biophysical criteria: - designing marine protected areas and

BIOPHYSICAL CRITERIA:

DESIGNING MARINE

PROTECTED AREAS AND

MARINE PROTECTED AREA

NETWORKS TO BENEFIT

PEOPLE AND NATURE

IN INDONESIA

Harvesting trochus at sasi opening in Kapatchol Vil lage, West Misool (Raja

Ampat). Image © Awaludinnoer, TNC

Prepared by The Nature Conservancy (TNC) Indonesia Oceans Programfor the USAID Sustainable Ecosystems Advanced (SEA) Projectin col laboration with the Directorate for Marine Conservation and Biodiversityof the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries, Republic of Indonesia2020

BIOPHYSICAL CRITERIA:

DESIGNING MARINE

PROTECTED AREAS AND

MARINE PROTECTED AREA

NETWORKS TO BENEFIT

PEOPLE AND NATURE IN

INDONESIA

BIOPHYSICAL CRITERIA: DESIGNING MARINE PROTECTED AREAS ANDMARINE PROTECTED AREA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE ANDNATURE IN INDONESIA

This publication was jointly produced by the USAID Sustainable Ecosystems Advanced (SEA) Project and the

Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries, Republic of Indonesia.

USAID SEA Project Office

Sona Topas Tower, Floor 1 6, J l . Jendral Sudirman Kav. 26, Jakarta 1 2920, Indonesia

Chief of Party: Alan White, PhD ([email protected])

Deputy Chief of Party: Tiene Gunawan, PhD (Tiene. [email protected])

Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries Directorate for Marine Conservation and Biodiversity

Gedung Mina Bahari 3 Lt 1 0, J l . Medan Merdeka Timur No. 1 6 - Jakarta Pusat, Indonesia

Citation: Green, A.L., Fajariyanto, Y., Tighe, S., White, A. T. 2020. Biophysical Criteria: Designing Marine

Protected Areas and Marine Protected Area Networks to Benefit People and Nature in Indonesia. Report prepared by

The Nature Conservancy (TNC) for the USAID Sustainable Ecosystems Advanced Project, 78 pp.

Figures 4, 6, 1 1 , 1 2, 1 5, 1 6 and 1 7 are from Gombos, M., Atkinson, S., Green, A., and K. Flower (eds.) , 201 3.

Designing Resilient Locally Managed Areas in Tropical Marine Environments: A Guide for Community Based Managers.

USAID Coral Triangle Support Partnership, Jakarta, Indonesia.

Contributors: TNC Indonesia Oceans Program Alison Green, Yusuf Fajariyanto, Hilda Lionata, Fachry Ramadyan.

USAID SEA Stacey Tighe, Alan White, Tiene Gunawan, Rudyanto, Noorafebrianie Minarputri. KKHL Andi Rusandi,

Firdaus Agung, Ihsan Ramli.

Editing and Layout: Melva Aritonang and Asuncion Sia

Printed in: J akarta, Indonesia

Intellectual property rights: In accordance with ADS, Chapter 31 8, ownership of this publ ication is vested

in USAID SEA on behalf of USAID Indonesia. USAID SEA reserves al l rights thereto until the Project concludes.

These rights include reproduction and dissemination of the materials contained herein to government

counterparts and/or working partners for wider distribution and promotional purposes.

Disclaimer: This publication is made possible by the generous support of the American People through the

United States Agency for International Development (USAID) Project No. AID-497-C-1 6-00008 with the close

col laboration of the Government of Indonesia. The contents of this report are the sole responsibil ity of the

Project and do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID or the United States Government.

Front cover photo: High biodiversity and healthy populations of fisheries species in Dampier Strait, Raja

Ampat Islands MPA. Image © Awaludinnoer, TNC

Back cover photo: Harvesting sea cucumbers at sasi opening in Fol ley, Raja Ampat. Image © Nugroho

Prabowo, TNC

3

CONTENTSLIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

FOREWORD. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

PREFACE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

RINGKASAN EKSEKUTIF. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 5

Tropical Marine Ecosystems in Indonesia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 5

Ecosystem Goods and Services. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 8

Status and Threats. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 9

Habitats.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 9

Endangered, Threatened or Protected Species. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

What are MPAs and MPA Networks?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

What can MPAs and MPA Networks Achieve?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

What are MPA Network Design Criteria?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

BIOPHYSICAL CRITERIA FOR DESIGNING MPAs AND MPA NETWORKS IN INDONESIA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24

Represent Habitats. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Protect at least 20% of each major habitat in NTZs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Replicate Habitats (Spread the Risk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Protect at least three examples of each major habitat type in NTZs, and. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Spread them out to reduce the chances they will all be affected by the same disturbance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Protect Critical, Special and Unique Areas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Protect critical areas in the life history of focal fisheries species in NTZs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Protect critical areas or habitats for charismatic, endangered, threatened or protected species. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29

Protect special and unique natural phenomena in NTZs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Protect areas that are important at the national, international or global scale for conservation

or management of focal species. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Incorporate Connectivity:Abiotic Factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Consider variations in oceanography, substrate and bathymetry that affect the spread

of biological and non-biological material. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Incorporate Connectivity: Biotic Factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37

Consider Movement of Adults and Juveniles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Ensure NTZs are large enough to sustain adults and juveniles of focal fisheries species within

their boundaries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

BIOPHYSICAL CRITERIA: DESIGNING MPAs AND MPA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE

IN INDONESIA4

Ensure NTZs are large enough to contain all habitats used by focal species throughout their

life history; or establish networks of NTZs close enough to allow for movements of focal

species among protected habitats. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

Include whole ecological units in NTZs. If not, choose larger rather than smaller areas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Use compact shapes for NTZs, except when protecting naturally elongated habitats. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42

Consider Larval Dispersal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Establish: NTZs large enough to be self-sustaining for focal species, or networks of NTZs

close enough to be connected by larval dispersal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45

Protect spatially isolated areas in NTZs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

Protect larval sources in permanent or seasonal NTZs or by using fisheries closures during

spawning times. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

Locate more NTZs upstream relative to fished areas if there is a strong, consistent,

unidirectional current. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46

AllowTime for Recovery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Establish NTZs for the long term (more than 20 up to 40 years) , preferably permanently. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Use short-term (less than 5 years) or periodically harvested NTZs in addition to, rather

than instead of, long-term or permanent NTZs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Protect Healthy Areas and Avoid Local Threats. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Protect areas where habitats and populations of focal species are in good condition with

low levels of threat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50

Avoid areas where habitats and populations of focal species are in poor condition due

to local threats. If this is not possible, reduce threats, facilitate natural recovery, and consider

the costs and benefits of rehabilitating habitats and species. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50

Adapt to Changes in Climate and Ocean Chemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

Protect sites that are likely to be more resilient to global environmental change (refugia)

in NTZs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Protect ecologically important sites that are sensitive to changes in climate and ocean

chemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Increase protection of species that play important functional roles in ecosystem resilience. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Consider how changes in climate and ocean chemistry will affect the life history of focal

species. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Address uncertainty by spreading the risk, and increasing protection of habitats, critical areas

and species most vulnerable to changes in climate and ocean chemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56

DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Integrating Biophysical, Socioeconomic and Cultural Design Criteria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

Integrating MPAs within Broader Management Frameworks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

Research Priorities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

SUMMARY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60

APPENDIX 1 . Habitat Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

APPENDIX 2.Abiotic Factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

APPENDIX 3. Rehabil itating Habitats and Species. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71

REFERENCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

5

LISTS OF FIGURES AND TABLES

Figure 1 . Indonesia has several shal low shelves and deep-sea basins, comprising 1 2 marine ecoregions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 6

Figure 2. Indonesia comprises some of the highest marine diversity on Earth.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 6

Figure 3. More than 35% of coral reefs in Indonesia are at high or very high risk from local threats. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 9

Figure 4. Different species use different habitats. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Figure 5. Protecting at least three examples of each major habitat in widely separated MPAs helps

reduce the chances they wil l al l be impacted by the same disturbance.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28

Figure 6. Some species use different habitats at different times throughout their l ives (e.g., for home

ranges, spawning or nursery areas) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Figure 7. Olive ridley sea turtles nesting in West Papua and green sea turtles nesting in East

Kal imantan travel to feeding areas in other Indonesian provinces or countries in Southeast Asia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Figure 8. A larval dispersal model shows how coral trout (Plectropomus leopardus) populations are

shared among Indonesia and other countries in the Coral Triangle.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Figure 9. Major ocean currents in Indonesia include the Indonesia Throughflow and the

Halmahera and Mindanao Eddies. Surface currents in eastern Indonesia reverse direction twice a year.. . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Figure 1 0. Most coral reef fishes (such as the coral trout P. leopardus) have two life history phases.

Adults and juveniles are benthic and l ive on coral reefs, while larvae are pelagic and l ive in the plankton.. . . . . . . . . . . 37

Figure 1 1 . Larger individuals are more important for long-term health of populations than smaller ones,

because they produce a lot more offspring.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Figure 1 2. Different species have home ranges of different sizes.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Figure 1 3. Where possible, whole ecological units (e.g., reefs) should be included in NTZs, and

the NTZs should be compact shapes (e.g., squares) , except when protecting natural ly elongated

habitats (e.g., fringing reefs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Figure 1 4. Different coral reef fish species have different larval dispersal distances.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47

Figure 1 5. Some species are more vulnerable to fishing pressure and take longer to recover when

protected in NTZs.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Figure 1 6. Healthy marine ecosystems provide abundant resources for people. Unhealthy

ecosystems, damaged by local threats, are unable to provide as many resources for people.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Figure 1 7. Some areas may be more resil ient to changes in cl imate and ocean chemistry (refugia) and

should be protected in NTZs .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Figure 1 8. Coral reef seascapes in Raja Ampat. Different colors show different types of coral reef

communities, which should each be protected in NTZs.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Figures

TablesTable 1 . Biophysical criteria for designing MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 0

Table 1 . Kriteria biofisik untuk merankang KKP dan jaringan KKP di Indonesia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2

Table 2. Research priorities for applying biophysical criteria to design MPAs and MPA Networks in

Indonesia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59

Table 3. Summary of scientific rationale (and explanatory notes) for biophysical criteria for designing

MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61


IN INDONESIA

6

FOREWORDIndonesia is located in the heart of the Coral Triangle, a region that contains high marine coastal biodiversity,

including the second-largest coral reef area in the world and diverse mangrove ecosystems. The Government of

Indonesia thus recognizes the need, and real ly wants to step up, to apply proven methods and approaches to

manage and conserve our country’s rich marine diversity for the benefit of the Indonesian people and economy,

and the sustainabil ity of its marine heritage and environment. This work underpins our national conservation

commitments related to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the Coral Triangle Initiative on Coral

Reefs, Fisheries and Food Security (CTI-CFF).

Since the Coral Triangle countries formed the CTI-CFF in 2009, addressing multiple issues and objectives to

effectively sustain marine and coastal resources has become of paramount importance for our government One

of the primary strategies being used almost everywhere to serve the needs of marine conservation and marine

resource and fisheries management is the design and implementation of MPA Networks. However, MPA

Networks wil l not be effective unless they can combine the multiple objectives important to stakeholders,

including fisheries, tourism and other economic and social benefits that result from effective MPAs and their

Networks. For this reason the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries is initiating the development of MPA

Networks in several priority main regions in Indonesia, namely, West Sumatra, Riau Islands, Nusa Tenggara (East

and West) , and West Papua.

The USAID Sustainable Ecosystems Advanced Project (USAID SEA), together with the Directorate for Marine

Conservation and Biodiversity of the Directorate General for Marine Spatial Management in the Ministry of

Marine Affairs and Fisheries, has developed this document, Biophysical Criteria: Designing Marine Protected Areas

and Marine Protected Area Networks to Benefit People and Nature in Indonesia, to guide the identification, design and

evaluation MPA Networks in Indonesia. This document can help MPA managers in Indonesia to determine critical

MPA and MPA Network design inputs, and thus support the implementation of existing national regulations on

MPA Networks. I t also provides an integrated set of biophysical criteria to help practitioners design MPA

Networks to achieve fisheries sustainabil ity, biodiversity conservation, and ecosystem resil ience in the face of

cl imate change in Indonesia.

This document is tailored to the Indonesian marine environment, providing a succinct, graphic and user-friendly

synthesis of the best available scientific information for practitioners who may not have access to, or the time to

review, the increasing amount of research l iterature on this topic. I t wil l serve as an excel lent reference for our

ongoing work in Indonesia on MPA Network design.

We ful ly endorse this technical guide and encourage al l MPA planners and practitioners to make good use of it as

a reference in improving our Indonesian MPA Network design and implementation

Andi Rusandi

Director for Marine Conservation and Biodiversity

Directorate General for Marine Spatial Management

Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries

7

PREFACEThe aim of this document is to provide the scientific rationale for the biophysical criteria required to design

marine protected areas (MPAs) and MPA Networks to achieve their biophysical goals and contribute toward

achieving their socioeconomic and cultural goals in Indonesia. The document provides a synthesis of the best

available scientific information for MPA practitioners who may not have access to, or the time to review, the

extensive l iterature on this issue. I t also provides examples and case studies of best practices for applying these

design criteria in Indonesia and elsewhere.

This document supports the biophysical design criteria incorporated in the document A Guide, Framework and

Example: Designing Marine Protected Areas and Marine Protected Area Networks to Benefit People and Nature in

Indonesia (Green et al. 2020), which provides supplementary information to support the Technical Guidelines

(Juknis) of Ministerial Regulation No. 1 3/201 4 on Establishing and Managing MPA Networks. I t also complements the

supplementary information on socioeconomic and cultural design criteria in the said guidance document.

This document is a detailed guide intended for senior technical staff in the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries,

staff in the Ministry of Forestry and Environment (marine units) , universities, non-governmental organizations and

others interested to learn how to plan for effective marine conservation through MPAs and MPA networks. I t

provides a succinct, graphic and user-friendly synthesis of scientific information based on previous work produced

for the Coral Triangle Initiative on Coral Reefs, Fisheries and Food Security (CTI-CFF) through the USAID Coral

Triangle Support Partnership, particularly the report Designing Marine Protected Area Networks to Achieve Fisheries,

Biodiversity and Climate Change Objectives in Tropical Ecosystems: A Practitioner's Guide (Green et al. 201 3) and

associated scientific publ ications (e.g., Abesamis et al. 201 4, Green et al. 201 4a, 201 5: available at

http://nature.org/MPANetworkDesign).

CTI-CFF is a multilateral partnership of six countries working together to address urgent threats to one of the

world's most biological ly diverse and ecological ly rich regions: the Coral Triangle. Recognizing the need for

concerted action at the regional scale for marine conservation and resource management, the six Coral Triangle

countries endorsed in 2009 a 1 0-year (201 0-2020) Regional Plan of Action (RPOA) that defines the establ ishment

and effective management of MPAs as one of the primary goals. There is one target under this goal: A region-

wide Coral Triangle MPA System (CTMPAS) in place and ful ly functional. A first step toward achieving this target

is to scale up the initiatives of each of the national MPA network programs. This guide for Indonesia is ful ly in l ine

with the CTMPAS and wil l help the country move toward improved MPA Network design and contribute directly

to the system of MPAs for CTI-CFF.

The United States Agency for International Development Sustainable Ecosystems Advanced Project (USAID SEA)

is a five-year project (201 6-2021 ) that supports the Government of Indonesia to improve the governance of

fisheries and marine resources and to conserve biological diversity in Indonesia through fisheries management and

MPAs in target areas in Indonesia. We in USAID SEA are proud of our contribution to the improvement of MPAs

in Indonesia. We hope that this document wil l serve to build more and better MPA Networks in the country to

achieve fisheries management and biodiversity conservation, and to enhance the resil ience of our coastal

resources amid cl imate change and local human pressures. We thank al l those who contributed to this work and

look forward seeing the results in action.

Alan White

Chief of Party

USAID Sustainable Ecosystems Advanced Project


IN INDONESIA

8

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This document was produced as part of the USAID Sustainable Ecosystems Advanced (SEA) Project that

supports the Government of Indonesia to improve the governance of fisheries and marine resources and

conserve biological diversity. The authors thank Andi Rusandi, Director for Marine Conservation and Biodiversity

of the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (MMAF), and Firdaus Agung, MMAF Deputy Director for

Convention and Conservation, for leading this process, and USAID for supporting the project.

In 201 8 and 201 9, The Nature Conservancy and USAID SEA facil itated a series of 1 2 workshops at the national

and provincial level to develop the document A Guide, Framework and Example: Designing Marine Protected Areas

and Marine Protected Area Networks to Benefit People and Nature in Indonesia (Green et al. 2020), which includes

the biophysical design criteria described in this document. The authors thank the 234 participants from 69

institutions who contributed to these workshops, including experts and partners from government agencies

(national, provincial and district) , universities, non-governmental organizations, and local communities (Green et

al. 2020).

We also thank others who have contributed to developing the information contained in this document,

particularly Dr. Maria Beger from the University of Leeds, for al lowing us to use the results of her unpublished

model of larval dispersal in Figure 8. Final ly, we acknowledge several key earl ier publications that provided the

foundation for much of the material in this book which are referenced throughout the text as appropriate.

The Authors

9

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Indonesia comprises some of the world ’s most diverse tropical marine ecosystems, which are a global priority for

conservation. These rich marine resources provide important ecosystem goods and services, particularly for

coastal communities who rely on these resources for their food security and l ivel ihoods. Unfortunately, these

critical ly important resources and the ecosystem services they provide are threatened by local anthropogenic

threats (e.g., destructive or overfishing, coastal development and runoff from poor land use practices) and global

changes in cl imate and ocean chemistry.

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), particularly no-take zones (NTZs), can be powerful tools to address local

threats and enhance fisheries productivity, protect biodiversity and adapt to changes in cl imate and ocean

chemistry. They can also enhance food security and sustainable l ivel ihoods for communities and other

stakeholders. MPA Networks can del iver additional benefits, such as by acting as mutual ly replenishing networks

to facil itate recovery after disturbance. However, MPAs and MPA Networks can only achieve these objectives if

they are well designed and effectively managed.

MPAs and MPA Networks play a major role in conservation and resource management in Indonesia, and the

national government is committed to establ ishing 20 mil l ion hectares (ha) of effectively managed MPAs by 2020

and 30 mil l ion ha by 2030. To date, there are 1 77 national and local government MPAs establ ished (and no MPA

Networks), covering an area of 22.8 mil l ion ha. The Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (MMAF) is now

identifying and establ ishing new MPAs to achieve their target of 30 mil l ion ha in MPAs by 2030, and is interested in

reviewing the design of existing MPAs. Local communities have also establ ished Local ly Managed Marine Areas in

many locations, particularly in eastern Indonesia. Unfortunately, many of these MPAs are not yet managed

effectively. More scientific advice is required to ensure that MPAs and MPA Networks are well designed to

achieve their goals.

In 201 9, The Nature Conservancy and the USAID Sustainable Ecosystems Advanced Project (USAID SEA)

provided technical assistance to MMAF to develop the document A Guide, Framework and Example: Designing

Marine Protected Areas and Marine Protected Area Networks to Benefit People and Nature in Indonesia (Green et al.

2020). This document provides a logical framework (goals, objectives, design criteria and performance indicators)

for designing MPAs and MPA Networks, which takes biophysical , socioeconomic and cultural considerations into

account. This framework wil l provide supplementary information to support the MMAF’s Technical Guidelines

(Juknis) of Ministerial Regulation No. 1 3/201 4 on Establishing and Managing MPA Networks.

Indonesia has both biophysical goals and socioeconomic/cultural goals in establ ishing MPAs and MPA networks:

• Biophysical goals include protecting biodiversity, maintaining or enhancing coastal fisheries, rehabil itating

habitats and species, and adapting to changes in cl imate and ocean chemistry; and

• Socioeconomic and cultural goals include minimizing confl icting use of marine resources and fisheries,

supporting sustainable community l ivel ihoods, and promoting active community participation and support

in MPA or MPA network management.

The aim of this document is to provide the scientific rationale for the biophysical criteria required to design MPAs

and MPA Networks to achieve these goals (Table 1 ) . The document provides a synthesis of the best available

scientific information for MPA practitioners who may not have access to, or the time to review, the extensive

l iterature on this issue. I t also provides examples and case studies of best practice for applying these design

criteria in Indonesia and elsewhere.


IN INDONESIA

1 0

Biophysical Criteria for Designing MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia

Replicate Habitats (Spread the Risk)

Protect at least three examples of each major habitat in NTZs; and

Spread them out to reduce the chances they will all be affected by the same disturbance.

Protect Critical, Special and Unique Areas

Protect critical areas in the life history of focal fisheries species in NTZs.

Protect critical areas or habitats for charismatic, endangered, threatened or protected species.

Protect special and unique natural phenomena in NTZs.

Protect areas that are important at the national, international or global scale for conservation or management of focal species.

Incorporate Connectivity:Abiotic Factors

Consider variations in oceanography that affect the spread of biological and non-biological material.

Incorporate Connectivity: Biotic Factors Movement of Adults and Juveniles

Ensure NTZs are large enough to sustain adults and juveniles of focal fisheries species within their boundaries.

Ensure NTZs are large enough to contain all habitats used by focal species throughout their life history; or establish networks of

NTZs close enough to allow for movements of focal species among protected habitats.

Include whole ecological units in NTZs. If not, choose larger rather than smaller areas.

Use compact shapes for NTZs, except when protecting naturally elongated habitats.

Incorporate Connectivity: Biotic Factors Larval Dispersal

Establish NTZs large enough to be self-sustaining for focal species; or networks of NTZs close enough to be connected by larval

dispersal.

Protect spatially isolated areas in NTZs.

Protect larval sources in permanent or seasonal NTZs or by using fisheries closures during spawning times.

Locate more NTZs upstream relative to fished areas if there is a strong, consistent, unidirectional current.

AllowTime for Recovery

Establish NTZs for the long term (more than 20 up to 40 years) , preferably permanently.

Use short-term (less than 5 years) or periodically harvested NTZs in addition to, rather than instead of, long-term or permanent

NTZs.

Protect Healthy Areas and Avoid LocalThreats

Protect areas where habitats and populations of focal species are in good condition with low levels of local threats.

Avoid areas where habitats and populations of focal species are in poor condition due to local threats. If this is not possible:

reduce threats; facilitate natural recovery; and consider the costs and benefits of rehabilitating habitats and species.

Represent Habitats

Protect at least 20% of each major habitat in NTZs.

Adapt to Changes in Climate and Ocean Chemistry

Protect sites that are likely to be more resilient to global environmental change (refugia) in NTZs.

Protect ecologically important sites that are sensitive to changes in climate and ocean chemistry.

Increase protection of species that play important functional roles in ecosystem resilience.

Consider how changes in climate and ocean chemistry will affect the life history of focal species.

Address uncertainty by: spreading the risk; and increasing protection of habitats, critical areas and species most vulnerable to

changes in climate and ocean chemistry.

Table 1 . Biophysical criteria for designing MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia

Please note that many of these criteria are designed to consider the ecology of focal species, including key fisheries species,

endangered, threatened and protected species, migratory marine biota, large charismatic marine fauna, and species important for

maintaining ecosystem function.

These biophysical design criteria wil l contribute to a larger process that includes implementing MPA Networks in

ways that complement human uses and values, and al ign with local legal, pol itical and institutional requirements.

To make sure this is the case, they should be used in conjunction with the socioeconomic and cultural design

criteria for Indonesia provided in the document A Guide, Framework and Example: Designing Marine Protected Areas

and Marine Protected Area Networks to Benefit People and Nature in Indonesia (Green et al. 2020).

1 1

Indonesia mempunyai beberapa ekosistem laut tropis pal ing beragam di dunia, yang merupakan prioritas global

untuk konservasi. Sumber daya laut yang melimpah ini menyediakan produk dan jasa ekosistem yang penting,

terutama bagi masyarakat pesisir yang menggantungkan hidupnya pada sumber daya ini untuk ketahanan pangan

dan mata pencaharian mereka. Sayangnya, banyak dari sumber daya yang sangat penting ini dan jasa ekosistem

yang mereka berikan telah hilang, terdegradasi serius atau terancam oleh kombinasi ancaman antropogenik lokal

(yaitu aktivitas penangkapan ikan yang merusak atau berlebih, pariwisata masal, pengembangan pesisir dan l imbah

dari daratan), ancaman perubahan ikl im dan perubahan kimia laut global.

Kawasan Konservasi Perairan (KKP), terutama zona larang tangkap (ZLT), dapat menjadi cara yang ampuh untuk

menangani ancaman-ancaman lokal, meningkatkan produktivitas perikanan, melindungi keanekaragaman hayati,

dan meningkatkan ketahanan terhadap perubahan ikl im dan kimia laut global. KKP juga dapat meningkatkan

ketahanan pangan dan mata pencaharian berkelanjutan bagi masyarakat dan pemangku kepentingan lainnya.

Dengan dibentuknya jejaring KKP1 dapat memberikan manfaat tambahan (misalnya dengan bertindak sebagai

jaringan yang sal ing mendukung pada saat pemulihan setelah gangguan). Namun, KKP dan jejaring KKP hanya dapat

mencapai tujuan tersebut jika dirancang dengan baik dan dikelola secara efektif.

KKP dan jaringan KKP2 memainkan peran penting dalam konservasi dan pengelolaan sumber daya laut di

Indonesia. Pemerintah Indonesia berkomitmen untuk menetapkan 20 juta hektar KKP yang dikelola secara efektif

pada 2020 dan 30 juta hektar pada 2030. Hingga saat ini, terdapat 1 77 KKP yang dikelola Pemerintah Pusat dan

Daerah di Indonesia (tanpa jejaring KKP) (Gambar 1 ) , dengan total luas 22.786.1 83 hektar. Kementerian Kelautan

dan Perikanan saat ini sedang dalam proses mengidentifikasi dan menginisiasi KKP baru untuk mencapai target 30

juta hektar pada tahun 2030, dan tertarik untuk meninjau desain KKP yang telah ada. Masyarakat lokal juga telah

mendirikan Daerah Perl indungan Laut (DPL) yang dikelola secara lokal di banyak lokasi, khususnya di Indonesia

bagian timur.

Sayangnya, banyak KKP di Indonesia belum dikelola secara efektif. Saran ilmiah diperlukan untuk memastikan

bahwa KKP dan jaringan KKP dirancang dengan baik untuk mencapai tujuan dan sasaran mereka.

Baru-baru ini, The Nature Conservancy melalui Proyek USAID Sustainable Ecosystems Advanced (SEA)

memberikan bantuan teknis kepada Kementerian Kelautan dan Perikanan untuk menyusun dokumen Merancang

Kawasan Konservasi Perairan dan Jaringan Kawasan Konservasi Perairan: Panduan, Kerangka Kerja dan Contoh untuk

Indonesia. Dokumen ini memberikan kerangka kerja logis (tujuan, sasaran, kriteria desain, dan indikator kinerja)

untuk merancang KKP dan jaringan KKP, yang mempertimbangkan aspek biofisik, sosial ekonomi, dan budaya.

Kerangka kerja ini akan memberikan informasi tambahan untuk mendukung dokumen Petunjuk Teknis Peraturan

Menteri No. 1 3/201 4 tentang Pembentukan dan Pengelolaan Jejaring KKP.

Indonesia memil iki banyak tujuan untuk membentuk KKP dan jaringan KKP yakni:

• Tujuan biofisik, antara lain untuk melindungi keanekaragaman hayati, mempertahankan atau meningkatkan

perikanan pesisir, merehabil itasi habitat dan spesies, dan beradaptasi dengan perubahan ikl im dan kimia laut;

dan

• Tujuan sosial ekonomi dan budaya, antara lain untuk meminimalkan konfl ik pemanfaatan sumber daya laut

dan perikanan, mendukung mata pencaharian masyarakat yang berkelanjutan, dan mendorong partisipasi

dan dukungan aktif masyarakat dalam pengelolaan KKP dan Jejaring KKP.

RINGKASAN EKSEKUTIF

___________________________________

1 Jejaring KKP: kerja sama pengelolaan dua atau lebih KKP secara sinergis yang memil iki keterkaitan biofisik atau sosial ekonomi danbudaya2 Jaringan KKP: hubungan antara beberapa KKP secara biofisik atau sosial ekonomi dan kultur


IN INDONESIA

1 2

Tujuan dari dokumen ini adalah untuk memberikan dasar pemikiran ilmiah untuk kriteria rancangan biofisik yang

diperlukan untuk merancang KKP dan Jaringan KKP untuk mencapai tujuan-tujuan tersebut (Tabel 1 ) . Dokumen

ini merupakan sintesis informasi i lmiah terbaik yang tersedia untuk praktisi KKP yang mungkin tidak memil iki akses,

atau waktu untuk meninjau, l iteratur yang banyak tentang topik ini. Dokumen ini juga memberikan contoh dan

studi kasus praktik terbaik untuk menerapkan kriteria rancangan ini di Indonesia dan di tempat lain.

Kriteria rancangan biofisik ini akan berkontribusi pada proses yang lebih kompleks, yang mencakup penerapan

jaringan KKP dengan memperhatikan pemanfaatan dan nilai-nilai manusia, sejalan dengan persyaratan hukum,

politik dan kelembagaan lokal. Untuk memastikan hal ini terjadi, kriteria rancangan biofisik harus digunakan

bersama-sama dengan kriteria rancangan sosial ekonomi dan budaya untuk Indonesia yang disediakan dalam

dokumen Merancang Kawasan Konservasi Perairan dan Jaringan Kawasan Konservasi Perairan: Panduan, Kerangka Kerja

dan Contoh untuk Indonesia.

Kriteria biofisik untuk merancang KKP dan Jaringan KKP di Indonesia

Mewakili Habitat

Melindungi setidaknya 20% dari setiap habitat utama di dalam ZLT.

Mereplikasi Habitat (Menyebarkan Resiko)

Melindungi setidaknya tiga contoh dari masing-masing jenis habitat utama di dalam ZLT; dan

Menyebarkan habitat-habitat utama tersebut untuk mengurangi kemungkinan dipengaruhi oleh gangguan yang sama.

Melindungi Area Penting, Khusus, dan Unik

Melindungi area-area penting dalam sejarah hidup spesies penting di dalam ZLT.

Melindungi area-area atau habitat penting untuk spesies yang kharismatik, langka, terancam, atau dilindungi.

Melindungi fenomena alam khusus dan unik di dalam ZLT.

Melindungi area-area yang penting di skala nasional, internasional, dan global untuk konservasi atau pengelolaan spesies penting.

Memasukkan Aspek Konektivitas: Faktor-faktor Abiotik

Mempertimbangkan variasi osenografi yang mempengaruhi penyebaran materi biologis dan non-biologis di laut.

Memasukkan Aspek Konektivitas: Faktor-faktor Biotik Pergerakan Dewasa dan Anakan

Memastikan ZLT cukup besar untuk menopang spesies perikanan yang penting dalam batasan ruang hidupnya selama fase

kehidupan dewasa dan anakan.

Memastikan ZLT cukup besar untuk menampung semua habitat yang digunakan oleh spesies penting selama sejarah hidupnya;

atau menetapkan jejaring ZLT yang cukup dekat untuk memungkinkan pergerakan spesies penting di antara habitat-habitat

yang dilindungi.

Memasukkan keseluruhan unit-unit ekologi di dalam ZLT. Bila tidak, pilih area yang lebih besar dibandingkan dengan yang lebih

kecil.

Menggunakan bentuk-bentuk sederhana untuk ZLT, kecuali saat melindungi habitat memanjang yang alami.

Memasukkan Aspek Konektivitas: Faktor-faktor Biotik Penyebaran Larval

Menetapkan ZLT cukup besar agar dapat mandiri menampung spesies penting; atau jaringan ZLT terhubung cukup dekat oleh

penyebaran larva.

Melindungi daerah yang terisolasi secara spasial di dalam ZLT.

Melindungi sumber larva dalam ZLT yang permanen atau musiman atau dengan penutupan perikanan sementara selama periode

pemijahan.

Menempatkan ZLT lebih ke hulu arah arus relatif dari area penangkapan ikan jika ada arus yang kuat, konsisten, dan searah.

MemberikanWaktu untuk Pemulihan

Menetapkan ZLT untuk jangka panjang (20-40 tahun) , sebaiknya permanen.

Menggunakan ZLT jangka pendek (< 5 tahun) atau yang bisa dipanen secara berkala sebagai tambahan untuk ZLT yang

berjangka panjang atau permanen.

Table 1 . Kriteria biofisik untuk merancang KKP dan Jaringan KKP di Indonesia.

Sebagai catatan bahwa sebagian dari kriteria ini dirancang untuk mempertimbangkan aspek ekologi spesies penting termasuk

spesies perikanan penting, langka, terancam, dan dilindungi, biota laut yang bermigrasi, biota laut kharismatik besar, dan biota yang

penting untuk menjaga fungsi ekosistem.

1 3

Adaptasi terhadap Perubahan Iklim dan Kimia Laut

Melindungi lokasi yang cenderung lebih tangguh terhadap perubahan lingkungan global di dalam ZLT.

Melindungi lokasi penting untuk ekologi yang sensitif terhadap perubahan iklim dan kimia laut di dalam zona larang tangkap.

Meningkatkan perlindungan spesies yang memiliki fungsi peranan penting bagi ketahanan ekosistem.

Mempertimbangkan bagaimana perubahan iklim dan kimia laut akan mempengaruhi sejarah hidup spesies penting.

Menangani ketidakpastaian dengan: menyebarkan resiko; dan meningkatkan perlindungan habitat, daerah penting, dan spesies

yang paling rentan terhadap perubahan iklim dan kimia laut.

Melindungi Area yang Sehat dan Menghindari Ancaman Lokal

Melindungi daerah-daerah dimana habitat dan populasi dari spesies penting dalam kondisi baik dengan tingkat ancaman yang

rendah.

Menghindari daerah-daerah dimana habitat dan populasi dari spesies penting dalam kondisi buruk karena ancaman lokal. Bila

tidak dimungkinkan: mengurangi ancaman; memfasilitasi pemulihan secara alami; dan mempertimbangkan biaya dan manfaat

dari merehabilitasi habitat dan spesies.

Kriteria biofisik untuk merancang KKP dan Jaringan KKP di Indonesia

15

Indonesia is the largest archipelagic country in the world, spanning 5,1 20 km from east to

west and comprising nearly 1 8,1 00 islands, 1 08,820 km of coastl ine and 5.8 mil l ion square

kilometres (km2) of water3 (Asian Development Bank [ADB] 201 4).

The archipelago lies between the Pacific and Indian Oceans and is divided into several shal low

shelves and deepsea basins (ADB 201 4), as shown in Figure 1 . These waters comprise a wide

variety of marine ecosystems of high value for conservation and management, including both

shal low-water habitats4 less than 200 meters (m) deep, such as coral reefs, mangroves and

seagrass beds, and deepwater benthic and pelagic habitats at least 200m deep, including

seamounts and persistent pelagic features.

As shown in Figure 1 , Indonesia comprises 1 2 marine ecoregions, areas of relatively

homogeneous species composition clearly distinct from adjacent systems (Spalding et al.

2007). Species composition in each ecoregion is l ikely determined by the ecosystems present

and/or a distinct suite of oceanographic or topographic features. The dominant

biogeographic forcing agents defining the ecoregions vary from location to location but may

include upwell ing, nutrient inputs, freshwater influx, temperature regimes, exposure,

sediments, currents, isolation, and bathymetric or coastal complexity.

Tropical Marine Ecosystems in Indonesia

____________________________3 2.8 mil l ion km2 of archipelagic waters, 0.3 mil l ion km2 of territorial sea, and 2.7 mil l ion km2 of exclusiveeconomic zone (ADB 201 4).4 The 200 m depth contour is often used as a proxy for the edge of the continental shelf where there is adramatic ecotone between shal low and deepwater habitats (Spalding et al. 2007).

INTRODUCTION


IN INDONESIA1 6

Figure 1 . Indonesia has several shal low shelves and deep-sea basins, comprising 1 2 marine ecoregions.

From Spalding et al. 2007,redrawn by Huffard et al. 201 2

Indonesia has one of the largest coral reef areas in the world, and the largest in Southeast Asia at 39,500 km2,

which is 1 6% of the world ’s reefs (Burke et al. 201 2). Indonesia’s coral reefs are also among the most biological ly

diverse in the world (Figure 2), particularly in eastern Indonesia, which is the heart of the Coral Triangle and a

global priority for conservation (Allen & Erdmann 201 2, Veron et al. 201 5) .

Global Diversity of Scleractinian (Hard) Corals (from Veron et al. 201 5)

Global Diversity of Mangroves (from Spalding et al. 201 0)

Number of Species

Number of Species

Figure 2. Indonesia comprises some of the highest marine diversity on Earth.

1 7

Indonesia is also the center of global diversity for mangroves (Figure 2) and seagrasses, and hosts one-fifth of the

world ’s mangrove forests and extensive seagrass ecosystems (Burke et al. 201 2, Spalding et al. 201 0). Indonesia’s

mangrove forests comprise 45 species occupying about 3.2 mil l ion hectares (ha), mostly in West Papua,

Kal imantan and Sumatra (Spalding et al. 201 0, ADB 201 4). Mangrove forests are productive ecosystems that

provide habitat for hundreds of species, support commercial l y important coastal finfish and shrimp fisheries,

export energy and organic matter to adjacent systems, and act as physical barriers against storm waves (Spalding

et al. 201 0, ADB 201 4).

Indonesia’s seagrass beds comprise 1 3 species spread over at least 30,000 km2 in four main habitat types5 (Short

et al 2007, ADB 201 4). Little is known about the distribution and current condition of seagrasses in Indonesia,

although the most expansive seagrass beds are found in the Arafura Sea, Papua, Sunda Shelf/Java Sea and Lesser

Sundas (Huffard et al. 201 2). Seagrass beds provide critical habitats for many commercial ly important species of

fish, shrimp and shel lfish, and play important roles in fisheries production (Short et al. 2007). They also play

important roles in sediment accumulation and stabil ization, fi ltering sediments from land-based runoff, serving as

daytime refugia for corals from ocean acidification, and providing critical habitat for endangered, threatened or

protected species (Short et al. 2007, Roberts et al. 201 7). Coastal wetlands (including mangroves and seagrasses)

also play a critical role in cl imate change mitigation through carbon sequestration and storage (Roberts et al.

201 7).

Mangroves and seagrass beds provide critical habitats for many species, and important food and livel ihoods for coastal

communities. Images (left to right) : South Sorong (© Alison Green, TNC) and East Sumba (Yusuf Fajariyanto, TNC).

Indonesia also has significant deepwater benthic and pelagic habitats. The pelagic environment is characterized by

physical processes that are highly dynamic in both space and time (e.g., ocean currents, thermal fronts, upwell ing

and eddies) , which largely control the abundance, distribution and composition of biological l ife (Game et al.

2009). Many pelagic species are also highly mobile, often covering thousands of kilometers (Green et al. 201 5) .

Consequently, pelagic ecosystems are defined by the physical , chemical and biological features of the water

column (Game et al. 2009).

Indonesia has many deepwater bathymetric features, such as seamounts, canyons, ridges, trenches and sil ls

(Wilson et al. 201 1 ) . In some locations, the seafloor drops to thousands-meter ocean depths close to shore, so

deep-sea features l ike seamounts and canyons occur within kilometers of the coast, e.g., in the Lesser Sunda

Ecoregion (Wilson et al. 201 1 ) . These deepwater bathymetric features influence physical processes, generating

persistent pelagic habitats, such as areas with elevated productivity from consistent seasonal upwell ing driven by

wind patterns and steep bathymetry close to shore (Game et al. 2009, Wilson et al. 201 1 ) . These ‘deep-sea yet

nearshore’ habitats provide important feeding grounds and migratory pathways for commercial l y important

____________________________5 Estuarine, shal low coastal, reef flats and deepwater, mostly found in waters less than 1 0m deep (Short et al 2007, Mangubhai et al .201 2).


IN INDONESIA

1 8

pelagic fishes and large marine fauna such as cetaceans (whales and dolphins) , turtles, sharks, manta rays and Mola

mola (Wilson et al. 201 1 , Huffard et al. 201 2).

Indonesia also provides other critical ly important feeding and breeding habitats for endangered, threatened or

protected species, including at least 22 cetacean species, dugong (Dugong dugon) and 6 species of sea turtle

(reviewed in Huffard et al. 201 2, ADB 201 4).

Ecosystem Goods and Services

More than 300 ethnic groups comprise Indonesia’s population of about 238 mil l ion (BPS 201 4), each with their

own culture and beliefs (ADB 201 4). Fifty-seven percent of the population l ives on Java (7% of the land area),

while only 2% lives in the eastern Indonesian provinces of Maluku, North Maluku, Papua and West Papua, which

occupy 24% of the land area (Badan Pusat Statistik [BPS] 201 0, ADB 201 4). Their health, nutrition, food security,

economic growth, and welfare al l depend upon the sustainable use of marine resources.

Indonesia’s rich marine resources generate important economic and social benefits from capture fisheries

(commercial and subsistence) and aquaculture, tourism, minerals, oil and gas, transport and shipping (Mangubhai

et al . 201 2, ADB 201 4). Coral reef, mangrove and seagrass ecosystems provide critical habitats for many

commercial l y valuable fisheries species, and are important sources of food and livel ihoods for coastal

communities6 (reviewed in Spalding et al. 201 0, ADB 201 4). The physical structure of coral reefs and mangroves

is vital for shorel ine protection, as it dissipates wave energy, stabil izes shorel ines, reduces erosion, and lessens

inundation and wave damage during storms, thus protecting human settlements, infrastructure and other habitats

l ike seagrasses (Burke et al. 201 2, Roberts et al. 201 7). Intact reefs and coastal wetlands can also help safeguard

people and infrastructure from the adverse effects of rising sea levels (Roberts et al. 201 7).

Indonesia’s fisheries play an important role in national food security, since fishery products are general ly

consumed by poor households (Food and Agriculture Organization [FAO] 2009). Indonesia has the highest total

fish and seafood consumption of any country in Southeast Asia, and the fifth highest in the world (FAO 201 0 in

Burke et al. 201 2). About 70% of the county’s protein sources come from fish, and in some poor coastal

communities, this figure approaches 90% (Huffard et al. 201 2).

Twenty-one percent of Indonesia’s agricultural economy and 3% of the country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

are from the fishing industry (FAO 201 1 a) . In 201 7, GDP from marine capture fisheries was valued at 1 4.8 bil l ion

USD and the total national production was 23.3 mil l ion tons (BPS 201 4). More than one-third of the population

l ives in coastal areas and depends on nearshore fisheries for their l ivel ihood (ADB 201 4). About 95% of fishery

production is from artisanal fishers, with 28% of the marine fleet (620,830 vessels) using non-powered boats

(FAO 201 1 a) . Women play a crucial role in fishing activities, although their involvement varies across ethnic

groups, cultures and rel igions, and with economic status (ADB 201 4).

____________________________6 For fish farming and harvesting charcoal. firewood, construction materials, bed mattresses, handicrafts, animal feed, tannins andmedicines.

Coral reefs provide important ecosystem goods and services for people, including from tourism and fisheries. Images, left to

right: Raja Ampat Islands MPA (© Jeff Yonover) and Wakatobi National Park (Bridget Besaw).

1 9

Coral reefs are particularly important sources of food and income for coastal communities in Indonesia (ADB

201 4). Nearly 60 mil l ion people l ive on the coast within 30 km of coral reefs, which is the largest reef-associated

human population of any country in the world, and more than one mil l ion fishers depend on coral reef fisheries

for their l ivel ihoods (Burke et al. 201 2).

In 201 0, the annual net economic benefit in Indonesia from coral reef-related goods and services alone was

estimated to be approximately $2 bil l ion USD, comprising $1 27 mil l ion from tourism, $1 .5 bil l ion from fisheries

and $387 mil l ion from shorel ine protection (reviewed in Burke et al. 201 2). Indonesia is among the top five

exporters of reef products global ly, and marine tourism is growing rapidly and contributing more to the economy

at the local and national levels. Reefs are also valuable for research to develop potential l y l ife-saving

pharmaceuticals, e.g., to treat cancer, HIV, and other diseases (Burke et al. 201 2).

However, Indonesia’s reefs face high levels of threats, and because people are highly dependent on reefs and have

a l imited capacity to adapt to reef loss, the country is considered to have very high social and economic

vulnerabil ity to coral reef degradation and loss (Burke et al. 201 2).

Status and Threats

Habitats

In Indonesia, many marine ecosystems and the services they provide have been lost or seriously degraded, or are

threatened by a combination of local anthropogenic threats including overharvesting, destructive fishing, coastal

development, mass tourism, watershed- and marine-based pollution, and mineral, oil and gas exploration and

mining (Burke et al. 201 2, ADB 201 4). Changes in cl imate and ocean chemistry also represent a serious and

increasing threat to these ecosystems, and the goods and services they provide (Burke et al. 201 2).

Heavy rel iance on marine resources across Indonesia has led to marine resources being overexploited and

degraded, particularly those near major population centers (ADB 201 4). For example, nearly 95% of Indonesia’s

coral reefs are threatened by local human activities, with more than 35% at high or very high risk from overfishing,

destructive fishing, marine and watershed-based pollution and coastal development (Burke et al. 201 2) (Figure 3).

When the influence of thermal stress and coral bleaching is combined with local threats, the area of high- or very-

high-risk reefs increases to more than 45% (Burke et al. 201 2).

Figure 3. More than 35% of coral reefs in Indonesia are at high or very high risk from local threats.

From Burke et al . 201 2


IN INDONESIA20

Mangrove forests also continue to be degraded by coastal erosion and sea level rise, impacts of rapid economic

development in coastal areas7, and unsustainable forest practices (reviewed in Spalding et al. 201 0, ADB 201 4).

Consequently, the total mangrove area in Indonesia is estimated to have decreased dramatical ly over a 20-year

period to about 30% of the previous area (ADB 201 4). However, despite extensive losses in western parts of the

country, Indonesia stil l has the largest area of mangroves in the world, encompassing 31 ,894 km2, or 21 % of the

world total (Spalding et al. 201 0).

The distribution, diversity and health of many of Indonesia’s seagrasses are also severely threatened by local

anthropogenic threats such as coastal construction and reclamation, mineral mining activities, marine pollution and

land-based runoff8, and natural stresses such as storms, tidal waves, volcanic eruptions, high temperatures, and

radiation exposure during low tides (Short et al. 2007, ADB 201 4).

Endangered,Threatened or Protected Species

Overexploitation over the last few decades has degraded coastal and marine biodiversity, leading to rareness or

local extinction of species and destruction of their critical coastal habitats, particularly mangroves and coral reefs

(Spalding et al. 201 0, ADB 201 4). Some coastal and marine species are now considered endangered or

threatened on a global scale (see IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: https://www.iucnredl ist.org/), prompting

the national government to issue Regulation No. 7/1 999 legal ly protecting al l species of sea turtle, crocodile and

cetacean (dolphins and whales) that occur in Indonesia, as well as dugong, the coelacanth (Latimeria manadoensis)

and 1 5 species of invertebrate (Huffard et al. 201 2, ADB 201 4).

Six of the world's seven species of sea turtle occur in Indonesia9 (reviewed in Huffard et al. 201 2) that are

considered endangered (green), critical ly endangered (hawksbil l ) , vulnerable (leatherback, loggerhead and olive

ridley) and data deficient (flatback). Despite being protected species, they are stil l threatened in Indonesia by

il legal trade and consumption for food and curios, habitat destruction and alteration from coastal tourism and

industrial development, pol lution, disease, cl imate change, and fisheries bycatch from trawlers, longl ines and gil l

nets (ADB 201 4).

Dugong are found in the coastal waters of Indonesia, particularly where there are large tracts of seagrasses,

mangroves and coral reefs (reviewed in de Longh et al. 2009). They obtain 90% of their food from seagrass beds,

and the loss of this habitat is a major threat to the species. Dugong are protected in Indonesia by a decree of the

Minister of Agriculture (Decree No. 327/Kpts/Um/1 972.) , but they are stil l hunted for food and body parts

(teeth and skeleton), accidental ly caught by fishing activities, and kil led or injured by boat propel lers. No reliable

estimates of dugong populations are available for Indonesia, although important dugong populations are believed

to stil l occur in North Sulawesi, West Papua, Maluku, East Nusa Tenggara and Bintan1 0.

There are at least 22 species of cetacean (dolphins and whales) in Indonesia, including 1 8 species of toothed

whale and four species of baleen whale (reviewed in Huffard et al. 201 2). Two main habitats are important for

these species: deep-sea habitats, which sustain great whales and oceanic dolphins (e.g., in the Banda Sea), and

nearshore waters, particularly those that are relatively undisturbed, that coastal species rely on1 1 . Coastl ines that

provide deep-sea yet nearshore habitats are especial l y rich in marine mammal diversity and food sources (e.g., in

the Lesser Sunda Ecoregion). However, the population status of cetaceans is largely unknown in Indonesian

waters. Although al l cetaceans are protected, they face increasing threats and stressors from ship strikes,

entanglement in fishing nets, loss of coastal habitats and plastic pol lution, undersea mining, and seismic testing

(Mangubhai et al . 201 2). Commercial whaling was banned in 1 986, but indigenous harvesting of whales and other

____________________________7 From conversion/reclamation of land for agriculture, aquaculture, mining, port expansion, urbanization, tourism and infrastructuredevelopment, overharvesting, and coastal pol lution due to oil spil ls and domestic and industrial waste.8 From human settlements, industrial and urban developments, logging, and land clearing.9 Green (Chelonia mydas) , hawksbil l (Eretmochelys imbricata) , ol ive ridley (Lepidochelys olivaea) , leatherback (Dermochelys coraicae) ,loggerhead (Caretta caretta) and flatback (Natator depressa) .1 0 From Arakan Wawontulap to Lembeh Strait (between Lembeh and the mainland, North Sulawesi) , on the east coast of Biak Island, inwestern Cendrawasih Bay Marine National Park (Papua Barat) , around the Lease and Aru Islands (Maluku), and around the Flores-Lembata Islands (East Nusa Tenggara), in Ujung Kulon National Park, Sunda Strait, Banten Bay, Bangka Belitung and Trikora Beach(Bintan).1 1 Such as those on the southern coast of Papua and eastern coast of Kalimantan.

21

megafauna (manta rays and whale sharks) continues in Lamalera and

Lamakera Vil lages in East Nusa Tenggara1 2 (Dewar 2002).

Four species of crocodile are found in Indonesia including saltwater

(Crocodylus porosus) and freshwater (Crocodylus novaeguineae)

species. They have been hunted for their skins and their habitats

threatened by coastal development l ike fil l ing in brackish streams and

destroying nesting beaches for road construction, but very l ittle

information is available regarding their distribution and population

status (Mangubhai et al . 201 2).

Populations of large vulnerable reef fishes (e.g., sharks, large

groupers, Napoleon wrasse and bumphead parrotfishes) have also

been overexploited in many locations, particularly species targeted

by the l ive reef food fish trade, including coral trout, Napoleon

wrasse and barramundi cod (ADB 201 4).

Fifteen species of invertebrate are protected in Indonesia, including

the black coral (Antiphates spp.) ; two species of crustacea, namely,

horseshoe and coconut crabs; and 1 2 mollusks, including giant clams,

trumpet triton, horned helmet, top shel l , turban shel l and pearly

chambered nautilus (Huffard et al. 201 2, ADB 201 4). Even so, some

of these species are stil l widely exploited, e.g., giant clams and large

snails, which are harvested for food and sale as curios (ADB 201 4).

What are MPAs and MPA Networks?

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are clearly del ineated marine

managed areas that contribute to the protection of natural

resources in some manner (Dudley 2008). They include, but are not

l imited to, areas with a variety of regulations, including no-take zones

(NTZs: areas of ocean protected from extractive and destructive

activities) and areas with restrictions on access and activities (e.g.,

for fisheries or tourism). MPA Networks are a col lection of

individual MPAs that operate cooperatively or synergistical ly and are

connected ecological ly (Dudley 2008, International Union for

Conservation of Nature-World Commission on Protected Areas

[IUCN-WCPA] 2008).

What can MPAs and MPA Networks

Achieve?

MPAs, particularly NTZs, can be powerful tools to address local threats and

enhance fisheries productivity, protect biodiversity and increase resil ience to

changes in cl imate and ocean chemistry (Green et al. 201 4a, Roberts et al.

201 7). For example, NTZs can increase the diversity, density, biomass, body

size, l ifespan and reproductive potential of coral reef fishes (particularly

fisheries species) within their boundaries (Lester et al. 2009, Gil l et al . 201 7).

They can also provide significant conservation and fisheries benefits to other NTZs and fished areas through the

export of eggs, larvae, juveniles and adults (Halpern et al. 201 0, Harrison et al. 201 2, Roberts et al. 201 7).

MPAs can also support fisheries and sustainable l ivel ihoods for communities and other stakeholders. For

example, effectively managed MPAs with NTZs can enhance fishing yields outside of no-fishing areas and attract

Fifteen species of invertebrates are

protected in Indonesia, although some are

stil l harvested. Images, from top to

bottom: Giant clam, Dampier Strait MPA

(© Awaludinnoer, TNC); black coral, Savu

Sea MNP (© Rizya Ardiwijaya, TNC); and

trochus harvested at sasi opening in Raja

Ampat (© Awaludinnoer, TNC).

____________________________1 2 http://thecoraltriangle.com/stories/is-there-a-place-for-traditional-whale-hunting-in-the-modern-world


IN INDONESIA

22

visitors to the protected sites for snorkeling and scuba diving opportunities (e.g., see Russ et al. 2004). These

visitors support community l ivel ihoods by creating a demand for boat rental and dive guides, purchasing local ly

made handicrafts and food items as well as paying user fees for MPA entry (e.g., the Raja Ampat tourism entrance

fee). Community-based MPAs that have a degree of local autonomy and control can not only enhance economic

revenues, but also provide an incentive for community cohesiveness of purpose and pride in their resource areas

of jurisdiction. In turn, once they real ize the benefits derived from their protected areas, the communities

become effective stewards of these areas (Walmsley & White 2003, White & Rosales 2003, Leisher et al. 201 2).

MPA Networks can provide even more benefits. For the same amount of spatial coverage, networks of MPAs can

potential l y del iver most of the benefits of individual MPAs, but with less costs due to greater flexibil ity in the size

and location of individual MPAs (IUCN-WCPA 2008). They can also del iver additional benefits by increasing the

chance of protecting multiple examples of features of interest, spreading the risk from local and global threats

across larger spatial scales, and enhancing the probabil ity of overal l persistence of habitats, populations and

species, e.g., by acting as mutual ly replenishing networks to facil itate recovery after disturbances (IUCN-WCPA

2008, Roberts et al. 201 7). Because of their flexibil ity in design and application, MPA networks are also

particularly suited to addressing multiple objectives in different contexts (FAO 201 1 b, IUCN-WCPA 2008).

However, MPAs and MPA Networks can only achieve their objectives if they are well-designed and effectively

managed (Green et al. 201 4a, White et al. 201 4, Gil l et al . 201 7). For example, a global review by Edgar et al.

(201 4) demonstrated that MPAs with five key characteristics – no-take, well-enforced, well-establ ished (at least1 0

years old) , large (at least 1 00 km2) and isolated by deep water – produce the greatest ecological benefits.

However, large NTZs may not be appropriate in many instances, particularly where coastal communities rely on

fishing for their subsistence (Green et al. 201 4a). In that situation, networks of smaller, well-connected NTZs may

be more feasible, and can produce tangible benefits for some species (e.g., see Russ et al. 2004).

Furthermore, for MPAs and MPA Networks to be effective, they need to have support from local communities,

and adequate staff capacity and resources to perform monitoring, enforcement, administration, community

engagement, sustainable tourism activities and other tasks (White et al. 201 4, Gil l et al . 201 7). They also need to

be embedded within broader management frameworks that address al l threats to ensure the long-term

sustainabil ity of marine resources and the ecosystem benefits they provide (see Integrating MPAs within Broader

Management Frameworks) .

MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia

MPAs play a major role in conservation and resource management in Indonesia, and the national government is

committed to establ ishing 20 mil l ion ha of effectively managed MPAs by 2020 and 30 mil l ion ha by 2030. To date,

there are 1 77 national and local government MPAs establ ished (and no MPA Networks), covering an area of 22.8

mil l ion ha (MMAF 201 8). The Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (MMAF) is now identifying and establ ishing

new MPAs to achieve their target of 30 mil l ion ha in MPAs by 2030, and is interested in reviewing the design of

existing MPAs.

Coastal communities have also establ ished Local ly Managed Marine Areas (LMMAs) in many locations,

particularly in eastern Indonesia (LMMA Network, see http://lmmanetwork.org) . LMMAs are often used to

enhance traditional methods to regulate the use of specific marine resources by closing access to these resources

at a certain time or place (ADB 201 4), although only a few coastal communities continue these traditions, such as

the sasi system in the Moluccas and West Papua (ADB 201 4) (see below).

Unfortunately, many of the existing MPAs are not yet managed effectively (Burke et al. 201 2). More scientific

advice is also required to ensure that MPAs and MPA Networks are well designed to achieve their goals.

In 201 9, The Nature Conservancy (TNC) and the USAID Sustainable Ecosystems Advanced Project (USAID

SEA) provided technical assistance to MMAF to develop the document A Guide, Framework and Example: Designing

Marine Protected Areas and Marine Protected Area Networks to Benefit People and Nature in Indonesia (Green et al.

2020). This document provides a logical framework (goals, objectives, design criteria and performance indicators)

for designing MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia, which takes biophysical , socioeconomic and cultural

23

Women in Kapatchol Vil lage, West Misool (Raja Ampat) used traditional methods (sasi) to temporarily close a 1 00 ha area to

improve the harvest of sea cucumbers with scientific advice from The Nature Conservancy. Images: © Awaludinnoer, TNC (left)

and Nugroho Arif Prabowo, TNC (right) .

considerations into account.

The framework provides seven goals for establ ishing MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia where:

• Biophysical goals include protecting biodiversity, maintaining or enhancing coastal fisheries, rehabil itating

habitats and species, and adapting to changes in cl imate and ocean chemistry.

• Socioeconomic and cultural goals include minimizing confl icting use of marine resources and fisheries,

supporting sustainable community l ivel ihoods, and promoting active community participation and support

in MPA or MPA network management.

This framework wil l provide supplementary information to support the Technical Guidelines (Juknis) of Ministerial

Regulation No. 1 3/201 4 on Establishing and Managing MPA Networks (MMAF in prep.) .

What are MPA Network Design Criteria?

Design criteria are guidel ines that provide advice on how to design MPAs and MPA Networks to achieve their

goals (Green et al. 201 3) . The framework for designing MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia (Green et al.

2020) provides two types of design criteria:

• Biophysical criteria aimed at taking key biological and physical processes into account; and

• Socioeconomic and cultural criteria aimed at maximizing benefits and minimizing costs to local communities

and sustainable industries.

The biophysical criteria for designing MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia are provided in

Table 1 (Executive Summary) . Here we provide the scientific rationale for each of these design

criteria, which address the need to: represent and replicate habitats; protect critical , special and

unique areas; incorporate connectivity; al low time for recovery; protect healthy areas and avoid

local threats; and adapt to changes in cl imate and ocean chemistry.

Many of these criteria are designed to consider the ecology of focal species, including:

• Key fisheries species (particularly demersal fish, small pelagic fish and crustaceans) ;

• Endangered, threatened and protected species and/or migratory marine biota (sea

turtles, marine birds, cetaceans, dugong and crocodiles) ;

• Large charismatic marine fauna (sharks, manta rays, whale sharks and Mola mola) ; and

• Species important for maintaining ecosystem function, i.e., habitat-forming species (e.g.,

corals) or species important for reef resil ience (e.g., herbivores) .

Most of these design criteria relate specifical ly to NTZs because they provide the greatest

ecological benefits for enhancing fisheries productivity, protecting biodiversity and adapting to

cl imate change (Edgar et al. 201 4). These criteria can also be applied to other types of zones,

although they are l ikely to be less effective in achieving these objectives (Knowles et al. 201 7).

They wil l need to be adapted and refined when designing MPAs and MPA Networks in different

locations, based on local and scientific knowledge of the biophysical characteristics of the area.

To assist with this process, we provide examples of best practices for applying these design

criteria in several locations in Indonesia and elsewhere in the Indo-Pacific Region.

BIOPHYSICAL CRITERIA

FOR DESIGNING MPAS

AND MPA NETWORKS

IN INDONESIA

25

Represent Habitats

Protect at least 20% ofeach major habitat in NTZs.

Different animal and plant species use different habitats (Figure 4). Therefore, adequate examples of each major

habitat should be protected within NTZs to protect al l species (including focal species) and maintain ecosystem

health, integrity and resil ience (McLeod et al. 2009, Gaines et al. 201 0, Green et al. 201 4a).

In Indonesia, major habitats for protection include: shal low and coastal marine habitats at depths of less than

200m, including coral reefs, mangroves forests, seagrass beds and estuaries, and deepwater benthic habitats at

200m depth or deeper (e.g., seamounts) . Deepwater pelagic habitats are also important to protect (e.g., see

Wilson et al. 201 1 ) , although discrete habitats can be difficult to identify and are l ikely to be transient in space and

time (see review in Game et al. 2009, Wilson et al. 201 1 ) .

A key consideration is how much of each of these habitats should be included in NTZs. To determine how much

of each habitat to protect, it is important to consider that a population can only be maintained if it produces

sufficient eggs and larvae to sustain itself (reviewed in Green et al. 201 4a). This threshold is unknown for most

marine populations, so fisheries ecologists have expressed it as a fraction of unfished stock levels and examined

empirical evidence to determine a general safe value of that parameter. Meta-analyses suggest that keeping this

threshold above approximately 35% of unfished stock levels ensures adequate replacement over a range of

species.

To approximate the level of protection of this threshold, about 35% of the habitats used by focal species should

be protected in NTZs in heavily fished areas, where habitat protection is a proxy for protecting fisheries stocks

(reviewed in Green et al. 201 4a). While lesser levels of habitat protection (but not less than 1 0%) may be

sufficient in areas with low fishing pressure, higher levels of protection (40%) may be required where fishing

pressure is high to protect species with lower reproductive output or delayed maturation, such as sharks and

some groupers. Higher levels of protection may also be required in areas vulnerable to severe disturbances (e.g.,

typhoons) and cl imate change impacts (All ison et al. 2003) (see Adapt to Changes in Climate and Ocean Chemistry) .

Therefore, to maximize benefits for enhancing fisheries and conserving biodiversity in the face of cl imate change

in Indonesia, at least 20% of each major habitat should be included in NTZs (Green et al. 201 4a, 2020). The

recommended percentage wil l vary in different locations, depending on several factors including fishing pressure

and if there is effective fisheries management in place outside of NTZs (Green et al. 201 4a). I f fishing pressure is

high and the only protection offered to fisheries species is in NTZs, then the proportion of each major habitat in

NTZs should be at least 30%. If effective fisheries management is in place outside of NTZs, or if fishing pressure

is low, then a lesser level of protection (20%) may be needed. Percent habitat representation should also consider

the vulnerabil ity, diversity or rarity of each habitat, and the ecosystem services it provides (Green et al. 201 7).

These recommendations are supported by empirical studies showing that 20-30% habitat protection in NTZs can

achieve conservation and fisheries objectives in areas with different levels of fishing pressure in the Indo-Pacific

Region (Green et al. 201 4a). Furthermore, a recent modeling study in the Coral Triangle demonstrated that

networks of NTZs that protect 20-30% of fished habitats should benefit biodiversity conservation and the long-

term productivity of coral reef fisheries, and be unl ikely to diminish fisheries catch (Krueck et al. 201 7a).

I t is important to note that this design criteria should be applied to protect at least 20% of each major habitat

type, such as for instance, each type of coral reef, mangrove or seagrass community (see Appendix 1 ) , because

each habitat wil l comprise different floral and faunal communities. Furthermore, for large MPAs or MPA networks

that include more than one marine ecoregion (see Figure 1 ) , at least 20% of each type of major habitat type

should be protected in NTZs within each ecoregion (Munguia-Vega et al. 201 8).

26 BIOPHYSICAL CRITERIA: DESIGNING MPAs AND MPA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE

IN INDONESIA

Figu

re4.Differe

ntsp

eciesuse

differe

nthab

itats.

Forexam

ple,so

mesp

eciesuse

rive

rmouth

s,estuariesan

dman

grove

s(1

to3),

someuse

sandybottoms(4

),oth

ers

use

seag

rass

beds(5

and6),

and

oth

ers,co

ralreefs

(7an

d8).

27


Protect at least three examples ofeach major habitat type in NTZs, and

Spread them out to reduce the chances they will all be affected by the same disturbance.

Large-scale disturbances can have serious impacts on tropical marine ecosystems, including mass coral bleaching

events, major storms, and outbreaks of coral predators l ike crown-of-thorns starfish (West & Salm 2003).

Indonesia’s coral reefs can also be adversely affected by natural phenomena such as earthquakes and tsunamis

(Hopley & Suharsono 2000). For example, the 2004 tsunami caused massive damage to coral reefs in Aceh,

North Sumatra and the western islands (BAPPENAS 2005).

Since it is difficult to predict with certainty which areas are most l ikely to be affected by these and other

disturbances (e.g., ship groundings and oil spil ls) , it is important to protect at least three examples of each major

habitat in NTZs and spread them out to reduce the chance that al l examples wil l be adversely impacted by the

same disturbance (McLeod et al. 2009, Green et al. 201 4a). This wil l promote the l ikel ihood that, if one example

of a major habitat is severely damaged, others wil l remain to provide the larvae required to replenish the affected

area. Since variations in communities and species within major habitats are often poorly understood, habitat

repl ication also increases the l ikel ihood that examples of each are represented within the same MPA Network

(McLeod et al. 2009, Gaines et al. 201 0, Green et al. 201 4a).

For example, this criterion was used to design a resil ient network of MPAs for the Lesser Sunda Ecoregion

(Wilson et al. 201 1 ) (Figure 5). Where possible, the design includes at least three widely separated examples of

each major habitat type in existing or proposed MPAs or Areas of Interest (to be considered as potential areas

for establ ishing new MPAs). The same design criteria were used to develop the zoning plan for the Savu Sea

Marine National Park (Balai KKPN Kupang 201 4) .

Protect Critical, Special and Unique Areas

Protect critical areas in the life history offocal fisheries species in NTZs.

When animals aggregate, they are particularly vulnerable and, often, the reasons they aggregate are crucial to the

maintenance of their populations (see reviews in Green et al. 201 4a, 201 5). For this reason, the main areas where

they aggregate must be protected to help maintain and restore their populations (Green et al. 201 4a, 201 5). In

Indonesia, critical areas for protecting fisheries species include:

• Fish or invertebrate spawning areas and nursery grounds; and

• Breeding or aggregation sites for large vulnerable reef fishes (e.g., sharks) .

For example, some focal fisheries species form fish spawning aggregations, which general ly fal l within two

categories, namely, resident and transient (see review in Green et al. 201 5) . Some of these species, including

groupers, snappers, emperors and rabbitfishes, travel long distances to form transient fish spawning aggregations

for relatively short periods of time (days or weeks). Others are resident spawners which tend to spawn

frequently throughout the year and travel short distances (meters to hundreds of meters) to spawning sites that

are considered part of their home range.

Prel iminary information indicates that several large, vulnerable fisheries species aggregate to spawn in Indonesia,

including Napoleon Wrasse and some groupers, jacks and snappers1 3. Spawning seasons are stil l unclear, although

best available information indicates that October to November and May to June may be peak spawning seasons

for these species (Purwanto & Muljadi pers. comm. ) .

Fish spawning aggregation sites, and associated migratory corridors and staging areas where fish aggregate prior

to and after spawning, are particularly important to protect, because they are spatial l y and temporal ly predictable

____________________________1 3 Epinephelus fuscoguttatus, E. polyphekadion, Plectropomus areolatus, Caranx sexfasciatus, Lujanus bohar, Macolor macularis and M. niger.


IN INDONESIA

FromW

ilsonetal.2011

Figu

re5.Pro

tectingat

leastthre

eexam

plesofeac

hmajorhab

itat

inwidely

separatedMPA

shelpsre

duce

thech

ance

stheywill

allb

eim

pac

tedbythesamedisturb

ance

(i.e.,in

theLesserSu

ndaMPA

netw

ork

design

).

29

and concentrate reproductively active fish in a manner that enhances their vulnerabil ity to overfishing (see reviews

in Green et al. 201 5, 201 7). For these species, such gatherings are the only opportunities to reproduce, and they

are crucial to population maintenance. Unmanaged fishing of these areas can rapidly deplete their populations.

Some fish and invertebrate species also group together in

feeding or resting areas, or in nursery areas where juveniles

use different habitats than adults (Figure 6). In Indonesia, many

species of coral reef and coastal pelagic fishes1 4 use different

habitats l ike mangroves, seagrass beds or shal low turbid

waters as nursery grounds before moving to their adult habitat

on coral reefs (reviewed in Green et al. 201 5) . The presence

of these juvenile habitats can have profound impacts on

community structure on reefs by increasing the biomass of

these species, some of which may be absent or have lower

densities on reefs where their juvenile habitats are lacking

(reviewed in Green et al. 201 5) . In view of this, it is important

to protect the range of habitats that focal species use

throughout their l ives, particularly areas used during critical l ife

history phases (reviewed in Green et al. 201 4a, 201 5).

I f the temporal and spatial locations of the focal species’

critical habitats are known, these areas should be protected in

permanent or seasonal NTZs. I f their locations are unknown, or

the scale of the focal species’ movement is too large to include in

individual NTZs, they can be protected within a network of NTZs

in combination with other management approaches, such as

seasonal capture and sale restrictions during the spawning season. NTZs protecting each critical area should be

spaced to al low for movements of focal species among protected habitats (see Consider Movement of Adults and

Juveniles) . (Green et al. 201 4a, 201 5)

Protect critical areas or habitats for charismatic, endangered, threatened or protected

species.

Charismatic, endangered, threatened or protected species aggregate and use habitats that are crucial to their

population maintenance. In Indonesia, these critical areas include:

• Nesting, breeding or calving areas (e.g., for sea turtles, seabirds, sharks, cetaceans and crocodiles)

• Feeding, resting or cleaning areas for large, vulnerable and charismatic marine species (e.g., cetaceans,

dugong, manta rays, whale sharks and Mola mola)

• Movement corridors for migratory biota (e.g., marine birds, sea turtles and cetaceans) .

Critical areas for sea turtles include nesting beaches and foraging and resting areas on, for instance, seagrass beds

and coral reefs. While these critical areas span the entire archipelago, different species use different areas. For

example, sea turtles use many nesting beaches throughout the country, with different beaches important for

different species (reviewed in Huffard et al. 201 2, ADB 201 4). Some of these nesting beaches are of national and

international importance for maintaining the populations of these species and thus a high priority for protection

(Huffard et al. 201 2)1 5.

Fish spawning aggregations are crucial for population

maintenance, and should be protected in NTZs

combined with other fisheries management

approaches. Image: Napoleon wrasse spawning

aggregation in the Banda Islands (© Andreas Muljadi) .

____________________________1 4 Including some parrotfishes (e.g., bumphead parrotfishes) , snappers, surgeonfishes, jacks, barracuda, emperors, sweetl ips, groupers,goatfishes, wrasses (e.g., Napoleon wrasse), rabbitfishes and sharks, among others.1 5 Including the largest leatherback turtle rookery in the Pacific (the north coast of West Papua, including Jamursba Medi) , the largestremaining green turtle rookery in Southeast Asia (Derawan and Sanggalaki Islands, East Kalimantan), the most important hawksbil lrookeries in Southeast Asia (in Anambas and Natuna Islands) , one of the most important green turtle rookeries in Indonesia at AruIsland, and a major nesting beach for olive ridley turtles in East Java..


IN INDONESIA

Figu

re6.So

mesp

eciesuse

differe

nthab

itatsat

differe

nttimesth

rough

outth

eir

lives(e

.g.,fo

rhomera

nge

s,sp

awningornursery

areas

).

31

Critical areas for dugong are primarily coastal waters with large tracts of seagrass and mangroves, particularly

seagrass beds that provide 90% of their food (ADB 201 4), while critical habitats for crocodiles include brackish

streams and nesting beaches (Mangubhai et al . 201 2).

Critical areas for cetaceans in Indonesia include (e.g., see Huffard et al. 201 2, Wilson et al. 201 1 , ADB 201 4):

• Nearshore-yet-deep-sea migration corridors for cetaceans travel ing between the Indian and Pacific

Oceans, massive high productivity upwell ing sites that provide foraging habitats for great whales and

oceanic dolphins, and mating and calving areas for sperm whales and oceanic dolphins in the Lesser Sunda

Islands;

• Calving areas for sperm whales in the Bird ’s Head Seascape and Sangihe-Talaud Islands;

• Blue whale aggregation areas in the Banda Sea;

• Resting areas for dolphins (e.g., in Barate Bay, Kupang and Kalabahi Bay, Alor); and

• Coastal whale habitats e.g., mangrove areas in rivers for Irrawaddy dolphins and finless porpoises in East

Kalimantan, Southwest Papua and the Arafura Sea.

Several other large, charismatic marine species also form aggregations in Indonesia, which makes them vulnerable

to overexploitation by fishing and mass tourism. For example:

• Manta rays (Mobula alfredi) aggregate at feeding grounds where there is high zooplankton biomass due to

strong currents or high productivity associated with seasonal upwell ing, or at cleaning stations, such as in

Komodo or Raja Ampat (Dewar et al. 2008, Setyawan et al. 201 8).

• Whale sharks (Rhincodon typus) are consistently sighted in some locations, e.g., in Cendrawasih Bay and

Kaimana, where they are often associated with l ift net ‘bagan ’ fisheries targeting anchovy aggregations

(Mangubhai et al . 201 2).

• Giant sunfishes (Mola mola) visit cleaning stations, where they are cleaned by coral reef fishes, such as in

Nusa Lembongan, Bal i (Konow et al. 2006).

Critical areas for charismatic, endangered, threatened or protected species are crucial for their population maintenance, and

should be protected. Images, from top left clockwise: sperm whales in a migratory corridor in the Savu Sea (© Yusuf Fajariyanto);

leatherback sea turtle nesting at Jamursba Medi beach, West Papua (© Andreas Muljadi) ; Mola mola cleaning station at Nusa

Lembongan, Bal i (© Marthen Welly) ; and whale shark aggregation in Cenderawasih Bay (© Awaludinnoer).


IN INDONESIA

32

Areas where manta rays, whale sharks and Mola mola aggregate are popular destinations for tourism, where

visitors can dive or snorkel with these charismatic species. Thus, protecting their aggregation sites is important

both for maintaining the populations of these species and protecting an important economic asset1 6 (O’Malley et

al. 201 3) . Unfortunately, these species are at risk from mass tourism at some of these aggregation sites, where

there is the potential for boat and propel ler strikes and disruptions to their social behavior (O’Malley et al. 201 3,

Setyawan et al. 201 8).

Movement studies have also shown that while some charismatic, endangered, threatened or protected species

l ike manta rays may exhibit high site fidel ity to, and seasonal movements between, their aggregation sites

(Setyawan et al. 201 8), many are highly migratory and move hundreds to thousands of kilometers between

breeding and feeding areas both in Indonesia and other countries. For example, ol ive ridley sea turtles nesting in

West Papua feed in other provinces in Indonesia, such as Maluku (Figure 7); green sea turtles move between

important nesting and feeding areas in Indonesia, Malaysia, the Phil ippines and Austral ia (Figure 7); and

leatherback turtles nesting in West Papua move as far as the California coast (reviewed in Huffard et al. 201 2).

Many different approaches, therefore, are required to protect critical areas for charismatic, endangered,

threatened or protected species in Indonesia, as fol lows:

• Some critical habitats (e.g., mangroves or seagrass beds) should be protected in NTZs combined with

other management approaches to address al l of the threats to these habitats and species1 7 (see Integrating

MPAs within Broader Management Frameworks) .

____________________________1 6 For example, manta ray watching is estimated to provide over US$1 5 mil l ion in direct economic benefits to Indonesia per year.1 7 Such as habitat destruction and degradation from coastal development and land-based runoff of sediments and nutrients, andunsustainable fishing or hunting practices.

Figure 7. Olive ridley sea turtles nesting in West Papua (left) and green sea turtles nesting in East Kalimantan (right) travel to feeding

areas in other Indonesian provinces or countries in Southeast Asia.

33

• Some critical areas l ike migratory corridors may be protected using other types of zones or management

frameworks that address the main threats to migratory species in these areas, such as by managing fishing

gear type, vessel traffic or seismic testing.

• Aggregation areas for charismatic species should be protected in permanent or seasonal MPAs with strict

controls on visitor management1 8 (Dewar et al. 2008, Setyawan et al. 201 8, Rigby et al. 201 9).

A transboundary approach to management may also be required to protect species that move long distances

both within and outside Indonesia (Mangubhai et al . 201 2) (Figure 7).

Effective management remains a concern for managing these species in Indonesia. For example, manta rays are

protected national ly by MMAF Decree No. 4/201 4, and local ly in the Raja Ampat Shark and Ray Sanctuary and

Komodo National Park (Dewar et al. 2008, Setyawan et al. 201 8), but they are stil l harvested unsustainably in

some areas, with associated population decl ines (Dewar 2002, Dewar et al. 2008, O’Malley et al. 201 3) .

Nevertheless, there are some success stories. For example, in 201 2, Raja Ampat was declared Indonesia’s first

shark sanctuary (Mangubhai et al . 201 2). This appears to have been an ecological and socioeconomic success,

with the abundance of reef sharks now significantly higher in well-enforced, large NTZs (more than 400 km2 in

size) compared to areas open to fishing, primarily due to a partnership between the private sector and local

communities, where communities receive benefits in return for protecting the NTZs ( Jaiteh et al. 201 6).

Protect special and unique natural phenomena in NTZs.

Some areas have special and/or unique natural phenomena, which should be conserved to ensure that al l

examples of biodiversity and ecosystem processes are protected (McLeod et al. 2009, Green et al. 201 4a). In

Indonesia, these include areas with:

• Very high biodiversity, particularly in eastern Indonesia (i.e., Raja Ampat), which has some of the highest

diversity of corals and coral reef fishes in the world (Allen & Erdmann 201 2, Veron et al. 201 5) (Figure 2).

• High levels of endemism: Indonesia has the highest number of endemic reef fishes in the Coral Triangle

(1 59 species) , with most endemic species occurring in the Lesser Sunda Islands, West Papua and North

Sulawesi (Allen & Erdmann 201 2)1 9.

____________________________1 8 E.g., the Codes of Conduct for diving or snorkeling with Mola mola in Nusa Penida MPA and manta rays in Raja Ampat Islands MPA.1 9 Most are found from Bali to Komodo, Flores to Alor, and in Cenderawasih Bay, the Raja Ampat Islands, Triton Bay and FakfakPeninsula, Tomini Bay and the Banggai Islands.

Special and unique natural

phenomena are important to protect

to maintain biodiversity, e.g.,

(clockwise from top left) areas with

very high biodiversity, manta cleaning

stations, marine lakes, and endemic

walking sharks. Images from Raja

Ampat Islands MPA (©

Awaludinnoer, TNC).


IN INDONESIA

34

• Unique marine communities, i.e., marine lakes in Berau, East Kalimantan and Raja Ampat, West Papua

(Becking et al. 201 1 ) ;

• Habitats for charismatic, endangered, threatened or protected species (see above); or

• High productivity, e.g., persistent pelagic habitats – areas of upwell ing, fronts or eddies (Game et al. 2009)

– such as those in the Lesser Sunda Islands (Wilson et al. 201 1 ) .

These areas should be protected in NTZs or other zones that address key threats to their habitats and species,

e.g., by managing fishing gear or vessels in persistent pelagic habitats (Game et al. 2009).

Protect areas that are important at the national, international or global scale for conservation

or management offocal species.

Some areas are important to protect at the national, international or global scale in Indonesia because they

include:

• Areas with critical habitat important for maintaining populations of global ly endangered or threatened

species;

• Areas that are ecological ly and geographical ly important transnational ly; or

• Areas that have potential as world or regional natural heritage sites.

Indonesia has many critical areas that play important roles in maintaining populations of global ly endangered or

threatened species, l ike sea turtles and cetaceans (see Endangered, Threatened or Protected Species) . Some of these

areas are both national and international priorities for conservation to ensure the long-term survival of these

species. They include habitats l ike breeding areas, feeding areas and migratory corridors, which should be

protected in NTZs combined with other management approaches to address al l of the threats to these habitats

and species (see Protect critical areas or habitats for charismatic, endangered, threatened or protected species) .

Indonesia also shares populations of many other species with other countries, including fisheries species. For

example, Figure 8 shows how populations of a focal fisheries species in Indonesia appear to be connected to

Timor Leste, Malaysia and the Phil ippines through larval dispersal. Therefore, it wil l be important to protect

ecological ly important areas l ike spawning or nursery areas for maintaining these populations in each country.

Given their movement and larval dispersal patterns (see Incorporate Connectivity: Biotic Factors) , areas important

for maintaining transnational populations of coral reef and coastal pelagic species are l ikely to be geographical ly

located less than 1 0 km to tens, hundreds, or even thousands of kilometers from national boundaries, depending

on the species of interest.

This information can be used to design MPAs and MPA networks at the national scale in Indonesia, or

transboundary MPAs or MPA networks with adjacent countries such as Timor Leste, Malaysia or the Phil ippines.

For example, Beger et al. (201 5) , demonstrated how to use critical areas (grouper spawning aggregations and

important turtle habitats) , movement patterns of sea turtles, and larval dispersal of two coral reef species (a coral

trout and sea cucumber) across national boundaries to identify priority areas for MPAs in the Coral Triangle.

Areas that are, or have potential to be, world or regional natural heritage sites should also be protected in MPAs.

For example, most of Indonesia’s existing or tentative marine World Heritage Areas20 are already protected in

Komodo National Park, Bunaken National Park, Berau MPA (Derawan Islands) , Raja Ampat Islands MPA,

Wakatobi National Park and Taka Bonerate National Park. The exception is the Banda Islands, where only a few

islands are currently protected as MPAs, i.e., Banda Sea Marine Tourism Park and Ay-Rhun MPA. Indonesia also

has three coastal Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Sites)21 , which are already protected in the

Rambut Island Wildl ife Reserve, Sembilang National Park and Tanjung Puting National Park.

____________________________20 https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/id21 https://www.ramsar.org/

35

Incorporate Connectivity:Abiotic Factors

Connectivity refers to l inkages between geographical ly separate areas through the movement of organic and

inorganic matter, larvae, juveniles and adults, which may occur through passive dispersal in currents, or active

dispersal and migration ( Jessen et al. 201 1 ) . Each of these abiotic and biotic components of connectivity should

be considered when designing MPAs and MPA networks.

Consider variations in oceanography, substrate and bathymetry that affect the spread of

biological and non-biological material.

Abiotic factors, including oceanography22, substrate and bathymetry, affect the spread of biological and non-

biological material in the sea (Wendt et al. 201 8). These abiotic factors play important roles in determining the

distribution and abundance of species, and the structure of biological communities (Game et al. 2009, Wendt et

al. 201 8).

In offshore pelagic environments, large-scale environmental dynamics23 drive the distribution and abundance of

primary producers and consumers (plankton), as well as secondary consumers such as fishes, seabirds, turtles,

jel l yfish, tuna and cetaceans (reviewed in Wendt et al. 201 8). Some pelagic species (sharks and other fishes) are

also associated with coastal habitats (Allen & Erdmann 201 2).

Deepwater oceanic habitats can be characterized by geomorphological and oceanographic features24 (reviewed in

Wendt et al. 201 8). The physical , biological and ecological characteristics of the deep ocean vary dramatical ly

with depth, especial l y with respect to l ight, temperature and pressure, across at least five major layers or vertical

zones, and with latitude and longitude (Wendt et al. 201 8). The coupling between surface and deep waters also

seems to be important, so primary productivity at the surface can influence the habitat and species that occur in

much deeper oceanic layers (Wendt et al. 201 8).

Unpubl. data, modified from Beger, et al. 201 3

Figure 8. A larval dispersal model shows how coral trout (Plectropomus leopardus) populations are shared among Indonesia and other

countries in the Coral Triangle. The arrows show the direction of larval dispersal, and the numbers indicate the relative number of

larvae moving between the countries.

____________________________22 The physical and biological properties of the ocean, i.e., currents, tides, temperature, sal inity and acidity.23 Such as patterns of El Niño-Southern Oscil lation (ENSO) and variations in sea surface temperature, thermocline characteristics,primary productivity, photosynthetical ly available radiation (a measure of l ight) and nitrate concentrations.24 Such as seamounts, rises, shelf breaks, canyons, ridges and trenches (Harris et al. 201 4), currents, fronts, eddies and upwell ing.


IN INDONESIA36

Where there is l ittle or no biological information regarding the distribution and abundance of marine habitats and

species, unique combinations of these abiotic factors can be used as surrogates or proxies for marine biodiversity

in MPA network design (Game et al. 2009). One approach is to use abiotic and/or biotic factors to classify marine

environments into bioregions25, which can provide spatial l y explicit surrogates of biodiversity for marine

conservation and management (e.g., see Wendt et al. 201 8). These bioregions can then be used to apply the

principles of habitat representation and replication in MPA network design.

In deepwater environments more than 200m deep where there is l ittle or no biological information available,

abiotic factors have been used to classify marine bioregions for conservation planning. For example:

• Bathymetric and oceanographic features were used to identify ‘deep-sea yet nearshore habitats’ to design

an MPA network for the Lesser Sunda Ecoregion (Wilson et al. 201 1 ) .

• Geomorphology and depth classes (200m to more than 6,000m deep) were used to classify deepwater

benthic habitats for the National Marine Conservation Assessment for Papua New Guinea (Green et al.

201 4b).

• Environmental variables, including depth, sal inity, sea surface temperature, pH, chlorophyl l-a

concentrations, and distance from land, were used to classify deepwater bioregions to support marine

spatial planning in the Southwest Pacific (Wendt et al. 201 8).

In shal low-water habitats less than 200m deep, marine classification schemes are often based on specific

taxonomic groups occurring in the region, including coral reef fishes or scleractinian corals (e.g., see Kulbicki et al .

201 3, Veron et al. 201 5) . However, these habitats also vary with changing environmental parameters and coastal

morphology (Wendt et al. 201 8). Therefore, where there is l ittle or no biological information available, shal low-

water habitats have also been classified into bioregions using a mix of species distributions, environmental

parameters, models and expert opinion (e.g., see Beger & Possingham 2008, DeVantier et al. 2009, Kerrigan et al.

201 0, Wendt et al. 201 8). Such bioregions have been used to apply the principles of habitat representation and

replication in MPA network design in, for instance, Austral ia and Papua New Guinea (Fernandes et al. 2005,

Green et al. 2009).

____________________________25 Areas with relatively similar assemblages of biological and physical characteristics (Spalding et al. 2007).

From Gordon 2005

August(fromWyrtki 1 961 )

February(fromWyrtki 1 961 )

Figure 9. Major ocean currents in Indonesia include the Indonesia

Throughflow and the Halmahera and Mindanao Eddies (above). Surface

currents in eastern Indonesia reverse direction twice a year (right) .

37

Abiotic factors vary extensively throughout Indonesia (ADB 201 4), and a brief overview of broad-scale patterns

of bathymetry and oceanography is provided in Appendix 2 . This information may be useful for designing large-

scale networks of MPAs at the national, regional or provincial scale. However, local variations in these broad-scale

patterns should be considered when designing MPAs at finer spatial scales. An example of how a habitat

classification for coral reefs was developed and used to design an MPA in Indonesia is provided in Appendix 1 .

Ocean currents (Figure 9) can also play an important role in influencing larval dispersal patterns, and should be

considered when determining the location, size and spacing of NTZs (see Figure 9, Consider Larval Dispersal) .

Incorporate Connectivity: Biotic Factors

The demographic l inking of local populations through the dispersal of individuals as adults, juveniles or larvae is a

key ecological factor to consider in designing networks of NTZs, because it has important implications for the

persistence of metapopulations and their recovery from disturbance (reviewed in Green et al. 201 5) .

Most benthic marine species have a bipartite l ife cycle where the larvae are pelagic before settl ing out of the

plankton and spending the rest of their l ives more closely associated with the seabed (Green et al. 201 5) . For

example, adult coral trout (Plectropomus leopardus) l ive on coral reefs (Figure 1 0). When they reproduce,

hundreds of thousands to mil l ions of eggs are released into the water column (Goeden 1 978), where they are

fertil ized and become larvae. The larvae spend about 26 days in the plankton (Wil l iamson et al. 201 6), before

settl ing onto a reef where they wil l general ly stay for the rest of their l ives. However, the vast majority of larvae

die during their planktonic larvae stage, many eaten by other animals.

Species vary greatly in how far they move during each l ife history stage, although larvae of most coral reef species

tend to move longer distances (tens to hundreds of kilometers) than adults and juveniles, which tend to be more

sedentary (reviewed in Green et al. 201 5) . Exceptions include species where adults and juveniles exhibit large-

Modified from G.Almany,ARC CoralCOE

Figure 1 0. Most coral reef fishes (such as the coral trout P. leopardus) have two life history phases. Adults and juveniles are benthic and

l ive on coral reefs, while larvae are pelagic and l ive in the plankton.


IN INDONESIA38

scale ontogenetic habitat shifts26 or spawning migrations of tens to thousands of kilometers, and pelagic species

that tend to move hundreds to thousands of kilometers.

When adults and juveniles leave an NTZ, they become vulnerable to fishing pressure. In contrast, larvae leaving

an NTZ can general ly disperse without elevated risk because of their small size and l imited exposure to the

fishery (Gaines et al. 201 0). For NTZs to protect biodiversity and enhance populations of species in heavily fished

areas, they must be able to sustain adults and juveniles of focal species (particularly fisheries species) within their

boundaries, and be spaced so they can function as mutual ly replenishing networks while providing recruitment

subsidies to fished areas (Green et al. 201 5) .

Therefore, movement patterns of focal species at each stage of their l ife history is an important factor to

consider when designing networks of NTZs. Where movement patterns of focal species are known, this

information can be used to define size, shape and location of NTZs to maximize benefits to both fisheries and

conservation (see reviews in Green et al. 201 4a, 201 5), as described below.

Consider Movement ofAdults and Juveniles

Ensure NTZs are large enough to sustain adults and juveniles offocal fisheries species within

their boundaries.

For NTZs to protect biodiversity and contribute to fisheries enhancement outside their boundaries, they must be

large enough to sustain fisheries species within their boundaries during their adult and juvenile l ife history phases

(reviewed in Green et al. 201 4a, 201 5) . This al lows for the maintenance of spawning stock, by al lowing individuals

in NTZs to grow to maturity, increase in biomass and reproductive potential , and contribute more to stock

recruitment and regeneration (Green et al. 201 4a, 201 5) (Figure 1 1 ) .

The size of NTZs should therefore be determined by the rate of export of adults and juveniles (‘spil lover') to

fished areas (reviewed in Green et al. 201 4a, 201 5) . While spil lover directly benefits adjacent fisheries, if the NTZ

is too small , excess spil lover may reduce the density of the protected biomass within the reserve. Where

movement patterns of focal species are known, they can be used to identify the minimum recommended sizes of

NTZs.

Since different species move different distances, different sizes of NTZs wil l be needed depending on the focal

species for protection (Green et al. 201 4a). Green et al. (201 5) recommend that NTZs should be more than

twice the size of the home range of focal species for protection (Figure 1 2), and that these minimum size

recommendations be applied to the specific habitats that the focal species use in al l directions rather than the

overal l size of the NTZ, which may include other habitats. For example, for coral reef species, minimum size

recommendations apply to the specific coral reef habitats that they use (e.g., for their home ranges) , rather than

other habitat types (e.g., seagrass beds) .

To facil itate using this approach, Green et al. (201 5) provide a summary of empirical measurements of movement

patterns of coral reef and coastal pelagic fish species, including 29 famil ies and 1 43 species that occur in Indonesia,

which field practitioners can use to determine the size of NTZs based on the movement patterns of their focal

species (Figure 1 2).

Some species, including some groupers and surgeonfishes, move less than 1 00m to at most 500m, and thus can

be protected in small NTZs less than 0.5 to 1 km across. Some move less than 1 km to 5 km and can be

protected within NTZs 2-1 0 km across; these include most parrotfishes, goatfishes and surgeonfishes. Others –

the bumphead parrotfish and Napoleon wrasse, for example – may move up to 1 0 km a day, and thus require

large NTZs 20 km across. Stil l others move tens to hundreds of kilometers and require much larger NTZs tens to

hundreds of kilometers across, such as some groupers, emperors, snappers, jacks and sharks (e.g., see Rigby et al.

201 9).

____________________________26 Where juveniles use different habitats than adults.

39

Figure 1 1 . Larger individuals are more important for long-term health of populations than smaller ones, because they

produce a lot more offspring.


IN INDONESIA

40

Since some pelagic species (e.g., tuna and oceanic sharks) can move over thousands of kilometers, NTZs are

l ikely to have l imited util ity for these species unless they are thousands of kilometers across (Green et al. 201 5) .

Species that move over larger distances than the size of an NTZ wil l only be afforded partial protection, although

NTZs can provide benefits for these species if they protect locations where individuals aggregate and become

vulnerable to fishing mortal ity, e.g., spawning aggregations (see Protect Critical, Special and Unique Areas) . Thus,

NTZs wil l need to be integrated with other fisheries management tools to manage wide-ranging species that

cannot be ful ly protected within their boundaries (Green et al. 201 4a, 201 5, Rigby et al. 201 9).

Ideal ly, this approach to using the movement of focal species to determine the size of NTZs should be combined

with knowledge of key factors that influence their movement patterns27, and information on how individuals are

distributed, to determine what NTZs of different sizes are l ikely to be effective (Green et al. 201 5) . For example,

Krueck et al. (201 8) developed a simple model using home ranges, densities and schooling behavior of 66 coral

reef fishes (44 of which occur in Indonesia28) to quantify the effectiveness of NTZs of different sizes. They

predicted that NTZs 1 -2 km wide should partial l y protect29 56% of these species, while NTZs 2-1 0 km wide

should partial l y protect most species, including fisheries species. However, ful l protection of most species may

require NTZs 1 00 km wide.

Krueck et al (201 8) found that the size of NTZs required to protect fish species could be predicted using their

home range sizes and densities, or maximum lengths. They have provided an online tool that managers can use to

optimize the size of NTZs to support fisheries and conservation in Indonesia, even if no data on the movement

and density of resident species is available. This tool can be accessed at http://ccres.net/resources/ccres-

tool/mpa-size-optimization-tool.

Movement patterns of adults and juveniles can also be used to determine the size of NTZs required to protect

commercial l y important invertebrates (Figure 1 2). For example, the fol lowing invertebrates can be protected in

small NTZs less than 1 km across, provided the NTZs include the relevant habitats:

• Giant clams, which attach to the substratum and do not move.

• Sea cucumbers, including some that are sedentary to almost immobile and others that, although more

mobile, move less than 5m to hundreds of meters over several years (e.g., see Conand 1 991 , Purcel l &

Kirby 2006, Purcel l et al . 201 6).

• Trochus, which do not appear to move very far on a daily basis (less than 1 m up to 24m per day), but

move from shal low to deeper reef habitats as they grow (reviewed in Capinpin 201 8) (Figure 6).

In contrast, while spiny lobsters often have small home ranges – e.g., less than 500m wide for Panulirus versicolor

(Frisch 2007) – some like P. ornatus undertake long-distance breeding migrations of hundreds of kilometers

(reviewed in Dennis et al. 2004). Therefore, while small NTZs less than 1 km across may protect the home

ranges of these species, it may not be possible to establ ish NTZs large enough to encompass al l of these species’

movement patterns, and they may need to be protected by NTZs combined with other management tools, such

as seasonal closures during spawning times.

Ensure NTZs are large enough to contain all habitats used by focal species throughout their

life history; or establish networks ofNTZs close enough to allow for movements offocal

species among protected habitats.

Some species use different habitats at different times throughout their l ives, such as for home ranges, nursery and

spawning areas (Green et al. 201 5) (Figure 6). The location of NTZs should therefore be informed by the

distribution of key habitats used by focal species, and the movement patterns of adults and juveniles among such

____________________________27 Such as fish size, sex, behavior and density, habitat characteristics, season, tide and time of day.28 Including 36 fisheries species (8 surgeon and unicornfishes, 3 jacks, 3 sharks, 2 wrasses, 1 emperor, 2 snappers, 3 goatfishes, 6parrotfishes, 5 groupers, 2 rabbitfishes and a barracuda).29 Where 50-95% of individuals are protected.

41

Figu

re12.Differe

ntsp

ecieshav

ehomerange

sofdiffere

ntsize

s.

SomeSp

eciesNeedBiggerAreas

Than

Others

asAdults

toEat,Livean

dRepro

duce


IN INDONESIA42

habitats (e.g., by ontogenetic habitat shifts or spawning migrations) to include al l of the habitats required by these

species to complete their l ife cycles.

For example, some coral reef fish species (e.g., bumphead parrotfish and mangrove red snapper) undergo

ontogenetic shifts where they use different habitats (e.g., mangroves and seagrasses) as nursery grounds before

moving to their adult habitat on corals reefs (reviewed in Green et al. 201 5) . Trochus do so as well , moving from

nursery areas on intertidal reef flats to deeper water habitats l ike reef crests, pools or terraces as they grow

(reviewed in Capinpin 201 8). (Figure 6)

To provide adequate protection for species that undergo these ontogenetic habitat shifts, each habitat used by

juveniles and adults should be protected within the same NTZs. I f this is not possible, e.g., for species that

undergo long distance ontogenetic movements that cannot be accommodated within individual NTZs, the

different habitats that focal species use at different times can be protected in different NTZs, provided that they

are spaced to al low for movements of focal species among protected habitats (Green et al. 201 5) .

For species that undertake long-distance spawning migrations, including some economical ly important grouper

and snapper species in Indonesia, it is important to protect their spawning aggregation sites, migratory corridors

and staging areas (see Protect Critical, Special and Unique Areas) , in addition to protecting the home range of a

sufficiently large proportion of their population by protecting at least 20% of their habitat (see Represent Habitats)

(reviewed in Green et al. 201 5) . I f the temporal and spatial locations of these areas are known, they should be

protected in permanent or seasonal NTZs (Green et al. 201 5) . I f the locations are not known, or if the focal

species’ scale of movement is too large to include in individual NTZs (e.g., for spawning migrations of tens or

hundreds of kilometers) , other management actions wil l be required, including seasonal closures during spawning

times (see review in Green et al. 201 5) .

Include whole ecological units in NTZs. Ifnot, choose larger rather than smaller areas.

Where possible, whole ecological units l ike coral reefs or seamounts should be included in NTZs (Figure 1 3) . This

helps maintain the integrity of NTZs, because many species are l ikely to stay within their preferred habitat type

(Green et al. 201 4a, 201 7). Where whole ecological units cannot be included, larger rather than smaller NTZs

should be used to accommodate the movement patterns of more species (Green et al. 201 5) (Figure 1 2).

Use compact shapes for NTZs, except when protecting naturally elongated habitats.

In places where NTZ boundaries are heavily fished, compact shapes l ike squares should be used for NTZs

because they minimize edge effects by l imiting the spil lover of adults and juveniles more than other shapes, l ike

long thin rectangles (reviewed in McLeod et al. 2009, Green et al. 201 4a, 201 7). This helps maintain the ecological

integrity of NTZs, and therefore the sustainabil ity of their contribution to fisheries production, biodiversity

protection and ecosystem resil ience. An exception may be when protecting natural ly elongated habitats such as

long narrow reefs, where elongated shapes may be more appropriate (Green et al. 201 7, Munguia-Vega et al.

201 8). (Figure 1 3)

Consider Larval Dispersal

Most benthic marine species have a planktonic larval phase (Figure 1 0). Depending on the environment and l ife-

history characteristics of the species, this larval phase can last from minutes to months, with larvae moving from

less than a meter to thousands of kilometers (Treml et al. 201 2).

Larval dispersal is an important component of population connectivity that helps maintain fish stocks and

facil itates recovery of ecosystems and species after disturbance (Green et al. 201 5, Krueck et al. 201 7b). I t is an

important factor to consider when designing networks of NTZs. However, there are several factors that should

determine when and how to take larval connectivity into account, including how populations persist, fishing

pressure and management effectiveness, and the larval dispersal patterns of focal species.

For populations to persist through time, the number of larvae reaching them must result in recruitment that

equals or exceeds mortal ity (reviewed in Green et al. 201 4a, 201 5) . This is known as sustaining dispersal, which

takes place over an ecological timescale. Lower levels of dispersal may play an important role in maintaining

43

Figure 1 3. Where possible, whole ecological units (e.g., reefs) should be included in NTZs (top), and the

NTZs should be compact shapes (e.g., squares) (middle) , except when protecting natural ly elongated

habitats (e.g., fringing reefs) (bottom). All images are of NTZs in Misool MPA, Raja Ampat Islands.


IN INDONESIA

44

genetic (evolutionary) connectivity or helping populations recover after disturbances (seeding dispersal) , but they

are not sufficient to sustain populations over time. Therefore, when designing networks of NTZs, it is important

to consider larval dispersal patterns that occur on an ecological timescale.

Population persistence of focal species in NTZs depends on recruitment to local populations from larval

production either within or outside NTZs (reviewed in Green et al. 201 5, 201 7, Munguia-Vega et al. 201 8).

Where fishing pressure is low or the fishery is well managed (at or below Maximum Sustainable Yield) , larval input

from fished areas can be important in ensuring the persistence of focal species, so it may be less important to

take larval dispersal patterns into account in MPA Network design.

However, in areas where fishing pressure is high and other fisheries management tools are ineffective, most of the

larvae are l ikely to come from within well-designed and managed NTZs, so it wil l be important to consider larval

dispersal patterns when designing networks of NTZs. In this situation, population persistence of focal species in

NTZs wil l depend upon recruitment to local populations in one of two ways (reviewed in Green et al. 201 5,

201 7, Munguia-Vega et al. 201 8):

• Self-persistence, where populations in individual NTZs are self-sustaining through larval retention (where

over 1 0-20% of larvae return to their natal source). This is more likely where NTZs are larger than the

mean larval dispersal distance of focal species. However, even small NTZs can provide recruitment

benefits both within and close to their boundaries where self-recruitment30 is common.

• Network persistence, where populations of focal species are sustained within a mutual ly replenishing

network of NTZs that covers at least 20% of their habitat (see Represent Habitats) . In this situation, each

NTZ contributes to the growth rate of the metapopulation, and larval connectivity among NTZs al lows

the population distributed across the entire network to be sustained even if individual NTZs are too small

to be self-sustaining.

In Indonesia, the biophysical goals for MPAs and MPA Networks include enhancing coastal fisheries and protecting

biodiversity (see Introduction) . Therefore, where fishing pressure is high and other fisheries management tools are

not effective, networks of NTZs should be designed to (reviewed in Green et al. 201 7):

• Ensure enough larvae remain in the network so populations of focal species persist; and

• Maximize the movement of larvae to fishing grounds to benefit coastal fisheries.

However, the configuration of a network of NTZs that maximizes the benefits for one of these objectives may

not be the best design to maximize the other. So, both objectives should be considered in the design process

(e.g., see Krueck et al. 201 7b).

Patterns of both population persistence and larval export from NTZs wil l depend on the connectivity patterns of

focal species in the region of interest (Green et al. 201 7). Where possible, comprehensive and detailed spatial

models of population persistence31 of focal species should be used to determine the optimal configuration for

networks of NTZs that wil l produce both conservation and fisheries benefits (e.g., see Green et al. 201 7).

Unfortunately, coral reef managers seldom have access to this type of information in Indonesia, although some

studies do provide a broad-scale understanding of geographic patterns of larval connectivity in the Indo-Pacific

region based on biophysical models, historical processes and population genetics (reviewed in Treml. 201 2). For

example, some coral reef studies identify dominant dispersal corridors along major ocean currents in Indonesia

(e.g., the Indonesia Throughflow, Figure 9), and potential dispersal corridors between Indonesia, Austral ia, Timor

Leste and other countries in Southeast Asia (Figure 8). They also identify potential dispersal barriers between

reefs in Papua (Indonesia) and Papua New Guinea, possibly due to the Halmahera and/or Mindanao Eddies

(Figure 9).

____________________________30 Where recruits are the offspring of parents in the same population.31 That take al l relevant factors into account including larval dispersal and fishing pressure.

45

One broad-scale biophysical model of larval dispersal of coral reef species (Treml et al. 201 2) has been adapted

and used to inform MPA network design for both conservation and fisheries management at regional or

ecoregional scales in the Coral Triangle and Indonesia. Beger et al. (201 5) demonstrated how to use larval

dispersal of a coral trout (Figure 8) and a sea cucumber to identify priority areas for establ ishing MPAs across the

six countries of the Coral Triangle. Krueck et al. (201 7b) used the same coral trout model to demonstrate the

importance of taking larval dispersal into account when designing a network of MPAs for the Sunda-Banda

Seascape in Indonesia, and they showed that MPA networks are l ikely to be more effective at preventing

metapopulation col lapse and ensuring fisheries recovery if they are located in areas that are self-replenishing,

interconnected, and/or protect important larval sources.

However, the spatial and temporal resolution (and accuracy) of these biophysical models needs to be improved

to provide finer-scale estimates of larval connectivity (Treml et al. 201 2) before they can be used to inform the

design of networks of NTZs at smaller (i.e., provincial or local) spatial scales. For this reason, it wil l be important

to consider other information regarding larval sources and dispersal patterns of focal species to design networks

of NTZs in Indonesia.

To date, there have been no empirical measurements of larval dispersal of focal species in Indonesia, but there

have been studies of several coral reef fish species that occur in the country (e.g., see Figure 1 4). These studies

show that larval dispersal patterns vary with many factors, including planktonic larval duration, larval behavior, and

the direction and strength of ocean currents (reviewed in Green et al. 201 5) . Many of these studies also show

how the magnitude of dispersal (i.e., the quantity of larvae reaching a particular site) decl ines with distance from

the source population. As the distance between NTZs increases, the quantity of larvae they exchange (larval

connectivity) decreases, resulting in reduced levels of connectivity between widely separated populations.

Empirical studies conducted to date show that larval dispersal distances of coral reef fishes vary widely among

and within species (reviewed in Green et al. 201 5) . Some larvae move long distances of tens to hundreds of

kilometers, while many stay close to home, moving only tens to hundreds of meters. For species that occur in

Indonesia, mean larval dispersal distances range from about 5 km to 1 9 km for anemonefishes, about 7 km for a

snapper, about 36 km for a butterflyfish, and from under 9 km to about 1 90 km for three grouper species (Figure

1 4).

At the same time, self-recruitment is common, even to small areas of habitat with diameters of 0.5–0.9 km, and

can occur consistently through time, although the magnitude may vary (reviewed in Green et al. 201 5) . Self-

recruitment of the above species ranges from 2-65% for anemonefishes, 1 4-1 6% for a snapper, 5-72% for a

butterflyfish and from 0-82% km for three grouper species (Figure 1 4).

This information can be used to inform MPA Network design in Indonesia as described below.

Establish: NTZs large enough to be self-sustaining for focal species, or networks ofNTZs

close enough to be connected by larval dispersal.

To ensure the persistence of populations of focal species in NTZs and contribute to replenishing populations in

heavily fished areas (see above), a variety of sizes and spacing distances may be required for NTZs to

accommodate larval dispersal distances of a variety of species (see reviews in Green et al. 201 5, Munguia-Vega et

al. 201 8). NTZs should be either:

• Large enough (i.e., larger than the mean larval dispersal distance of focal species) for their populations to

be self-persistent. Based on the empirical data col lected so far (e.g., see Figure 1 4), NTZs may need to

range from under 1 0 km to hundreds of kilometers in size for populations of coral reef species to self-

persist, depending on the focal species for protection; or

• Close enough (based on the mean larval dispersal distance of focal species) to al low for strong larval

connections among NTZs to facil itate network persistence. Using this approach, NTZs may need to be

spaced from about 5 km to tens or hundreds of kilometers apart, depending on the focal species for

protection (Figure 1 4).


IN INDONESIA

46

Another important consideration regarding recommendations for spacing between NTZs is the relationship

between the size of NTZs and the magnitude of larval export (reviewed in Green et al. 201 5) . Large NTZs

produce more larvae than small NTZs because they protect larger populations and more breeding adults. The

number of larvae reaching a site at a given distance decl ines with the size of the source population, so the smaller

the NTZs are, the closer they should be.

Protect spatially isolated areas in NTZs.

Another consideration is that spatial l y isolated areas l ike remote atol ls are largely self-replenishing and may have

high conservation value where they harbor endemic species and/or unique assemblages or populations (reviewed

in Green et al. 201 5) . Low connectivity with other areas makes the assemblages, species and populations in these

areas less resil ient to disturbance, so protecting a large fraction of their area in NTZs may be necessary to ensure

population persistence.

Populations or locations separated from their nearest neighbor by more than twice the standard deviation of

larval dispersal may be largely rel iant on self-recruitment for replenishment (reviewed in Green et al. 201 5) . In this

context and given the larval dispersal distances measured for coral reef fishes to date (Figure 1 4), a population or

area tens or hundreds of kilometers from its nearest neighbor should be considered isolated and afforded greater

protection, depending on the focal species for protection.

Protect larval sources in permanent or seasonal NTZs or by using fisheries closures during

spawning times.

Another consideration when placing NTZs is maximizing their potential to provide a source of larvae to other

NTZs and fished areas (reviewed in Green et al. 201 5) . A common recommendation is to protect larval 'source'

populations, which can consistently provide larvae to other populations. In practice, identifying source populations

is difficult and typical ly rel ies on fine-scale oceanographic modeling. Furthermore, larval dispersal studies indicate

that the del ivery of larvae from one site to another is l ikely to vary over time, such that a location might act as a

source in one year, but not another.

Consequently, NTZs should be located based on other considerations, i.e., to protect key habitats and fish

movements among these (see Consider Movement of Adults and Juveniles: Green et al. 201 5) . However, where

consistent and important larval sources for focal species are known (e.g., fish spawning aggregations) , they should

be protected in permanent or seasonal NTZs, or by fisheries closures during spawning times (see Protect Critical,

Special and Unique Areas) .

Locate more NTZs upstream relative to fished areas if there is a strong, consistent,

unidirectional current.

Ocean currents are l ikely to influence larval dispersal patterns to some degree (Green et al. 201 5) . In the absence

of detailed larval dispersal studies for focal species, more NTZs should be located upstream relative to fished

areas if there is a strong, consistent, unidirectional current (McLeod et al. 2009, Green et al. 201 4a, 201 5) .

However, it is important to note that, in some areas in Indonesia, ocean currents change direction in different

seasons (Wyrtki, 1 961 ) (Figure 9). I f focal species spawn in different seasons, their larvae may move in different

directions (e.g., see Munguia-Vega et al. 201 8). For example, prel iminary information indicates that peak spawning

seasons for some large, vulnerable fisheries species in Indonesia may be from October to November and May to

June (see Protect Critical, Special and Unique Areas) . Therefore, more NTZs should be located upstream of the

direction of the predominant current flow during the spawning season of the focal species (Munguia-Vega et al.

201 8).

47

Figu

re14.Differentco

ralreeffish

specieshav

edifferentlarval

dispersal

distance

s.

Dataso

urces:

review

byGreenetal.(2015),modifiedwithnew

inform

ationfrom

Williamso

netal.(2016),Abesamisetal.(2017)an

dPinskyetal.(2017)].


IN INDONESIA

48

AllowTime for Recovery

Establish NTZs for the long term (more than 20 up to 40 years) , preferably permanently.

Use short-term (less than 5 years) or periodically harvested NTZs in addition to, rather than

instead of, long-term or permanent NTZs.

Focal species differ in their vulnerabil ity to fishing pressure and in their recovery rates in NTZs (reviewed in

Abesamis et al. 201 4). Many l ife history characteristics affect the recovery times of populations of focal species in

NTZs, including maximum body size, individual growth rate, longevity, age or length at maturity, rate of natural

mortal ity, and trophic level. Populations of larger-bodied carnivorous fishes (e.g., groupers, snappers, emperors

and jacks) are more susceptible to overfishing and tend to take longer to recover than smaller-bodied species

lower in the food web (i.e., planktivores and herbivores) . The rate of population recovery also depends on other

factors, including species composition, demographic and habitat characteristics, interspecific interactions, the size

of the NTZ, fishing intensity and the size of the remaining population.

Recovery can be achieved in several ways depending on management objectives (reviewed in Munguia-Vega et al.

201 8). For example, recovery of fish populations for biodiversity protection may be achieved when fish

populations have reached their ful l carrying capacity (K), or when populations have recovered to 90% of their

unfished reef fish biomass. Alternatively, recovery of fish populations for fisheries management could mean that

they have reached a level where they can sustain fishing pressure32. Another approach is to assess recovery in

terms of when populations have recuperated enough to maintain their functional role in the ecosystem.

How long do NTZs need to be in place to al low for the recovery of populations of focal fisheries species in

Indonesia? Several empirical studies of focal fisheries species elsewhere in the region have shown that fish species

in lower trophic groups that have smaller maximum sizes, faster growth rates, shorter l ifespans, and faster

maturation rates are l ikely to recover more quickly than species in higher trophic groups that have larger

maximum sizes, slower growth rates, longer l ifespans, and slower maturation rates (see review in Abesamis et al.

201 4) (Figure 1 5) .

For example, in heavily fished areas in the Phil ippines, populations of planktivorous fishes l ike fusil iers and some

herbivores l ike parrotfishes recovered in less than 5-1 0 years when protected from overfishing in NTZs, while

populations of predators (e.g., groupers) took much longer to recover (20-40 years) . Faster recovery rates of

reef fishes have been recorded in NTZs where fishing pressure is lower (e.g., Great Barrier Reef and Papua New

Guinea), and longer recovery rates have been recorded in heavily fished areas (e.g., Kenya). Several studies have

also provided insights into recovery rates of commercial ly important macroinvertebrates in the Indo-Pacific

region. For example, trochus populations appear to take 1 0 years or more to recover when protected in NTZs

or to reach commercial l y viable levels when introduced to new areas (reviewed in Capinpin 201 8).

Therefore, NTZs should be establ ished for the long term (more than 20 up to 40 years) , preferably permanently

(see reviews in Abesamis et al. 201 4, Green et al. 201 4a). This wil l al low the ful l range of species and habitats to

recover, and maintain, ecosystem health and associated fishery benefits. While benefits can be real ized for some

species in the short term (less than 5 years) especial l y in areas with low fishing pressure, long-term protection

al lows al l species the opportunity to grow to maturity, increase in biomass and contribute more, and more

robust, eggs and larvae for population replenishment. Long-term protection wil l be particularly important to al low

longer-l ived species l ike sharks and other large predators the opportunity to grow to maturity, increase in

biomass and contribute more to stock recruitment and regeneration. Permanent protection and strict

enforcement of NTZs wil l also avoid considerable delays in recovery times and ensure that the benefits for

fisheries productivity and biodiversity protection are maintained in the long term.

____________________________32 For example, where ~35% of unfished stock levels of reproductive biomass is protected to ensure adequate replacement of stocksfor a range of species.

49

In some areas in Indonesia, short-term or periodical ly harvested NTZs are a common form of traditional marine

resource management. These NTZs can help address particular fisheries management needs where stocks need

to be protected or restored. For example, the sasi system in the Moluccas and West Papua often involves

temporal closures of specific areas or fisheries resources (e.g., sea cucumbers or trochus) for periods ranging

from 6 months to 5 years (Mangubhai et al . 201 2).

While these short-term or periodic NTZs may provide some benefits in terms of increased biomass of fisheries

species and improved ecosystem health, the benefits can be quickly lost when the NTZs revert to open access,

unless the fisheries are managed careful ly to ensure that the amount harvested is less than the amount built up

during protection ( Jupiter et al. 201 2). Therefore, short-term or periodic NTZs are usual ly less useful for

conserving biodiversity or building resil ience where the aim is to build and maintain healthy, natural communities

and sustain ecosystem services ( Jupiter et al. 201 2). I f shorter-term NTZs are establ ished, they should be used in

addition to, rather than instead of, permanent NTZs. They may include seasonal closures to protect critical areas

at critical times, e.g., fish spawning aggregation sites or nursery areas (see Protect Critical, Special and Unique

Areas) , or temporary closures to restore habitats or populations of focal fisheries species (see Appendix 3) .

Areas with other fisheries restrictions (e.g., l imitations on gear, catch or access) wil l also be more effective if they

are in place over the long term, and seasonal and shorter-term closures wil l del iver more sustained benefits if

they are implemented every year.

Figure 1 5. Some species are more vulnerable to fishing pressure and take longer to recover when protected in NTZs.


IN INDONESIA

50

Protect HealthyAreas and Avoid Local Threats

Protect areas where habitats and populations offocal species are in good condition with low

levels of threat.

Avoid areas where habitats and populations offocal species are in poor condition due to

local threats. If this is not possible, reduce threats, facilitate natural recovery, and consider the

costs and benefits of rehabilitating habitats and species.

Tropical marine ecosystems have been seriously degraded by local anthropogenic (human) threats in many

locations in Indonesia, particularly by unsustainable marine resource use (e.g., overfishing, tourism), destructive

activities (e.g., destructive fishing) , coastal development, land-based runoff, and pollution (see Status and Threats) .

These threats decrease ecosystem health and productivity, adversely affecting many species and severely

undermining the long-term sustainabil ity of marine resources and the ecosystem services they provide (Cesar

1 996, Cesar et al. 2003). They can also decrease ecosystem resil ience to other stressors l ike cl imate change

(Roberts et al. 201 7), and reduce the ecological benefits of NTZs (Gil l et al . 201 7). Therefore, it is important to

minimize or avoid these threats in NTZs and prioritize areas for protection that are more likely to contribute to

ecosystem health, fisheries productivity and resil ience to cl imate change (Green et al. 201 4a).

Local threats that originate within their boundaries, such as overfishing, destructive fishing and unsustainable

tourism, can be managed within MPAs, although effective management remains one of the greatest chal lenges

facing marine conservation and management in Indonesia and elsewhere in the Coral Triangle (White et al. 201 4).

Other threats that originate from beyond their boundaries (e.g., land-based runoff of sediments and nutrients

from poor land use practices associated with deforestation, agriculture, mining, and urban and coastal

development) must be addressed by integrating MPAs within broader coastal management frameworks (see

Integrating MPAs within Broader Management Frameworks) .

To optimize protection of areas l ikely to contribute more to biodiversity conservation, fisheries management and

cl imate change adaptation in Indonesia (Green et al. 201 4a), observe the fol lowing guidel ines where possible:

• Place NTZs in areas that have not been, or are less l ikely to be, impacted by local threats, where habitats

and populations of focal species are in good condition (Figure 1 6). This may include areas where local

threats can be managed effectively, and areas within or adjacent to other effectively managed marine or

terrestrial areas.

• Avoid placing NTZs where ecosystems have been, or are l ikely to be, degraded by local threats that cannot

be managed effectively, such as in areas where there is high human population density, coastal

development, land-based run-off, pol lution, and shipping, mining, oil and gas industries (Figure 1 6).

Critical , special or unique areas facing high levels of threat, e.g., in estuaries with unnatural ly high levels of

sediments and nutrients from poor land use practices, may stil l need to be protected in NTZs, where the aim

should be to:

• Reduce the threats as much as possible;

• Facil itate natural recovery, such as by protecting larval sources (see Consider Larval Dispersal) and species

l ike herbivores that play important functional roles in ecosystem resil ience (see Adapt to Changes in Climate

and Ocean Chemistry) ; and

• Consider the costs and benefits of rehabil itating habitats and species (see Appendix 3) .

51

Figure 1 6. Healthy marine ecosystems provide abundant resources for people (top). Unhealthy ecosystems, damaged by local threats,

are unable to provide as many resources for people (bottom).


IN INDONESIA

52

Adapt to Changes in Climate and Ocean Chemistry

Changes in cl imate and ocean chemistry represent a serious and increasing threat to marine ecosystems in

Indonesia (reviewed in Hoegh-Guldberg et al. 2009, ADB 201 4, Roberts et al. 201 7). These include changes in:

• Sea surface temperatures causing mass coral bleaching;

• Sea levels increasing the frequency of erosion and inundation of coastal habitats l ike mangroves and turtle

nesting areas, some of which may disappear as sea levels rise;

• Ocean chemistry due to increased carbon dioxide levels (ocean acidification) that may inhibit the

formation of skeletons of calcifying organisms (corals, mollusks, echinoderms, crustaceans, etc.) ;

• Tropical storm and rainfal l patterns that may lead to longer and more intense floods and droughts;

• Oceanography that may lead to decreased oxygen availabil ity and productivity, including decl ines in

fisheries productivity; and

• Species distribution, which may lead to a decl ine in species diversity.

These changes wil l also increase the vulnerabil ity of coastal communities because of the loss of coastal land,

inundation of freshwater supplies, and reductions in coastal protection, food resources and l ivel ihoods

(reviewed in Hoegh-Guldberg et al. 2009). In addition, stresses arising from changes in cl imate and ocean

chemistry wil l amplify the impacts of local stresses, leading to an accelerated deterioration of coastal

ecosystems (Hoegh-Guldberg et al. 2009). For example, coral reefs have already experienced at least two mass

coral bleaching and mortal ity events in Indonesia33, and these events are predicted to increase in frequency and

severity in the future. Consequently, Burke et al. (201 2) reported that the influence of thermal stress and coral

bleaching increases the area of coral reefs at high or very high threat in Indonesia from nearly 35% (from local

threats alone) to more than 45% (see Status and Threats, Habitats) .

Cl imate change must be mitigated through direct action to reduce carbon emissions to ensure the persistence

of coral reefs and the ecosystem services they provide (Hoegh-Guldberg et al. 2009, Roberts et al. 201 7, Bruno

et al. 201 9). I t is also important to protect coastal wetlands (e.g., mangroves and seagrass beds) that play critical

roles in carbon sequestration and storage (Roberts et al. 201 7).

NTZs cannot halt, change or stop many of the threats associated with cl imate change (Roberts et al. 201 7).

However, they can be powerful tools to help ameliorate some of the problems resulting from climate change,

slow the development of others, and improve the outlook for continued ecosystem function and the del ivery of

ecosystem services (Roberts et al. 201 7). For example, managers can improve the outlook for their areas by

using the criteria described above to design networks of NTZs (Table 1 ) embedded within broader

management frameworks (see Integrating MPAs within Broader Management Frameworks) to build ecosystem

resil ience to cl imate-related stresses by (McLeod et al. 2009, Gerber et al. 201 4, Roberts et al. 201 7):

• Protecting habitats, critical areas and species from local threats (e.g., habitat destruction, overfishing or

nutrient pol lution) to decrease their sensitivity to, and facil itate their recovery from, cl imate-related

disturbances l ike floods or coral bleaching;

• Maintaining connectivity and genetic variabil ity;

• Spreading the risk from disturbance events; and

• Promoting large fish stocks that can help sustain fisheries as conditions change.

To date, though, NTZs have had varying success in terms of their abil ity to protect corals from global threats

and facil itate recovery after disturbance, particularly where the effects of ocean warming have been so great

that they have swamped the benefits of managing local stressors l ike pollution and overfishing (reviewed in

Roberts et al. 201 7 and Bruno et al. 201 9). However, this may be partly because NTZs are rarely designed

____________________________33 Mass coral bleaching has affected coral reefs across a wide area of Indonesia on at least two occasions in 1 997-1 998 and 2009-201 0(International Coral Reef Initiative 201 0). The largest event recorded to date was in 201 0, where coral bleaching levels (and associatedmortal ity) were severe in Sumatra and Sulawesi, and mild to medium in Java, Bal i, Lombok, Maluku and Raja Ampat..

53

Figu

re17.So

meareas

may

bemore

resilie

ntto

chan

gesin

clim

atean

doce

anch

emistry(refugia)

andsh

ould

bepro

tectedin

NTZsincluding:

man

grove

sth

athav

esp

aceto

move

inland

withrisingse

aleve

ls(1

);an

deco

systemsth

athav

ere

sistedorre

cove

redfrom

dam

age(e

.g.,from

coralb

leac

hing)

inth

epas

t(2

)orhav

ech

arac

teristicsth

atindicateth

eymay

bemore

likely

tosu

rviveim

pac

tsin

thefutu

re(e

.g.,heat-tolerantco

rals

that

may

bemore

resistan

tto

coralb

leac

hing)

(3).

From

Gombosetal.2013andGreenetal.2013


IN INDONESIA

54

specifical ly to address the effects of cl imate change (e.g., see Beger et al. 201 5) , and therefore not able to

optimize their potential benefits for cl imate change adaptation (Munguia-Vega et al. 201 8).

To address these concerns, we provide five additional criteria for designing MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia

to specifical ly address changes in cl imate and ocean chemistry, as described below.

Protect sites that are likely to be more resilient to global environmental change (refugia) in

NTZs.

The effects of changes in cl imate and ocean chemistry on habitats and species are l ikely to vary based on different

internal (e.g., genetic) and external (e.g., environmental) factors, which wil l result in varying degrees of ecosystem

resil ience (West & Salm 2003, McClanahan et al. 201 2). In this regard, resil ience comprises two key components:

resistance, meaning the abil ity of an ecological community to resist or survive a disturbance, and recovery, or the

rate a community takes to return to its original condition (McClanahan et al. 201 2).

Where possible, sites where habitats and species are l ikely to be more resil ient to global environmental change

(refugia) should be identified and protected in NTZs (Figure 1 7), because they are l ikely to be important for

maintaining biodiversity in the face of cl imate change (West & Salm 2003, McLeod et al. 2009, Green et al.

201 4a). Protecting these refugia in NTZs is also l ikely to provide fisheries benefits, since habitat loss is a major

threat to tropical coastal fisheries in the face of cl imate and ocean change (Bel l et al . 201 1 ) .

Refugia may include (McLeod et al. 201 2, Green et al. 201 4a, Roberts et al. 201 7):

• Areas where habitats and species are known to have withstood environmental changes (or extremes) in

the past;

• Areas with historical ly variable sea surface temperatures and ocean carbonate chemistry, where habitats

and species are more likely to withstand changes in those parameters in the future; and

• Areas where coastal habitats l ike mangroves and turtle nesting beaches can increase elevation over time

and keep pace with sea level rise, such as where there is an adequate supply of sediment and landward

migration is not constrained by steep topography or human infrastructure.

Other indicators can also be used to identify areas that may be more resil ient to cl imate change, although the

relative importance of these factors wil l vary with habitats and species (McLeod et al. 2009). For coral reefs,

several studies have shown that the most resil ient reefs appear to be those with high fish and coral diversity and

few human impacts (reviewed by McClanahan et al. 201 2). In particular, an abundance of heat-tolerant coral

species and past temperature variabil ity appears to provide the greatest resistance to cl imate change, while high

coral recruitment rates and low macroalgae abundance appear to be most important in the recovery process.

Mumby et al. (201 1 ) provide a practical example of how to use such indicators to model and map coral reef

resil ience to thermal stress to design a network of NTZs.

Protect ecologically important sites that are sensitive to changes in climate and ocean

chemistry.

Some sites may have ecological ly important habitats and species that are particularly sensitive to changes in

cl imate and ocean chemistry. For example, coral reefs, particularly those with a high cover of Acropora and other

thermally sensitive corals, are some of the most vulnerable ecosystems to rising sea temperatures (see Roberts et

al. 201 7).

While changes in cl imate and ocean chemistry cannot be prevented at the local level, networks of NTZs can help

promote ecosystem resil ience to these cl imate-related stresses by reducing local anthropogenic threats (see

above) and increasing protection of species that play important functional roles in ecosystem resil ience (see

below), particularly if they are integrated within broader management frameworks to address al l local threats (see

Integrating MPAs within Broader Management Frameworks) . Therefore, ecological ly important sites that are sensitive

to changes in cl imate and ocean chemistry should be protected in NTZs.

55

Increase protection of species that play important functional roles in ecosystem resilience.

Some functional groups play important roles in ecosystem function and maintaining resil ience to local and global

threats. For example, herbivores can be a key functional group that underpins the abil ity of coral reefs to recover

from disturbances such as mass coral bleaching, by preventing algal overgrowth that can inhibit coral settlement

and survival (reviewed in Chung et al. 201 9).

However, the evidence for the importance of herbivores in coral reef resil ience is equivocal (reviewed in Green &

Bellwood 2009, McClanahan et al. 201 2, Bruno et al. 201 9). In some situations, herbivores appear to have been

important factors facil itating coral reef recovery, but in others, coral reefs have not recovered despite having

healthy populations of herbivores, possibly because the effects of ocean warming have been so great that they

have swamped the benefits of protecting herbivores (e.g., where there is a lack of coral larvae due to the mass

mortal ity of breeding adults) .

Nevertheless, since herbivores can play an important role in reef resil ience in some situations, increasing

herbivorous fish biomass has been a dominant recommendation of resil ience-based management (reviewed in

Chung et al. 201 9). In view of this, we recommend taking a precautionary approach and protecting herbivores in

NTZs integrated within broader fisheries management regimes (see Integrating MPAs within Broader Management

Frameworks) . Another approach may be to design a network of herbivore management areas34 to build coral reef

resil ience to cl imate change (e.g., see Chung et al. 201 9).

Consider how changes in climate and ocean chemistry will affect the life history offocal

species.

Changes in cl imate and ocean chemistry are l ikely to alter the ecology of species35, causing fundamental changes

in ecosystem function and dynamics36 (Roberts et al. 201 7, Munguia-Vega et al. 201 8). Therefore, it is important

to consider how these changes are l ikely to affect major habitats and populations of focal species to be protected

in MPAs in Indonesia, and the implications for modifying the design criteria described above (e.g., see Munguia-

Vega et al. 201 8).

Climate change is expected to cause shifts in the distribution of focal species, marine ecosystems and the services

they provide (reviewed in Roberts et al. 201 7). For example, there may be a redistribution of species from

tropical towards more temperate waters, leading to a decl ine in diversity in tropical regions. Fisheries productivity

____________________________34 Where the take of herbivorous fishes and invertebrates (e.g., sea urchins) is prohibited while other extractive and non-extractiveuses are al lowed.35 Their distribution, growth, abundance, reproduction, population connectivity and recovery rates.36 Such as changes in the relative biomass of trophic groups, and changes due to variations in nutrient recycl ing/upwell ing.

Herbivorous reef fishes can play critical roles in coral reef resil ience and should be protected in NTZs integrated with other

fisheries management tools. Images from the Raja Ampat Islands MPA © Awaludinnoer, TNC (left) and Andreas Muljadi (right) .


IN INDONESIA

56

is also predicted to decl ine as a result of warming and reduced dissolved oxygen, lower surface nutrients and

phytoplankton biomass, shifts in ranges and species abundance patterns, and acidification (reviewed in Roberts et

al. 201 7). Consequently, it wil l be important to take this into account when applying the design criteria regarding

habitat representation and replication, and protecting critical , special and unique areas (e.g., areas with high

productivity) .

Climate change effects on habitat distribution are also predicted to affect biological interactions among species37

(Roberts et al. 201 7, Munguia-Vega et al. 201 8). Areas l ikely to support or maintain important biological

interactions among species both now and in the future should be identified and prioritized for protection in

NTZs, e.g., nursery habitats for focal fisheries species (see example in Munguia-Vega et al. 201 8).

Climate change may also affect larval connectivity among NTZs by reducing reproductive output, shortening

planktonic larval durations, changing the speed and direction of ocean currents and causing habitat loss (Gerber et

al. 201 4). In that event, the design criteria regarding incorporating larval dispersal, such as with respect to the

location, size and spacing of NTZs (see Consider Larval Dispersal) , may need to be adapted to accommodate

changes in larval connectivity (Alvarez-Romero et al. 201 8). Regional networks of NTZs can accommodate these

changes by providing stepping stones for dispersal, safe ‘ landing zones’ for colonizing species, and possible refugia

for species unable to move (reviewed in Roberts et al. 201 8).

Address uncertainty by spreading the risk, and increasing protection ofhabitats, critical areas

and species most vulnerable to changes in climate and ocean chemistry.

There is stil l a lot of uncertainty regarding how changes in cl imate and ocean chemistry wil l affect major habitats

and focal species in Indonesia (e.g., see Hoegh-Guldberg et al. 2009). Until more information is available, it wil l be

important to spread the risk by protecting multiple examples of each major habitat in widely separated NTZs

(see Replicate Habitats [Spread the Risk]) .

Al l ison et al. (2003) suggests that it may also be necessary to add a cl imate change buffer by increasing the level of

protection of habitats in NTZs by an ‘insurance factor’ in areas vulnerable to cl imate change impacts (see

Represent Habitats) . The exact value of this ‘ insurance factor’ should be calculated by considering the vulnerabil ity

of Indonesia’s marine habitats and species to changes in cl imate and ocean chemistry38. Additional protection may

also be required for critical areas and species most vulnerable to changes in cl imate and ocean chemistry (see

Protect Critical, Special and Unique Areas) .

____________________________37 Such as predator–prey relationships, mutual ism, competition, habitat use, etc.38 For example, an ‘ insurance factor' of 1 .65% was used to rezone the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park in Austral ia (Fernandes et al.2005).

57

MPAs can be effective tools for conservation and management in Indonesia, but only if they

are well designed and effectively managed (Green et al. 201 4a, White et al. 201 4). One of the

first steps in the design process is to clearly define both biophysical and socioeconomic

criteria required to design MPAs and MPA Networks to achieve their goals and objectives

(see Green et al. 2020).

General criteria exist for designing networks of MPAs in tropical marine ecosystems

worldwide (e.g., Green et al. 201 4a). Here we provide, for the first time, the scientific

rationale used to develop biophysical criteria for designing MPAs and MPA Networks in

Indonesia (see Green et al. 2020). These criteria are based on a review of the existing

national regulations, publ ished l iterature and best practices used in Indonesia and worldwide

(see Green et al. 2020), and specifical ly adapted and refined to consider the unique biological

and physical characteristics of the marine ecosystems in Indonesia. Our rationale for adapting

these design criteria to the local context assumes that MPAs and MPA networks in Indonesia

wil l be more likely to achieve their goals (see MPAs and MPA Networks In Indonesia) using the

design criteria provided in this document, than if they were designed using general guidel ines

developed elsewhere (Munguia et al. 201 8).

These biophysical design criteria should contribute to a larger process that includes

implementing MPAs and MPA Networks in ways that complement human uses and values,

and al ign with local legal, pol itical and institutional requirements. Furthermore, for MPAs and

MPA Networks to be effective, they need to be embedded within broader management

frameworks that address al l threats to habitats and species to ensure the long-term

sustainabil ity of marine resources and the ecosystem benefits they provide.

These biophysical criteria for designing MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia should be

applied using the precautionary approach and best available information, while recognizing

that there are often information gaps that can prevent the ful l appl ication of al l these

principles.

Here we provide some advice on:

• Integrating biophysical , socioeconomic and cultural criteria to design MPAs and MPA

Networks in Indonesia;

• Integrating MPAs within broader management frameworks; and

• Research priorities for applying the biophysical design criteria in Indonesia.

DISCUSSION


IN INDONESIA

58

Integrating Biophysical, Socioeconomic and Cultural DesignCriteria

The framework for designing MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia (Green et al. 2020) provides biophysical ,

socioeconomic and cultural design criteria, which should be used together in a comprehensive planning process.

At times there may be socioeconomic, cultural, pol itical and other reasons that can prevent the ful l appl ication of

al l the biophysical design criteria in this document. When required to comply with other criteria, decision makers

and field practitioners should aim to achieve as many of the biophysical design criteria as possible. Failure to apply

these criteria may result in inadequate levels of protection to maintain ecosystem health, function and populations

of focal species (Edgar et al. 201 4), leading to biodiversity loss, population decl ines, delays in the recovery of focal

species, and increased vulnerabil ity of habitats and species to cl imate change (Munguia et al. 201 8).

However, it is also very important to apply the socioeconomic and cultural criteria to ensure that MPA or MPA

Network designs consider human uses and values, and address the needs and aspirations of local communities

and other stakeholders (e.g., see Fernandes et al. 2005, Green et al. 2009, Mangubhai et al . 201 5) . In many

situations, a bottom-up strategy that focuses on social justice, inclusion and human dimensions needs to be in

place and weighted equal ly with biophysical criteria so that the MPAs are legitimized and supported by users, both

for ethical and practical reasons (see Munguia et al. 201 8).

MPAs or MPA Networks also need to be al igned with legal, pol itical and institutional requirements as described in

the Technical Guidelines (Juknis) of Ministerial Regulation No. 1 3/201 4 on Establishing and Managing MPA Networks

(MMAF in prep.) .

The advantage of clearly stating the biophysical design criteria, and their rationale, is that it provides a sound

framework to explicitly discuss potential trade-offs and complementarities that wil l inevitably arise when

simultaneously applying both sets of criteria to design MPAs or MPA Networks in Indonesia. For example, some

stakeholders may prefer smaller, shorter-term NTZs to al low more access to fishing areas. However, such NTZs

wil l only provide l imited ecological benefits for focal species, which wil l decrease the chances of the MPA

achieving its biophysical goals of protecting biodiversity and enhancing coastal fisheries (see Consider Movement of

Adults and Juveniles and Allow Time for Recovery) . The Raja Ampat Islands MPA provides a good case study of how

to use both biophysical and socioeconomic design criteria simultaneously to design MPAs to benefit both people

and nature in Indonesia (Agostini et al . 201 2, Mangubhai et al . 201 5) .

I t may also be important to implement the biophysical design criteria in ways that minimize socioeconomic

impacts until the ecological benefits of NTZs accrue to benefit coastal communities, such as through the export

of adults and larvae from NTZs to support fisheries in adjacent areas (see Krueck et al. 201 7a). For example, the

number and size of NTZs can be increased gradual ly over a period of 1 0-20 years to help reduce the short-term

impacts on fishers while populations of fisheries species recover.

Integrating MPAs within Broader Management Frameworks

Well-designed and effectively managed networks of MPAs can play an important role in fisheries management,

biodiversity conservation and cl imate change adaptation. However, to maximize their contribution to achieving

these objectives, MPAs must be embedded within broader management frameworks that address al l threats to

ensure the long-term sustainabil ity of marine resources and the ecosystem benefits they provide (White et al.

2005, Christie et al. 2009, McLeod et al. 2009). For example, even if 20% of major habitats are protected within

NTZs (see Represent Habitats) , sound fisheries management wil l sti l l be required in the 80% of the area that wil l

remain open to fishing (Hilborn 201 6, Roberts et al. 201 7).

Therefore, where possible, al l of the ecosystem (or as large an area as possible) should be included within a

multiple-use MPA that includes zones with a variety of regulations and restrictions regarding access and activities

(e.g., for fisheries or tourism). This way, different types of protection in different zones can offer synergistic

benefits to achieve multiple objectives simultaneously (FAO 201 1 b). For example, NTZs can be combined with

sustainable fisheries zones that may include harvest controls (i.e., catch, species, size, gear or effort restrictions)

to improve fisheries management (Green et al. 201 5) and provide tourism opportunities, e.g., for diving with

healthy fish populations.

59

NTZs should also be embedded within broader fisheries management frameworks that enforce regulations and

laws outside MPAs (White et al. 2005, McLeod et al. 2009). For example, fisheries objectives can be addressed

more effectively if NTZs are integrated within an Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries framework (McLeod et al.

2009, FAO 201 1 b).

MPAs should also be integrated within broader spatial planning and management regimes (e.g., Ecosystem-Based

Management and Integrated Coastal Management) that address multiple threats including those arising from land,

such as runoff of sediment and nutrients (White et al. 2005, Christie et al. 2009, McLeod et al. 2009, Alvarez-

Romero et al. 201 1 ) .

MPAs also need be integrated within Marine Spatial Plans to ensure protection and sustainabil ity of marine and

fisheries resources in Indonesia,

Research Priorities

There are often information gaps that can prevent applying some of the biophysical design criteria. Here we

provide a summary of research priorities for applying these criteria to design MPAs and MPA Networks in

Indonesia (Table 2). These research priorities wil l need to be addressed with input from different stakeholders

with different types of expertise. For example:

• Some priorities can be addressed by expert mapping by field practitioners (MPA managers and non-

governmental organizations) , with input from local communities and scientists who know the area, e.g., to

identify, map and classify major habitats; and identify critical , special and unique areas and local threats.

• Other priorities wil l need to be addressed by scientists and field practitioners with knowledge of the

ecology of focal species, e.g., regarding their movement patterns and population recovery times.

• Others may need to be addressed by university scientists with a high level of expertise, e.g., to model

connectivity or the potential impacts of changes in cl imate and ocean chemistry on major habitats and focal

species.

The biophysical design criteria in this document may also need to be adapted and refined as more information

becomes available or if the situation changes. For example, if changes in cl imate and ocean chemistry affect the

distribution and abundance of major habitats and populations of focal species, the design criteria may need to be

modified to reflect these changes to maintain ecosystem function in the future (Munguia et al. 201 8).

Consideration Research Priority

Represent Habitats


Identify, classify and map major habitats (see Appendix 1 . Habitat

Classification) .

Protect Critical , Special and Unique Areas Identify and map critical , special and unique areas, particularly fish

spawning aggregations for large, vulnerable reef fishes.

Incorporate Connectivity: Abiotic Factors Identify, model and/or map abiotic factors that affect the spread of

biological and non-biological material .


Movement of Adults and Juveniles


Larval Dispersal

Measure movement patterns of adults and juveniles of focal species.

Measure and/or model larval dispersal patterns of focal species.

Al low Time for Recovery Monitor recovery rates of populations of focal species in well-

designed and managed NTZs.

Protect Healthy Areas and Avoid Local Threats Identify and map local threats and the condition of major habitats.

Adapt to Changes in Climate and Ocean

Chemistry

Understand the potential effects of changes in cl imate and ocean

chemistry on the ecology of focal species and the associated

changes in communities, ecosystem function and dynamics.

Table 2. Research priorities for applying biophysical criteria to design MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia.

In 201 9, TNC and USAID SEA provided technical assistance to MMAF to develop the

document A Guide, Framework and Example: Designing Marine Protected Areas and Marine

Protected Area Networks to Benefit People and Nature in Indonesia (Green et al. 2020). The

document provides a framework (goals, objectives, design criteria and performance indicators)

for designing MPAs and MPA Networks that take biophysical , socioeconomic and cultural

considerations into account. I t wil l provide supplementary information to support the Technical

Guidelines (Juknis) of Ministerial Regulation No. 1 3/201 4 on Establishing and Managing MPA

Networks (MMAF in prep.) .

In the current document, we have provided the scientific rationale (summarized in Table 3) for

the biophysical criteria for designing MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia outl ined in the

framework document (Green et al. 2020). These biophysical design criteria address the need to

represent and replicate habitats; protect critical , special and unique areas; incorporate

connectivity; al low time for recovery; protect healthy areas and avoid local threats; and adapt

to changes in cl imate and ocean chemistry. They should contribute to a larger process that

includes implementing MPAs and MPA Networks in ways that complement human uses and

values, and al igns with legal, pol itical and institutional requirements.

To make sure this is the case, the current document should be used in conjunction with the

Technical Guidelines (Juknis) of Ministerial Regulation No. 1 3/201 4 on Establishing and Managing

MPA Networks (MMAF in prep.) , and the supplementary information on socioeconomic and

cultural design criteria provided in the document A Guide, Framework and Example: Designing

Marine Protected Areas and Marine Protected Area Networks to Benefit People and Nature in

Indonesia (Green et al. 2020).

SUMMARY

61

Consideration

BiophysicalCriteriaforDesigning

MPAsandMPANetw

orksin

Indonesia

ScientificRationale

andExplanatoryNotes

RepresentHabitats

Protec

tat

least

20%

ofea

chmajorha

bitat

in

NTZs.

•Differentspeciesuse

differenthab

itats,so

exam

plesofeachmajorhab

itat

(e.g.,eachtype

ofco

ralreef,man

grove

forest

andseag

rass

bed)should

bepro

tectedin

NTZs.

•Pe

rcenthab

itat

representationwillvary

dependingonseve

ralfactors,includingfishing

pressure

andifthere

iseffectivefisheriesman

agementin

place

outsideNTZs.In

heavily

fishedareas

where

there

isnoeffectivefisheriesman

agement,at

least30%

ofeachmajor

hab

itat

should

berepresentedwithin

NTZsto

sustainpopulationsoffocalfisheries

species.W

here

fishingpressure

islow,orwhere

there

iseffectivefisheriesman

agement

outsideNTZs,lowerleve

lsofpro

tectionin

NTZs(20%)may

beneeded.

•Pe

rcenthab

itat

representationshould

also

considerthevu

lnerability,diversityorrarity

of

eachhab

itat,an

dtheeco

system

servicesitprovides.

Replicate

Habitats

(Spreadthe

Risk)

Protec

tat

least

threeexamplesof

each

major

habitat

inNTZs,

and

Spreadthem

outto

reduce

thech

anc

esthey

will

allbeaffec

tedby

thesamedisturbanc

e.

•Large

-scale

disturban

ces(i.e.,majorstorm

s,co

ralb

leachingan

dcrown-of-thornsstarfish

outbreak

s)cancause

seriousim

pacts

tomajorhab

itats,an

ditisdifficultto

predictwhich

areas

aremost

likely

tobeaffected.

•Therefore,itisim

portan

tto

pro

tect

atleastthreeexam

plesofeachmajorhab

itat

in

widely

separatedNTZsto

reduce

thech

ance

that

theywillallb

eim

pactedbythesame

disturban

ce(sodam

agedareas

may

bereplenishedbyunaffectedareas).

•Sp

read

ingtherisk

also

increasesthech

ance

sthat

variationsin

communitiesan

dspecies

within

majorhab

itatsarerepresentedin

NTZs

ProtectCritical,Specialand

UniqueAreas

Protec

tcriticala

reasin

thelifehistoryof

foca

l

fisheriessp

eciesin

NTZs.

Protec

tcriticala

reasor

habitatsforch

arism

atic,

endang

ered

,threaten

edor

protected

spec

ies.

Protec

tsp

eciala

nduniquena

turalp

heno

men

ain

NTZs.

•So

mefocalspecies(e.g.,fisheries,ch

arismatic,endan

gered,threatenedan

dpro

tected

species)

conce

ntratein

areas

that

arecritically

importan

tfortheirpopulationmaintenan

ce

(e.g.,spaw

ning,

nesting,

breeding,

calvingornursery

areas)orhab

itatstheyuse

asmigratory

corridors,resting,

feedingorclean

ingareas.

•W

hile

theyuse

these

areas,these

speciesareparticu

larlyvu

lnerable

todisturban

ceor

ove

rexploitation.Therefore,these

areas

should

bepro

tectedin

perm

anentorseasonal

NTZs,in

combinationwithotherman

agementap

pro

aches(e.g.,fishingseasonorge

ar

restrictionsortourism

codesofpractice).

•So

meareas

may

also

havespecialan

duniquenaturalfeaturesthat

should

beincludedin

NTZsto

ensure

that

alle

xam

plesofbiodiversityan

deco

system

pro

cessesarepro

tected.

Thismay

includeareas

withve

ryhighbiodiversity,highleve

lsofendemism,uniquemarine

communities(e.g.,marinelake

s)orhighpro

ductivity(e.g.,uniquepelagichab

itats,such

as

areas

ofupwelling,

fronts

oreddies).

Tab

le3.Su

mmaryofscientificrationale(andexplanatory

notes)

forbiophysicalcriteriafordesign

ingMPA

san

dMPA

Netw

orksin

Indonesia.

Plea

seno

tethat

many

ofthesecriteria

are

designe

dto

consider

theec

olog

yof

foca

lspec

ies,

including:

keyfisheriessp

ecies(fishand

inverteb

rates);en

dang

ered

,threaten

edand

protected

spec

ies

and

/ormigratory

marine

biota

(sea

turtles,

marine

birds,

cetaceans,dug

ongand

croc

odiles);largech

arism

atic

marine

fauna

(sha

rks,

mantarays,wha

lesharksand

Molamola);sp

eciesim

portant

for

maintainingec

osystem

func

tion

,such

asha

bitat-formingsp

ecies(e.g.,co

rals)or

spec

iesim

portant

forreef

resilienc

e(e.g.,he

rbivores).

(Con

tinu

edon

next

pag

e)


IN INDONESIA

62

Consideration


MPAsandMPANetw

orksin

Indonesia

ScientificRationale

andExplanatoryNotes

Incorp

orate

Connectivity:

AbioticFactors

Con

sider

variations

inocea

nography,substrate

and

bathym

etry

that

affectthespreadof

biologica

land

non-biologica

lmaterial.

•Abioticfactors,includingsubstrate,bathym

etryan

docean

ograp

hy(physicalan

dbiological

propertiesoftheocean

,such

ascu

rrents,tides,temperature,salinityan

dacidity),affect

the

spread

ofbiologicalandnon-biologicalm

aterialin

thesea.

These

factors

playim

portan

troles

indeterm

iningthedistributionan

dab

undan

ceofspecies,an

dthestructure

ofbiological

communities.

•W

here

there

islittleornobiologicalinform

ation,uniqueco

mbinationsofthese

abiotic

factors

canbeusedas

surrogatesformarinebiodiversityin

MPA

netw

ork

design

(to

Rep

resent

Habitats).

•Ocean

currents

canalso

playan

importan

trole

ininfluencinglarvaldispersal,an

dshould

be

consideredwhendeterm

iningthelocation,size

andspacingofNTZs(seeCon

sider

Larval

Dispersal ).

Incorp

orate

Connectivity:

BioticFactors

Movem

entof

Adultsand

Juveniles

Ensure

NTZsare

largeen

ough

tosustain

adults

and

juvenilesof

foca

lfishe

ries

specieswithin

theirbou

ndaries.

•NTZsneedto

belargeenough

toallow

forthemaintenan

ceofspaw

ningstock,byallowing

individualsto

grow

tomaturity,increasein

biomassan

dreproductivepotential,an

d

contribute

more

tostock

recruitmentan

drege

nerationin

NTZsan

dfishedareas.

•Differentspeciesmove

differentdistancesas

adultsan

djuveniles(e.g.,forhomerange

s,

ontoge

netichab

itat

shiftsan

dspaw

ningmigrations).

•NTZsshould

bemore

than

twicethesize

ofthehomerange

ofad

ultsan

djuvenilesoffocal

speciesforprotection,so

NTZsofdifferentsizeswillberequireddependingonwhich

speciesrequireprotection,how

fartheymove,an

difothereffectiveprotectionisin

place

outsideNTZs.Large

rNTZswillprotect

more

species.

•Reco

mmendationsregardingtheminim

um

size

ofNTZsmust

beap

pliedto

thespecific

hab

itatsthat

focalspeciesuse,ratherthan

theoverallsize

oftheNTZs(w

hichmay

include

otherhab

itats).

•Sp

ecieswhose

movementpatternsarelargerthan

thesize

ofNTZswillonly

beafforded

partialprotection,so

NTZsmust

beintegratedwithotherfisheriesman

agementtoolsto

man

agewide-ran

gingspecies.

Protectareasthat

are

important

atthena

tion

al,

internationa

lorglob

alsca

leforconservation

ormana

gemen

tof

foca

lspecies.

•So

meofthese

critical,specialan

duniqueareas

may

beim

portan

tto

protect

biodiversityor

man

agefisheriesat

thenational,internationalorglobalscale(e.g.,W

orldHeritage

Areas,

RAMSA

RSites,criticalhab

itatsforglobally

endan

geredspecies,orcriticalareas

for

maintainingco

nnectivityoffisheriesspeciesacross

nationalboundaries).

Tab

le3(con

tinu

edfrom

previou

spag

e).Su


notes)

forbiophysicalcriteriafordesign

ingMPA

san

dMPA

Netw

orksin

Indonesia.

63

Ensure

NTZsare

largeen

ough

toco

ntain

all

habitatsusedby

foca

lspec

iesthroug

hout

theirlifehistory;

or

Establishne

tworks

ofNTZscloseen

ough

to

allow

formovem

ents

offoca

lspec

iesamon

g

protected

habitats.

•So

mesp

eciesuse

differenthab

itatsthro

ugh

outtheirlives(e.g.,forhomerange

s,nursery

and

spaw

ningareas).

•Allhab

itatsusedbyjuve

nile

san

dad

ultsoffoca

lspeciessh

ould

bepro

tectedwithin

individual

NTZs.

•W

here

move

mentpattern

sam

onghab

itats(e.g.,onto

genetichab

itat

shiftsorsp

awning

migrations)

cove

rdistance

sto

ogreat

tobeincludedin

individual

NTZs,differenthab

itats

usedbyfoca

lspeciessh

ould

bepro

tectedin

multiple

NTZs,pro

videdthat

these

NTZsare

loca

tedto

allow

formove

ments

offoca

lspeciesam

ongpro

tectedhab

itats.

Includewho

leec

olog

icalu

nits

(such

asreefsor

seamou

nts)

inNTZs.

Ifno

t,ch

oose

larger

rather

thansm

allerareas.

Use

compact

shapes

(such

assquares)

for

NTZs,

exceptwhe

nprotectingna

turally

elon

gatedha

bitats.

•Includingwhole

eco

logica

lunitsin

NTZshelpsmaintain

theintegrityoftheNTZs,beca

use

man

ysp

eciesarelikely

tostay

within

theirpreferredhab

itat

type.

•W

here

whole

eco

logica

lunitsca

nnotbeincluded,largerratherthan

smallerNTZssh

ould

be

usedto

acco

mmodatemove

mentpattern

sofmore

species(seeab

ove

).

•Compac

tsh

apesminim

izeedge

effectsan

dlim

itsp

illove

rofad

ultsan

djuve

nile

smore

than

othersh

apes(such

aslongthin

rectan

gles).Thishelpsmaintain

theeco

logica

lintegrityofthe

NTZs.

•Therefore,co

mpac

tsh

apessh

ould

beusedforNTZs,exc

eptwhenpro

tectingnaturally

elonga

tedhab

itats(e.g.,longnarro

wco

astal,orfringing,

reefs).

Establish:

•NTZslargeen

ough

tobeself-sustaining

forfoca

lspec

ies;

or

•Networks

ofNTZscloseen

ough

tobe

conn

ectedby

larvald

ispersal.

•Larva

ldispersal

plays

anim

portan

tro

lein

ensu

ringthat

marinepopulationspersistthro

ugh

time.

•NTZssh

ould

bedesign

edto

ensu

rethat

populationsoffoca

lspeciespersistwithin

NTZs,

andto

max

imizelarval

dispersal

tosu

pport

fish

eriesoutsideNTZs.

•W

here

fish

ingpressure

ishighan

dfish

eriesarenotwellman

aged,itisim

portan

tto

take

larval

dispersal

into

acco

untwhendesign

ingNTZs,beca

use

most

breedingad

ultsarelikely

to

bewithin

well-design

edan

dman

agedNTZs.Thismay

beless

importan

tin

areas

where

there

isless

fish

ingpressure

orwhere

fish

eriesarewellman

aged,an

dthusasu

bstan

tial

pro

portion

oflarvae

may

comefrom

fish

edareas.

•In

heav

ilyfish

edareas,populationpersistence

offoca

lspecieswithin

NTZswilldependon

recruitmentto

loca

lpopulationsthro

ugh

eitherself-persistence

,where

populationsin

individual

NTZsarelargeenough

tobeself-su

stainingthro

ugh

larval

retention(thisismore

likely

where

NTZsarelarge),ornetw

ork

persistence

,where

populationsoffoca

lspeciesare

sustainedwithin

anetw

ork

ofNTZsthat

cove

rsan

adequatefrac

tionofthehab

itat

(see

Rep

resent

Habitats).

•In

heav

ilyfish

edareas,larval

dispersal

pattern

soffoca

lspeciessh

ould

beusedto

inform

the

size

,sp

acingan

dloca

tionofNTZs.

Incorp

orate

Connectivity:

BioticFacto

rs

LarvalD

ispersal

(Con

tinu

edon

next

pag

e)


IN INDONESIA

64

Protectlarvalsou

rces

inpermane

ntor

seasona

l

NTZsor

byusing

fisheriesclosuresduring

spawning

times.

•A

commonreco

mmendationisto

pro

tect

larval

‘source’

populationsthat

canco

nsistently

pro

videlarvae

tootherpopulations.

•In

practice,identifyingso

urcepopulationsisdifficultan

dtypically

relie

sonfine-scale

oce

anograp

hic

modelin

gorempirical

measurements

oflarval

dispersal.

•Larvalsourcescanalso

vary

ove

rtime,so

that

alocationmay

actas

aso

urcein

oneye

ar,but

notin

another.

•W

here

consistentan

dim

portan

tlarval

sourcesforfocalspeciesarekn

own(i.e.,fish

spaw

ningareas),theyshould

bepro

tectedin

perm

anentorseasonal

NTZs,orbyfisheries

closuresduringsp

awningtimes(seeProtectCritica

l,Sp

eciala

ndUniqueAreas)

Locate

moreNTZsupstream

relative

tofished

areasif

thereisastrong

,consistent,

unidirection

alcurren

t..

•Oce

ancu

rrents

arelikely

toinfluence

larval

dispersal

patternsto

somedegree.

•In

theab

sence

ofdetaile

dlarval

dispersal

studiesforfocalspecies,more

NTZsshould

be

locatedupstream

relative

tofishedareas

ifthere

isastro

ng,

consistent,unidirectional

current.

•Howeve

r,in

someareas,oce

ancu

rrents

chan

gedirectionin

differentseasons,an

dfocal

speciessp

awnat

differenttimes.Therefore,more

NTZsshould

belocatedupstream

ofthe

directionofthepredominan

tcu

rrentduringthesp

awningseasonoffocalspecies.

Consideration


MPAsandMPANetw

orksin

Indonesia

ScientificRationale

andExplanatoryNotes

Protectspatially

isolated

areasin

NTZs(e.g.,

remoteatolls).

•Sp

atially

isolatedareas

such

asremote

atolls

arelargely

self-replenishingan

dmay

havehigh

conservationvaluewhere

theyharborendemic

speciesan

d/oruniqueassemblage

sor

populations.

•Low

connectivitywithotherareas

mak

esthese

assemblage

s,sp

eciesan

dpopulationsless

resilie

ntto

disturban

ce.

•Pro

tectingthem

inNTZsmay

benece

ssaryto

ensure

theirpersistence

.

Tab

le3(con

tinu

edfrom

previou

spag

e).Su


notes)

forbiophysical

criteriafordesign

ingMPA

san

dMPA

Netw

orksin

Indonesia.

AllowTim

eforRecovery

EstablishNTZsforthelong

term

(morethan20

upto

40years),preferablypermane

ntly.

•Po

pulationsoffocalspeciesreco

verat

differentratesin

NTZsdependingontheirlifehistory

characteristicsan

dotherfactors

(e.g.,hab

itat

qualityan

dthesize

oftheremaining

population).

•Reco

very

ofpopulationsofallfocalfisheriessp

eciesmay

take

decades(ove

r20to

40ye

ars).

Therefore,long-term

pro

tectionin

NTZsisrequiredforallspeciesto

grow

tomaturity,

increasein

biomass,an

dco

ntribute

more

robust

eggsan

dlarvae

toreplenishpopulationsin

NTZs,enhan

cead

jace

ntfisheries,an

dmaintain

eco

system

health

andresilie

nce

.

•Pe

rman

entpro

tectionan

dstrict

enforcementofNTZswillensure

that

these

benefits

are

maintainedin

thelongterm

.

65

ProtectHealthyAreasand

Avo

idLocalT

hreats

Protec

tareaswhe

reha

bitatsand

pop

ulation

sof

foca

lspec

iesare

ingo

odco

nditionwithlow

leve

lsof

threat.

Avo

idareaswhe

reha

bitatsand

pop

ulation

sof

foca

lspec

iesare

inpoo

rco

nditiondueto

loca

lthrea

ts.If

this

isno

tpos

sible:

•Red

uce

threats;

•Fa

cilitatena

turalrec

overy;

and

•Con

sider

theco

stsand

ben

efitsof

reha

bilitating

habitatsand

spec

ies.

•Marineeco

systemshav

ebeendegrad

edbyloca

lthreatsin

man

yloca

tions,

includingby

unsu

stainab

lefish

ingorto

urism

activities,

destru

ctivefish

ingpractices,

coastald

eve

lopment,

land-basedru

noff

andpollu

tion.

•These

threatsdecreaseeco

system

health,pro

ductivityan

dresilie

nce

toclim

atech

ange

,

adve

rsely

affect

man

ysp

ecies,

andse

verely

underm

inethelong-term

sustainab

ility

ofmarine

reso

urcesan

dtheeco

system

servicestheypro

vide.

•Therefore,itisim

portan

tto

minim

izeorav

oid

these

threatsin

NTZsan

dprioritize

areas

for

pro

tectionthat

aremore

likely

toco

ntribute

toeco

system

health,fish

eriespro

ductivity,

and

resilie

nce

toclim

atech

ange

.Itisalso

importan

tto

considerthecu

mulative

effectsofmultiple

threats,

andwhetherthese

'threats'arenaturalo

rexac

erb

atedbyhuman

activities(e.g.,

sedim

entation).

•W

here

NTZsmust

beloca

tedin

areas

where

hab

itatsan

dpopulationsoffoca

lspeciesarein

poorco

nditiondueto

loca

lthreats,

itisim

portan

tto

reduce

these

threatsas

much

as

possible;facilitatenaturalreco

very,su

chas

bypro

tectinglarval

sourcesan

dsp

eciesthat

play

importan

tfunctional

rolesin

eco

system

resilie

nce

(e.g.,herb

ivores);an

dco

nsidertheco

sts

andbenefits

ofrehab

ilitatinghab

itatsan

dsp

ecies.

Use

short-term

(lessthan5years)or

periodically

harvestedNTZsin

additionto,rather

than

instea

dof,long

-term

orpermane

ntNTZs.

•Sh

ort

term

(<5ye

ars)

orperiodically

harve

stedNTZsonly

pro

videsh

ort-term

benefits

for

somesp

ecies.

These

benefits

arequickly

lost

once

these

areas

arereopenedto

fish

ingunless

theyareman

agedve

ryca

refully

(whichisse

ldom

theca

se).Therefore,theyhav

elim

ited

benefits

forco

nse

rvingbiodiversity,

enhan

cingfish

eriesorbuild

ingeco

system

resilie

nce

.

•Thus,

short

term

(<5ye

ars)

orperiodically

harve

stedNTZssh

ould

beuse

din

additionto,

ratherthan

instead

of,long-term

orperm

anentNTZs.

Where

periodic

closu

resareuse

d,

thetimingan

dintensity

ofharve

stingmust

beca

refully

controlle

d.

•Theexc

eptionisse

asonal

closu

resthat

canbeuse

dto

pro

tect

critical

areas

atcritical

times

(e.g.,sp

awningornursery

areas),whichca

nbeve

ryim

portan

tto

pro

tect

orrestore

populationsoffoca

lfisheriessp

ecies(seeProtec

tCritica

l,Sp

eciala

ndUniqueAreas).

Adaptto

Changesin

Climate

andOceanChemistry

Protec

tsitesthat

are

likelyto

bemoreresilient

to

glob

ale

nvironm

entalc

hang

e(refug

ia)in

NTZs.

•Chan

gesin

clim

ate(e.g.,risingse

atemperatures)

andoce

anch

emistryreprese

ntase

rious

andincreasingthreat

tomajorhab

itats(e.g.,co

ralreefs,man

grove

forestsan

dse

agrass

beds)

andfoca

lspecies.

•Effectsofthese

chan

geswill

vary

insp

acean

dtime,an

dso

meareas

will

hav

ehab

itatsan

d

speciesmore

likely

toberesilie

ntto

chan

gesin

clim

atean

doce

anch

emistry(refugia).

Resilie

nce

comprise

stw

oke

yco

mponents:resistan

ce(theab

ility

ofan

eco

logica

lcommunity

toresist

orsu

rviveadisturb

ance

)an

dreco

very

(therate

aco

mmunitytake

sto

return

toits

original

condition).

•W

here

refugiaca

nbeidentified,theysh

ould

beprioritize

dforpro

tectionin

NTZs.

(Con

tinu

edon

next

pag

e)


IN INDONESIA

66

Protec

tec

olog

ically

important

sitesthat

are

sens

itiveto

chang

esin

clim

ateand

ocea

n

chem

istry.

•So

meeco

logica

llyim

portan

tsiteshav

ehab

itatsan

dsp

eciesthat

may

beparticu

larlyse

nsitive

toch

ange

sin

clim

atean

doce

anch

emistry.

•These

sitessh

ould

bepro

tectedin

NTZsintegratedwithin

bro

aderman

agement

fram

eworksto

pro

mote

eco

system

resilie

nce

byad

dressingloca

lthreats.

Consideration


MPAsandMPANetw

orksin

Indonesia

ScientificRationale

andExplanatoryNotes

Increa

seprotectionof

spec

iesthat

play

important

func

tion

alroles

inec

osystem

resilie

nce.

•So

mefunctional

groupsplayim

portan

tro

lesin

maintainingeco

logica

lresilie

nce

toloca

land

global

threats(e.g.,herb

ivoro

usfish

esonco

ralreefs).

•These

speciessh

ould

bepro

tectedin

NTZsintegratedwithin

bro

aderfish

eriesman

agement

regimes.

Con

sider

how

chang

esin

clim

ateand

ocea

n

chem

istrywill

affec

tthelifehistoryof

foca

l

spec

ies.

•Chan

gesin

clim

atean

doce

anch

emistryarelikely

toaffect

thedistribution,growth,

abundan

ce,repro

duction,populationco

nnectivityan

dreco

very

ratesoffoca

lspecies,an

d

modify

eco

system

stru

cture,functionan

ddyn

amics.

•These

chan

gesmay

requiremodify

ingthedesign

criteriarega

rdinghab

itat

represe

ntationan

d

replication;pro

tectingcritical,sp

ecial

anduniqueareas;inco

rporatingco

nnectivity;

and

allowingtimeforreco

very

(seeab

ove

)in

thefuture.

Address

unc

ertainty

by:

•Sp

readingtherisk

;and

•Increa

sing

protectionof

habitats,

critical

areasand

spec

iesmos

tvu

lnerable

to

chang

esin

clim

ateand

ocea

nch

emistry.

•There

isalotofunce

rtainty

rega

rdingtheeffectsthat

chan

gesin

clim

atean

doce

anch

emistry

willhav

eonmajorhab

itats,critical

areas

andfoca

lspecies.

•Untilm

ore

inform

ationisav

ailable,itwillbenece

ssaryto

spread

therisk

bypro

tecting

multiple

exam

plesofeac

hmajorhab

itat

inNTZs(seeRep

licateHabitatsab

ove

).

•Itmay

also

benece

ssaryto

addaclim

atech

ange

bufferbyincreasingtheleve

lofpro

tection

ofhab

itatsin

NTZs(seeRep

resent

Habitats),critical

areas

andsp

eciesmost

vulnerable

to

chan

gesin

clim

atean

doce

anch

emistryin

NTZs.

Tab

le3(con

tinu

edfrom

previou

spag

e).Su


notes)

forbiophysical

criteriafordesign

ingMPA

san

dMPA

Netw

orksin

Indonesia.

67

When applying the design criteria to Represent Habitats and Replicate Habitats (Spread the Risk) , it is important to

apply these criteria to protect each type of major habitat which comprises different floral and faunal components

(e.g., to protect each type of coral reef, mangrove or seagrass community) . Therefore, field practitioners may

need to develop habitat classifications for major habitats in their MPA. Here we provide an example of a coral

reef classification that was developed and used to design an MPA in Indonesia.

Coral reef seascapes were delineated for Raja Ampat using site-specific field data, expert opinion and best

available information, such as reef maps and atlases, aerial photography and satel l ite imagery, regarding

oceanography, bathymetry and physico-chemical parameters, and habitats and distributions of coral communities

and reef fishes (DeVantier et al. 2009) (Figure 1 8, next page). These coral reef seascapes were used to apply the

criteria to Represent Habitats and Replicate Habitats (Spread the Risk) when zoning the Raja Ampat Islands MPA

(Agostini et al . 201 2).

Other examples of how to use biotic and abiotic factors to classify habitats for MPA design are described in the

section on incorporating connectivity (see Incorporate Connectivity: Abiotic Factors) .

APPENDIX 1

HABITAT CLASSIFICATION


IN INDONESIA

Figure 1 8. Coral reef seascapes in Raja Ampat. Different colors show different types of coral reef communities, which should each

be protected in NTZs.

from DeVantier et al . 2009


IN INDONESIA

70

A brief overview of broad-scale patterns of bathymetry and oceanography in Indonesia is provided below, based

on a review in ADB (201 4).

Bathymetry

The Indonesian archipelago is divided into several shal low shelves and deep-sea basins (see Figure 1 ) . The shelves

in the west connect to Asia (Sunda Shelf) and in the east to Austral ia (Sahul Shelf) . There are 27 deep basins and

trenches with extremely deep seas in the Banda Sea (7,440m deep) and the Celebes (Sulawesi) Basin (6,220m

deep). Sil ls form the shal lowest areas bordering deep depressions and are important in ventilating the deep water.

Oceanography

Indonesian waters, especial l y in the eastern part of the archipelago, play an important role in the global water

mass transport system, in which warm water at the surface conveys heat to the deeper cold water in what is

known as the great ocean conveyor belt. Eastern Indonesia is also the only place where the Pacific and Indian

Oceans connect at lower latitudes, via mass water transport from the Pacific to the Indian Ocean through various

channels known as the Indonesian Throughflow (see Figure 9). Other dominant surface ocean circulation features

in Indonesia are the Halmahera and Mindanao eddies that feed the Northern Equatorial Counter Current.

Tidal phenomena in Indonesia are among the most complex in the world. Complicated coastal geometries with

narrow straits and many small islands, rugged bottom topography near wide shelves of shal low water, and

massive tidal power input from the adjoining Indian and Pacific oceans, al l combine to form a complex system of

interfering three-dimensional waves.

Surface currents in Indonesia are more strongly influenced by circulation from the Pacific than the Indian Ocean

(see Figure 9). The currents are also greatly influenced by the winds of the prevail ing monsoon, and tend to flow

in the same direction as the prevail ing winds. The northeast monsoon season is general ly from December to

February, and the southeast monsoon season is general ly from June to August, with transition periods in between

(Wyrtki 1 961 ) . Thus, ocean currents change direction (reverse) over large areas twice a year (see Figure 9).

Sea surface temperatures (sst) vary around the archipelago, although the variabil ity is general ly small compared

with other regions (e.g., the tropical eastern Pacific) because of the lack of strong equatorial upwell ing. Sst

general ly ranges from 26 to 29-30oC, and varies in response to seasonal monsoons and associated upwell ing (e.g.,

in the Banda Sea and southern coast of Java), the inflow of water masses from higher latitudes, winds, currents,

and tides. These temperatures extend down to a depth of 25-40m depending on the action of winds, currents,

and tides. Over the shal low Sunda Shelf and Sahul Shelf, this homogenous temperature layer extends to the

bottom.

During the northeast monsoon, mixed oceanic and coastal waters extend from the South China Sea to the

eastern archipelago, pushing the oceanic waters eastward. During the southeast monsoon, oceanic waters from

the Pacific Ocean penetrate far westward, occupying most of the eastern part of the archipelago.

APPENDIX 2

ABIOTIC FACTORS

71

In many locations in Indonesia, marine habitats have been degraded and populations of focal species have

decl ined due to local and global threats (see Status and Threats) . Rehabil itating some of these habitats and

populations may be required for MPA Networks to achieve their goals of enhancing fisheries and protecting

biodiversity in the face of cl imate change. This may require identifying potential areas for rehabil itation in the MPA

Network, where rehabil itation methods are l ikely to be successful and cost-effective based on local environmental

conditions (i.e., depth and current) , good larval supply, low exposure to local and global threats, available

materials and effective enforcement (Fox et al. 201 9).

I t wil l also be necessary to identify appropriate methods required to rehabil itate important habitats and focal

species in these areas. Rehabil itation methods may include effectively managing local anthropogenic threats,

APPENDIX 3

REHABILITATING HABITATS

AND SPECIES

Example of a reef restoration project at Yaf Keru, where the Raja Ampat SEA Centre has instal led over 30 artificial reefs

structures, and transplanted over 5,000 coral fragments to help reefs recover from destructive fishing practices. Images © Raja

Ampat SEA Centre. For more information see: https://birdsheadseascape.com/conservation-science/yaf-keru-reef-restoration-

project-need-raja-ampat-lynn-lawrence/.


IN INDONESIA

72

restoring or adding new structures (e.g., coral reefs) , transplanting habitat-forming species (e.g., corals) and

facil itating population recovery of focal species by restocking or using temporary closures (see Allow Time for

Recovery, Fox et al. 201 9).

For example, some important macroinvertebrates (e.g., sea cucumbers and giant clams) need to be in close

proximity to mates for successful fertil ization, and may not reproduce effectively at low population densities

(Kinch et al. 2001 , Purcel l et al . 201 3) . Therefore, restocking or redistributing these and other species may be

required to revive depleted populations in areas showing no sign of recruitment, such as for giant clams or

trochus (Kinch et al. 2001 , Capinpin 201 8).

Hundreds of habitat rehabil itation projects have been undertaken in Indonesia (reviewed in ADB 201 4 and Fox et

al. 201 9). Coral reef rehabil itation efforts have general ly focused on promoting coral colonization on reefs

damaged by destructive fishing practices or increased sedimentation, or promoting reef development where no

reefs existed previously. Reef rehabil itation methods have included providing stable, artificial substrate for coral

recruitment39, promoting chemical processes (Biorock®) and transplanting corals, primarily to increase fish

abundance.

Extensive mangrove rehabil itation initiatives have also been implemented throughout Indonesia, primarily

involving planting seedl ings in Sumatra, Java, East Kalimantan and Sulawesi (reviewed in ADB 201 4). In contrast,

seagrass rehabil itation projects have been l imited, primarily involving seagrass transplantation in the Seribu Islands

and Banten in Java (ADB 201 4).

However, while some of these rehabil itation efforts may have made good progress at the local scale, the impact

of these efforts over a wider area (or on overal l habitat condition in Indonesia) is not known (ADB 201 4). Long-

term monitoring is also required to assess if short-term successes have translated into sustained recovery (Fox et

al. 201 9).

Some rehabil itation efforts can also be high-tech, expensive and require a lot of effort (Fox et al. 201 9) and are

therefore not feasible in many locations in Indonesia, although low-cost, low-tech methods have been used

successful ly in some locations (e.g., in Komodo National Park: see Fox et al. 201 9). Some methods may also not

be effective or necessary (Edwards & Clark 1 998, Edwards et al. 201 5) . For example, coral seeding or

transplantation may be unnecessary in areas where there is rapid colonization by corals from natural recruitment

(Edwards & Clark 1 998).

Rehabil itation is also unl ikely to be effective unless the threats that led to habitat degradation and the decl ine of

populations of focal species in the first place are managed effectively (e.g., see Fox et al. 201 9). Rehabil itation

methods should be used in conjunction with other management tools to address these threats (see Integrating

MPAs within Broader Management Frameworks) .

In summary, it is important to careful ly evaluate the long-term costs and benefits before proceeding with

rehabil itation initiatives to ensure that they are a practical and cost-effective management strategy that is worth

the investment (reviewed in Fox et al. 201 9).

____________________________39 Using a range of materials including rockpiles, designed concrete structures (i.e., Reef Bal lsTM), branching ceramic modules(Ecoreefs®), tires, wood, metal and bamboo (ADB 201 4, Fox et al. 201 9).

73

Abesamis, R.A., Green, A.L., Russ, G.R., & Jadloc, C.R.L. 201 4. The intrinsic vulnerabil ity to fishing of coral reef fishes and

their differential recovery in fishery closures. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 24 (4): 1 033-1 063.

Abesamis, R.A., Saenz-Agudelo, P., Berumen, M.L., Bode, M., Jadloc, C.R.L., Solera, L.A., Vil lanoy, C.L., Bernardo, L.P.C.,

Alcala, A.C. & Russ, G.R. 201 7. Reef fish larval dispersal patterns val idate no-take marine reserve network connectivity

that l inks human communities. Coral Reefs 36 (3): 791 -801 .

Agostini, V.N., Grantham, H.S., Wilson, J ., Mangubhai, S., Rotinsulu, C., Hidayat, N., Muljadi, A., Muhajir, Mongdong, M.,

Darmawan, A., Rumetna, L., Erdmann, M.V. & Possingham, H.P. 201 2. Achieving fisheries and conservation objectives within

marine protected areas: zoning the Raja Ampat network. The Nature Conservancy, Indo-Pacific Division, Denpasar. Report

No 2/1 2, 71 pp.

Allen, G.R.,. & Erdmann, M.V. 201 2. Reef Fishes of the East Indies. Volumes I–III. Tropical Reef Research, Perth, Austral ia.

Al l ison, G. W., Gaines, S.D., Lubchenco, J ., & Possingham, H.P. 2003. Ensuring persistence of marine reserves: Catastrophes

require adopting an insurance factor. Ecological Applications 1 3: S8–S24.

Alvarez-Romero, J .G., Munguia-Vega, A., Beger, M., Del Mar Mancha-Cisneros, M., Suarez-Castil lo, A.N., Gurney, G.G.,

Pressey, R.L., Gerber, L.R., Morzaria-Luna, H.N., Reyes-Bonil la, H., Adams, V.M, Kob, M., Graham, E.M., Van Der Wal,

J . , Castil lo-Lopez, A., Hinojosa-Arango, G., Petalan-Ramirez, D., Moreno-Baez, M., Godinez-Reyes, C.R. & Torre, J .

201 8. Designing connected marine reserves in the face of global warming. Global Change Biology 24: e671 –e691 .

Alvarez-Romero, J .G., Pressey, R.L., Ban, N.C., Vance-Borland, K., Wil ler, C., Klein, C.J . & Gaines, S.D. 201 1 . Integrated

land-sea conservation planning: The missing l inks. Annual Review ofEcology, Evolution and Systematics 42: 381 –409.

Asian Development Bank (ADB) 201 4. State of the Coral Triangle: Indonesia. Report prepared by Asian Development Bank,

Phil ippines, 84 pp.

Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS) 201 0. Statistics Indonesia 201 0 Census. Available from https://sp201 0.bps.go.id/ [Accessed 9

April 201 9.]

Balai KKPN (Kawasan Konservasi Perairan Nasional) Kupang 201 4. Savu Sea Marine National Park 20 Year Management Plan

(201 3-2032) . Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries, 31 4 pp.

BAPPENAS 2005. Indonesia: Preliminary Damage and Loss Assessment. The December 26, 2004 Natural Disaster. J akarta:

Government of Indonesia.

Becking, L.E., Renema, W.K.J . & de Voogd, N.J . 201 1 . Recently discovered landlocked basins in Indonesia reveal high habitat

diversity in anchial ine systems. Hydrobiologia 677: 89-1 05.

Beger, M., McGowan, J ., Heron, S.F., Treml, E.A., Green, A., White, A.T., Wolff, N.H., Hock, K., van Hooidonk, R., Mumby,

P.J . & Possingham, H.P. 201 3. Identifying high priority gaps in the Coral Triangle Marine Protected Areas System. Coral

Triangle Support Program, The Nature Conservancy, and The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Austral ia, 56 pp.

Beger, M., McGowan, J ., Treml, E.A., Green, A.L., Wolff, N.H., Klein, C.J ., Mumby, P.J . & Possingham, H.P. 201 5. Integrating

regional conservation priorities for multiple objectives into national pol icy. Nature Communications 6:8208 DOI:

1 0.1 038/ncomms9208.

Beger, M. & Possingham, H.P. 2008. Environmental factors that influence the distribution of coral reef fishes: model l ing

occurrence data for broad-scale conservation and management. Marine Ecological Progress Series 361 : 1 -1 3 .

Bel l , J . D., Johnson, J .E. & Hobday, A.J . (eds) . 201 1 . Vulnerability of tropical pacific fisheries and aquaculture to climate change.

Secretariat of the Pacific Community, Noumea.

Bruno, J .F., Cote, I .M. & Toth, L.T. 201 9. Climate change, coral loss, and the curious case of the parrotfish paradigm: why

don’t marine protected areas improve reef resil ience? Annual Review of Marine Science 1 1 : 307-34.

Burke, L.M., Reytar, K., Spalding, M. & Perry, A. 201 2. Reefs at Risk Revisited in the Coral Triangle. Washington. D.C.: World

Resources Institute, 72 pp.

Capinpin, E.C. 201 8. Growth, movement and recovery of tagged topshel l , Trochus niloticus, juveniles in Imondayon, Anda,

Pangasinan, Northern Phil ippines. International Journal of Fauna and Biological Studies 5(1 ) ,

REFERENCES


IN INDONESIA

74

Cesar, H. 1 996. Economic Analysis of Indonesian Coral Reefs. Working Paper Series “Work in Progress.” Washington DC:

World Bank, 97 pp.

Cesar, H. S. J . , Burke, L. & Pet-Soude, L. 2003. The Economics of World-wide Coral Reef Degradation. Netherlands: Cesar

Environmental Economics Consulting, 23 pp.

Christie, P., Pol lnac, R.B., Fluharty, D.L, Hixon, M.A., Lowry, G.K., Mahon, R., Pietri, D., Tissot, B.N., White, A.T., Armada,

N. & Eisma-Osorio, R. 2009. Tropical marine EBM feasibil ity: A synthesis of case studies and comparative analyses.

Coastal Management 37:374–385.

Chung, A.E., Wedding, L.M., Green, A.L., Friedlander, A.M., Goldberg, G., Meadows, A. & Hixon, M.A. 201 9. Building coral

reef resil ience through spatial herbivores management. Frontiers in Marine Science 1 9

doi.org/1 0.3389/fmars.201 9.00098.

Conand, C. 1 991 . Long-term movements and mortal ity of some tropical sea-cucumbers monitored by tagging and

recapture. In: Yanagisawa, T., Yasumasu, I ., Oguro, C., Suzuki, N., Motokawa, T. (eds.) , Proceedings of the Seventh

International Echinoderm Conference Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 1 69–1 75.

de Longh, H.H., Hutomo, M., Moraal, M. & Kiswara, W. (eds.) 2009. National Conservation Strategy and Action Plan for the

Dugong in Indonesia. Part 1 : Scientific Report. Leiden: Institute of Environmental Sciences, Jakarta: Research Centre for

Oceanographic Research, 22 pp.

Dennis, D.M., Ye, Y., Pitcher, C.R. & Skewes, S.T. 2004. Ecology and stock assessment of the ornate rock lobster Panulirus

ornatus population in Torres Strait, Austral ia, pp 29-40. In:Will iams, K. C. (ed.) 2004. Spiny lobster ecology and exploitation

in the South China Sea region. Proceedings of a workshop held at the Institute of Oceanography, Nha Trang, Vietnam.

ACIAR Proceedings No. 1 20, 73 pp.

DeVantier, L., Turak, E. & Allen, G. 2009. Raja Ampat Planning Coral Reef Stratification. Reef-scapes, reef habitats and coral

communities of Raja Ampat, Bird’s Head Seascape, Papua, Indonesia. Report to The Nature Conservancy, Bal i, Indonesia.

46 pp.

Dewar, H. 2002. Preliminary Report: Manta Ray Harvest in Lamakera. Report to the World Wildl ife Fund, 3 pp.

Dewar, H., Mous, P., Domeier, M., Muljadi, A. & Whitty, J . 2008. Movements and site fidel ity of the giant manta ray, Manta

birostris, in the Komodo Marine Park, Indonesia. Marine Biology 1 55: 1 21 -1 33.

Dudley, N, (ed.) 2008. Guidelines for Applying Protected Area Management Categories. International Union for Conservation of

Nature and Natural Resources, Gland.

Edgar, G.J ., Stuart-Smith, R.D., Wil l is, T.J . , Kininmonth, S., Baker, S.C., Banks, S. Barrett, N.S., Becerro, M. A., Bernard,

A.T.F., Berkhout, J . , Buxton, C.D., Campbell , S. J . , Cooper, A.T., Davey, M., Edgar, S.C., Forsterra, G., Galvan, D.E.,

Irigoyen, A.J ., Kushner, D.J ., Moura, R., Parnel l , P.E., Shears, N.T., Soler, G., Strain, E.M.A. & Thomson, R.J . 201 4. Global

conservation outcomes depend on marine protected areas with five key features. Nature doi:1 0.1 038/nature1 3022.

Edwards, A.J . & Clark, S. 1 998. Coral transplantation: a useful management tool or misguided meddling? Marine Pollution

Bulletin 37: 474-487.

Edwards, A.J ., Guest, J .R., Heyward, A.J ., Vil lanueva, R.D., Baria, M.V., Bol lozos, I .S.F. & Golbuu, Y. 201 5. Direct seeding of

mass-cultured coral larvae is not an effective option for reef rehabil itation. Marine Ecology Progress Series 525: 1 05–1 1 6.

Fernandes, L., Day, J ., Lewis, A., Slegers, S., Kerrigan, B., Breen, D., Cameron, D., Jago, B., Hal l , J . , Lowe, D., Innes, J . , Tanzer,

J . , Chadwick, V., Thompson, L., Gorman, K., Simmons, M., Barnett, B., Sampson, K., De'ath, G., Mapstone, B.D., Marsh,

H., Possingham, H., Bal l , I . , Ward, T., Dobbs, K., Aumend, J ., Slater, D. & Stapleton, K. 2005. Establ ishing representative

no-take areas in the Great Barrier Reef: large-scale implementation of theory on marine protected areas. Conservation

Biology 1 9: 1 733–1 744.

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) 2009. Fisheries and Aquaculture Country Profile, Indonesia, and Summary Tables of

Fisheries Statistics.

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) 201 0. “1 967-2007 Fish and Fishery Products: World Apparent Consumption

Statistics Based on Food Balance Sheets.” In: Laurenti, G. (ed.) FAO Yearbook. Fishery and Aquaculture Statistics 2008,

Rome.

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) 201 1 a. Fishery and Aquaculture Country Profiles. Indonesia (201 1 ) . Country Profile

Fact Sheets. In: FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department. Updated 201 4. Available from http://www.fao.org/

fishery/facp/IDN/en [Accessed 8 April 201 9.]

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) 201 1 b. Marine protected areas and fisheries. Rome, Italy.

75

Fox, H.E., Harris, J .L., Darl ing, E.S., Ahmadia, G.N., Estradivari & Razak, T.B. 201 9. Rebuilding coral reefs: success (and

failure) 1 6 years after low-cost, low-tech. Restoration Ecology doi.org/1 0.1 1 1 1 /rec.1 2935.

Frisch, A.J . 2007. Short- and long-term movements of painted lobster (Panulirus versicolor) on a coral reef at Northwest

Island, Austral ia. Coral Reefs 26 (2): 31 1 –31 7.

Gaines, S. D., White, C., Carr, M.H. & Palumbi, S.R. 201 0. Designing marine reserve networks for both conservation and

fisheries management. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 1 07:1 8286–1 8293.

Game, E.T., Grantham, H.S., Hobday, A.J ., Pressey, R.L., Lomard, A.T., Beckley, L.E., Gjerde, K., Bustamante, R., Possingham,

H.P. & Richardson, A.J . 2009. Pelagic protected areas: the missing dimension in ocean conservation. Trends in Ecology and

Evolution 24 (7): 360-369.

Gerber, L.R, Mancha-Cisneros, M.D.M., O’Connor, M.I . & Sel ig, E.R. 201 4. Climate change impacts on connectivity in the

ocean: implications for conservation. Ecosphere 5: art33.

Gil l , D.A., Mascia, M.B., Ahmadia, G.N., Glew, L., Lester, S.E., Barnes, M., Craigie, I . , Darl ing, E.S., Free, C.M., Geldmann, J .,

Holst, S., Jensen, O.P., White, A.T., Basurto, X., Coad, L., Gates, R.D., Guannel, G., Mumby, P.J . , Thomas, H., Whitmee,

S., Woodley, S. & Fox, H.E. 201 7. Capacity shortfal ls hinder the performance of marine protected areas global ly. Nature

543:665-669 doi:1 0.1 038/nature21 708.

Goeden, G.B. 1 978. A monograph of the coral trout. Queensland Fisheries Service Research Bulletin 1 : 1 -42.

Gombos, M., Atkinson, S., Green, A. & Flower, K. (eds.) . 201 3. Designing Effective Locally Managed Areas in Tropical Marine

Environments: A Booklet to Help Sustain Community Benefits through Management for Fisheries, Ecosystems, and Climate

Change. J akarta, Indonesia: USAID Coral Triangle Support Partnership, 66 pp.

Gordon, A. 2005. The oceanography of the Indonesia seas and their throughflow. Oceanography 1 8:4. Outflow data from

Sprintal l et al . 2009. Direct estimates of the Indonesian throughflow entering the Indian Ocean: 2004-2006. Journal of

Geographical Research 1 1 4.

Green, A.L., & Bel lwood, D.R. 2009. Monitoring functional groups of herbivorous reef fishes as indicators of coral reef resilience

– A practical guide for coral reef managers in the Asia Pacific Region. IUCN working group on Climate Change and Coral

Reefs. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, 70 pp.

Green, A.L., Chollett, I . , Suarez, A., Dahlgren, C., Cruz, S., Zepeda, C., Andino, J ., Robinson, J ., McField, M., Fulton, S., Giro,

A., Reyes, H., & Bezaury, J . 201 7. Biophysical Principles for Designing a Network of Replenishment Zones for the

Mesoamerican Reef System. Technical report produced by the Nature Conservancy et al. 64pp.

Green, A.L., Fajariyanto, Y., Lionata, H., Ramadyan, F., Tighe, S., White, A., Gunawan, T., & Rudyanto 2020. A Guide,

Framework and Example: Designing Marine Protected Areas and Marine Protected Area Networks to Benefit People and Nature in

Indonesia. Report prepared by The Nature Conservancy for the USAID Sustainable Ecosystems Advanced Project.

Green, A.L., Fernandes, L., Almany, G., Abesamis, R., McLeod, E., Aliño, P., White, A.T., Salm, R., Tanzer, J . , & Pressey, R.L.

201 4a. Designing marine reserves for fisheries management, biodiversity conservation and cl imate change adaptation.

Coastal Management 42: 1 43–1 59.

Green A., Kertesz, M., Peterson N., Retif S., Skewes T., Dunstan P., McGowan J ., Tul loch V., & Kahn, B., 201 4b. ‘A

Regionalisation of Papua New Guinea’s Marine Environment’. Technical report for PNG DEC, 1 9 pp.

Green, A.L., Maypa, A.P, Almany, G.R., Rhodes, K.L., Weeks, R., Abesamis, R.A., Gleason, M.G., Mumby, P.J . , & White, A.T.

201 5. Larval dispersal and movement patterns of coral reef fishes, and implications for marine reserve network design.

Biological Reviews 90 (4): 1 21 5-1 247.

Green, A., Smith, S.E., Lipsett-Moore, G., Groves, C., Peterson, N., Sheppard, S., Lokani, P., Hamilton, R., Almany, J ., Aitsi,

J . , & Bual ia. L. 2009. Designing a resil ient network of marine protected areas for Kimbe Bay, Papua New Guinea. Oryx

43: 488-498.

Green, A., White, A., & Kilarski, S. (eds.) 201 3. Designing marine protected area networks to achieve fisheries, biodiversity, and

climate change objectives in tropical ecosystems: A practitioner guide. The Nature Conservancy and the USAID Coral

Triangle Support Partnership, Cebu City, Phil ippines, vii i + 35 pp.

Halpern, B. S., Lester, S.E. & Kellner, J .B. 201 0. Spil lover from marine reserves and the replenishment of fished stocks.

Environmental Conservation 36: 268–276.

Harris, P.T, Macmil lan-Lawler, M., Rupp, J . & Baker, E.K. 201 4. Geomorphology of the Oceans. Marine Geology 352: 4-24.


IN INDONESIA

76

Harrison, H. B., Wil l iamson, D.H., Evans, R.D., Almany, G.R., Thorrold, S.R., Russ, G.R., Feldheim, K.A., Van Herwerden, L.,

Planes, S., Srinivasan, M., Berumen, M.L. & Jones, G.P. 201 2. Larval export from marine reserves and the recruitment

benefits for fishes and fisheries. Current Biology 22:1 023–1 028.

Hilborn, R. 201 6. Policy: Marine biodiversity needs more than protection. Nature 535: 224–226.

Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Hoegh-Guldberg, H., Veron, J .E.., Green, A.L., Gomez, E.D., Lough, J ., King, M., Ambariyanto, Hansen,

L., Cinner, J . , Dews, G., Russ, G., Schuttenberg, H., Penaflor, E.L., Eakin, C.M., Christensen, T.R.L., Abbey, M., Areki, F.,

Kosaka, R.A., Twefik, A. & Oliver, J . 2009. The Coral Triangle and Climate Change: Ecosystems, People and Societies at Risk.

WWF Austral ia, Sydney, Austral ia.

Hopley, D. & Suharsono 2000. The Status of Coral Reefs in Eastern Indonesia. Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network, 1 1 9

pp.

Huffard, C.L, Erdmann, M.V. & Gunawan, T. (eds.) 201 2. Defining Geographic Priorities for Marine Biodiversity Conservation in

Indonesia. Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries and Marine Protected Areas Governance Program, Jakarta, Indonesia,

1 05 pp.

International Coral Reef Initiative 201 0. Indonesia – Global Mass Bleaching of Coral Reefs in 201 0.

https://www.icriforum.org/news/201 0/08/indonesia-global-mass-bleaching-coral-reefs-201 0

International Union for Conservation of Union-World Commission on Protected Areas (IUCN-WCPA). 2008. Establishing

Marine Protected Area Networks-Making it Happen. IUCN-WCPA, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and

The Nature Conservancy, Washington, DC.

Jaiteh, V.F., Lindfield, S. J . , Mangubhai, S., Warren, C., Fitzpatrick, B. & Loneragan, N.R. 201 6. Higher abundance of marine

predators and changes in fishers' behavior fol lowing spatial protection within the world's biggest shark fishery. Frontiers in

Marine Science 3(43). [In Engl ish] . doi: 1 0.3389/fmars.201 6.00043.

Jessen, S., Chan, K., Côté, I ., Dearden, P., De Santo, E., Fortin, M.J ., Guichard, F., Haider, W., Jamieson, G., Kramer, D.L.,

McCrea-Strub, A., Mulrennan, M., Montevecchi, W.A., Roff, J . , Salomon, A., Gardner, J ., Honka, L, Menafra, R. &

Woodley, A. 201 1 . Science-based Guidelines for MPAs and MPA Networks in Canada. Vancouver: Canadian Parks and

Wilderness Society, 58 pp.

Jupiter, S. D., Weeks, R., Jenkins, A.P., Egl i, D.P. & Cakacaka, A. 201 2. Effects of a single intensive harvest event on fish

populations inside a customary marine closure. Coral Reefs 31 : 321 –334.

Kerrigan, B., Breen, D., De’ath, G., Day, J ., Fernandes, L., Tobin, R. & Dobbs, K. 201 0. Classifying the Biodiversity of the Great

Barrier Reef World Heritage Area. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority Publication No. 1 04.

Kinch, J . 2001 . Clam harvesting, the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) and conservation

in Milne Bay Province, Papua New Guinea. SPC Fisheries Newsletter 99:24-36.

Knowles, J .E., Green, A.L., Dahlgren, C. & Arnett, F. 201 7. Expanding The Bahamas Marine Protected Area Network to Protect

20% of the Marine and Coastal Environment by 2020. A Gap Analysis. A report prepared by The Nature Conservancy

under the Bahamas Project. 78 pp.

Konow, N., Fitzpatrick, R. & Barnett, A. 2006. Adult emperor angelfish (Pomacanthus imperator) clean Giant sunfishes (Mola

mola) at Nusa Lembongan, Indonesia. Coral Reefs 25: 208.

Krueck, N.C., Ahmadia, G.N., Green, A., Jones, G.P., Possingham, H.P., Riginos, C., Treml, E.A. & Mumby, P.J . 201 7b.

Incorporating larval dispersal into marine protected area design for both conservation and fisheries. Ecological

Applications doi: 1 0.1 002/eap.1 495.

Krueck, N.C., Ahmadia, G.N., Possingham, H.P., Riginos, C., Treml, E.A. & Mumby, P.J . 201 7a. Marine reserve targets to

sustain and rebuild unregulated fisheries. PLOS Biology doi:1 0.1 371 /journal.pbio.2000537.

Krueck, N.C., Legrand, C., Ahmadia, G.N., Estradivari, Green, A., Jones, G., Rignos, C., Treml, E.A. & Mumby, P.J . 201 8.

Reserve sizes needed to protect coral reef fishes. Conservation Letters 1 1 (3) : 1 -9.

Kulbicki, M., Parravicini, V., Bel lwood, D.R., Arias-Gonzalez, E., Chabanet, P., Floeter, S.R., Friedlander, A., McPherson, J .,

Myers, R.E., Vigl iola, L. & Mouil lot, D. 201 3. Global biogeography of reef fishes: a hierarchical quantitative del ineation of

regions. PLoS One 8(1 2): e81 847.

Leisher, C., Mangubhai, S., Hess, S., Widodo, H., Soekirman, T., Tjoe, S., Wawiyai, S., Larsen, S.N., Rumetna, L., Hal im, A. &

Sanjayan, M. 201 2. Measuring the benefits and costs of community education and outreach in marine protected areas.

Marine Policy 36: 1 005-1 01 1 .

77

Lester, S. E., Halpern, B.S., Grorud-Colvert, K., Lubchenco, J ., Ruttenberg, B.I ., Gaines, S.D., Airame, S. & Warner, R.R.

2009. Biological effects within no-take marine reserves: A global synthesis. Marine Ecology Progress Series 384: 33–46.

Mangubhai, S., Erdmann, M.V., Wilson, J .R., Huffard, C.L., Bal lamu, F., Hidayat, N.E., Hitipeuw, C., Lazuardi, M.E, Muhajir,

Pada, D., Purba, G., Rotinsulu, C., Rumetna, L., Sumolang, K. & Wen Wen 201 2. Papuan Bird ’s Head Seascape: Emerging

threats and chal lenges in the global centre of marine biodiversity. Marine Pollution Bulletin 64: 2279-2295.

Mangubhai, S., Wilson, J .R., Rumetna, L., Maturbongs, Y. & Purwanto 201 5. Explicitly incorporating socioeconomic criteria

and data into marine protected area zoning. Ocean & Coastal Management 1 1 6: 523-529.

McClanahan, T.R., Donner, S.D., Maynard, J .A., MacNeil , M.A., Graham, N.A.J ., Maina, J . , Baker, A.C., Alemu, J .B., Beger, M.,

Campbell , S. J . , Darl ing, E.S., Eakin, C.M., Heron, S.F., Jupiter, S.D., Lundquist C.J ., McLeod, E., Mumby, P.J ., Paddack, M.J .,

Sel ig, E.R. & van Woesik. R., 201 2. Prioritizing key resil ience indicators to support coral reef management in a changing

cl imate. PLoS One 7(8): e42884.

McLeod, E., Green, A., Game, E., Anthony, K., Cinner, J . , Heron, S.F., Kleypas, J . , Lovelock, C.E., Pandolfi, J .M., Pressey, R.L.,

Salm, R.V., Schil l , S. & Woodroffe, C. 201 2. Integrating Climate and Ocean Change Vulnerabil ity into Conservation

Planning. Coastal Management 40(6): 651 -672.

McLeod, E., Salm, R., Green, A. & Almany, J . 2009. Designing marine protected area networks to address the impacts of

cl imate change. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 7: 362–370.

Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (MMAF) 201 8. Luas Kawasan Konservasi Tahun 201 8. Available from

https://kkp.go.id/an-component/media/upload-banner/KKP3K_201 8.jpg [Accessed 22 November 201 9] .

Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (MMAF) in prep. Technical Guidelines of Ministerial Regulation No. 1 3/201 4 on

Establishing and Managing MPA Networks.

Mumby, P. J ., El l iott, I .A., Eakin, C.M., Skirving, W., Paris, C.B., Edwards, H. J ., Enríquez, S., Iglesias-Prieto, R., Cherubin, L.M.

& Stevens, J .R. 201 1 . Reserve design for uncertain responses of coral reefs to cl imate change. Ecological Letters1 4: 1 32-

1 40.

Munguia-Vega, A., Green, A.L., Suarez-Castil lo, A.N., Espinosa-Romero, M.J ., Aburto-Oropeza, O., Cisneros-Montemayor,

A.M., Cruz-Pinon, G., Danemann, G., Giron-Nava, A., Gonzalez-Cuel lar, O., Lasch, C., Mancha-Cisneros, M., Guido

Marinone, S., Moreno-Baez, M., Morzaria-Luna, H., Reyes-Bonil la, H., Torre, J ., Turk-Boyer, P., Walther, M. & Hudson

Weaver, A. 201 8. Ecological guidel ines for designing networks of marine reserves in the unique biophysical environment

of the Gulf of California. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 28(4): 749-776.

O’Malley M.P., Lee-Brooks K. & Medd, H.B. 201 3. The global economic impact of manta ray watching tourism. PLoS One

8(5): e65051 .

Pinsky, M.L., Saenz-Agudelo, P., Sales, O.C., Almany, G.R., Bode, M., Berumen, M.L., Andrefouet, S., Thorrold, S.R., Jones,

G.P. & Planes, S. 201 7. Marine dispersal scales are congruent over evolutionary and ecological time. Current Biology 27:

1 49-1 54.

Purcel l , S.W. & Kirby, D.S. 2006. Restocking the sea cucumber Holothuria scabra: sizing no-take zones through individual-

based movement modell ing. Fisheries Research 80: 53–61 .

Purcel l , S.W., Mercier, A., Conand, C., Hamel, JF., Oral-Granda, M.V., Lovatel l i , A. & Uthicke, S. 201 3. Sea cucumber

fisheries: global analysis of stocks, management measures and drivers of overfishing. Fish and Fisheries

doi.org/1 0.1 1 1 1 /j.1 467-2979.201 1 .00443.x

Purcel l , S.W., Piddocke, T.P., Dalton, S. J . , & Wang, Y-G. 201 6. Movement and growth of the coral reef holothuroids

Bohadschia argus and Thelenota ananas. Marine Ecology Progress Series 551 :201 -21 4.

Rigby, C.L., Simpfendorfer, C.A. & Cornish, A. 201 9. A Practical Guide to Effective Design and Management of MPAs for Sharks

and Rays. Gland, Switzerland: WWF, 63 pp.

Roberts, C.M., O’Leary, B.C., McCauley, D.J ., Cury, P.M., Duarte, C.M., Lubchenco, J ., Pauly, D., Saenz-Arroyo, A., Sumaila,

U.R., Wilson, R.W., Worm, B. & Castil la, J .C. 201 7. Marine reserves can mitigate and promote adaptation to cl imate

change. Proceeding of the National Academy of Sciences USA 1 1 4: 61 67–61 75.

Russ, G.R., Alcala, A.C., Maypa, A.P., Calumpong, H.P. & White, A.T. 2004. Marine reserve benefits local fisheries. Ecological

Applications 1 4(2): 597-606.


IN INDONESIA

78

Setyawan, E., Sianipar, A.B., Erdmann, M.V., Fischer, A.M., Haddy, J .A., Beale, C.S., Lewis, S.A. & Mambrasar, R., 201 8. Site

fidel ity and movement patterns of reef manta rays (Mobula alfredi: Mobulidae) using passive acoustic telemetry in

northern Raja Ampat, Indonesia. Nature Conservation Research 3(4): doi 1 0.241 89/ncr.201 8.043

Short, F.T., Carruthers, T.J ., Dennison, W.C. & Waycott, M. 2007. Global seagrass distribution and diversity: a bioregional

model. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 350: 3-20.

Spalding, M.D., Fox, H.E., Al len, G.R., Davidson, N., Ferdana, Z.A., Finlayson, M., Halpern, B.S., Jorge, M.A., Lombana, A.L.,

Lourie, S.A., Martin, K.D., McManus, E., Molnar, J . , Recchia, C.A. & Robertson, J ., 2007. Marine ecoregions of the world:

a bioregional ization of coastal and shelf areas. Bioscience 57:573–583.

Spalding, M., Kainuma, M. & Coll ins, L. 201 0. World Atlas of Mangroves. Earthscan, UK.

Treml, E.A., Roberts, J . J . , Chao, Y., Halpin, P.N., Possingham, H.P. & Riginos, C. 201 2 Reproductive output and duration of

the pelagic larval stage determine seascape-wide connectivity of marine populations. Integrative and Comparative Biology

52: 525–537.

Veron, J ., Stafford-Smith, M., DeVantier, L. & Turak, E. 201 5. Overview of distribution patterns of zooxanthel late

Scleractinia. Frontiers in Marine Science 1 (9) : 1 -1 9.

Walmsley, S.F. & White, A.T. 2003. Influence of social , management and enforcement factors on the long-term ecological

effectiveness of marine sanctuaries. Environmental Conservation 30 (4): 388-407.

Wendt, H., Beger, M., Sul l ivan, J . , LeGrand, J ., Davey, K., Yakub, N., Kirmani, S., Grice, H., Mason, C., Raubani, J . , Lewis, A.,

Jupiter, S., Hughes, A. & Fernandes, L. 201 8. Draft marine bioregions in the Southwest Pacific MACBIO

(GIZ/IUCN/SPREP): Suva, Fij i , 84 pp.

West, J .M. & Salm, R.V. 2003. Resistance and resil ience to coral bleaching: Implications for coral reef conservation and

management. Conservation Biology 1 7: 956–967.

White, A., Alino, P., Cros, A., Ahmad Fatan, N., Green, A.L., Teoh, S. J . , Laroya, L., Peterson, N., Tan, S., Tighe, S., Venegas-

Li, R., Walton, A. & Wen Wen 201 4. Marine protected areas in the Coral Triangle: Progress, issues and options. Coastal

Management 42:87–1 06.

White, A. T., Eisma-Osorio, R.L. & Green, S. J . 2005. Integrated coastal management and marine protected areas:

Complementarity in the Phil ippines. Ocean and Coastal Management 48: 948–971 .

White, A.T. & Rosales, R. 2003. Community-oriented Marine Tourism in the Phil ippines: Role in Economic Development

and Conservation. In: Gossl ing, S. (ed.) Tourism and Development in Tropical Islands: Political Ecology Perspectives.

Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing, pp. 237-263.

Wil l iamson, D.H., Harrison, H.B., Almany, G.R., Berumen, M.L, Bode, M., Bonin, M.C., Choukroun, S., Doherty, P.J . , Frisch,

A.J ., Saenz-Agudelo, P. & Jones, G.P. 201 6. Large-scale, multidirectional larval connectivity among coral reef fish

populations in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. Molecular Ecology 25(24): 6039-6054.

Wilson, J ., Darmawan, A., Subijanto. J ., Green, A. & Sheppard, S. 201 1 . Scientific design of a resilient network of marine

protected areas for the Lesser Sunda Ecoregion of the Coral Triangle . Asia Pacific Marine Program. Report 2/1 1 , 96 pp.

Wyrtki, K. 1 961 . Physical Oceanography of the Southeast Asia Waters, 1 95 pp.

The Indonesian Sustainable Ecosystems Advanced

Project (USAID SEA) is a five-year initiative that supports

the Government of Indonesia to improve the governance

of fisheries and marine resources and to conserve

biological diversity at local, district, provincial , and

national levels. USAID SEA is implemented through a

consortium of partners and works in eastern Indonesia

in the provinces of Maluku, North Maluku andWest

Papua. It has assisted to add more than one mill ion

hectares of new and well-designed marine protected

areas across these provinces since 201 6.

biophysical criteria: - designing marine protected areas and

Documents