeted and managed, with.poor reco\'ery raies. Apart from bureaucratic delays, \•illage fc:udang and factionalism were the main cause of such \\;eakness. This highlights the problem of participation and popular ' organisation which is deficient at a number of points, despite JP"s emphasis on this aspect.

MDA itself is characterised by upper caste domin01nc:, with JI out of 15 of core ~ta ff and field workers coming from Brahmin or Rajput castes in March 1983. MDA sees gram sabhas as the primary vehicle for popular participation but, as we ba,·e

{ · , :!: ;·_-~rf:~:rt~~;,,r-\·,::·· ·

29

~ - . . . . Although 1hcrc ia cvidcucc seen, the~ arc only pa~ua~~ act1~c. I from harijans and other from sur•eys cited or s1.gni cant mp: of the sram sabhas, MDA

. disad\'aotagcd groups.into the "o.r I and intermediary role in itself plays a subslanual managcria d lh Whole Village

d I t programmes un er c relation to C\C opmcn . C t These-roles arc Pro~rammc and District .lnd~str1l~~c~~a:~~n Committee. This effected through the Project m~ t or the entire executive operates at block IC\'eJ and CODSIS S t' . of each of the gram

. f th MDA one represent a l\C h committee o c: h V.·vDP not otherwise represented, t c ~abhas co\'Crcd by t c . hurc and Animal Husbandry . District Dc,·clopmcnt, Agricu ft1 ~ Mushari Executive officers, the Block Dc\-clop~c.nt 0 iccr ~~na crs of . En~inccr of the B1h;ir Elcctr1c1ty Bodardh. . ~hanccllor or Bihar

· cial banks an t c -. ice- ffi participating commcr ar. or the MDA. an o ccr Uni,crsity, Muzaffarpur. The S~c~~t ~Development Officers of on deputation from the cadres 0 . oc Offi er or the the Government. scr\'CS as ~be Proj~Ct 't ~or these pcr~ons, one W\'DP. Without questioning the ~·n~cr~y top·bca\'y structure wor.ders ~OW ~p W?UJ~ ~a\C r~~~C:~~ar; ~:the catalyst for a as fitting ID with bis \ISIOD o_ • . 't'' Within this structure, wider movement for promoting ~aJDI I . t as local managing gram sabhas accept clear ob!i::\'t~~~ :~:~ illagc, with lines of

30 agents for MDA. program~ a d outwards rather than accountability directed upl Ylard;p ~ad clearly cn,·isagcd (cf. down\\ards to local pcop c, as NIRO: Anncxurc). '

Pray(U . cd G min Vikas Samiti was established as a register

P.ra~·as . ra as combines traditional . . . a~soc1at1on m May 198.2. ~ray win embroidery, batik printing, . Prcgran:mcs such as tailoring, sc g, ) .t t'on water

. k I ~bullahs (stoves , san1 a I ' installat100 of smo c css ... di {kindergartens), pcrparatio~1 of supply, food storage, balY1a s . ·53tioo and cducauon herbal mcdccincs, mc~ical care, 1 ~~~~t1

bonded labour and for with mobilisation against untouc a ~.' ~iRDP) and employment taking ad\antagc of go,crn~cnt cr:g i~mpbasis is placed on (NREP) programm~~· ~\Cry st~mco Campaigns against education ~nd. mob1l1sat1~n o.~ ~ btcd~css. dependence on outside alcohol assist 10 ovcrco~in~ .1~ c . c a ainsl women. exploiters, iolcroal con61cts and vaolcnc dgcamps of all kinds

I d t. 0 pro"rammcs an Literacy adu t c uca 10 e d Id Strong ' d omen young an o · arc conducted for men an " . ' ~ which purpose Prayas emphasis is placed on legal cducauon, or

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, ·i.

c110rcratc!> with the B1har ~ranch of the People's Union for Ct, ii Lihcrtic' and a nctworl or similarnrly oriented agencies in the Patna area. ·

Praya\' worl i' concentrated in si~ \'illa~:s in Phulwarl,harif Dl,1ck in Patna di,tric1. It ha' aho rcccntly e\tabli~hcd n ~u~·ccntrc in Ama<. Block in GJya di<.li'ict. While its fHo~rammc<. and membership arc mainly oriented towardf. Mull.lhar!-., wh0 arc untoucha~lc' and mostly landks' lat,ourcr~ in the area<. whcr;;- Pr;iyas oprratc~. it docs include other <li<.achan1agcd gr0up'. notably Moslem.;. Women al-.o p!:iy a proniincnt role and a p::irallcl women'<. organisation ha, b:~n fr•rm'..'d called Mahila J::igaran.

Prayas' palicy i' to respond to local demands in formulatin~ programmes. Thc<.c ;ire dcsign::d jointly with the village or group c0ncerncd. Local !-.ub·commillecs arc given rcspomibility for maintaining pr."'grammcs once they hav~ been c.;tablishcd. Advice and assi~tanc.: is a\'ailablc from Prayas on request. People's committees (samitis) arc csta blish~d for purposes of Jiais0n. planning future programmes, campaigns, camps arid so forth. Spcciali\cd commi: ·c~s such as the technical commi1tce arc c~ta blishcd, where ncct.ssary, to cover specific fields of work.

While the village samitis clearly p:ovidc cfft:ctive vehicles for popular mobilisarion and expression, they have yet to be linked into any kind or sclf·managing federation. Currently Prayas provides the linking machinery between local units. As Prayas actively mobilises its members to pursue their demands vis a vis block, district and state officials and is commillcd to a philo~phy of 'empowerment', formation of some kind of self· managing popular federation seems a logical next step. This will in any case become essential as Prayas' work expands. Also,

·· benefits from government programmes must be channelled direct to beneficiaries and not through an intermediary organisation. Rcglst_ering local units dirC'Ctly would enable su.:h funds to be

·managed coop~rativcly, while a federation would be in a position to speak more authoritati\'ely on b:balf of local units.

Prayas concentrales on impro\'ing access or Musahars to government programm~s which often entails struggles against corrupt officials, bank managers and others. Success in TCTIO\'ing customary and bonded labour has been recorded in SC\'cral \'illagcs (A. Prasad: 65). However, at times a strong reaction has been encountered from government officials. For example, a seminar of harijan youth at Dc.:ira, Dist. Patna on 26 October, l9b6 was raided by 400·500 p.:ilicc on orders of the

. District Magistrate. The topic of the seminar was 'How Can

> '

31

..

. .,. Howe\er. local officials h.a~ We lmpro"e Our Soc1cl_>: • athering of 1'axahl1es WJ'i informed hi°l!her au1hori11es at~aa:; ~e!der was able to persuad.: ~~1e <'Ccurring. Fortunately. Pr ~ r h'msclr that Ol'lhing was ;1mM, DM lo look around and sa11~ ! _1 . ,

t lding annlal1on. . thus fulfilling a long·s J1 . . b lance between economic Prayas has aimed lo ach1e~e a a "th which struggle a>pects nd social development programme6s lw71 I) Th.:,· hJ \ c succeeded

a . d (A PrJsad : • · · . are clos~ly integrate m;n . other orgJnisations. How:~cr. in this aim more than 'r·r Ir bctw!en l\\O st0oh in Pray as runs some dang.:r o ~ ~ngt ha\ mg suffi:icnt strength confronting the governme~I \\It ~~ force its hand to deliver the. or depth in popular organi~a~1oa~as· de\clopmcnlJI progra~mes resources on which many~ .. r . b. some not unsympathetic d n..nd Pravas' style is cnt1c1s~dd ) d• al loo hi"h a le,·el l.x> e..,. . • . . the1 r eman ' e-senior officers, for d1re~11~g h fficers who are specifically . h t pinpoinlin2 I e o d quickly w11 ou -Th. causes annoyance an . ·-responsible al lower IC\CIS. . IS for red bJck d.:iwn the hne fo, l·nevitable delays as the case is re. 11 ·m· that il does not by·pJss

d · Pravas c a , Id b~ information and a_ vice. f ·h. kind if they be such, cou -ffi · I Mistakes o l is • · · ot lower o c1a s. of disad,·anlage in that il is n seen as part of a syndrome. . of poor and backward

t org1n1sa11ons · ture· reasonable to expec . k. I dge of bureaucratic struc , 32 grollps to h>'e a suffic1entab~:7o'g•in accm to the relevant .

and process or even to be . workers know how soon. if h rassed ,·oluntary nJ

officer. Nor can .a . J to deal with their gri::vances a

... ··• ~' . :: ·: . : ..

II a local offi-:1al anten s at a • demands.

n 1 a Network .can . t ·ork linking sever.ii f n emerging ne " Prayas forms part o a k . the Patna area who meet

. Ms:anisations ofsimila.r outlo.:id ~~\elop common strategies .. ~ hange 1~kas an · nd Nav recularly to exc k . ·ludes Arpan, Pragat1, a . B- "des Pravas. this r.ctwor in~ . nJ the Community eSI • . rr h ts of Pra\aS a . .

Jacaran, all Nig.inally o ~.oho •. tes.throu"h th~ MeJ1cal - "I r wh1c op. ra " Health Centre, •" ane '

•11·,sion Sisters. .. . Fr Philip l\lanthcra from .-.. ' · h. networ" is · h. If A key person in I is F "t· thera dc!>cribes 1m5e

t Khaucl. r. '" an · the Catholic centre a ~ .. 1·\··du:ilh· with one or l\~O . ·ho op:rates 1nu1 1 . f as an 'animator.\\ 1 . b ·c.,lh· to help groups o H. proac 1 1s asi .. • . · d assistants. "ap f their own orgamsa.,ons an I disadvantaged people 10 ~r:n their own felt needs. He ch~nne s de,·clop programmes base which must either raise

r . n assistance lo these groups no 1ore1g

lheir o"n fund~ or learn to lale achanr~e of Bovernment programme~. For c~amplc, several farmers hne obtai.:ed buffJIOe~ under such "Chcme~. Cntailinl! ~ome conn1c1 With ~overnment officials. bankers and vercrinary officen.,. Milk has·, been marketed \·ia the Patna Dairy Project, lhough h:rc also : lhere has been conflict over prices. While the economic: success of these schemes has been rather uneven, Fr. ~hnthera sees them as a vehicle for disadvantaged groups lo gain

_. understanding of bureaucratic, social and political structures 1 · intluencin~ their situation, and learning to work cooperatively iri

order 10 de,·clop th~ir own styles of response and organisation. Several indi'"iduals in lhis network are invoh·ed in building

up the (Delhi based) People's Union for Civil Lib:rries (PUCL) in Bihar. The PUCL now has branches in seven districts. The Patna group meets weekly and receives inputs from many activist groups, drawing from national level to supplement its own resources in order to conduct on-the spoHnvesrigations of human righrs abuses. The Bihar branch of PUCL also invited a team from Delhi lo moniror the Parliamentary by·election at Banka on 23 NJvember 1985 (V.M. Tarkunde et al.).

PUCL has had a significant presence in Bihar since ]P's call from jail to JOI intellectuals in 1976 which Jed to the foundation of the People's Union for Civil Liberties and Democratic Rights (PUCL·DR). The organisation soon established an acti\'e presence in Bihar in the following year, pursuing demands for the release of political prisoners and protests against abuses during the Emergency. Howe,·er, it became passive during the period of lhe Jana ta go\'ernment from 1977-79, falling to protest against major violence by lhe Bihar authorities at Singhbum and elsewhere. PUCL was re·vi1alised and re-structured in Bihar following Indira Gandhi's return to

·power at the Centre in December 1980. Strong support has been obtained from PUCL's national organisation, with regular visits to Bihar by leading personalities in the mo\·ement such as

·.Prof. Rajni Kothari and former Justice, V.M. Tarkunde. PUCL's links with opposition parties ha\·e been apparent

since its inception. This was no doubt due to the special ·situation arisin!! from the Emergency and the formation of the Janata alliance .in order to overrhrow Indira Gandhi and the Congress· I. However. the Bihar State Executi\·e in 1986 containeJ represenlati\es from the Lok Dal, BJP an::I Janata parties and 1ncluJcs the opposition leader an::I former Chief Minhter, Karpoori Thakur. Certainly other ideologicJI outlooks are rep~e~~nted-for ~~~mple the Mazdoor Kisan

33

i l I l

.t .\ I l

. .-·-·.

- Indian Peopte•s Froni, plus other Samiti, which is linked to the l section of the movement

t"visls Neverthe ess. a . . h non-party ac i . . PUCL·DR'1 inactivity during t e bcearne di~atis6ed with " n'in" after 1980 and . . b quent re·awa .. e c ) Janata period and its s~ se . for Democratic Rights (PUDR . tcrt to form the Peoples Union,. he split in 1980 b::lween Both Pt!CL and PUDR (fo\low1n~ t red se,·eral investigations these \WO organisations) have con UC r human rights in Bibar of police atrocilies and other a buses o (cf. Anncxure). betwe::n the moderate wi_n$ of_

An o"erlap may be noted M nt "or Total Revolution, . . UCL no the o"emc: i L CYSV in B1har, P •a National President of PUC •

which is also supported by former convenor of the Gaya PUCL Mr Tarkunde, and Mrs. Sah3 Y3

• B db Ga" a to launch . . r the conference at 0 • S?roup and organiser o I t" n in Octo't::er }%6. Mrs the Mo'"ement for Total Re'oJu io State Go"ernment in 1977· Sabaya was a Minister in the ana~ d. cussed earlier is not 78. By contra~t.·the Patna netw~r: isFr Mantbera, who

. . . ment Howe.,.er. . . f in\'ol,ed in this mo' e . b f the State Exccuu..-e o k was a mem er o con"er.es the networ ' PUCL in 1986. the resources of the -

Tbe Patna network also drawsdon tely radical Jesuit training Indian Social Institute (lSl), a mo ~raDelhi and Bangalore, in

34 and research net.,..ork wilh centres_ in lSl's approach could 1 1 aid and education. f

such fields as ega f drawing on the ideals o broacly be describe? as _one ~kin to adapt these to the Indian 'liberation theology while se g "d 'missionising' in ways

b b with care to avo1 Cb . . situation,' oug t ble to the non· nsuan which would be culturally unaccep Ma . l drawing on the

. b is partly arx1s ' . • majority. This approac al • and 'action·reftection·ac~1on methodology of structural ~n y d other Christian radicals in . pioneered by the Paolo Freire a: . nt commitment, however, • Latin America (P. Freire). The om~n~ent with a parallel

. d popular empowe.... ' . d . -r.ecms to be to\\ar s f the poor including es1gn commitment towards learning r~m { f e g 'w. Fernandes and

• ch strategies c • . ' d' f of 'participatory resea l) The modus opcran 1 o d . H Volken et a · · · · · R Tandon-e .s. . . . h grass roots paruc1pat1on

a~imators is crucial in promo11ng sudc in new forms. In this 0 still be structure be as dependence ca d th t heller results may

context, it has been sug~e~te a distance from local . t s hv1ng at some )

achieved by an1ma ~r. . riodically (H. Volk.en et al. · organisations and \'1s1t1ng pc

B'h r Dalit Vikas Samiti (BDVS) . J .a f b bove ii.rategy is provided by

A practical example 0 t e a ·

Bihar Dalit Vikas Samiti which iiew out of an aci1on·rcsench pro,:ramme conducted by 151 D:lhi in 1982 in Barh and PandarJk blocb of Patna District. This programme was under the ~uidance or Fr. Joserh Kananaikil, author of several publications on ~cheduled castes. A core of 10· I 5 potential leaders \\'as identified following informal \·isits and training programmes. This group conducted further discussions in village~ from which the formation or an association based on '·illage uniu emerged. BDVS was formed with an offi~e at Barb. Jn the process, caste group reruesentati\•es came co mix more freely, including eating together, from an early staj.!e. The use of the term 'dalit' is significant in this context, as representing an alliance of backward groups rather than centering on specific scheduled castes.

BDVS operates a variety of programmes in fields such as -clean drinking water (commonly neglected by block and village authorities in harijan tolas), sanitation (drawing on advice from Sulabh International), flood relief and low cost housing. J· also draws on national programmes such as IRDP and NREP 1snd ' on the Districi Khadi Gramudyog Board which has provided training to some scheduled caste women. However. its major effort to date seems to be concentrated on legal aid and -education. Many camps have been held, with assistance from PUCL at national and state levels, local cadres trained, and several Supreme Court petitions filed. These h3ve all been successful, although as is commonly the case throughout India, the local authorities and power structure have continued to prove obstructive and defiant in implementing orders from the highest court in the land. The extreme climate of violence <:ommon throughout Bibar is fully rcfiected in Barb, with BOYS .fighting cases of blindings by police, also numerous cases of rape, murder and other atrocities against harijans either condoned or ignored by local authorities.

BbVS is striving bard in this environment of feudal backwardness to build a democratic organisation. One !trategy in tbis regard has been to establish diff~rent teams across village units to be responsible for the various programmes. Representatives f roDl each unit meet regularly to report and discuss common problems. In this way it is hoped to build an ctl10s of mutual accountability. Face to face discussion is intended lo break down barriers and crea1e greater openness between the centre and the units. This will require high le\'el~ of commitment and cooperation as the organisation expands. By

· the end of 1986, around 100 units had been esrabli~h,.rl rnv•r:--

35

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r anisationally. BDVS policy is to group sorve 10,000 people. 0 lh. h ·11 send delegates to the central . . t aochayats w ic w1 . units an o P •, .t at village level operate organisation. Women s uni .s being inlegrated into this autonomously, at the same time

ltrUCturc. . I" t" t UCtUrcS of this kind are Clearly, 'democratic centra is s .r 't.ated by middle class

"f I t y action groups in1 ' I • necessary I vo un ar ~ ed ·n10 genuine pcop cs urban· based ac1ivist~ are to be trhan~ ~1~~·ng1 cirganisatioo fails to . . Too frequently, l e an1 ta I organisah~ns: . rote in that while relatively . transcend its intermediary . be established these are • ass roots' units may ' . . autonomous gr b he ori inal organ1sal10D, : only linked to each other th~oug : tep :, linking units through which usually fa~s ~~e~a:; ~ned na::o~ntable to them. A . . . a fe:kration con ro b federations have been relatively small number ~f.suc voluntary action group. One constructed out of an ong1nat. M . nt which bas fostered such is People's Rural Edu~ahon ;;1~~~ S~maj covering 480 the establishment of BapUJI Gram · blocks in Ganja~

d . to 41 clusters across stx. . . . villages groupe in G dbian·oriented act1\·1sts in District, Orissa. Some forme~ ~noour associations. A notable Gujarat, hive tur~ed to fordm1c:g Gaatherers and Forest Workers

36 example is the Gujarat Prod ~n Sabarkar.ta and Panchmahal Union (G~FWU) centre I d f 1986 gained 1240 members districts, which had, by_.'h: cni :teen m~nths. Gram Vikas incluc:ling 300 ~o.mcn \\1tb1(~~~AT) and OXFAM supportcJ Mandli Assoc1at1on Trust d I ) ovide examples of more youth groups (Y~vak man a :a pr or anisations which have conventionally ora:nted. vol:~ar~ (E~ridge 1987). However, established .federa~o~s 10 ~c~ need to guard against possible these e;'{pcnences indicate d sequent shift away from a I. . of power an a con b t .t centra 1satton Th's is not to suggest t a 1 specifically local focus or concern. "fici:y with loyalty and is impossible to balance local spc~1 l that the problem needs to solidarily among a largerd~ro~:- p~ocess of building the be consciously confronte an e .

organisation. . . . ·I d hat knowledge and resources Fr. Ka~ana1k1l..ackno\\ ~n ~~:'central orsanisatioo. .

are necessarily con~entra1ed I ct in diffu!ling these more evenly Structures may assist o.r obslru d project holders in tbis regard but the atlitudes of esnmrnl~rs an t f openness, it is possible

. . G"ven an environmen o "b' t are dec1sne. ' . d decision·making access1 1e o k areas of ac11on an . . . b to ma e r.ew . articularly in negot1at1ng wtt grass roots rep~esenlalabves, ~ ks training organisations, legal outside institutions sue as an .

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and profc~sional bodies, ~o\·ernment _and foreign agencies. It is in lhe~e area~ that inlermediary organiiarion~ commonly maintain dependence of client J?roup~. Paradoxically, the emphasis on local pariicipation can reinforce such dependence and a conscious a11emp1 10 de· mystify exrernal s1ruc1ures is required if this is lo be overcome. Fr. Kananaikil believes that few \'Oluniary ac1ion groups in India work along these Jines.

BDVS funding comes lhrough Indian Social Jnstilute, mosrly originaling from CE BEMO. Netherlands. Unlike CYSV and the Khagaul Ca1h0Jic Ccnire (also associated informally

·· wirh ISi), BDVS belie\'es that the issue of foreign aid ccnires on qualiry and the nature of relationships wi1h donors. Fr. J<ananaikil argues tha1 rhose who take too purist a view on foreign aid usually ha,·e a secure posilion themselves. The alternative or dependence on go\'ernmenl ofren poses more serious threats to auronomy. Also, ar this stage only foreign donors seem Willing to support local cadres on a regular basis. While these arguments carry some force, it is hard to sec how such funding slrategies can be replicable across any cx1ensive area, quite apari from the contradiction of a11empting lo build a popular mass movemen1 based on foreign finance.

With these qualifications, BDVS appears to be the most promising of all groups SUr\'eyed in Bibar in building an effective, broad based and democratically structured organisation. The success -0f its programmes in the future will also help to pro,•ide some guidelines in O\'ercoming difficulties noted earlier in this paper in integrating de\•elopmental acti\'ities with strategies for mobilising popular organisation. :

Xai-ier·s Institute Of Social Senice

~ Xayier's Institule of Social Ser\'icc (XISS), Ranchi, is a large instilu tion run by the Jesuit Order (Society of Jesus) which pursues a wide range of research, training and action programmes, some or which parallel the more radical, pariicipatory approach ouilined abo,·e, while some arc ob\'iously derived from the dc,·elopmentaJ orihodoxies of the 1960s. XISS's work focuses on the tribal populalion of the Chotanagpur (CN) region, continuing a lradition of missionary and social service work in this area daring back o\er JOO years. XISS forms part of a cooperati\'e network linked to the Indian Social Institute (Delb1)

(1 wi1h which it shares a· similar philosophy, although XISS bas a r:, more formal academic approach. XISS further pariicipatcs with 1:1

37

·" Jan Vilcas Manda!. a con(,/\,.,;,,.,.. ~" ,._, · - .· · · · • •; :1·, ·r, -!'• ·· ·

38

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conceracd with promoting adult education and rural,., development in Chotana1pur.

A tontradiction is evident between XISS's more ·· · · · · · · conventional training courses in business management, ·,.: ~ pcrson_ncl maoagcmcnt and rural development and its more recent li>Cally_.based act~on proarammcs.among the poorest "' groups. Despite growing self-criticism within XISS, the former remains in stronc demand as a passport to job opportunities for upwardly mobile groups.and as a service to the needs of an expanding industrial and commercial region in Southern Bihar. Indeed, students attend from many parts of India, courses are .financed by go,·crnmcnl and industry-though some poorer tribals arc assisted by XlSS-thus providing the institution with a stable source of income and allowing greater !attitude for experimentation in other areas.

At the other end of the spectrum, X ISS. dra~·ing on the methodology o('siructural analysis', linked lo_'liberation theology' discussed earlier, expresses strong concern al tbe · process o( 'de-cuhuration' and simultaneous incorporation o( tribal society into a wider process of Hioduis:uion and capitalist development. To this cod, the institution pursues many rcsur~h programmes on tribal languages, processes of social change linked to a range 1Jf action programmes such as community forestry, legal aid, health care and mobilisation of women.

The two kinds of approach arc potentially linked by such programmes as the Village Entrepreneur Development Programme, which is designed to build up tribal entrepreneurs to compete with outside entrepreneurs, in the belief that local entrepreneurs will be more responsive to their village communities and so offer greater hope that indigenous cultural values will prove more rcsilicol in tbc face o( inevitable social

• change. It is also hoped that the programme will pr1Jducc more local cmplO)mcot opportunities, thus reducing the flow of urban migration b)' tribal youth.

XISS has become increasingly coo$cious of·thc underlying contradiction between its io'stitutioo·focuscd and loc:il· · · centred mobilisation progr':iins which in turn rcftcct ·social, lire· style, urban-rural and related dichotomies. XISS has sought 'to bridge the gap by means oiparticipalory research programmes, as occurred, for example in relation lo the lRDP in Palamau District-though here too obvious contradictions exist in mobilising popular orgaoisatioos while using go,·crnmcnt funds. XJSS further uses its links with ISi and PUCL to pinpoint abuses of human rights and aims to provide r~search back-up ...

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for po~u.'ar s~rugFks. It wa~ instrumental in ~ain:!'IE! a Supreme Court lnJUnct1C\n to stay cC\nstruction of the Koci· Karo dam pend1ni: rehabilitation of the oustec~ and has subsequently been asked tC\ assist in drawinE! up practical plans. Nc!\'Crthclcss XISS ackMwlcdE!cs in ils <'WD self-e\'aluations that social ' ~cti\·ists tend to shun the institution ... pos~ibly an over·hanh JUdE!cmcnt in \'icw of its cxlensh·c nelwNk of fidd contacts.

; lne\'itably, identification with popular struggle in CN rai~cs the quc~tion ofXISS stance \'is a \'is the Jharkhand mo\'c!mcnt for a new state within the Indian Union, which would CO\'cr .

• Chotanagpur and adjacent tribal areas in neighbouring slates. XISS hu generally a\'oidcd direct political involvement with the Jharkhand poli1ical factions. preferring IC\ pu~suc sC\cial, educational and cultural programmes. These arc intended to strengthen tribal \'alues and social organisation which arc tradi1ionally more democratic, egalitarian and cooperative than those of mainstream Hindu society. In relation to non·tribals it is arE?ucd th;it tribal cul1urc is traditionally ~ore democrati~ egalitarian and mutually eoC\pcrati\'e than mainstream Hi. du ' so~icty. If this assessment i~ \•alid, then strengthening these traits '?1ay hopefully have a rc\'~rse acculturation effect on many n?n·tribals, thereby slr.cngthening O\'crall solidarity among d1sad\'antaged groups in Chotanagpur.

There are signs that support for such a strategy is gaining ground am~ng tribal acti\'isits and in any case is likely to pro\;c more cfft:ct1\'C than a direct political approach. Only in two districts of CN (Ranchi and Singh bum) did scheduled tribes exceed 40% in the 1981 Census. Howc\·cr, a sizable number of tribals throughout CN ~·ere earlier persuaded to become de-

- scheduled. Al the same time, many harijans have adopted tribal lifestyles. ·

XISS, together with other Christian institutions in CN, faces a potential reaction from 110n·tribal politicians and bureaucrats, who may choose to accuse them of proscletvsing and supp.,rring 'anti-national' movements aided by forclgn -funds. C\'Cn thC\ugh their prC\gramm:~. staffing an'd

. operational practices arc clearly secular, the programmes a.nd mo\cmcnts they suppMI comtiturional. and their fundinC! .arrJngcmcnt!. duly authorise.:! in acrnrdancc with Indian law -No doubt it~ c0opera1i0n in training and re~carch scr\'iccs . pto\'idcd ICI go,·ernment agencies cn;ible XISS to ncurrali~e any ~riC\us mo\·c against its work for the time b~ing. Howc\'cr. it shares the uncertainty currently experienced by many

39

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40

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associ:ited :igencies in the vo1un1ary sector on the natio.n:il · rlane.

Summary am! Comparisons Returning to some of the key themes st:ited at the outset, all

the groups discussed, apart from CYSV, ASSEFA and Sam:inway:i Ashram make some a1temp1 to combine developmenl and mobilising .-pproaches. The latter two concentr:ile on dc\·elopment progr:immes which have their origins in J commitment to the bhood:in mo\·ement. By contrasr, bolh wings of the CYSV reject de\·elopment progr:immes as part of their o\·erall inlerpret;ition of JP's · con~pt of popular struggle, and in any case, acknowledge thefr lack of interest in such programmes, although some individu:il Vahini or former Vahini work for or are :issC'lci:ited with other organisations engaged in cons1ructi\'e progr:immes. Furthermore. even before lhe in1ernal split. CYSV appeared less· concerned to build an organisation of landless labour and m;irginal farmers th:in to de\'elop its own model or s1ruggle by 1argeting 3 few very weahhy landowners. · ·

Targeling de\elopmenlal programmes h:is for the most part been direc1c:d, though not always effectively, towards the most disadvanlaged groups-usually h:irijans :ind 1ribals, except in the case or XISS's m;inagemc:nt and sm;ill entrepreneurial progr:immes which ha\'e different objccti\'es. Apparent differences between these programmes and XISS's support for more radical ·a,,areness building' activities can probably best be expl:iir.ed by the fact that they have e\'olved at different stages of the insti1ution's growth, being directed towards different target groups, and influenced by conflicting paradigms of de\'elopment dominant at different times.

NBJK :ilso shows some confusion both in structuring lok samitis and largeting benefits from i1s programmes. Though pursuing JP's model of non-violent struggle, it retains some measure of Gandhian concern for social harmony. As a practical outcome, only families owning more than five acres of land are excluded from membership of lo~ samitis. In fact in one village sur\'eyed we were informed that the mukhia (village head), who took a leading role in the lok samiti, owned or controlled 25 acres. ·

Nav Bhar:it Jagriti Kendra, Jan J:igaran Kendra and Muzaffarpur Development Agency have all engaged in some level or mobilisation, though in the case of MDA this side of

their acti\·i1ics almoi1 entirely lar~d :ifter the inilial direct insriralion of Jay:irr3hsh 1'.irayan h;id faded. NBJK ha~ pre>~rcssively ew.panded its efrorls al mobili~tion across an inl:'re.lSin1; r:in~c: C'lf :ic:ti\·itie~-for eumplc:, in ~rJer to e:1:.1r;ict bcnefil~ for it~ pe(\ple rro:n go\·ernment 3nli·poveny pro~r;immes. to combJt alcohol and to promole aw:ireness or lc:~al ri~hls. Howe\'er, a~ we h:ive seer., the nc1worlc of lolc samitis "hich NBJK has set up for this purpose has :ichieved limited results due p:irlicul:irly 10 internal contradic1ions and lack <'f cl;irity in the: c:oncepl of the lok samiti itself. More time will be required to see if the Mazdoor Kisan Mord1a establi)hed by Jan Ja~;iran Kendra will build :i stronger popular mo\'cment. While: 1here are some encour;igin~ si!!ns. there is 3 danger that ri\'Jlries between NBJK and JJK/MKM, who opc:ra1c: in the same localities, could have a confusing and mutuJlly debilil;iting effccl.

Of the remaining organis:ition~ in this suney, Prayas appears to ha\'e s1ruck a good balance: between development and mobilisation, though its implct so far has been acros• a relatively limited area in Patna district. Activities in Gaya :ipp:ar to be of the more purely developmental kind. There is

-··· ~ .... ~

consequently a danfer that it m;iy fall sbort on botb fron1s 41 should major resistance from the power structure be encountered. By contrast the Ca1holi·: Centre at Kbagaul maintains a de!iberarc:ly low profile but appelrs also io ha~·e achie\·ed an effective integration be:wsen development and mobili~ation acti\'ities. Pn.>bably, 'awJr:ness building' would be a better lerm as economic programmes, which claim resources from go\'ernmcnt programmes, are employed primarily for this purpose. While confrontation with officials may occur, the mJin thrust is ('lne Clf empowerment b)· encouraging poor peopl: to understand 01nd deJI directly with the bureaucracv and related institutions, thereby developing appropriale ~kills in the process. Popular organisJtion can then evolve from people's cor.crete e:1:.pcrienc:e. Care is taken in tugcting the mosr disa::kJntaged groups. in building cooperation between them ar.d in transcendinf cJste and cornmunJI divisions.

Of all the groups in this survey, BD\'S appears most likely in the: long:r rerm :o cf:c:ri,ely integrJtc de\·elopmcnral and mobilisJtion approa..:llcs. Responsibility for eJch area or acti\'ity is shared be!1\c::n different \illagc units. which then coordinate them JI cer.t~al m:etir.gs. Eve:\ so, at this stage, BDVS's efforts h:Jn more heJ\'ily towards popular mobihsation, n:utic11l:irl\' rrl:irinr rn 1 .... ~1 rirhtt :inri ,.,i,.,..,,;,...,.. Th;<

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1- r ,- ,.. - ... ·~- .. - .- .-. - . -. organisation bar. a cowprebcnsivc: and ..,·ell luoug ... out .. trah.~Y for mobilising popular participation which is likely to prove· effective in all areas of activity, which io turn appear to complement each other. With respect to participation,. · · voluntary organisations commonly fail to tran~cend their ~wn intermediary role whether in respect to planning constructive programmes or in external ne~otiations and coalition·building. BDVS provides a hopeful model in this regard. Of the other organisations. Catholic Centre, Khagaul has consciously sought to c mpower people it works with to deal with outside structures. while Pra\'as is moving slowly in that direction. Jan Jagaran seeks to build an autonomous movement of peasants and workers, although it appears to ha"e provided a pre-determined model. The CYSV militant faction ended up, for ideological reasons, taking direct control of the peasant organisation they had created. Groups generally seem to lack both an ::idcquate concept and pr~ctical strategies for building autonomous . organisations run by poor people themselves. Much more 1s entailed than mere consultation in relation to individual programmes, which was unJ~rtakca by m)!'>t of the groups surveyed.

Turning to the potential for coalition· building. while some encouraginc signs are in evidence, there appears to be lit~le systematic, effective cooperation between locll groups. with the possible e~ception of the Patna network of Catholic Centre. Khagaul, Pray as and others. E\'c:n this network now finds 1ts::tr battling to resol\'e differences o\'er the issue of foreign aid, which have so racked CYSV. Perhaps the most promising de\·elopment can be seen in the growing emphasis on human rights and legal education. All the groups survcye.d apar_t from MDA ASSEFFA and Samaawaya Ashram have hnks with the Peopl;'s Union for Civil Liberties. This is also an encouraging trend in terms of the potential of human rights issues to encourage cooperation across caste and communal lines. However, PUCL's Janata. affiliations are pJtcntially divisive, a) arc the links of some of its key personnel with the Movement for Total Re,·olulion, though this movement too bas had some impact in de\'eloping co.:>peralion between \Oluntary action groups. The major weakness of both these networ~s is that the major drivfog force and resources come from Delhi, not fr.:>~ Bibar. To that extent there is a danger that local groups will become appendages to battles being fought at the centre .. Whatever the intentions of Delhi intcllcclUals and professionals supporting PUCL and the Movement for Total Revolution to

•s!.ist the dc,·elopmenl of 't:rassroClls' social action, local Weaknesses in organisation and factionalism strengthens external dependence.

Finally, perhaps the mo~ l encouragin~ aspect of 1hc voluntary action scene in Bihar, to the extent that the group~ i;urveyed may be seen as a microcosm of the whole is that des.pile all th~ir weaknesses and inconsistcncie~. all ~roups ar1icul~te .. the1.r ow~ ~hilosophy _of ~ociel .change and strate&y f~.r ach1e\JO~ It. \\ ~1le lhe quallly of :JC!iOn and ils CODSiSlc:n•y ~11h ~lated 1dea)i; might be called into question in many instances, none of the: groups sur\'eyc:d could be accused of not at .least tryi~g.'o t?~tch ide.:>logy with ac11on. If the importance of 1~cology m insp1rin& popular action is acknowledged, then for a_ll n~ P.overty ~nd backwardness, Biber is by contrast relatively rich 1n 1deolog1cal consciousness. In that context, the efforlS of groups sur"eyed should be seen as attempts to gi\'e concrete expression to broader ideologies derived from Jayaprakash Narayan's concepts of total revolution and Christian liberation theolon r.e~pecti\·ely. These are opposed on the one side by more trad1t1onal sar\'odayists and followers of Vinoba Bha\'e ~s well as many kinds of Hindu/Hindi nationalists, particularly JD the case ~f Christian groups. They would also be oppos~d by those pursuing state·cenlred or capitalist modernisation paradigms of development as well as by Marxists of most kinds. Indeed, a further necessary stage in this work would be to understand the competitive interaction of these and similar voluntary action groups with Marxist and Naxalite·oriented groups. In the violent context of Bihar politics, the issue of class

. conflict versus non·violent social change is cerilral 10 this debate. , · Despite many critical comments, no doubt subject to errors

and misperceptions to which outside observers arc inevitably

.. ·prone, the work of voluntary action l?roups in Bibar should be understood and e\'a)uated in as ~ympathetic a way as possible . These groups work wilb coura~c: and commitment under great difficul~ies. Their work should be C\'a)ualcd not merely in term .. of ~pcc1fic succes!.es and failures in their prc1grammes, but io terms of how they illustrate the strengths and weaknesses of the goals and ideologies bein~ pursued. In that conlcxl, much car. b~ learned from Bihar whicb can contribute to the gen::ra1ion of ·popular mo,·cmcnts in India and beyond.

References P. Eldridge, •nc Political Role of Communih· Ar1inn r..n .. - :~ ,_,,,_

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and lndoncsiol: · In Sc.ar~h or a General Theory". Alrtrnatir-r1. Delhi aad NY) Vol. X. No. l Winicr 191-'·U. pp. 401·>4.

r.J. Eldrid1e. 'The Political Role. of Volunlary Oraanisalion~ and Actioo Cirours in Gujaral, Unrublishcd paper. Lohyan Ac:c:ess Nct•ork, IJ Alirur Rd., Delhi 1100~.&. 1987;

H. Dholr, S. Gupta, N. Ro>· and N. Sen1up1.1, 'Cas&e and Polit)' in Bihar. in G. Om\;edt Cc:d ). Land. CtJJtt and Palitks i11 lndia11 Stau1, Delhi, Politic:;al Science Dcrc., Uni\l\:rsity or Delhi. 1981. pp. 102-1 J.

W. Fo:rnandcs anJ R. ·Tandon. P"rtiriputnry Rotarch and £ral11tion : E.1prrinrC"t1ts ;,, Rtuorrlr tu a Prorr11 of Lilwrario11. New Delhi, Indian Social lnui1ute. 1"11.

P. Freire. Ptdo.r:ut}" of lht Opprrtsrd, NY. Herder A Herder, 1970: · ··. Manimala, "Z;1mcen Kc.nkar? Jote Onkar !'·The Story or Womea's

Parlicipation in the Bodh;iya StruHle", .\lan11slri, Jan·Feb 191.J,· \"ol. J. 1-io. :. pp. 2· 16.

l"atiClnal ln\titulc or Rural De\"elormcnt (Hyderab;ad). Internal ·•. E\·aluation or r.luz:ifl'arpur Dc\·:lopment Aaency-Unpublished, c:irc:a 1983. .

G. Osrcrsa;mJ. ,\"on·Jlioltnl R1vo/uti•1n in India: St1rrodaya, Jlinoba Bhart and the Total Rt\"o/11ti"n of Ja.rapraka1h Narayan, New Delhi, Glndhi Pea:: Foundation, 19S5.

A. Prasad. Sc.11r.cn11ara Ashram in tht Stri·ict of Harijans, New Delhi,· Janaki Prak;ashan, IHE.

H. Sethi. 'Groups in a Ne\V Poli:ic:s or Transrorma1ion", Et:onomit: and l'o/itit:al R"ttlr.I)", Vol. X, No. 7, 18. February, 191-S. pp. l0.S·i6.

V. T.ukunde. A. Nand!f. G. Mathew, A. Du and T. Bose, "Drmorratit:"" Eltt:rions in B1har-Rtport to tht .\"ation 011 &lnka By· Eltt:tion 1936, Delhi, People·; Union for Civil Libcrties:Citizens for Democracy. 1986.

M V3n den Bo.;a:rt, (S.1.). Tht Tribal .\fy Brothtr, Ranchi, XISS, 1983. M. 'iicziany,''lndia·s A!"ti·Po•crty Programmes and the Ultra·Poor: Ao.

Assessment or the Last Firte:n Years; 1~70-198.s)'. Paper pres.coted to 1hc Con!creoc:e on 'Rethinking Dcvelo;:imcnt Issues : Opportunititt and Constraints ia the 1980"-Centre for Development S1udies, Tbe Flinders Uaiversity or South Australia, Bedford Park 5042, 14-U May, 19117.

H. Volkc:n, A. Kumar aad S. Kai1h11hara (eds.), Ltamint from tlit • Rural Poor : Shared Exptritnt:tl of tht .\lobilt Ori1111ation and il

Trninint T.:11111, New Delhi, ladian Social Institute, 1?82. f

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Amexure VIII

I. 1$1®ll<t

A forester with a ·minim.nn of five years experience in research and management of forestry resources within the fraioowork of:

lard-use management inperatives;

agroforestry technology particularly of relevance to coastal resource management

afforestation technologies particularly those which are relevant to the Himalayan eco-system and sub eco-syst:ems in the do.mstream areas ext:en:1i.nJ fran Nepal to Ban;Jladesh

systematic (as oWCJSEd to destructive or wasteful) extraction of forestry resources for irrlustry

inc::urlilent is expected to have an adwn::led degree in forestry with additional studies or experience relevant to the management of forestry resources :in::ludin;J transfonnation of forestry resources into products and their marketing. Denalstrated research experience of 5 years or ioore in the area of forestry is a necessary requirement.

inc::urlilent shoold preferably though not necessarily have experience of workiiq in south Asia.

II. WATfR MAlWjfJ1M

A hydrogeologist with experience in areas of water management :in::ludin;J (1) tedmiques of water· conservation in hills and plains; (2) oanjunctive use of water resources; (3) detenninants of water resource dynamics; (4) maximisirg productivity of irrigation systens in the hills, plains and coastal areas; ( 5) technology to integrate water management with land-use management tedmiques and practices.

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In addition to the. above, the position :requires broad-based knowledge am experience in the management am use of the natural :resairoes (water, lam, crcp;, animals am aquatic ccmp:ments). ~is will be given to the inp:>rtarx::e of water as a critical limitin;J factor concernin;J the use of the natural resources in the develcpnent of sustainable am integrated agricultural systems. In this c:x:>ntext, strategies for 100re efficient use of cx:mrunity-based progranmes wrul.d be given priority. 'lhe i.na.nthmt shalld have the capacity to address interactions between these carp:>nents within the spectnnn of ·water am lam use systems, link these to environmental econanic am policy issues, cx:mnercialization am also develop apprq:>riate projects.

Advanced degree in Natural scie.rx:es (hydrogeolCXJY, geolCXJY arrljor civil eDJineerinJ) with additional studies or experience relevant to environmental issues is a necessary requb:anent. Deloonstrated research experience of 5 years or 100re in water management is another necessary requirement. Ina.miJent shalld preferably thCA.1gh oot necessarily have experience of workirg in South Asia.

III. ;pM:IglEmU. IQLIC-Y

An econanist with specialisation am a nuru..num of five years research experience in resoorce/environmental ec:onanics. '!be .incumbent shalld have the professional ability to develop projects directed at~ (1) the envirornnent policy base of Sa.Ith Asian countries; (2) negotiatinj capacity of Sa.Ith Asian countries vis-a-vis glcbal. environmental issues in glcbal. fora; am (3) the understandinj of sustainable develcpnent am develcpnent-environment trade-offs, with a particular focus on these issues, 811DDJ others :

poverty-ec::olCXJY pcpllation nexus

qrt:imisation of use of forest, lam am water resouroes

coastal management

regulatory am policy framework to address emergin.J danestic environmental issues

glcbal. environmental issues with the UNCED context

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environmental insults in the context of d1angin:J patterns of human settlements arisin:J cut of irrlustrialisation am wi:>anisation

in:::unt>ent should preferably thmgh mt necessarily have experience of \<Verkin:f in SOOth Asia.

Person with specialisation with a mininum of five years research experience in ccrcmmications or marketin:J or Science am Technology policy. '!he person shatld have :

a oarprehensive urxierstarding of c::amunication techniques for increasin:J university (R&D institutions) - .irxlustry interface

knowledge of the processes involved in cxmnercialisation of R&D ootpit fran the initial stage of project fo:rnulation to the final stage of cxmnercialisation

a oarprehen.sive urxierstarding of .irxlustry-university linkage medlanisms

familiarity with patentin:J, licensin:J am other related legal iSSlies vis-a-vis cxmnercialisation

urxierstarding of the private sector

knowledge of role of venture capital organisations

advanced degree in camunications or marketin:J or science am technology policy with additional studies or experience relevant to conunercialisation of technology arrljor cx:rrm.mications systems is a necessary requireloont

irx::mnbent· should preferably though not necessarily have experience of \<Verkin:f in South Asia.

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